O&M - Best Practice Guidelines

Operation &
Maintenance
Best Practice Guidelines
Africa edition
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Foreword
Welcome to the Africa edition of the Operation and Maintenance (O&M) Best Practice Guidelines. Building on
Version 4.0 of SolarPower Europe’s O&M Best Practice Guidelines, this edition is adapted to the Sub-Saharan
African context. It is a joint effort between SolarPower Europe and ten African solar and renewable energy industry
associations, and supported by GET.invest, a European programme which mobilises investments in decentralised
renewable energy, supported by the European Union, Germany, Sweden, the Netherlands and Austria.
Many Sub-Saharan African markets have already added the first tens and, in some cases, hundreds of MWs of
solar photovoltaic (PV) capacity, with significant growth expected in the coming years. As markets develop,
concerns increase around the long-term reliability and performance of solar assets, as they strongly affect project
bankability and return on investments. As power plants age, the industry has realised that proper “health care” is
indispensable for power plants to meet performance expectations. Today, O&M has become a standalone
segment within the solar industry, with an increasing number of solar companies in Africa providing specialised
services. Yet there are still significant quality discrepancies between services from different providers.
To address these challenges, SolarPower Europe joined forces with GET.invest and ten African solar and
renewable energy associations from Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa, Tanzania,
Zambia and Zimbabwe to develop the Africa edition of the O&M Best Practice Guidelines. Our joint African-
European O&M Task Force was launched in September 2020, assembling 30 leading solar experts from Africa
and Europe. The kick-off meeting was followed by a series of online working meetings, in which we updated
Version 4.0 of SolarPower Europe’s O&M Best Practice Guidelines, in order to reflect the market and business
conditions in Africa. The result is a guide that we hope will help African solar stakeholders increase quality in
the O&M segment. This document is aimed at O&M service providers, as well as other parties involved in the
operation of solar power plants, such as owners and investors, lenders, technical advisors and data-related
service providers. It will help establish common standards and increase transparency in the sector. It is also
worth noting that solar O&M is especially value intensive, as a segment that supports many local jobs, and drives
important solar innovations, notably in the field of digitalisation.
In the Africa edition, all chapters of the original document have been thoroughly reviewed and revised with a
focus on unique aspects of Sub-Saharan Africa. A key objective was to make sure that this edition will also be
useful for operators of small and medium-size C&I installations. For this, we have tweaked the requirements
for smaller installations where necessary, such as for simplified Documentation Management Systems or
Monitoring Tools. We have also considered that water scarcity may be an issue in many regions of Africa. This
has certain repercussions for operators’ environmental and social responsibilities, and operators are encouraged
to reduce the amount of water used for module cleaning through various innovations. Finally, we introduced a
new chapter on “O&M for standalone solar systems with storage”, a chapter to assist in the application of best
practices to off-grid systems. These are only some examples from the many updates that we implemented in
order to make these Guidelines as useful as possible for solar businesses in Sub-Saharan Africa.
We encourage all solar operators in the African region to consider adopting these Guidelines and reach out to
their respective industry associations with any questions or suggestions.
WALBURGA HEMETSBERGER DAVID ACHI SEGUN ADAJU ENOCH AGYEPONG

Chief Executive Officer, Association of Renewable President, Renewable Energy Executive Director,
SolarPower Europe Energy Professionals of Côte Association of Nigeria (REAN) Renewable Energy
d'Ivoire (APERCI) Association of Ghana (REAG)
RICARDO COSTA PEREIRA NIVESHEN GOVENDER KAMAL GUPTA GEOFFREY KAILA

President, Renewable Energy Chief Operating Officer, South Chairman, Kenya Renewable President, Solar Industry
Association of Mozambique African Photovoltaic Industry Energy Association (KEREA) Association of Zambia (SIAZ)
(AMER) Association (SAPVIA)
MATTHEW MATIMBWI ISAIAH D. NYAKUSENDWA JOHN VAN ZUYLEN

Executive Secretary, President, Renewable Energy CEO, African Solar Industry
Tanzania Renewable Energy Association of Zimbabwe Association (AFSIA)
Association (TAREA) (REAZ)
Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition 3

Chair of the SolarPower Europe Lifecycle Quality Workstream: Adele Ara, Lightsource bp.
Vice-Chairs of the SolarPower Europe Lifecycle Quality Workstream: Alden Lee, ABO Wind; Ralph Gottschalg, Fraunhofer CSP.
Coordinator of the African-European O&M Task Force: Máté Heisz, SolarPower Europe.
Contact: info@solarpowereurope.org.
Contributors of the Africa edition: Lande Abadu, Renewable Energy Association of Nigeria (REAN); David Achi, Association of Renewable Energy Professionals
of Côte d'Ivoire (APERCI); Segun Adaju, Renewable Energy Association of Nigeria (REAN); Enoch Agyepong, Renewable Energy Association of Ghana (REAG);
Thomas C. Sauer, EXXERGY; Ricardo Costa Pereira, Renewable Energy Association of Mozambique (AMER); Emmett Costel, Renewable Energy Association of
Mozambique (AMER); Paolo di Ciaccio, Eni; Ralph Gottschalg, Fraunhofer CSP; Niveshen Govender, South African Photovoltaic Industry Association (SAPVIA);
Kamal Gupta, Kenya Renewable Energy Association (KEREA); Máté Heisz, SolarPower Europe; Bernhard Höfner, ABO Wind; Geoffrey Kaila, Solar Industry
Association of Zambia (SIAZ); Hadyr Koumakpai, JA Solar/African Solar Industry Association (AFSIA); Juan Luis Agarrado, 3E; Matthew Matimbwi, Tanzania
Renewable Energy Association (TAREA); Joyce Naa Oturku, Renewable Energy Association of Ghana (REAG); Joseph Nader, TÜV Rheinland Middle East; Chanda
Nxumalo, South African Photovoltaic Industry Association (SAPVIA); Isaiah D. Nyakusendwa, Renewable Energy Association of Zimbabwe (REAZ); Eliane Pohl,
Greenbyte; Geoffrey R. John, Tanzania Renewable Energy Association (TAREA); Ali Rahmati, Fronius; Wolfgang Rosenberg, TCO Solar; John Shija, BayWa r.e.; Taona
Sylveter Jakachira, Renewable Energy Association of Zimbabwe (REAZ); Guillaume Tixier, 3E; Gary Wiltshire, Logos Industries/Renewable Energy Association of
Mozambique (AMER); Adam Terry, South African Photovoltaic Industry Association (SAPVIA).
Supported by: GET.invest. GET.invest is a European programme which supports investments in decentralised renewable energy. The programme targets private
sector business and project developers, financiers and regulators to build sustainable energy markets in developing countries. Services include market
information, a funding database, matchmaking events and access-to-finance advisory. The programme is supported by the European Union, Germany, Sweden,
the Netherlands, and Austria, and works closely with initiatives and business associations in the energy sector. For further information about GET.invest, please
see www.get-invest.eu or contact info@get-invest.eu.
GET.invest is supported by
In strategic partnership with: African Solar Industry Association (AFSIA), Renewable Energy Association of Mozambique (AMER), Association of Renewable
Energy Professionals of Côte d'Ivoire (APERCI), Kenya Renewable Energy Association (KEREA), Renewable Energy Association of Ghana (REAG), Renewable
Energy Association of Nigeria (REAN), Renewable Energy Association of Zimbabwe (REAZ), South African Photovoltaic Industry Association (SAPVIA), Solar
Industry Association of Zambia (SIAZ), Tanzania Renewable Energy Association (TAREA).
Acknowledgements: SolarPower Europe would like to extend special thanks to all the Task Force members that contributed to this report with their knowledge
and experience, as well as GET.invest for supporting this project. This work would never have been realised without their continuous support.
Project Information: The Africa edition of the O&M Best Practices Guidelines of SolarPower Europe reflects the experience and views of a considerable share
of the African and European O&M industry today. It is based on Version 4.0 of SolarPower Europe’s O&M Best Practice Guidelines and has been adjusted to the
Sub-Saharan African regional context in a joint effort between SolarPower Europe and ten African industry associations. The development of the Africa edition
was supported by GET.invest, a European programme supported by the European Union, Germany, Sweden, the Netherlands, and Austria.
Disclaimer: Adherence to the SolarPower Europe O&M Best Practices Guidelines report and its by-products is voluntary. The contents of this publication do
not necessarily reflect the views of GET.invest and its donors. Any stakeholders that wish to adhere to the O&M Best Practices Guidelines are responsible for
self-certifying that they have fulfilled the guide requirements through completing the self-certification procedure offered by the “Solar Best Practices Mark”
(www.solarbestpractices.com). This report has been prepared by SolarPower Europe, in collaboration with ten African renewable energy associations, and with
the support of GET.invest. It is being provided to the recipients for general information purposes only. Nothing in it should be interpreted as an offer or
recommendation of any products, services or financial products. This report does not constitute technical, investment, legal, tax or any other advice. Recipients
should consult with their own technical, financial, legal, tax or other advisors as needed. This report is based on sources believed to be accurate. However,
SolarPower Europe, GET.invest and the other supporters of this report do not warrant the accuracy or completeness of any information contained in this report.
SolarPower Europe, GET.invest and the other supporters of this report assume no obligation to update any information contained herein. SolarPower Europe,
GET.invest and the other supporters of this report will not be held liable for any direct or indirect damage incurred by the use of the information provided and
will not provide any indemnities.
Design: Onehemisphere, Sweden. Email: contact@onehemisphere.se.
ISBN: 9789464073461.
Published: March 2021.
4 Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition

Members of the African-European O&M Task Force:
Sponsor members of SolarPower Europe:

Table of contents
Foreword 3 6.3. Performance analysis

and improvement 45
Table of contents 6 6.4. Optimisation of O&M 45
6.5. Power plant controls 45
List of tables and figures 8 6.6. Power Generation Forecasting 46
6.7. Grid code compliance 46
List of abbreviations 9 6.8. Management of change 47
6.9. Power plant security 48
Executive summary 10
7 Power Plant Maintenance 49
1 Introduction 13
7.1. Preventive Maintenance 49
1.1. Rationale, aim and scope 13 7.2. Corrective Maintenance 51
1.2. How to benefit from this document 15 7.3. Predictive Maintenance 52
1.3. Stakeholders and roles 16 7.4. Extraordinary Maintenance 53
1.4. Costs and benefits of best practices 19 7.5. Additional services 54
2 Definitions 20 8 Revamping and Repowering 56

8.1. Definition and rationale of
3 Environment, Health & Safety 26
revamping and Repowering 56
3.1. Environment and social 26 8.2. Module Repowering 56
3.2. Health and Safety 28 8.3. Inverter Repowering 58
8.4. General Repowering considerations 59
4 Personnel & training 31
9 Spare parts management 61
5 Technical Asset Management 32
10 Data and monitoring requirements 64
5.1. Technical reporting 32
5.2. Site visits and non-intrusive 10.1. Data loggers 65
inspections 34 10.2. Monitoring portal 66
5.3. Lifetime conformity assessment 34 10.3. Data format 67
5.4. Management of ancillary 10.4. Configuration 67
service providers 34 10.5. Interoperability 67
5.5. Interface with local energy 10.6. Internet connection and
authorities & regulatory compliance 35 Local Area Network 68
5.6. Warranty management 37 10.7. Data ownership and privacy 70
5.7. Insurance claims 38 10.8. Cybersecurity 70
5.8. Contract management 10.9. Types of data collected through
(operational contracts) 38 the monitoring system 71
5.9. Asset optimisation (technical) 39 10.9.1. Irradiance measurements 71
5.10. Environmental management 39 10.9.2. Module temperature measurements 72
5.11. Health & safety management 39 10.9.3. Local meteorological data 72
5.12. Force majeure 10.9.4. String measurements 72
(pandemic) management 39 10.9.5. Inverter measurements 73
10.9.6. Energy meter 73
6 Power Plant Operation 40 10.9.7. Control settings 74
10.9.8. Alarms 74
6.1. Documentation Management
10.9.9. AC circuit/protection relay 74
System (DMS) 40
10.10. Data collected by specialised PV
6.2. Plant performance monitoring
module field inspections 74
and supervision 41
10.10.1. Infrared thermography (IR) 75

Table of contents
10.10.2. I-V curve tracing on-site 75 12.8. Spare parts management 96

