Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR)

Environmental Engineering Department

Structural Steel Design

UGNA3032
Structural Design
Corrosion resistance:
Corrosion resistance:
 Why structural steel
1) Steel provides speed of construction
2) Off-site fabrication, thereby reducing financial risks associated with site dependent delays.

3) Steel construction with high strength to weight ratio maximizes the useable area of a structure
and minimizes self-weight resulting in cost savings.

4) Recycling and reuse of steel means steel construction contributes towards reduction of
environmental impacts of the construction industry.

5) Can it help for the pandemic Covid-19?

Material Strength Density Specific strength

kN/m2 kg/m3 (kN.m/kg)

Concrete 20000 2400 8.3

Steel 330000 7850 42.0
 Structural Design and Philosophy

Design codes available for structural design = EC3, BS5950, AISC

Typical modes of failure of Beams
Typical modes of failure of beams
Typical modes of failure of columns
Example 1: Consider the case of a simply supported, solid rectangular beam, depth (d) is 200
mm, span, (L) is10 m and subject to a uniformly distributed load (w) of 12 kN /m. The fy =
265 N/mm2, Factor of safety (FOS)= 1.5
Calculate the minimum width of beam (b) using permissible stress (elastic design) and load
factor (plastic design) approaches to design.

Design load = characteristic load × 𝜸𝒇

𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
𝑫𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 =
𝜸𝒎

Design strength ≥ design load

 Design Load :
Elastic Bending Moment and Plastic Bending Moment

Elastic Design: Design load = characteristic load = actual load

Plastic Design: Design load = characteristic load × 𝜸𝒇

 Imposed loads (Live LOADS) Q:
Refer to the Eurocode 1: Actions on structures
 Permanent loads (DEAD LOADS) G:

Dead loads are all the permanent loads acting on the structure including self-weight, finishes,
fixtures and partitions. The characteristic dead loads can be estimated using the schedule of
weights of building materials given in EC-1.
Example:
Calculate the self-weight of a reinforced concrete beam of breadth 300 mm, depth 600 mm
and length 6000 mm. From Table on unit mass of reinforced concrete is 2400 kg/m3.
Assuming that the gravitational constant is 9.807 m/s2, the unit weight of reinforced
concrete, ρ, is

ρ = 2400 × 9.807 = 23,537 N/m3 = 23.54 kN/m3

The self-weight of beam (SW) = volume × unit weight = (0.3 × 0.6 × 6)23.54 = 25.42 kN

The symbols Gk and gk are normally used to denote the total and uniformly distributed
characteristic dead loads respectively.
Imposed loads (Live LOADS) Q:
Imposed loads (Live LOADS) Q:
LOAD COMBINATIONS
 LOAD COMBINATIONS AND DESIGN LOADS:
The design loads are obtained by multiplying the characteristic loads by the partial safety
factor for loads, γf.

The value for γf depends on the limit state under consideration, i.e. ultimate or serviceability,
the accuracy of predicting the load and the particular combination of loading which will
produce the worst possible effect on the structure in terms of bending moments, shear forces
and deflections.

The worst possible combination will arise due to the maximum dead and maximum
imposed loads acting on the structure together.

In such cases, the partial safety factors for dead and imposed loads are 1.35 and 1.5
respectively and hence the design load is given by,

Design load = 1.35Gk + 1.5Qk Remember

1. EN 1990 Eurocode: Basis of structural design

2. EN 1991 Eurocode 1: Actions of Structures

3. EN 1993 Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures

Deflection (Serviceability limit state)

Wc = Precamber in the unloaded state of the beam

W1= Deflection of the beam due to permanent action, immediately after
their application
W2= Deflection of the beam due to variable actions increased by the
long term deformations due to permanent actions
Wmax = Final maximum deflection measured from the straight line
between supports.
Lateral Buckling

Lateral torsional buckling may occur in an unrestrained beam.

A beam is considered to be unrestrained when its compression flange is

free to displace laterally and rotate.
Lateral Buckling
When an applied load causes both lateral displacement and twisting of
a member lateral torsional buckling has occurred.