10.10.3. Electroluminescence (EL) 12.9. Power plant remote monitoring 96
imaging on-site 75 12.10. Reporting 96
10.10.4. Flourescence imaging 76
10.10.5. Magnetic Field Imaging (MFI) 76 13 Innovations and trends 97
10.10.6. Soiling measurements 77
13.1. Smart PV power plant monitoring
and data-driven O&M 97
11 Key Performance Indicators 78
13.1.1. Advanced aerial thermography 98
11.1. PV power plant data 79 13.1.2. Automated plant performance
11.1.1. Raw data measurements for diagnosis 100
performance calculation 79 13.1.3. Predictive maintenance for
11.2. PV power plant KPIs 79 optimised hardware replacement 101
11.2.1. Reference yYield 79 13.1.4. PV plant yield forecasting 102
11.2.2. Specific yield 79 13.1.5. Internet of Things (IoT) and
11.2.3. Performance ratio 80 auto-configuration 103
11.2.4. Temperature-corrected 13.1.6. Future best practices in document
performance ratio 80 management systems 104
11.2.5. Expected yield 82 13.2. Retrofit coatings for PV modules 104
11.2.6. Energy Performance Index 82 13.2.1. Anti-soiling coatings 104
11.2.7. Technical availability or uptime 82 13.2.2. Anti-reflective coatings 105
11.2.8. Technical tracker availability 13.3. Waterless cleaning of PV modules 106
or tracker uptime 83
11.3. O&M contractor KPIs 84 14 O&M for standalone solar installations
11.3.1. Acknowledgement time 84 with storage 107
11.3.2. Intervention time 84
14.1. Environment, Healthy & Safety 107
11.3.3. Response time 84
14.2. Monitoring & reporting 108
11.3.4. Resolution time 84
14.3. Maintenance 109
11.3.5. Reporting 84
14.4. Contractual recommendations
11.3.6. O&M contractor experience 85
for standalone PV systems 111
11.3.7. Schedule attainment 85
11.3.8. Preventive vs corrective
References 119
maintenance ratio 85
11.4. PV power plant/O&M
Annex 120
contractor KPIs 85
11.4.1. Contractual availability 85 a. Applicable international
11.4.2. Contractual tracker availability 87 standards for solar O&M 113
11.4.3. Energy-based availability 87 b. Proposed skill matrix for
O&M personnel 114
12 Contractual framework 90 c. Documentation set
accompanying the solar PV plant 115
12.1. Scope of the O&M contract 90
d. Important examples of input
12.2. O&M contract fee 93
records in the record control 117
12.3. Contractual guarantees
e. Annual maintenance plan: On-grid 119
and price adjustments 93
f. Annual maintenance plan: Off-grid 124
12.3.1. Availability guarantee 93
12.3.2. Response time price adjustment 93
12.4. Bonus schemes and
liquidated damages 94
12.5. Service standards 95
12.6. O&M contractors’ qualification 95
12.7. Responsibility and accountability 95

List of tables List of figures
Table 1: Proposed indicators/values Figure 1: Overview of a selection of applicable

required for the reporting 33 standards for O&M 14
Table 2: Examples for additional Figure 2: Roles and responsibilities by different
maintenance services 55 stakeholders in the field of O&M 18
Table 3: Minimum list of spare parts Figure 3: Case study of a yield review of a
(non-exhaustive) 63 challenged PV power plant project 20
Table 4: Examples of data integration options 68 Figure 4: Overview of the most important
tasks in power plant operation 42
Table 5: Pros and cons of different types
of monitoring connections 69 Figure 5: Support levels in fault management 44
Table 6: Overview of different types of Figure 6: Overview of the different types of
Key Performance Indicators power plant maintenance 50
and their purposes 88
Figure 7: Differences between revamping and
Table 7: Examples for additional maintenance repowering and their main drivers 57
services and general market trends 92
Figure 8: Energy flow in a grid-connected
Table 8: Examples for fault classes photovoltaic system with parameters,
and corresponding minimum yields and losses 64
response times 94
Figure 9: Example UV-Flourescence images
Table 9: Aerial IR thermography – after a severe hail-storm 76
post-processing subtasks 99
Figure 10: Examples of Magnetic Field
Table 10: Methods suggested for the Imaging (MFI) 77
collection of reference yield 109
Figure 11: Overview of different types of KPIs 78
Table 11: Incidents covered by O&M
Figure 12: Various periods of time for the
service agreements for distributes
calculation of the technical availability 83
solar systems 111
Figure 13: Acknowledgement time, intervention
time, response time, resolution time 84
Figure 14: Various periods of time for the
calculation of contractual availability 86
List of boxes Figure 15: Overview of the six template

contracts developed under the
Open Solar Contracts initiative 91
Figure 16: Data mining foundations 98
Box 1: Preserving and enhancing the
Natural Capital values of large-scale Figure 17: Automated plant performance
solar plants 27 diagnosis 101
Box 2: Interpreting Performance Ratio 81 Figure 18: Predictive maintenance for optimised
hardware replacement 101

List of abbreviations
AC Alternating Current ISO International Organization

AGM Absorbed Glass Mat batteries for Standardization
AMP Annual Maintenance Plan KPI Key Performance Indicator
AMR Automatic Meter Reading kW kilowatt
AMS Annual Maintenance Schedule kWh kilowatt-hour
API Application Programming Interface kWp kilowatt-peak
CCTV Closed Circuit Television LAN Local Area Network
CMMS Computerised Maintenance Management LCOE Levelised Cost of Electricity
System LIB Lithium-Ion Batteries
COD Commercial Operation Date LTE-M Long-power Wide-area Network
CSMS Cybersecurity Management System LPWAN Long Term Evolution, category M1
DC Direct Current LV Low voltage
DMS Document Management System MAE Mean Absolute Error
DOR Division of Responsibility MIT Minimum Irradiance Threshold
DSCR Debt Service Coverage Ratio MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking
DSL Digital Subscriber Line MV Medium Voltage
EH&S Environment, Health and Safety MW Megawatt
EMS Energy Management System O&M Operation and Maintenance
EPC Engineering, Procurement, Construction OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
EPI Energy Performance Index OS Operating System
ERP Enterprise Resource Planning System PAC Provisional Acceptance Certificate
ESIA Environmental, Social Impact Assessment POA Plane of Array
ESMP Environmental, Social Management Plan PPA Power Purchase Agreement
ESS Energy Storage System PPE Personal Protective Equipment
FAC Final Acceptance Certificate PR Performance Ratio
FIT Feed-in tariff PV Photovoltaic
FTP File Transfer Protocol RMSE Root Mean Square Error
GPRS General Packet Radio Service ROI Return on Investment
H&S Health and Safety RPAS Remotely Piloted Aircraft System (drone)
HV High Voltage SCADA Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission SLA Service-level Agreement
IECRE IEC System for Certification to Standards SPV Special Purpose Vehicle
Relating to Equipment for Use in Renewable STC Standard Test Conditions (1000 W/M2, 25°C)
Energy Applications TF Task Force
IGBT Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistors UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply
IPP Independent Power Producer VLA Vented Lead Acid Batteries
IR Infrared VRLA Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid batteries
IRENA International Renewable Energy Agency

Executive summary
Many Sub-Saharan African markets have already added insecticides. In Africa, water scarcity should be
the first tens and, in some cases, hundreds of MW of considered in certain arid regions and it is important
solar capacity, with significant growth expected in the to have a plan to avoid local conflicts over water.
coming years. As markets develop, concerns related to
In many situations, solar plants offer an opportunity to
long-term reliability and performance of solar assets
provide for agriculture and are a valuable natural
rise, as they strongly affect project bankability and
habitat for plants and animals alongside the primary
return on investment. Operation and Maintenance
purpose of power production. Solar plants are
(O&M) has become a standalone segment within the
electricity generating power stations and have
solar industry and it is widely acknowledged by all
significant hazards present which can result in injury
stakeholders that high-quality O&M services mitigate
or death. Risks should be reduced through proper
potential risks, improve the Levelised Cost of Electricity
hazard identification, careful planning of works, briefing
(LCOE) and Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) prices,
of procedures to be followed, documented and regular
and positively impact the return on investment (ROI).
inspection, and maintenance. Personnel training and
Responding to the discrepancies that exist in today’s
certification and personal protective equipment are
solar O&M market, the Africa edition of the O&M Best
required for several tasks. Almost all jobs have some
Practice Guidelines makes it possible for all to benefit
safety requirements such as fall protection for work at
from the experience of leading African and European
heights and electrical arc-flash, lock-out tag-out, and
experts in the sector and increase the level of quality and
general electrical safety for electrical work; eye and ear
consistency in O&M. These Guidelines are meant for
protection for ground maintenance.
O&M contractors as well as installers, owners, investors,
financiers, monitoring tool providers, technical
consultants and all interested stakeholders in Sub- Personnel & training
Saharan Africa. In this Africa-specific edition, the
It is important that all O&M personnel have the
requirements presented in SolarPower Europe’s O&M
relevant experience and qualifications to perform the
Best Practice Guidelines Version 4.0 have been adapted
work in a safe, responsible and accountable manner.
to match the Sub-Saharan African market context. Thus,
These Guidelines contain a skills’ matrix template that
for example, smaller scale installations in the 10s and
helps to record skills and identify gaps.
100s of kW scale, such as Commercial & Industrial (C&I)
installations, are in the scope of these Guidelines.
Technical asset management
This document begins by contextualising O&M,
explaining the roles and responsibilities of various Technical Asset Management encompasses support
stakeholders such as the installer of the O&M provider, activities to ensure the best operation of a solar power
and by presenting an overview of technical and plant or a portfolio, i.e. to maximise energy production,
contractual terms to achieve a common minimise downtime and reduce costs. In the African
understanding of the subject. It then walks the reader context, especially in the C&I and residential
through the different components of O&M, classifying segments, Technical Asset Management, Power plant
requirements into “minimum requirements”, “best operation and Power plant maintenance, is often
practices” and “recommendations”. assumed by the same entity, the installer. However, in
cases where these roles are separated, and the
technical asset manager and the O&M contractor are
Environment, health & safety
separate entities, close coordination and information
Environmental problems are normally avoidable sharing between the two entities is indispensable.
through proper plant design and maintenance, but Technical Asset Management also includes ensuring
where issues do occur, the O&M contractor must that the operation of the PV plant complies with
detect them and respond promptly. Environmental national and local regulations and contracts, and also
compliance may be triggered by components of the advising the asset owner on technical asset
PV system itself, such as components that include optimisation. For more information about commercial
hazardous materials and by-products that may be and financial Asset Management (an increasingly
used by the O&M contractor such as herbicides and standalone segment in Europe), please refer to

SolarPower Europe’s Asset Management Best Practice services may include tasks such as module cleaning and
Guidelines, which can be downloaded from vegetation control, which could be done by the O&M
www.solarpowereurope.org. contractor or outsourced to specialist providers.
Power plant operation Revamping and repowering

Operation is about remote monitoring, supervision and Revamping and repowering are usually considered a
control of the PV power plant or portfolio and it is an part of extraordinary maintenance from a contractual
increasingly active exercise as grid operators require point of view. However, revamping and repowering has
more and more flexibility from solar power plants. Power a rapidly increasing significance in the solar O&M
plant operation also involves liaising with or coordination market around the world, with Africa being no
of the maintenance team. A proper PV plant exception to this. It is expected that revamping and
documentation management system is crucial for repowering will gain traction in Africa in the years to
Operations. A list of documents that should be included come. Therefore, these Guidelines address them in a
in the as-built documentation set accompanying the standalone chapter. Revamping and repowering are
solar PV plant (such as PV modules’ datasheets), as well defined as the replacement of old, power production
as a list of examples of input records that should be related components within a power plant by new
included in the record control (such as alarms components to enhance the overall performance of
descriptions), can be found in the Annex of these the installation. This chapter presents the best
Guidelines. Based on the data and analyses gained practices in module and inverter revamping and
through monitoring and supervision, the O&M repowering and general, commercial considerations
contractor should always strive to improve PV power to keep in mind before implementation.
plant performance. As there are strict legal requirements
for security services in most countries, PV power plant
Spare parts management
security should be ensured by specialised security
service providers. Considering that the typical C&I Spare Parts Management is an inherent and substantial
installation size in Africa is in the 10s or 100s of kW scale, part of O&M aimed at ensuring that spare parts are
this version of the Guidelines proposes adjusted or available in a timely manner for Preventive and Corrective
simplified procedures or solutions, such as the Maintenance in order to minimise the downtime of a
Documentation Management System. solar PV plant. As a best practice, the spare parts should
be owned by the asset owner while normally
maintenance, storage and replenishment should be the
Power plant maintenance
responsibility of the O&M contractor. It is considered a
Maintenance is usually carried out on-site by specialised best practice not to include the cost of replenishment of
technicians or subcontractors, according to the spare parts in the O&M fixed fee. However, if the asset
Operation team’s analyses. A core element of owner requires the O&M contractor to bear
maintenance services, Preventive Maintenance involves replenishment costs, the more cost-effective approach
regular visual and physical inspections, functional testing is to agree which are “Included Spare Parts” and which
and measurements, as well as the verification activities are “Excluded Spare Parts”. These Guidelines also include
necessary to comply with the operating manuals and a minimum list of spare parts that are considered
warranty requirements. The Annual Maintenance Plan essential. In the African context, when setting spare parts’
(see an example in Annex b) includes a list of inspections stocking levels, it needs to be considered that spare parts’
and actions that should be performed regularly. availability may be more limited due to the absence of
Corrective Maintenance covers activities aimed at local representations of manufacturers.
restoring a faulty PV plant, equipment or component to
a status where it can perform the required function.
Data and monitoring requirements
Extraordinary Maintenance actions, usually not covered
by the O&M fixed fee, can be necessary after major The purpose of the monitoring system is to allow
unpredictable events in the plant site that require supervision of the performance of a PV power plant.
substantial repair works. Additional maintenance Requirements for effective monitoring include

Executive summary / continued
dataloggers capable of collecting data (such as energy power plant performance and O&M service quality at the
generated, irradiance, module temperature, etc.) of all same time is the Contractual Availability. While Uptime (or
relevant components (such as inverters, energy meters, Technical Availability) reflects all downtimes regardless of
pyranometers, temperature sensors) and storing at the cause, Contractual Availability involves certain
least one month of data with a recording granularity of exclusion factors to account for downtimes not
up to 15 minutes, as well as a reliable Monitoring Portal attributable to the O&M Contractor (such as force
(interface) for the visualisation of the collected data and majeure), a difference important for contractual purposes.
the calculation of KPIs. Monitoring is increasingly
employing satellite data as a source of solar resource
Contractual framework
data to be used as a comparison reference for on-site
pyranometers. As a best practice, the monitoring Although some third-party O&M contractors still
system should ensure open data accessibility in order provide Performance Ratio guarantees in some cases,
to enable an easy transition between monitoring it is a best practice to only use Availability and Response
platforms and interoperability of different applications. Time guarantees, which has several advantages. A best
As remotely monitored and controlled systems, PV practice is a minimum guaranteed Availability of 98%
plants are exposed to cybersecurity risks. It is therefore over a year, with Contractual Availability guarantees
vital that installations undertake a cyber security translated into Bonus Schemes and Liquidated
analysis and implement a cybersecurity management Damages. When setting Response Time guarantees, it
system. To evaluate monitoring tools it is is recommended to differentiate between hours and
recommended to refer to the Monitoring Checklist of periods with high and low irradiance levels as well as
the Solar Best Practices Mark, which is available at fault classes, i.e. the (potential) power loss. PR
www.solarbestpractices.com. Considering that the guarantees are more suitable when the installer is the
typical C&I installation size in Africa is in the 10s or 100s same entity as the O&M provider, which is often the
of kW scale, this version of the Guidelines proposes case in Sub-Saharan Africa.
adjusted or simplified procedures or solutions for some
requirements, such as the monitoring system
Innovations and trends
functionalities or types of data collected.
O&M contractors are increasingly relying on
Key Performance Indicators
innovations and more machine and data-driven
Important KPIs include PV power plant KPIs, directly solutions to keep up with market requirements. The
reflecting the performance of the PV power plant; O&M most important trends and innovations shaping
contractor KPIs, assessing the performance of the O&M today’s O&M market are summarised in this chapter,
service provided, and PV power plant/O&M contractor KPIs, grouped into three “families”: (1) Smart PV power plant
which reflect power plant performance and O&M service monitoring and data-driven O&M, (2) Retrofit coatings
quality at the same time. PV power plant KPIs include for PV modules, and (3) waterless cleaning for PV
important indicators such as the Performance Ratio (PR), modules, which is particularly relevant for arid regions.
which is the energy generated divided by the energy
obtainable under ideal conditions expressed as a
O&M for standalone solar installations with storage
percentage, and Uptime (or Technical Availability) which
are parameters that represent, as a percentage, the time This chapter assists in the application of the best
during which the plant operates over the total possible practices, detailed in the previous chapters of the
time it is able to operate. O&M contractor KPIs include document, to standalone off-grid PV plants. All best
Acknowledgement Time (the time between the alarm and practices mentioned in these Guidelines could be
the acknowledgement), Intervention Time (the time theoretically applied to the smallest systems, however
between acknowledgement and reaching the plant by a in off-grid areas there are different priorities. Apart
technician) and Resolution Time (the time to resolve the from providing the highest possible care in the most
fault starting from the moment of reaching the PV plant). cost-efficient manner to deliver the lowest levelized
Acknowledgement Time plus Intervention Time are called cost of electricity (LCOE), other objectives are at least
Response Time, an indicator used for contractual as important, like availability of electricity at the
guarantees. The most important KPI which reflects PV moment of demand and ease of maintenance.

1
Introduction
© REAZ
1.1. Rationale, aim and scope Since the operational phase covers by far the longest
period during the lifetime of a PV power plant project,
Many Sub-Saharan African markets have already
increasing the quality of O&M services is important and,
added the first tens and, in some cases, hundreds of
in contrast, neglecting O&M is risky. According to
MW of solar photovoltaic (PV) capacity, with significant
several studies, yield can be reduced by up to 70% if a
growth expected in the coming years. As markets
PV power plant is not well monitored and maintained.
develop, concerns related to long-term reliability and
In exceptional cases, up to (temporarily) 100% have
performance of solar assets rise, as they strongly
been reported. Inoperative situation or performance
affect project bankability and return on investment.
issues need to be detected instantly to avoid such type
A professional Operation & Maintenance (O&M) of yield losses. By way of example, just the effect of
service package ensures that the photovoltaic system soiling resulting from regular wind induced dust
will maintain high levels of technical, safety and carryover can result in a performance loss of 10%+
consequently economic performance over its lifetime. within 2 weeks, and of 30%+ within a matter of 6 weeks.
Currently, it is widely acknowledged by all stakeholders
The solar PV industry – a “young” industry that evolves
that high quality O&M services mitigate the potential
also in the services segment – offers a wide range of
risks, improve the levelised cost of electricity (LCOE)
practices and approaches. Although this is partly
and Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) prices and
logical, reflecting the specificities of each system,
positively impact the return on investment (ROI). This
topologies, installation sites and country
can be highlighted if one considers the lifecycle of a
requirements, there is a confusion or lack of clarity and
PV project which can be broken down into the four
knowledge of many Asset Owners and funding
phases below. The O&M phase is by far the longest:
authorities (investors or/and banks) of what the
• Development phase (typically 1-5 years, significant minimum requirements (scope) should be. A few
variations may occur depending on market years ago, when feed-in tariffs were very high and
maturity). favourable, there was an obvious lack of risk
perception in combination with an underestimated
• EPC phase (engineering, procurement,
performance metrics definition which hindered the
construction - depending on the size of a project,
proof of value of a professional and high-quality
up to a few months).
service provision.
• Operational phase (involving O&M typically 30+
Today, existing standardisation still does not fill in all
years).
the gaps or clarify all the requirements and their
• Decommissioning phase including recycling, and implementation. Although in Maintenance, there are a
disposal (depending on the size of a project, up to number of international technical standards that can
a few months). be followed and which also cover tasks related to

1 Introduction / continued
planning, scheduling and administrative, when it conformity assessment standards that can be applied
comes to the practical power plant operation, there throughout the lifetime of a project to verify by IECRE
are many shortcomings. Therefore, it is crucial to accepted third party assessors that a PV power plant
develop and disseminate best practices to optimise is in a good and healthy state.
power plant operation and thus, energy production,
For this version, a list of international standards has
power plant management and resulting benefits. Best
been added to support these best practises and to
practices that set the quality bar high will enhance
avoid misunderstandings in wording and doing. For
investors’ understanding and confidence. Over the last
more detailed information, please refer to Annex A.
5 years, in addition to standards, IECRE has developed
FIGURE 1 OVERVIEW OF A SELECTION OF APPLICABLE STANDARDS FOR O&M (STATUS: 2019)
General O&M activities PV components and BoS

EN 13306 EN 50380
IEC 62446 - 1: 2018 IEC 61215 (all parts)
IEC 62446 - 2 IEC 61439
IEC 63049: 2017 IEC 61557 (all parts)
IEC 60364 - 7 - 712: 2017 IEC 61730 (all parts)
IEC 62548 IEC 62093
IEC 62109 (all parts)
IEC TS 62804 (all parts)
System performance and monitering IEC TS 62915
IEC TS 63126
IEC 61724 - 1: 2017
IEC 61724 - 2: 2016
IEC 61724 - 3: 2016
IEC 61724 - 4 Specialised technical inspections
IEC 63019 - 2019 IEC TS 62446 - 3: 2017
ISO 6847: 1992 IEC 61829: 2015
IEC TS 60904 - 13: 2018
Other support standards

IEC TS 61836
IEC TS 62738: 2018
IEC TR 63149: 2018
IEC TS 62548
IEC 61853 - 1: 2011
IEC 61853 - 2: 2016
IEC 61853 - 3: 2018
IEC 61853 - 4: 2018
IEC 60904 - 5: 2011
IEC 60904 - 4
NOTE: This list is not exhaustive and new standards are under development For more details see Annex a.

The Africa edition of the O&M Best Practice Guidelines 1. Different set of stakeholders: Asset owners are not
is a key tool to set quality standards for service solar professionals.
providers and enhance investors’ understanding and
2. Different economics: Additional monitoring
confidence.1 The value proposition of these Guidelines
hardware on top of inverter accounts for a greater
is that its industry-led, containing the knowledge and
percentage of the total investment. Costs of
the experience of well-established and leading
physical site inspections and call-outs are
companies in the field of O&M service provision, project
proportionally higher compared to savings.
development and construction (EPC), asset
management, utilities, manufacturers and monitoring 3. Higher incidence of uncertainty: Greater shade,
tool providers. In this Africa-specific edition, the lower data accuracy, less visual inspection.
requirements presented in SolarPower Europe’s O&M
Specificities related to O&M for solar installations in
Best Practice Guidelines Version 4.0 have been adapted
off-grid areas are explained in chapter 14. Specific
to match the Sub-Saharan African market context.
national considerations such as legal requirements are
Thus, the scope of the current work includes smaller not included and should therefore be considered
scale solar PV installations in the 10s and 100s of kW separately if these Guidelines are to be used in
scale, such as Commercial & Industrial (C&I) specific countries.
installations that are very prevalent in the Sub-Saharan
The content covers technical and non-technical
African solar market. The final draft of IECRE 02 PV SUP
requirements, classifying them when possible into:
that is expected to be valid from Q2/2021 defines PV
power plant categories by size and usage as follows: 1. Minimum requirements, below which the O&M
service is considered as poor or insufficient, and
• S1: Utility scale > 10MWp
which form a minimum quality threshold for a
• S2: Large C&I: between 1MWp and 10MWp professional and bankable service provider.
• S3: Medium C&I: between 100kWp and 1MWp 2. Best practices, which are methods considered
state-of-the-art, producing optimal results by
• S4: Small C&I or residential: < 100kWp
balancing the technical as well as the financial side.
• S5: “Aggregate Power plants”
3. Recommendations, which can add to the quality
The present Guidelines provide requirements for all of the service, but whose implementation depends
categories, and wherever there is a difference in on the considerations of the Asset Owner or Asset
requirements due to project size, it is highlighted in the Manager, such as the available budget.
text, like in the phrase: “This is a best practice for most
As for the terminology used in this document to
installations, and a recommendation for small
differentiate between these three categories, verbs
installations (≤ 100kWp)”.
such as “should” indicate minimum requirements,
Utility-scale best practices could be theoretically unless specified explicitly otherwise, like in the phrase:
applied to even the smallest solar system for its “should, as a best practice”.
benefit; however this is not always practical in nature
due to a different set of stakeholders and financial
1.2. How to benefit from this document
implications. For the C&I segment, primary
consideration should be made to provide the highest This report includes the main considerations for a
possible care in the most cost-efficient manner to successful and professional O&M service provision.
deliver the lowest levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) Although it has not been tailored for each stakeholder,
to distributed Asset Owners – typically home or its use is similar for all: understanding the mandatory
business owners or public entities. Three key factors requirements and the necessity of professional O&M
need to be considered when establishing best and incorporating the recommendations accordingly
practices for the distributed solar segment, as
compared to utility scale solar: 1 In addition to the O&M Best Practice Guidelines we recommend
SolarPower Europe’s Asset Management Best Practice Guidelines,
another useful tool to enhance investors’ confidence and improve
service quality in the field of solar asset management. This report can
also be downloaded from www.solarpowereurope.org.