Figure shows the lateral displacement and twisting experienced by a

beam when lateral torsional buckling occurs.
Local Buckling
The cross sections of steel shapes tend to consist of an assembly of thin
plates.

When the cross section of a steel shape is subjected to large

compressive stresses, the thin plates that make up the cross section may
buckle before the full strength of the member is attained if the thin plates
are too slender.

When a cross sectional element

fails in buckling, then the member
capacity is reached.

Consequently, local buckling

becomes a limit state for the
strength of steel shapes subjected to
compressive stress.
Shear Buckling
Four classes of steel
Moment rotation behaviour

Class 1 sections: Sections which have full plastic moment and hinge
rotation capacity.
Class 2 section: Sections which have full plastic moment capacity
(resistance) but not sufficient hinge rotation capacity.
Cross-sections which can develop their plastic moment resistance, but
have limited rotation capacity because of local buckling.
Class 3 section: Cross-sections in which the stress at the extreme
compression fibre can reach the yield strength, but the plastic moment
capacity cannot be developed due to local buckling.
Class 4 section: Cross-sections in which local buckling will occur
before attainment of yield stress in one or more parts of the cross
section.
Section Classification
• Role of cross section classification is to identify the extent to which
the resistance and rotation capacity of cross sections is limited by
its local buckling resistance.
• The class of cross section is determined based on the c/t values of the
compression parts compared to the limits given in Table 5.2 of Code.

C for web = d = h-2tf -2r

Section Classification

C for flange = (b-tw-2r)/2

Example_1
Determine the classification for section 356 x 127 UB 33 Grade S275
subject bending.

• Sx = 539.8 cm3, Ixx = 8200cm4, b = 125.4 mm, h = 348.5 mm tw = 5.9

mm tf = 8.5mm, r = 10.2 mm (figure next slide)
• Table 5.2 is to be used.  235 
0.5 0.5
   235 
= =  = 0.924
 f   275 
 y 
• Flange
• Cf/tf=(125.4- 5.9 - (2x10.2))/(2x8.5)=5.83

• Web
• c = 348.5 −(2x8.5) – (2x10.2) = 311.1 mm (d=D-2T-2r)

• Cw/tw = 311.1/5.9 =52.7

Compression Actual Limits Flange is
Flange Cf/tf= 5.83 c/t ≤ 9ε Class 1
9x0.924=8.32

Web Cw/tw = 52.7 < Limits Web is

since it is 66.5 c/t ≤ 72ε Class 1
beam, the NA
is at mid 72x0.924=66.5
depth

•Since all elements are plastic, the section is also class 1

Design Methods

270 N/mm^2 *0.33= 180.9

N/mm^2
 Permissible Stress Design

In permissible stress design, (elastic design or working stress design/ allowable stress design),

the stresses in the structure at working loads are not allowed to exceed a certain proportion of

the yield stress of the construction material, i.e. the stress levels are limited to the elastic range.

By assuming that the stress– strain relationship over this range is linear, it is possible to calculate

the actual stresses in the material concerned.

Safety factor provided is only in strength by reducing its strength. Reduction of strength by 1/3

of yield strength. Eg. BS 8110 and BS 5950.

 Limit State Design
In essence, the permissible stress codes of practice provide the designer with a maximum stress
value that can be used for a particular material.

This permissible stress is not the failure stress for the material but is reduced to provide a
factor of safety.

It has now largely been replaced by the limit state approach.

As an example, designers are instructed to limit the stress in a mild steel beam to a permissible
value of 165 N/mm2, whereas we know that it can actually withstand about 275 N/mm2 before
yielding.
The designer must ensure that the permissible stress is not exceeded at any point in a
structure.
This process is intended to provide an adequate factor of safety to compensate for errors in
both loading and material strength.
The main criticism of this approach is the fact that the designer cannot vary the factor of safety
to compensate for the degree of uncertainty concerning the loads.
 Properties of the cross-section: Section Modulus

Elastic Section
Plastic Section

Steel Cross-Section
Elastic Section Modulus (Wel):
To calculate the value of Wel for a simple symmetrical shape such as rectangle: 𝑰𝒙𝒙
𝑾𝒆𝒍 =
𝒚
𝑦 = 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒓 𝒇𝒊𝒃𝒆𝒓

𝒃𝒅𝟑 1 𝒅
𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 𝑚𝑚4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = ( 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑚
𝟏𝟐 2 𝟐
b
𝑏𝑑 2
Thus, 𝑾𝒆𝒍 = 𝑚𝑚3
6

The distance (y) to the extreme fibres from the centroid (or neutral axis) must be found as that
is where the maximum stress could cause failure.