into the service package. Any of the directly relevant • Retailer. The Retailer is the entity that buys solar
stakeholders (see the following section) can benefit products, such as PV modules and inverters, from
from this work, tailor it to their needs without lowering a manufacturer (supplier), and sells them to the
the bar and know what to ask for, offer or expect. Asset Owner.
Although the focus is Sub-Saharan Africa, most of the • Project Developer. The Project Developer is the
content can be used in other regions around the world. entity that initiates the project and focuses on site
The requirements described in the maintenance part selection, customer identification, conducting
can be useful for regions with similar conditions and preliminary studies, application for permits,
additional requirements or modifications can easily be securing the financing and selection of the EPC
made for other regions with unique characteristics. provider. Project developers may own the project
With regards to the operations and technical asset in the early development stages or even longer.
management part, the requirements apply to PV
• EPC Contractor (or installer). The entity in charge
assets regardless of their location.
of the engineering, procurement and construction
of the solar power plant. The EPC contractor,
1.3. Stakeholders and roles usually simply referred to as “installer” in the C&I
and residential segments, is in charge of delivering
In the distributed or C&I solar O&M segment in Africa,
the full solar power plant to the asset owner from
the two central stakeholders are the system owner (or
authorisation to commissioning and grid
asset owner) and the installer, with the latter
connection. Their role is very important in ensuring
interacting with other stakeholders such as
the procurement of quality components and
equipment suppliers, third party engineers, authorities
quality installation, which have a large impact on
and lenders. It is important to note, that in the
the long-term performance of the solar power
distributed solar segment in Africa, the installer
plant. Many EPC contractors offer O&M services
assumes the multiple roles beyond installation,
for the solar power plants that they have
including O&M service provision and asset
developed. EPC Contractors often provide a 2-year
management. These can be abstracted to the
performance warranty period after the
following basic roles:
Commercial Operation Date (COD) lasting until the
Final Acceptance Certificate (FAC). In many cases
Asset Owner (or System owner or Investor) it is after FAC that a third-party O&M Contractor is
contracted to take over the O&M of the solar
The stakeholder that contributes to the equity
power plant. In certain mature markets the EPC
financing of construction and operation of the PV
role is increasingly split between different entities.
power plant is normally the investor (or a group of
investors), who can be classified as (1) private • Asset Manager. In the case of larger power plants
individuals, investment companies, or investment or portfolios, there is usually a separate role or
funds and (2) Independent Power Producers (IPPs) or service provider responsible for the commercial
Utilities. Assets are generally owned by “Special and financial management of the PV investment.
Purpose Vehicles” (SPV), i.e. limited liability The Asset Manager ensures that the PV power
companies, specifically incorporated for building, plant or SPV (Special Purpose Vehicle or project
owning and operating one or more PV plants. company) and the contracted service providers
fulfil their contractual obligations, and manages
the site with the aim of ensuring optimal
Installer
profitability of the PV power plant (or a portfolio of
In the distributed solar segment in Sub-Saharan Africa plants) by supervising energy sales, energy
(and in many part of the world), it is common for the production, and O&M activities. Asset Managers
installer to assume multiple roles: the roles of the also ensure the fulfilment of all administrative,
Retailer, Project Developer, the EPC contractor, the fiscal, insurance and financial obligations of the
Asset Manager and the O&M contractor (see below). SPVs or the PV power plants, respectively. In the
distributed solar segment, asset management is
usually a strongly reduced role.

• O&M Contractor. The entity that has been Component manufacturer or supplier
contracted by the asset owner and that is in
The component manufacturer may be module or
charge of the O&M activities as defined in the O&M
inverter manufacturer, cable or hardware suppliers or
contract. In some cases, this role can be
any other component that is required in an extensive
subdivided into:
building project such as a PV power station.
• Technical Asset Manager, in charge of high-
level services such as performance reporting
Specialised suppliers
to the Asset Owner, contracts management,
invoicing and warranty management. Providers of specialised services (e.g. technical or
operational systems consulting) or hardware (e.g.
• Operations service provider in charge of
electricity generating components or security
monitoring, supervision and control of the PV
system).
power plant, coordination of maintenance
activities.
Authorities
• Maintenance service provider carrying out
maintenance activities. An authority is a government body that has the power
or right to give orders, make decisions, and enforce
The three roles are usually assumed by a single
obedience. Depending on the jurisdiction, an authority
entity (which is often the installer itself) through a
may be local (e.g. the municipality), regional (e.g. the
full-service O&M contract. (In the utility-scale
provincial or regional authorities supervising
segment, the above roles are sometimes assumed
environmental constraints), national (e.g. the national
by separate entities and service providers.) A
grid operator, government departments), or
comprehensive set of O&M activities (technical
international (e.g. the authors of a common grid code
and non-technical) is presented in this report.
of several countries such as a Power Pool).
Lender (financing bank)

Off-taker
The lender or debt provider (financing bank) is not
The entity that transmits or consumes and pays for
considered an “Asset Owner” even if the loans are
the produced electricity. This role is still evolving and
backed up by securities (collateral). In principle, the
is often subdivided according to national renewable
interests and performance expectations of the
power support schemes:
investor (equity provider) and the lender are diﬀerent.
The lender normally measures risk based on the Debt • A local or regional utility.
Service Coverage Ratio (DSCR). The role of the lender
• Energy traders or direct sellers in a direct
is becoming increasingly “smart” and less passive, with
marketing scheme.
a focus on the requirements for the debt provision.
• End customers in schemes that underline
autonomy in energy supply.
Technical advisors, engineers, and assessors
Individuals or teams of experts that provide
Aggregator
specialised services (e.g. detailed information, advice,
technical consulting). Their role is important as they An entity combines multiple customer loads or
ensure that procedures and practices are robust and generated electricity for sale, for purchase or auction
of high quality – according to standards and best in any electricity market. From the asset owners, the
practices – to maintain high performance levels of the asset managers and the O&M contractors’ points of
PV plant. Technical advisors can represent different view the aggregator allows the distributed renewable
stakeholders (e.g. investors and lenders) but often an energy production or storage assets to access various
Independent Engineer is employed, whose opinions energy markets, such as the electricity markets, the
about the technical aspects of the project are not balancing markets or other future flexibility markets.
biased in favour of any stakeholder.

This enables direct marketing of the energy produced facilitating some administrative workflows. Site data
by distributed assets and can unlock new revenue is crucial to ensure owners, and AM and O&M
streams from flexibility services. This type of entity is providers are aware of what is occurring on site and
not common in Sub-Saharan Africa, however it could how the equipment is behaving throughout its
become more prevalent in coming years. lifetime. It is crucial to ensure that prompt action is
taken once a fault is identified and provide vital
information on potential areas of underperformance.
Data-related service providers There is tendency in the industry to opt for solutions
that integrate the functionalities of all above
Providers of hardware and software solutions such as
mentioned systems and platforms in one software,
Monitoring Systems, Asset Management Platforms,
which has several advantages and can be considered
Computerised Maintenance Management Systems
a recommendation.
(CMMS) or Enterprise Resource Planning Systems
(ERP) that acquire data from the site and also analyse Figure 2 below provides an overview of the different
the data to calculate KPIs (analytical tools) and/or responsibilities of the O&M Contractor. This figure is
provide data repository for key site information whilst redesigned and based on a figure of GTM (2013).
FIGURE 2 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES BY DIFFERENT STAKEHOLDERS IN THE FIELD OF O&M
ENGINEERING OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
Technical Asset Management
• Reporting • Warranty management

• Management of ancillary service providers • Insurance claims
• Site visits and non-instrusive inspections • Contract management
• Management of ancillary service providers • Asset optimisation
• Regulatory compliance • Environmental management
• Management of change • Interface with aggregators
Operations
Plant documentation management Plant operation:

Engineering • Plant controls
Plant supervision: • Power generation forecasting (optional)
• Plant (re)commissioning • Performance monitoring • Grid operator interface, grid code compliance
• Quality audit/inspection • Performance analysis and improvement • Maintenence scheduling
• Re-powering and upgrades • Issue detection
• Monitoring install / retrofit • Service dispatch Management of change (optional)
• Security monitoring interface (optional) Spare parts management
• As-built design documentation
Reporting to Technical Asset Manager
• Plant design overview
Guarantees: Availability guarantee,
Response Time guarantee
Maintenance
PV Plant Maintenance: Spare parts storage

• Preventative maintenance
• Corrective maintenance Additional Services:
• Extraordinary maintenance (optional) • General site management (Pest control,
water/waste management, roads/fences/
PV Site Maintenance buidlings/drain maintenance, maintenance
• Module cleaning of surveillance system)
• Vegetation management • On-site measurements (Meter readings,
• Snow or sand removal data entry on fiscal registers, string
measurements, thermal inspection)
NOTE: The responsibilities of the Asset Manager and the O&M Contractor sometimes overlap, and Technical Asset
Management and even some aspects of Procurement can be assumed by either the O&M Contractor or the Asset Manager. © SOLARPOWER EUROPE 2020

The large number of responsibilities and practices by consistent application typically result in
interdependencies may result in “grey zones” meaning lower cost over the entire cycle, even though the initial
areas of responsibilities where assignments or tasks cost to implement best practices may come along at a
are not reasonably well allocated or delimitated premium. In particular, adhering to best practices is (1)
between one stakeholder’s responsibilities over an effective element in risk management and (2) can
another’s. This can be the case mainly in the case of result in significant yield optimizations.
larger systems, where the different roles are assumed
For solar PV, some investors may tend to believe that
by different entities. With this perspective, it is
building a PV power plant delivers automatic, reliable
important that contracts define as precisely as
returns, and therefore, operations and maintenance
possible scope, rights and obligations of each party
may be of secondary importance, it at all. In fact, solar
and the general work order management. In this spirit,
power plants have the capability to require relatively
in case of doubt whether a necessary task is covered
little maintenance compared to technical devices
or not appropriate and timely communications with
subject to mechanical movement, high thermal stress
the asset owner is of utmost importance to avoid
loads etc. That said, solar power plants are not free of
unnecessary yield losses and possible incipient stages
any operations and maintenance requirements. O&M
of future accusations or even litigations.
does matter to ensure a safe operation, and to
Therefore, all stakeholders are encouraged to have a maintain proper yield. When exercising best practices
good understanding of both technical and financial as outlined in this document, yield optimisation
aspects of a PV power plant operation in order to ensure exceeding planed performance and early detection of
a successful and impactful implementation of services any deviations will proof to be a rewarding outcome.
for all parties involved. This train of thought requires
The case study illustrated in Figure 3 on the following
Asset Managers to have technical skills in-house or to
page, shows the effects of negligence on practicing
hire an independent technical advisor (engineer) for a
good operations and maintenance. The creeping
meaningful supervision and proper assessment of the
decline of the performance of a PV power plant that
technical solutions, and O&M contractors to have the
has started early in the lifetime of the PV power plant
ability to cost-assess and prioritise their operational
project, however, was not observed by the operators.
decisions and maintenance services.
As a consequence, instead of reacting early to the
issue (it turned out to be PID), when a relatively low-
1.4. Costs and benefits of best practices cost mitigation would have been possible, it took
several years before the deterioration was ascertained
Best practices describe a method or technique that is
and evidenced. Consequently, at that point, a major
generally accepted as superior to any other alternative
part of the modules had to be replaced, amongst other
method or technique to attain a certain result. Therefore,
measures, resulting in an additional “re-investment”
best practices may exceed the minimum requirements
of approximately 38% of the initial investment.
expressed in standards. The benefit of adopting best

FIGURE 3 CASE STUDY OF A YIELD REVIEW OF A CHALLENGED PV POWER PLANT PROJECT
Cumilative cash flow plan vs. actual

Cumulative cash flow
Corrective measures
Initial reaction
Permanent cash flow gap
Initial deviation
Cash infusion ∼38% of initial investment =

∼4 years setback
Investment Exploitation phase Time

phase 6 years
Plan
Actual
SOURCE: EXXERGY. © SOLARPOWER EUROPE 2020

2
Definitions
© REAZ
This section introduces a basic set of definitions of Indeed, it is more challenging for terms in the
important terms that are widely used in the O&M field Operational field since those are less technical and not
(contracts) and is necessary for all different stakeholders standardised as in the case for Maintenance. The
to have a common understanding. In general, there are chapter provides a short list (alphabetically ordered)
standards in place that explain some of these terms, which is not exhaustive but reflects the different
however, it is still difficult in practice to agree on the sections of this document. For the definitions relating
boundaries of those terms and what exactly is expected to Maintenance the standard EN 13306 (“Maintenance
under these terms or services (e.g. the different types of terminology”) was used as a basis.∼
maintenances or operational tasks).
Additional services Actions and/or works performed, managed or overseen by the O&M Contractor,
which are not (but can be if agreed) part of the regular services and normally
charged “as-you-go”, e.g. ground maintenance, module cleaning, security services
etc. Some of the additional services can be found as a part of the Preventive
Maintenance, depending on the contractual agreement.
Asset management Asset Managers are responsible for the commercial and financial management
of a solar investment and the supervision and control of technical activities. They
manage a company or a portfolio rather than a power plant, often across different
geographies, dealing with a variety of regulatory frameworks and business models.
Asset management is also defined as the coordinated activities of an organisation
to generate value from its assets (ISO 55000).
Asset management A software package or suite of tools that is used by the Asset Manager to store
platform and manage technical and non-technical data and information collected from
and relating to the solar asset, portfolio or SPV. It combines the abilities of a
Computerised Maintenance Management System (CMMS) and an Enterprise
Resource Planning System (ERP).
Computerised A software designed to measure and record various O&M KPIs (e.g.
Maintenance Acknowledgement Time, Intervention Time, Reaction Time, Resolution Time) and
Management System equipment performance (e.g. Mean Time Between Failures) and thus optimise
(CMMS) maintenance activities.
Contract management Activities related to the proper fulfilment of O&M contract obligations such as
reporting, billing, contract amendments, regulator interaction etc.

2 Definitions / continued
Commercial Operation The term “COD” means “Commercial Operation Date” and is referred to as the day
Date (COD) that the PV power plant becomes fully operational and can begin selling power
under the terms of the PPA, a FIT, or a merchant business model.
Commissioning System commissioning closes the construction phase of the solar power plant
to move towards the commercial operation. Commissioning includes
performance and reliability tests to make sure that the solar power plant is built
according to the international standards and best industry practice complies with
the agreed Employer’s Owner’s Requirements, grid specifications.
Construction In the Construction phase, the solar power plant is installed based on installation
manuals provided by suppliers. Construction works involve civil works (mounting
structure) and electro-mechanical works (modules, inverters etc) and supervisory
and monitoring equipment. Some parts of the construction may be
subcontracted by the EPC provider.
Contractual framework An agreement with specific terms between the Asset Owner and the O&M
Contractor. This agreement defines in detail the O&M services, both remote
operations services and local maintenance activities, the management and
interfaces of those services, as well as the responsibilities of each party. Liquidated
damages and bonus schemes are also part of the contractual commitments.
Control Room Services Comprehensive actions like PV plant monitoring, performance analysis,
(also known as Operations supervision, remote controls, management of maintenance activities, interaction
Centre Services or with grid operators, authorities, Asset Owners, and the preparation and provision
Remote Operations of regular reporting performed by experienced and qualified staff in a control
Centre) room during operational hours for 365 days/year.
Corrective maintenance Actions and/or techniques (immediate or deferred) taken to correct failures,
breakdowns, malfunctions, anomalies or damages detected during inspections,
or through monitoring, alarming, or reporting or any other source. The actions are
desired to restore the PV system back into regular and required operation mode.
Data and monitoring Hardware and software, technical and functional specifications to collect, transmit
requirements and store production, performance and environmental data for plant management.
Development (Project Development is the phase that precedes the EPC phase in the lifecycle of the project.
development) It usually includes the initiation of the project, site selection, customer identification,
conducting preliminary studies, application for permits, securing the financing and
selection of the EPC contractor. Project developers may own the project in the early
development stages or even longer. The term “Project development” is sometimes
considered to include some parts of Engineering and Procurement..
Distributed solar Distributed solar generation refers to solar installations which are small-scale
generation (usually below 1 MWp nominal power). An important characteristic of distributed
solar generation is that the generation unit is usually located close to the
consumption point, as opposed to the case of conventional and centralised power
generation. Distributed solar installations may be equipped with battery storage,
and may be connected to the utility grid or be part of a microgrid, or be standalone
off-grid systems.
Documentation A management system that records, manages and stores documents required for
management system O&M, such as technical plant and equipment documentation and drawings,
maintenance manuals, photos and reports, including the various versions that are
being created by different users, reviews and approvals. Documentation
management system also defines a proper format and use (information exchange).

Engineering The Engineering phase starts off as a basic technical concept, the engineering
design is itself a process that evolves and is constantly refined as the project
development advances into a detailed execution design blueprint, issued for
construction. Once construction and commissioning are completed, a detailed
set of “as built” set of documents is handed over to the O&M provider.
Environment, Health & Environment, Health and Safety indicates the activities performed to ensure
Safety (EH&S) environmental protection, occupational health and safety at work and on site,
applicable to staff and visitors according to the national applicable laws and
regulations.
Engineering, Procurement, EPC refers to companies that deal with the Engineering, Procurement,
and Construction (EPC) Construction and Commissioning of solar systems. The EPC contractor is in
charge of delivering the fully built solar power plant to the Asset Owner from
authorisation to commissioning and grid connection.
Enterprise Resource A business management software that a company (such as an O&M contractor
Planning System (ERP) or an asset manager) can use to gather, store, manage and analyse all types of
data relevant for their operations.
Extraordinary Actions and/or works performed in case of major unpredictable faults, such as
maintenance serial defects, force majeure events etc, that are generally considered outside of
the ordinary course of business.
Feed-in tariff (FiT) A policy mechanism (designed to accelerate investment in renewable energy
technologies) which remunerates, through a long term contract, a fixed electricity
prices to renewable energy producers for each unit of energy produced and
injected into the electricity grid.
Good industry practice Good Industry Practice means those practices, methods, techniques, standards,
codes, specifications, acts, skills and equipment generally applicable in the
international solar power industry (including construction and installation of solar
power facilities) and followed or used by good contractors that, in the exercise of
prudent, proper and good judgment, in light of the facts known or that reasonably
should have been known at the time a decision was made or an action taken or
omitted, would have been expected to accomplish the desired result in a manner
consistent with applicable laws and permits, are reliable and safe, protect the
environment, are economically efficient and are done with the degree of skill,
diligence and prudence that would ordinarily be expected.
Grid code compliance Equipment, procedures, actions and activities required by the respective grid
requirements operator(s) in order to comply with grid safety, power quality and operating
specifications.
Insurance claims Customer’s activities required to claim a reimbursement based on specific
insurance policy terms.
Key Performance A technical parameter that helps the stakeholders to evaluate the successful
Indicator (KPI) operation of a PV plant and/or the success of the O&M Contractor’s activities.
Management of change Management of change defines the way to handle necessary adjustments of the
design of a PV power plant after the Commercial Operation Date. Changes require
a close cooperation between the plant owner and the O&M Contractor.

2 Definitions / continued
Monitoring system The digital platform used for the overall monitoring of the functioning, energy
generation and reference data of the PV plant and its components or PV plant
portfolio), which is performed through real-time monitoring software. The monitoring
operates 24 hours a day, all year, and is fed by in-plant data logging systems that collect
data from different plants as well as by irradiation and temperature measurements
from particular sensors and other sources such as meteorological information.
Off-grid solar An off-grid solar installation is a solar installation which is not connected to the
utility grid, as opposed to an on-grid or grid-connected installation. An off-grid
system may be part of a microgrid or a standalone system such as a solar home
system with battery storage.
Performance analysis Measurements, calculations, trending, comparisons, inspections etc performed
& improvement in order to evaluate the PV plant, segments and/or single component performance,
site conditions, equipment behaviour etc, and to provide reports and assessment
studies to interested parties (customer, public authority, etc).
Personnel & training Operators, technicians, engineers and managers employed for the execution of the
O&M activities and training plans/programmes to train them on relevant PV plant
related aspects and to keep them continuously updated on their respective roles.
Power plant controls Actions required by the grid operator, for controlling active and/or reactive power
being fed into the grid, other power quality factors that are subject to adjustments
and/or (emergency) shut down (if applicable).
Power plant supervision The activity to supervise and analyse data provided by the monitoring system which
is performed by experienced human resources during daylight hours and managed
by one or more control rooms (365 days/year). The reception and qualification of
the alarms from the monitoring tool is also considered to be part of the supervision.
Predictive maintenance Actions and/or techniques that are performed to help assess the condition of a
PV system and its components, predict/forecast and recommend when
maintenance actions should be performed. The prediction is derived from the
analysis and evaluation of significant parameters of the component (e.g.
parameters related to degradation). Monitoring systems and expert knowledge
are used to identify the appropriate actions based on a cost benefit analysis.
Preventive maintenance Actions and/or testing and/or measurements to ensure optimal operating
conditions of equipment and of the entire PV plant and to prevent defects and
failures. Those take place periodically and according to a specific maintenance-
plan and maintenance schedules.
Power generation Adoption of forecasting tools calculating expected power production for a certain
forecasting timeframe from weather forecasts in order to supply the expected power
production to owner, grid operator, energy traders or others. This is normally
country and plant dependent.
Quality Quality is a perceptual, conditional, and somewhat subjective attribute and may
be understood differently by different people. It is a commitment to customers
in the market. It can also be defined as fitness for intended use. Quality also takes
into account the reduction of waste that a product may cause to the environment
or human society.
Quality Management Quality Management is the process through which an organisation ensures
(QM) Quality. Its four pillars are Quality Control & Assurance, Quality Monitoring &
Review, Quality Improvement and Quality Planning.

Regulatory compliance Compliance to any law, statute, directive, bylaw, regulation, rule, order, delegated
legislation or subordinate legislation directly applicable in the country where the
service is provided, as well as to any mandatory guidelines and measures issued
by a utility and any other competent public authority.
Reporting and other Deliverables produced periodically, according to requirements detailed in the O&M
deliverables agreement or following best market practices, including PV plant performance,
Key Performance Indicators, maintenance activities and work orders performed,
alarm handling, equipment status, warranty handling activities and spare parts
tracking and any other analysis performed in compliance with the O&M contract
requirements.
Risk Risk is defined as the “effect of uncertainty on objectives”. The major categories
of PV risk include, but are not limited to, financial risks, country and regulatory
risks, contractual risks, commercial risks, technical risks and reputational risk.
Risk management The practice of identifying and analysing the risks to which solar power systems
and operations are subjected and taking steps to mitigate them. The different risk
management methods are risk avoidance, risk reduction, risk control, risk transfer.
The risk that cannot be mitigated is called residual risk.
Special Purpose Vehicle A company with its own rights, assets and liabilities, created for building, owning
(SPV) and operating one or more solar power plants. The SPV is also referred to as SPE
(special purpose entity) or as a project company. SPVs are usually used for larger,
utility-scale projects.
Security Actions, procedures, equipment and/or techniques that are adopted on site and
remotely in order to protect the plant from theft, vandalism, fire and unauthorised
entry. Security services are to be provided be specialised security service providers.
Spare parts management Activities that ensure availability of the right amount and type of components,
equipment, parts etc, either on site or in warehouses or in manufacturers’
consignment stocks, for prompt replacement in case of failure and/or to meet
guarantees under O&M contracts.
Supervisory Control and Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) is a data acquisition system
Data Acquisition (SCADA) that connects various hardware and software components in a given site and is
used to monitor and control the solar power plant remotely. SCADA systems are
typically employed to send data to a centralised Monitoring System for monitoring
and analytical purposes (see definition for “Monitoring System”).

3
Environment, Health & Safety
© Thanit Pkc / Shutterstock
The Asset Owner has the ultimate legal and moral Primarily the water is used for cleaning of the solar
responsibility to ensure the health and safety of modules, further water is used in sanitary installations
people in and around the solar plant and for the of the solar plants. The amount of water required
protection of the environment around it. The practical depends mostly upon the cleaning requirements of the
implementation is normally subcontracted to the solar modules. It is estimated that the yearly amount of
O&M Contractor. water needed is at least 100 t/MWp for a solar plant
where the solar modules are regularly cleaned during
the dry season. In many instances the water is taken
3.1. Environment and social
from nearby sources through contractors that also
Renewable energies are popular because of their low conduct the cleaning of the solar modules. The
environmental impact and it is important that solar contactors for cleaning the solar modules are often
plants are operated and maintained to minimise any local farmers that conduct the cleaning of the solar
adverse effects. Environmental problems can normally modules to complement their income.
be avoided through proper plant design and
The water demand from a solar plant can play a
maintenance – for example, bunds and regular
significant role in the water balance of a region. This is
inspection of HV transformers will reduce the chances
of particular importance when considering that water
of significant oil leaks – but where issues do occur the
scarcity and dwindling groundwater resources are a
O&M Contractor must detect them and respond
wide-spread and increasingly alarming phenomenon.
promptly. Beyond the environmental damage there may
In many incidences, the operators of the solar plant or
be financial or legal penalties for the owner of the plant.
their sub-contractors are in a stronger position to
Legal obligations to be fulfilled by the O&M Contractor source the scarce water and therefore they may
(or the Technical Asset Manager) may include long- endanger the livelihoods of the local population. This
term environmental requirements to be implemented situation is to be avoided by all means. Solar plants are
either onsite or off-site. Typical requirements can be typically installed in regions that have abundant
amongst others water tank installation, tree clearing, sunshine and consequently are rather arid. Thus, the
drainage systems installation, amphibian follow-up, probability for a conflict over water particularly for
edge plantation, reptile rock shelters installation. Such solar plants is rather high and it will increase with the
requirements should be implemented and managed expected fast expansion of installed solar capacity.
by the O&M Contractor in order to comply with the
In order to avoid a conflict over water the question of
authorisation. As a best practice, the O&M
the water requirement from the solar plant as well as
Contractor’s environmental preservation activities can
the local availability of water also in stressed situations
go beyond legal obligations.
is to be analysed as part of the Environmental Social
Further the use of water needs to be considered. Water Impact Assessment (ESIA) prior to implementing the
is used in many installations of solar plants in Africa. project (best practice for C&I projects,

recommendation for small-scale projects). An So far in cases where a potential conflict over water
outcome of the ESIA might be on the one hand has been determined to be an important risk a
potential optimisation of the design of the solar plant. rainwater harvesting system has been identified as a
On the other hand, any measures required to minimize possible remedy. In practice these rainwater
or mitigate impacts and risks, such as water conflicts, harvesting systems have shown to be rather simple to
are determined and to be documented in an install and effective in saving water. Further dry-
Environmental, Social Management Plan (ESMP) cleaning - in particular robotic dry-cleaning - has been
which is monitored during the construction and the tried in various installations and has also shown to be
operation of the solar plant. very effective. Both rainwater harvesting and robotic
BOX 1 25-40 years, which is predominantly used solely to