For symmetrical sections the value of Wel is the same above or below the centroid.
For asymmetrical sections, two values are found: Wel max and Wel min.
 Moment of Resistance
𝑪𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
𝑫𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 =
𝜸𝒎

Elastic Design Strength :

Yield strength
1. Permissible stress :
𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒂𝒇𝒆𝒕𝒚
2. Moment of resistance = Permissible stress x Elastic Section Modulus

Plastic Design Strength :

Moment of Resistance = Yield strength x Plastic Section Modulus
ELASTIC CRITERIA
ELASTIC CRITERIA
When any beam is subject to load it bends as shown in Fig. (a).
The top half of the beam is put into compression and the bottom half into tension.

In the middle, there is neither tension nor compression. This axis is normally termed the
neutral axis.

If the beam is elastic

and stress and strain
are directly
proportional for the
material, the variation
in strain and stress
from the top to middle
to bottom is linear
(Figs 2.7(b) and (c)).
Fig. Strain and stress in an elastic beam
ELASTIC CRITERIA
The maximum stress in compression and tension is 𝝈𝒚.

The average stress in compression and tension is 𝝈𝒚/𝟐.

Hence the compressive force, Fc, and tensile force, Ft, acting on the section are equal and are
given by,

Fig. Strain and stress in an elastic beam

Fc = Ft = F = stress × area
𝜎𝑦 𝑑
= 𝑋 𝑏
2 2
𝑏𝑑𝜎𝑦
=
4
The tensile and compression forces are separated by a distance s whose value is equal to 2d/3
(Fig. 2.7(a)).

Together they make up a couple, or moment, which acts in the opposite sense to the design
moment.
The value of this moment of resistance, Mr, is given by

𝑏𝑑𝜎𝑦 2𝑑 𝒃𝒅𝟐 𝝈𝒚 𝒃𝒅𝟐

Mr = (F.S) = 𝑋 = = 𝑿𝝈𝒚 (2.3)
4 3 𝟔 𝟔

𝒃𝒅𝟐
Elastic Section Modulus = Z= Wel =
𝟔

At equilibrium, the design moment in the beam will equal the moment of resistance, i.e.

M = Mr (2.4)
Provided that the yield strength of the material, i.e. 𝜎y is known, equations 2.3 and 2.4 can be used
to calculate suitable dimensions for the beam needed to resist a particular design moment.

Alternatively if b and d are known, the required material strength can be evaluated.
Equation 2.3 is more usually written as

where Z = Elastic section modulus and is equal to bd2/6 for a rectangular beam,

I = moment of inertia (the second moment of area of the section)

y = distance from the neutral axis

The elastic section modulus can be regarded as an index of the strength of the beam in
bending.

The second moment of area about an axis x–x in the plane of the section is defined by
Second moments of area of some common shapes are given in Table 2.4.

Continued
Second moments of area of some common shapes are shown below:
PLASTIC CRITERIA
Plastic section modulus (Wpl)

The fully Plastic moment of a section (Mp) is in equilibrium with the resultant forces.

𝑏𝑑ൗ
2
𝑑ൗ
4
𝑑ൗ
4
𝑏𝑑ൗ
2
𝒃𝒅 𝒅 𝒃𝒅 𝒅
. + .
𝟐 𝟒 𝟐 𝟒

𝑏𝑑2 𝑏𝑑 2 2 𝑏𝑑 2 𝒃𝒅𝟐
+ = =
8 8 8 𝟒
PLASTIC CRITERIA

While the previous approach would be suitable for design involving the use of materials which
have a linear elastic behaviour, materials such as reinforced concrete and steel have a
substantial plastic performance.

In practice this means that on reaching an elastic yield point the material continues to deform
but with little or no change in maximum stress.
Figure 2.8 shows what
this means in terms of
stresses in the beam.