Preserving and enhancing the Natural Capital produce low carbon energy. The land remains
values of large-scale solar plants relatively undisturbed, apart from by maintenance
activities. Moreover, because the parks are commonly
The growth in ground-mounted solar parks is occurring
located in agricultural landscapes, the land they
at a time when there is increasing recognition of the
occupy and its immediate surroundings stand to
benefits the natural environment provides to society,
benefit significantly from enhancement. For example,
and how these are under threat from ongoing
introducing pollinator habitats on solar parks could
environmental degradation. When well-managed and in
improve pollination of surrounding crops leading to
suitable locations, solar parks offer an opportunity to
higher yields, and changes to the intensity of mowing
improve the state of the natural environment alongside
and grazing can be used to enhance biodiversity.
their primary purpose of generating electricity. This
potential is becoming increasingly pertinent with the In the United Kingdom, collaborative research
development of initiatives that prioritise the between solar park stakeholders, nature conservation
environment, such as the European Union-funded bodies and researchers has produced the Solar Park
project Natural Capital Accounting and Valuation of Impacts on Ecosystem Services (SPIES) decision
Ecosystem Services (NCAVES), which is active five support tool. The SPIES tool provides an accessible,
countries worldwide including South Africa, and global transparent and evidence-based means of informing
frameworks such as the Paris Agreement and related management actions on and around solar parks. It is
Sustainable Development Goals. Further, promoting free to use and enables users to explore the impacts
good environmental stewardship will enhance the solar of different management scenarios, which can be
industry’s profile, contribute to corporate outputted as PDF documents suitable to support
Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) planning applications.
objectives, help to meet planning policy goals, and
Whilst currently deployed in a UK context, alternative
improve community and landowner relations.
versions of SPIES could be readily developed for other
‘Ecosystem Services’ and ‘Natural Capital’ are two ecosystems. By engaging more actively in the natural
related frameworks that are being used to characterise capital and ecosystem services agendas, the solar
and quantify the benefits that the environment provides industry would boost its environmental credentials,
for us. Natural Capital is the stocks of environmental enabling it to continue to produce urgently needed
assets (e.g. water, air, soil, and living material), from which low-carbon electricity while also improving the state
ecosystem goods (e.g. crops and drinking water) and of the natural environment upon which society relies.
ecosystem services (e.g. climate regulation and
The SPIES tool is a collaboration between Lancaster
pollination) that society rely on are derived.
University and the University of York funded by the
Solar parks offer an excellent and relatively untapped Natural Environment Research Council (NE/N016955/1
opportunity to enhance natural capital and ecosystem & NE/R009449/1). The web-based version of the SPIES
services as they occupy a notable amount of land for tool was developed by Simomics Ltd. 2
1 For more information, see: www.lancaster.ac.uk/SPIES and

www.energyenvironment.co.uk.

3 Environment, health & safety / continued
dry-cleaning approaches however require to be through proper hazard identification, careful planning
planned before installation of the solar plant in order of works, briefing of procedures to be followed, and
to allow for reasonable cost. regular and well-documented inspection and
maintenance (see also 6.10. Power plant security).
During O&M all aspects determined in the ESMP
concerning the use of water are to be monitored. In The dangers of electricity are well known and can be
case no ESMP has been developed prior to the effectively managed through properly controlled
installation of the solar plant, then the question of access and supervision by the O&M Contractor. Any
water use and potential conflict over water is to be person accessing a PV plant should expect some form
analysed by a suitable expert and the measures of introduction to ensure they are briefed on any
determined through this analysis are to be hazards and risks. Staff working on electrical
implemented. equipment must be appropriately trained, experienced
and supervised, but it is also key that others working
Other aspects that need to be taken into account, as
around the equipment - for example panel cleaners -
best practice, are recycling of broken panels and
are equally aware of the potential risks and have safe
electric waste so that glass, aluminium and
methods of working around HV and LV electricity.
semiconductor materials can be recovered and
reused and hazardous materials disposed of in a safe Hazardous areas and equipment should carry
manner complying with legal requirements. In areas appropriate markings to warn personnel of possible
with water scarcity, water use for module cleaning hazards and wiring sequence. Such markings should
should be minimised. be clear and evident to all personnel and third parties
(and intruders) entering the plant premises.
In many situations, solar plants offer an opportunity,
where managed sympathetically, to provide As well as the inherent dangers of a typical solar plant,
opportunities for agriculture and a valuable natural every site will have its own set of individual hazards
habitat for plants and animals alongside the primary which must be considered when working on the plant.
purpose of generation of electricity. A well thought out An up-to-date plan of hazards is important for the
environmental management plan can help promote O&M Contractor to use to manage his own staff and
the development of natural habitat, as well as reduce to provide third party contractors with adequate
the overall maintenance costs of managing the information. It is usually the case that the O&M
grounds of the plant. It can also ensure the satisfaction Contractor holds the authority and responsibility to
of any legal requirements to protect or maintain the review and, where necessary, reject works taking place
habitat of the site. In any case, environmental in the plant. Failure to carry this out properly has
requirements from building permits should be important consequences to general safety.
complied with. Maintenance services should comply
Besides workers on the solar plant, it is not unusual for
with things such as the proper application of
other parties to require access to it. This may be the
herbicides, pesticides, and poisons used to control
Asset Owner, or their representative, the landlord of
rodents. The use of solvents and heat-transfer fluids
the land, or in some situations members of the public.
also need to be controlled. Cleaning agents (soap)
It is important that the plant access control and
should be specified to be environmentally friendly (no
security system keeps people away from areas of
chlorine bleach) and applied sparingly to avoid over-
danger and that they are appropriately supervised and
spray and run-off.
inducted as necessary.
The Asset Owner is ultimately responsible for the
3.2. Health and safety
compliance of H&S regulations within the site/plant.
Managing the risks posed by the solar plant to the The Asset Owner must make sure that, at all times, the
health and safety of people, both in and around the installation and all equipment meet the relevant
plant, is a primary concern of all stakeholders. Solar legislations of the country and also, that all
plants are electricity generating power stations and contractors, workers and visitors respect the H&S
pose significant hazards present which can result in Legislation by strictly following the established
permanent injury or death. Risks can be mitigated

procedures, including the use of established personal 2. Slips, trips and falls. The terrain, obstacles and
protective equipment (PPE). equipment installed on a solar farm provide plenty
of opportunities for slips, trips and falls both at
At the same time, the O&M Contractor should prepare
ground level and whilst on structures or ladders;
and operate its own safety management systems to
and for carport systems, fall-protection and
be agreed with the Asset Owner taking into account
additional equipment is required when working at
site rules and the Works in relation to health and safety
heights. For large roof-top systems, additional fall
and perceived hazards. The O&M Contractor should
protection equipment or systems such as cat
ensure that it complies, and that all subcontractors
ladders, lifelines or walkways are recommended.
comply with the H&S legislation.
3. Collisions. Collisions can occur between personnel,
The Asset Owner will have to require from the O&M
machinery/vehicles and structures. The large areas
Contractor to represent, warrant and undertake to the
covered by solar farms often necessitate the use of
Owner that it has the competence and that it will
vehicles and machinery, which when combined
allocate adequate resources to perform the duties of
with the generally quiet nature of an operational
the principal contractor pursuant to specific national
solar farm can lead to a lack of attention. General
regulations for health and safety.
risks such as difficult terrain, reversing without a
Before starting any activity on-site the Asset Owner banksman and walking into the structure
will deliver risk assessment and method statements supporting the solar panels require special attention.
to the O&M Contractor who will provide a complete All permanent workers should be insured.
list of personnel Training Certifications and appoint a
4. Strains and sprains. Lifting heavy equipment, often
H&S coordinator. During the whole duration of the
in awkward spaces or from uneven ground,
contract the O&M Contractor will keep the H&S file of
presents increased risk of simple strains or longer
each site updated.
term skeletal injuries.
The O&M Contractor must have their personnel trained
5. Electrocution. Operational solar farms, whether
in full accordance with respective national legal and
energised or not, present a significant risk of
professional requirements that generally result in
electrocution to personnel. This risk is exacerbated
specific certification to be obtained, for example in
by the nature and voltage of the electricity on site
order to be allowed to work in MV and/or HV electrical
and the impossibility of total isolation. Staff
plants. Examples of standards used today are ISO
engaged in electrical work obviously suffer the
14001, OHSAS 18001, etc). Site certification should be
greatest risk but everybody on site is at risk from
dated and renewed every 1 or 2 years.
step potential and other forms of electrocution in
In order to achieve a safe working environment, all the event of a fault. Specific training needs to be
work must be planned in advance. Normally written given to all those entering a solar farm as to how
plans are required. to safely deal with the effects of electrocution. In
addition to general electrical safety, common
Risk assessments need to be produced, which detail
issues for PV plants include: arc-flash protection
all of the hazards present and the steps to be taken to
when working on energized circuits; and lock-out-
mitigate them.
tag-out to ensure circuits are not unintentionally
The following dangers are likely to exist on most solar energised.
plants and must be considered when listing hazards
6. Fire. Several sources of combustion exist on a solar
in order to identify risks. The severity of any injuries
farm, the most common being electrical fire..
caused is commonly exacerbated by the terrain and
Others include combustible materials, flammable
remoteness common on solar plants.
liquids, and grass fires. Safe exit routes need to be
1. Medical problems. It is critical that all personnel identified and procedures fully communicated. All
engaged in work on solar farms have considered personnel need to be fully aware of what to do to
and communicated any pre-existing medical both avoid the risk of fire and what to do in the
conditions and any additional measures that may event of a fire.
be required to deal with them.

3 Environment, health & safety / continued
7. Mud and water. Many solar farms have water to place and personnel need to be aware of what
travelling through them such as streams and rivers, to do in the event of bites or stings. Snakes, spiders,
some have standing water, and some are floating ticks, bees and bugs are common and pose a
arrays. Mud is a very common risk particularly in number of hazards where snake bites can be
winter as low-grade farmland is often used for lethal, spider bites can cause pain and
solar farms. Mud and water present problems for inflammation, tics bites can result in tick bite fever,
access as well as electrical danger. bees can cause allergic reactions and bugs can fly
into people’s eyes. It is therefore important that all
8. Mechanical injury. Hand-tools, power tools,
precautions are taken to prevent or manage these
machinery as well as such mechanisms as
incidents. Storage and application of pesticides,
unsecured doors can present a risk of mechanical
herbicides, and rodent poisons also introduce
injury on site.
health and safety hazards. For example,
9. Weather. The weather presents a variety of Glyphosate was very common in controlling
hazards, the most significant of which is the risk of vegetation at PV plants and has been found to be
lightning strike during an electrical storm carcinogenic. Mowing has several hazards
(relatively high frequency of lightning events in including flying objects. Every job at a PV site
Africa). Due to the metal structures installed on a should have safety precautions identified and
solar farm an electrical storm is more likely to implemented.
strike the solar array than surrounding countryside.
Everyone entering a solar farm, for whatever reason,
A solar farm MUST be vacated for the duration of
should be trained on the dangers present on solar
any electrical storm. Working in cold and rainy
farms and on the individual task that they will be
weather can cause fatigue and injury just as
performing. They should have the PPE and tools
working in hot sunny weather presents the risk of
necessary to carry out the work in the safest way
dehydration, sunburn, and sun stroke. Working
possible. The work should be planned in advance and
during sunny days to perform maintenance and/or
everyone concerned should have a common
testing can lead to sunstroke. To avoid this,
understanding of all aspects related to the safe
drinking sufficient water and staying in the shade
execution of their task. Different countries will
is recommended.
mandate written and hard copy paperwork to meet
10. Wildlife and livestock. The renewable energy legislation, but best practice is to exceed the
industry is proud to provide habitats for wildlife minimum requirements and to embrace the spirit of
and livestock alongside the generation of all relevant legislation.
electricity. Some wildlife however presents
Best practice in H&S sees the ongoing delivery of
dangers. There are plants in different regions which
training and sharing of lessons learned and work
can present significant risk, some only when cut
methods. By increasing the skills of persons involved
during vegetation management. Animals such as
in the industry, we can make the industry both safer
rodents, snakes, insects such as wasps and other
and more productive.
wildlife as well as livestock can present significant
risks. The nature of these risks will vary from place

4
Personnel & training
© REAZ
It is of critical importance that all O&M personnel have As the solar industry globally is a growth industry, it
the relevant qualifications to perform the works in a follows that skills will need to be taught in order to
safe, responsible and accountable manner. This can be create a suitable workforce. It is therefore incumbent
a challenge in emerging markets and in certain rural on all employers in the industry to create a training
areas in Sub-Saharan Africa, as the necessary scheme both internally and externally which creates
technical skills to execute quality O&M services are opportunities for qualifications and development.
not always available. In order to address the lack of Worldwide, there is a huge gender disparity in the
skills, standard trainings can be relied upon. Such industry. As best practise, O&M companies should
trainings are already provided in a number of African make an effort to improve diversity and inclusion,
countries by public training institutes and ensuring there are training, work, and professional
international organisations. development opportunities for all genders. Whilst it is
inevitable that some staff will choose to leave, it is
not advisable to be rigid in the necessary
unrealistic to imagine that any company can always
requirements. The necessary knowledge and
employ already skilled and qualified staff.
experience can be gained through career
development and through different engagements. The creation of a training matrix such as shown on the
proposed skills matrix in Annex b enables a company
The solar industry benefits from a wide range of skills
to record skills, both formal and informal, to identify
and experience. Team members with a range of
gaps and to provide training to fill the gaps.
electrical, mechanical, financial, business and
communications skills are required to handle different As the industry grows, there is a rapid rate of
tasks and all of them strengthen the positive impact technological change as well as emergent best
of the service provision. practices, which require a programme of continuous
personal development to which both individuals and
Everyone who enters a solar plant needs to be trained
companies need to be committed.
in the dangers present in addition to their individual
skills and experience required for the tasks that they The matrix goes beyond any educational background
normally perform. Awareness of the necessary health and focuses on the skills required by the O&M
and safety regulations is a must. company in a specific country. Therefore, many of the
skills/requirements are adjustable due to different
practices and regulations.

5
Technical Asset
Management
© shutterstock
Technical Asset Management (TAM) encompasses Generating a report for any specific time range in the
support activities to ensure the best operation of a past can also be possible. Detailed time-series data
solar power plant or a portfolio, i.e. to maximise energy should also be reported or at least archived in the
production, minimise downtime and reduce costs. It reporting system in order to improve the correct
comprises the activities presented in this chapter. availability calculations. The spatial resolution of reports
should be on the level of each inverter to better detect
As highlighted in the Introduction, in the African
under-performing sections of the plants managed.
context, and especially in the residential and C&I
segments, the installer usually assumes multiple roles Table 1 includes some proposed quantitative and
in addition to installation. This usually includes the qualitative indicators which should be in reports as a
activities called “Technical Asset Management”. minimum requirement, a best practice or a
recommendation. For more details on the individual
In cases where the Technical Asset Manager and the
indicators, see chapter 11. Key Performance Indicators.
O&M Contractor are separate entities, a close
coordination and information sharing between the A new trend in the industry is to extend the reporting
two entities is indispensable. This involves an integral beyond the pure PV plant indicators and to incorporate
knowledge about how much a project should be reporting on the actual activities. This means that both
producing for any given time, considering factors such the Asset Manager and the O&M Contractor can
as weather, seasons, or degradation of assets, etc, operate with an Asset Management Platform, ERP
ensuring long-term energy infrastructure reliability It CMMS (Computerised Maintenance Management
represents the entire value chain from investors to Systems) in order to measure various O&M KPIs (e.g.
asset managers and service providers. Acknowledgement Time, Intervention Time, Reaction
Time, Resolution Time) and equipment performance
(e.g. Mean Time Between Failures). The Technical
5.1. Technical reporting
Asset Manager should also report on Spare Parts
The Technical Asset Manager is responsible for Management and in particular on spare parts stock
preparing and providing regular reporting to the Asset levels, spare parts consumption, in particular PV
Owner and other stakeholders defined in the modules on hand, spare parts under repair. With the
agreement between the Asset Owner and the emergence of Predictive Maintenance, the Technical
Technical Asset Manager. Asset Manager can also report on the state of each
individual equipment. Furthermore, the periodic
The frequency of the reporting can be set daily, weekly,
reporting can include information on the status of the
monthly, quarterly or annually (with monthly being the
security and surveillance system. In this case, the
most common and considered a best practice), with
security service provider is responsible for providing
specifically defined content for each of these reports.
the relevant input to the Technical Asset Manager.

TABLE 1 PROPOSED INDICATORS/VALUES REQUIRED FOR THE REPORTING
TYPE OF DATA PROPOSED INDICATOR TYPE OF REQUIREMENT
Raw data measurements Irradiation Minimum Requirement

Active Energy Produced Minimum Requirement
Active Energy Consumed Best Practice
PV Power Plant KPIs Reference Yield Recommendation
Specific Yield Recommendation
Performance Ratio Minimum Requirement
Temperature-corrected Performance Ratio Best Practice
Energy Performance Index Best Practice
Uptime Best Practice
Availability Minimum Requirement
Energy-based Availability Recommendation
O&M Contractor KPIs Acknowledgement time Minimum Requirement
Intervention time Minimum Requirement
Response time Minimum Requirement
Resolution time Minimum Requirement
Equipment KPIs Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) Recommendation
Inverter Specific Energy Losses Recommendation
Inverter Specific Efficiency Recommendation
Module Soiling Losses Recommendation
Environmental KPIs Environmental and Biodiversity KPIs may vary Best Practice
depending on the geography, the micro-climate and
the conditions of each site
Incident Reporting Main incidents and impact on production Minimum Requirement
Warranty issues Best Practice
HSE issues Best Practice
Spare parts stock levels and status Best Practice
Physical and Cyber Security Issues Minimum Requirement
Preventive Maintenance tasks performed Best Practice
On top of the periodical standard reports (monthly, report should be sent as soon as the fault is
quarterly or yearly) where operations activities are acknowledged or solved and should contain all the
reported by the Technical Asset Manager to the Asset relevant details related to the fault together with
Owner, it is a best practice for the Technical Asset recommendations for Extraordinary Maintenance
Manager to provide an intermediate operation report when the necessary operations are not included in the
when a fault is generating a major loss. A loss due to a maintenance contract.
fault is considered major when PR and availability are
• Typically, this maintenance report should contain:
affected by more than a certain threshold throughout
Relevant activity tracks (alarm timestamp,
the ongoing monitoring (or reporting) period. A best
acknowledge time, comments, intervention time,
practice is to set this threshold to 1% of Availability or
operations on site description, pictures etc).
1% PR within a reporting period of one month. The

5 Technical Asset Management / continued
• The estimated production losses at the moment may coincide with visits to be carried out by the
of writing the report Lender’s Technical Advisor.
• The estimated production losses for the total
duration of the period, counting on the estimated 5.3. Management of ancillary service providers
resolution time if the issue is not solved yet
Technical Asset Managers or the O&M Contractor is
• The device model, type and Serial Number when responsible for managing providers of ancillary
the fault is affecting a device (additional) services related to PV site maintenance
such as panel cleaning and vegetation management;
• The peak power of the strings connected to the
general site maintenance such as road management,
device(s)
site security; or on-site measurement such as meter
• The alarm and status log as provided by the device readings and thermal inspections. For more
information see section 7.5. Additional services.
• The resolution planning and suggestions. Eventual
replacement needed This requires managing a process which spans from
tendering for those services all the way to assessing
• Spare parts available
the deliverables and reassuring in coordination with
• Estimated cost for the extra-ordinary the O&M compliance with environmental, health and
maintenance safety policies.
When dealing with owners who are not professional
solar stakeholders, additional thought must be given 5.4. Interface with local energy authorities &
to the information provided to them at all stages of regulatory compliance
project lifecycle.
The Technical Asset Manager is responsible for
• Installers (O&M providers) should be clear about ensuring that the operation of the PV plant is in
the need for ongoing maintenance and make sure compliance with the regulations. Several levels of
this is reflected in any financial analysis provided regulation have to be considered:
to customers. Best practice would involve either
• •Many countries have a governing law for the
• the retailer providing maintenance service operation of energy generating assets or
themselves (or), renewable energy and PV plants in particular. This
is something the O&M Contractor should be aware
• ensuring a clear and continuous handover to
of in any case, even if the O&M Contractor and the
third party O&M.
Technical Asset Manager are separate entities.
• Installers (O&M providers) should provide a manual
• Power Purchase Agreements (PPA) and
to the owner with contact information and
Interconnection Agreements must also to be
description of operational indicators and
known and respected by the Technical Asset
procedures they can do, including clear
Manager.
documentation that states the customer as
responsible for maintaining original • Power generation license agreements need to be
insolation/shade. made available by the Asset Owner to the
Technical Asset Manager so that the Technical
Asset Manager can ensure compliance with the
5.2. Site visits and non-intrusive inspections
regulations of these licenses.
It is recommended as a best practise that Technical
• Further to the regulatory compliance Technical
Asset Managers undertake a bi-annual site visit in
Asset Manager will be responsible to ensure
coordination with the O&M provider to perform a non-
corporate compliance especially on the new post-
intrusive visual inspection, address current
subsidy environment which is dictated by
maintenance issues and plan out in cooperation with
corporate PPAs and stricter contractual obligations
the O&M contractor and the ancillary service providers
by the owner.
(if different) a maintenance improvement plan. These

• Specific regulation for the site such as building 5.5. Warranty management
permits, environmental permits, management
The Technical Asset Manager can act as the Asset
plans and regulations can involve certain
Owner’s representative for any warranty claims vis-à-
requirements and the need to cooperate with the
vis the suppliers of PV plant components. The
local administration. Examples include restrictions
agreement between the Asset Owner and the
to the vegetation management and the disposal of
Technical Asset Manager should specify warranty
green waste imposed by the environmental
management responsibilities of the Technical Asset
administration body, or building permits restricting
Manager and the Asset Owner and set thresholds
working time on site or storage of utilities.
under which the Technical Asset Manager can act
• It is the O&M Contractor’s responsibility to ensure directly or seek the Asset Owner’s consent. The
grid code compliance and power generation Technical Asset Manager or the Operations team will
forecasting. See 6.6. Power Generation then inform the Maintenance team to perform
Forecasting and 6.7. Grid code compliance. It is the warranty related works on site. Usually, the warranty
responsibility of the Asset Manager to engage the management scope is limited by Serial Failures (see
DNO on discussions which will minimise outages definition below in this section). Execution of warranty
and identify measures to safe-guard export is often separately billable.
capabilities.
Warranty management can be challenging in
• The Technical Asset Manager plays an important emerging markets including some African markets
role in supporting the cooperation between the due to the limited local representation of component
aggregator and the grid operator by informing the suppliers and logistical difficulties linked to importing
aggregator about plant production data, replacement components. These aspects are
unavailable times, transferring network addressed in chapter 9 on Spare Parts Management.
unavailability information from the grid operator,
For any warranty claims the formal procedure
assuming discussions with the grid operator about
provided by the warranty provider should be followed.
the attachment to the balancing portfolio of the
All communications and reports should be archived
respective aggregator, and executing plant
for compliance and traceability reasons.
shutdown requests (in case of negative prices
identified in the day-ahead market). Objectives of Warranty Management:
• Other issues requiring formal compliance include • Improve the efficiency in complaining processes
reporting of safety plans and incidents,
• Help to reduce the warranty period costs
historic/cultural resource protection, noise
ordinances that may limit work at night, and any • Receive and collect all the warranty complaints
other regulations imposed by an authority having
• Support the complaint process
jurisdiction.
• Negotiate with manufacturers more efficient
As a minimum requirement the agreement between
complaint procedures
the Technical Asset Manager and the Asset Owner
should list all the relevant permits and regulations and • Study the behaviour of the installed equipment
specify that the Asset Owner makes relevant
• Analyse the costs incurred during the warranty
documents available to the Technical Asset Manager.
period
As a best practice, all regulations, permits and
Types of warranties on a PV Plant:
stipulations should be managed within the electronic
document management system. This allows the • Warranty of Good Execution of Works
Technical Asset Manager to track reporting and
• Warranty of Equipment (Product Warranty)
maintenance requirements automatically and report
back to the Asset Owner or the administration bodies. • Performance Warranty