As the loading on the

beam increases extreme
fibre stresses reach the
yield point, 𝝈𝒚 and
remain constant as the
beam continues to
bend.
A zone of plastic yielding
begins to penetrate into the
interior of the beam, until

a point is reached
immediately prior to
complete failure,

when practically all the

cross-section has yielded
plastically.

The average stress at failure

is 𝜎𝑦 rather than 𝝈𝒚/2 as was
found to be the case when the
material was assumed to have
a linear-elastic behaviour.
 Elastic design

The average stress in compression and

tension is 𝝈𝒚/𝟐.
𝜎𝑦 𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑑
Fc = Ft = F = stress × area = 𝑋 𝐹= . 𝜎𝑦
2 2 2

2𝑑 𝑑
s= 𝑠=
3
2

𝒃𝒅𝟐 𝝈𝒚
𝟔
The moment of resistance assuming
plastic behaviour is given by

𝑏𝑑
𝐹= . 𝜎𝑦
2

𝑑
𝑠=
2

where S is the plastic section modulus and is equal to bd2/4 for rectangular beams.

By setting the design moment equal to the moment of resistance of the beam its size and
strength can be calculated according to plastic criteria (Example 2.6).
Example 5 Elastic and plastic moments of resistance of a beam section
Calculate moment of resistance of a beam 50 mm wide by 100 mm deep with 𝜎𝑦 = 20 N/mm2
according to (i) elastic criteria and (ii) plastic criteria.

Hence it can be seen that the plastic moment of resistance of the section is greater than the
maximum elastic moment of resistance.
This will always be the case but the actual difference between the two moments will depend
upon the shape of the section.
The radius of gyration, r, is a sectional property which provides a measure of the column’s
ability to resist buckling.
It is given by

r = (I/A)1/2

Generally, the higher the slenderness ratio (kL/r), the greater the tendency for buckling and
hence the lower the load capacity of the column.
 Hot rolled and Cold formed Steel

The hot-rolled steel shapes are formed at elevated temperatures while the cold-formed steel
shapes are formed at room temperature.
 Hot rolled and Cold formed steel sections
The hot-rolled steel shapes are formed at elevated temperatures while the cold-formed steel
shapes are formed at room temperature.
Cold formed sections

 Cold-formed steel offers versatility in building because of its lightweight and ease of
handling and use.

 Cold-formed steel structural members are shapes commonly manufactured from steel plate,
sheet or strip material.

 The manufacturing process involves forming the material by either press-braking or cold roll-
forming to achieve the desired shape.

 Examples of the cold-formed steel are corrugated steel roof and floor decks, steel wall
panels, storage racks and steel wall studs.
Cold formed sections

• Press-braking is often used for production of small quantity of simple shapes.

• Cold roll-forming is the most widely used method for production of roof, floor and wall
panels.

• It is also used for the production of structural components such as Cees, Zees, and hat sections.

• Sections can usually be made from sheet up to 1.5 m wide and from coils more than 1,000 m
long.
Cold formed sections

• During cold roll-forming, sheet stock is fed longitudinally through a series of rolls, each of
which works the sheet progressively until it reaches the desired shape.

• A simple section may require as few as six pairs of roll, but a complex shape can require as
many as 24 to 30.

• The thickness of material that can be formed generally ranges between 0.10 mm -7.7 mm but
Heavy duty cold forming mills can handle steel up to 19 mm thick.
Differences between cold formed and hot rolled sections
• Since cold-formed steel members are formed at room temperature, the material becomes harder
and stronger.

• Its lightweight makes it easier and more economical to mass-produce, transport and install.

• For cold-formed members, local buckling must also be considered because, in most cases, the
material used is thin relative to its width.

• This means that the individual flat, or plate, elements of the section often have width to
thickness ratios that will permit buckling at stresses well below the yield point.
Hot rolled sections

• With the hot-rolled, one is primarily concerned about two types of instability:

1. Column buckling and lateral buckling of unbraced beams.

2. The dimensions of hot-rolled shapes are such that local buckling of individual constituent
elements generally will not occur before yielding.
Differences between cold formed and hot rolled steel sections