Warranty of good execution of works and equipment Resolution of failures in the case of anomalies of the
warranties type “Failures”
During the warranty period, anomalies can occur in the The Technical Asset Manager should present the claim
facility, which the EPC provider is liable for. The to the equipment supplier within 14 days and follow
anomalies must be resolved according to their nature the claims process.
and classification, in accordance to what is described
in the following sections.
Serial defects (endemic failures)
The anomalies or malfunctions that might occur
Serial defects (endemic failures) are product failures
within the facility warranty period might be classified
at or above the expected failure rates resulting from
in the following way:
defects in material, workmanship, manufacturing
• Pending Works, in accordance to the List of process and/or design deficiencies attributable to the
Pending Works (or Punch List) agreed with the manufacturer. Serial defects (endemic failures) are
client during EPC phase. limited to product failures attributable to the same
root cause.
• Insufficiencies, these being understood as any
pathology in the facility resulting from supplies or
construction, that although done according to the Performance warranty
project execution approved by the client, has proven
EPC Contractors usually provide a 2-year performance
to be inadequate, unsatisfactory or insufficient.
warranty period after the Commercial Operation Date
• Defects, these being understood as any pathology (COD). During the warranty period, it is the responsibility
resulting from supplies or construction executed in of the Technical Asset Manager to monitor, calculate,
a different way from the one foreseen and specified report and follow-up the values of Performance Ratio
in the project execution approved by the client. and other KPIs guaranteed by the EPC Contractor.
• Failure or malfunction of equipment, being Within this scope, it is the responsibility of the
understood as any malfunction or pathology found Technical Asset Manager to:
in the equipment of the photovoltaic facility –
• Manage the interventions done within the scope of
Modules, Inverters, Power transformers or other
the warranty in order to safeguard the performance
equipment.
commitments undertaken under the contract.
• Periodically inform the Asset Owner about the
Anomalies handling
condition of the contracted performance indicators.
During the Warranty Period, all the Anomaly
Immediately alert the Asset Owner whenever the
processing should, as a best practice, be centralised
levels of the indicators have values or tendencies that
by the Technical Asset Manager/O&M Contractor, who
could indicate a risk of failure.
is responsible for the first acknowledgment of the
problem and its framework according to its type and
is the main point of contact between the internal Warranty enforcement
organisational structure and the client in accordance
A warranty may be voided by mishandling or not
to the criteria defined below.
observing instructions or conditions of the warranty.
For example, storing modules improperly onsite, such
Pending works, insufficiencies and defects that the packaging is destroyed by rain, may void a
warranty. In another case, partial shading of a thin-film
In the case of anomalies of the type “Pending Works”,
module voids the warranty. Failure to provide
“Insufficiencies” or “Defects”, the Technical Asset
adequate ventilation may void an inverter warranty.
Manager must communicate the occurrence to the
The manufacturer’s warranty might cover
EPC provider, who shall be responsible to assess the
replacement but not labour to remove, ship, and re-
framework of the complaint in the scope of the EPC
contract, determining the action to be taken.

install an underperforming module. A warranty often Types of insurance related to PV plant operations and
gives the manufacturer the option to “repair, replace, maintenance include:
or supplement,” with “supplement” meaning to
• Property insurance, hazard insurance: coverage
provide modules to make up the difference in lost
commensurate with the value of equipment and
power. For example, if a system has 10,000 modules
other improvements to a property; may also cover
that are underperforming by 5%, the guarantor could
against other risks if included or unless excluded.
satisfy the performance warranty by providing 500
additional modules to make up for the lost power, • Commercial general liability insurance: in a form
rather than replacing the 10,000 modules. However, covering all actions by owner or contractors,
increasing the plant size by 500 modules to restore written on an occurrence basis, including coverage
guaranteed power might not be possible due to lack for products and completed operations,
of rack space or electrical infrastructure. Also, independent contractors, premises and
expanding the system “nameplate” capacity would operations, personal injury, broad form property
generally trigger a new interconnect agreement and damage, and blanket contractual liability. Liability
permitting. Manufacturers also often have the option of a fire started by the PV system has increased
of paying a cash-value equivalent to the lost capacity required liability coverage levels for PV systems. A
of under-performing modules, but as the price of liability policy should cover negligence claims,
modules declines, this might be less than originally settlements, and legal costs too.
paid for the modules. Given the complications
• Inland insurance or marine insurance: insures
described above, this option is often preferred by
against loss of equipment in shipping or not on the
system owners unless there is a required level of
property premises. Inland insurance is often
performance that must be maintained.
covered under property insurance policy.
• Workmen's compensation: covers costs for
5.6. Insurance claims
employee accidents.
The agreement between the Technical Asset Manager
• Professional liability insurance: insures against
and the Asset Owner should specify insurance
errors and omissions often required by board of
management responsibilities of the Asset Owner and
directors
the Technical Asset Manager. The Technical Asset
Manager will at least be responsible for the • Commercial vehicle insurance: insurance for
coordination of site visits by an insurance provider’s owned and rented vehicles or personal vehicles
representative or technical or financial advisors in used on company business
connection with the information collection and
• Warranty insurance: equipment warranty issued by
damage qualification, as well as for the drafting of
manufacturer but backed up by an insurance
technical notes to support the reimbursement
company in the event that the manufacturing
procedure. The coordination of the insurance claim
company goes out of business. Many insurance
and the liaison with the insurers, brokers and loss
companies do not offer warranty insurance but
adjusters, as well as finding the best insurance
rather cover such risk under property insurance.
providers is usually with the Commercial/Financial
Asset Manager (for more information on this, see • Business interruption insurance covers lost
section 6.13. Suppliers account management of the revenue due to downtime caused by covered
Asset Management Best Practice Guidelines). event—this can be important in PPAs where
revenue is essential for debt service and O&M
For any insurance claims the formal procedure
expenditures.
presented by the insurance provider should be
followed. All communications and reports should be • Energy production insurance covers cases when
archived for compliance and traceability reasons. energy production is less than previously specified,
Timelines for submission of claims and associated which can improve access to debt financing and
information should be adhered to in order to avoid reduce debt interest rate. (This is not widely
losses due to non-compliance. available in Sub-Saharan Africa.)

The procedure for making claims described in the on factors such as geographic location, project size,
insurance policy should be followed to the letter, construction and off-taker arrangements.
keeping copies of all submittals and correspondence
As a minimum requirement, the initial step in this
with the insurance company. The insurance company
process is a comprehensive analysis of the contracts
(claims adjuster) will need to have access to the site
followed by a well-defined Division of Responsibility
provided to them in order to assess damage and to
(DOR) matrix that clearly delineates which entity is
collect the information needed to process the claim.
responsible for which action on both the short and
With all of the above said, insurance solutions seem to long term. Upon mutual agreement between the
provide an additional risk mitigation measure, and the parties, the DOR can serve as the driving and tracking
variety of insurance solutions on the market triggers tool for term of life contractual oversight.
the challenge to understand the details of the terms
As a form of best practice, the Contract Manager’s
and conditions subject to which insurance solutions
responsibilities often also extend to functioning as the
are offered, and the resulting actual cover that the
initial contact for all external questions. This allows the
insurance policy provides. Many insurance solutions
Asset Owner optimal access to all areas of the service
turn out to have significant exclusion clauses.
provider’s organisation, and adherence to the
contractual responsibilities. The Contract Manager
5.7. Contract management (operational contracts) also assumes the responsibility for invoicing of the
O&M fees to the Asset Owner.
Contract management encompasses both technical
and commercial/financial aspects. This document For quality purposes, the Technical Asset Manager
looks at contract management from a TAM point of should also track their own compliance with the
view. For details on the perspective of the respective contract, either O&M contract or Asset
Commercial/Financial Asset Manager, see section Management contract, and report to the Asset Owner
6.12. Contract management (financial contracts) of in full transparency.
the Asset Management Best Practice Guidelines.
The Technical Asset Manager is in charge of ensuring 5.8. Asset optimisation (technical)
compliance with the operational contracts in place,
Technical Asset Managers also start being responsible
such as contracts related to O&M services, land lease,
for providing data and information analysis on assets
insurance, site security, communications and in some
they manage as well as to provide asset optimisation
cases ancillary (additional) services such as panel
solutions. Primarily based on the following key areas:
cleaning and vegetation control or component
procurement. (For more information on procurement, • Plant performance
please refer to the Asset Management Best Practice
• Operation cost reduction
Guideline’s chapter 7. Procurement.)
• Technology adaptation and upgrades (e.g.
Indeed, the oversight of and coordination with the
Revamping and repowering)
O&M Contractor is one of the key responsibilities of
the Technical Asset Manager. Thus, the Technical • Technical People management and training
Asset Manager is responsible for performance
It is the role of the Technical Asset Manager to initiate
supervision, too: proper oversight of O&M, detecting
and coordinate discussions with both the Owners and
when systems are underproducing and quickly and
the O&M Contractors to future-proof the assets and
accurately diagnosing an under-performing plant.
come up with a financial proposal based on data
The Technical Asset Manager oversees various analysis which can assist the owners in making
contractual parameters, responsibilities and informed decisions.
obligations of the Asset Owner and the contractual
Note that asset optimisation has commercial and
partners linked to the respective solar power plant.
financial aspects too, such as contract optimisation,
Contract management responsibilities depend largely
presented in the Asset Management Best Practice
Guidelines.

5.9. Environmental management Technical Asset Manager should hire an H&S expert to
ensure compliance. For more information, see chapter
Depending on local and international environmental
3. Environment, Health & Safety.
regulations, as well as on the Asset Owner’s CSR and
Environmental internal policies, the Asset Owner may
have incentives to reduce or control negative 5.11. Lifetime conformity assessment
environmental impacts.
Conformity assessment is generally a widely used
An increasing body of scientific evidence indicates that process used to show that a product, service, process,
well-designed and well-managed solar energy can body, person or system meets specified requirements.
support wildlife habitats and contribute significantly to The specified, be it international standards, local codes,
national biodiversity targets. In fact, solar parks can have best practice guidelines, or other relevant references. A
several additional advantages over other agricultural conformity assessment report or certificate is issued by
landscapes, in that they are secure sites with minimal a competent, independent third-party body. That report
human and technical disturbance from construction, or certificate will state that the referenced requirements
require little or no use of chemical pesticides, herbicides are usually expressed as a form of „standard” that is
or fertilizers, and typically incorporate ecological typically prepared and adopted by an overarching
features such as drainage ponds and hedgerows, which member body based system. While a regular certification
can be designed to maximize the value of their habitat. is based on a pass-fail logic, a rating differentiates
different levels of quality and performance to facilitate
The approach to managing biodiversity will be
the risk assessment for investors and banks. There are
different for every solar park, and it is recommended
various conformity assessment systems, such as the
that a site-specific plan be devised in each case.
IECRE system, which may be used by Technical Asset
Therefore, the Asset Manager is obliged to assess the Managers. A relevance of the rating system is expected
impact or limitations of environmental legislation on to become relevant also for the African continent and to
the supplier’s existing contracts. Furthermore, the other emerging markets.
Asset Manager is required to develop an action plan to
address existing problems and minimise their impact.
5.12. Force majeure (pandemic) management
As an example, the Asset Manager must oversee the
With the rise of COVID-19 pandemic, Owners and O&M
O&M provider’s operational field work to ensure
providers have been impacted in ways previously not
compliance with local environmental regulation (use
seen. Reduced demand for energy as a result of
of chemicals to control vegetation, use of diesel
lockdowns and reduced productivity has resulted in
cutting machines, etc.); the security contract must be
project curtailments which have been difficult to
adapted, if possible, according to the wild life existing
mitigate. Agreements between off-takers and generators
around the photovoltaic plant and the appropriate
have been common to allow some exports to continue.
security equipment, such as loudspeakers, spotlights
and fences, must also be adapted. The human cost has directly affected plants with
reductions in available staff for O&M leading to
Long-term environmental requirements can also
delayed or deferred activities by smaller teams. For
include water tank installation, tree clearing, installation
projects without spare parts on site, access to parts
of drainage systems, amphibian follow-up, edge
has proven challenging and the logistics of acquiring
plantation, and installation of reptile rock shelters. As a
parts has been affected by global shipping delays. It is
best practice, the Technical Asset Manager’s (or the
unclear if there are long-term lessons to be learned
O&M Contractor’s) environmental preservation
from all these items, but the process for O&M is under
activities should go beyond legal obligations.
closer scrutiny than it has been for years.
The Technical Asset Manager’s role in such
5.10. Health & safety management
circumstances is to negotiate the best possible terms
The Technical Asset Manager should oversee that the with off-takers and authorities, and implement
solar asset and the relevant suppliers comply with internal measures in order to maintain business
health & safety (H&S) requirements. If necessary, the operations and revenues.

6
Power Plant
Operation
© AMMP Technologies/Daystar Power
Power Plant Operation is about remote monitoring, • Information type and depth of detail/as-built
supervision and control of the PV power plant. It also documentation
involves subcontracting and coordination of
• Management and control
maintenance activities. Power Plant Operation used
to be a more passive exercise in the past, but with Moreover, for quality/risk management and effective
increasing grid integration efforts, more active and operations management a good and clear
flexible operation will be required by grid operators. documentation of contract information, plant
Examples include ordered shutdowns, power information, maintenance activities and asset
curtailment, frequent adjustment of settings such as management are needed over the lifetime of the plant.
power factor (source reactive power), frequency This is what is called here:
tolerances, and voltage tolerances. This section gives
• Record control (or records management)
an overview of the Operation tasks and requirements.
As explained in the Introduction, in the African context, Nowadays, there are different DMSs available and
especially in the C&I and residential segments, all described by a series of standards (ISO) that can be
aspects of O&M are assumed by the installer – implemented. This is an important requirement that
including Power Plant Operation. would allow any relevant party to trace any changes
during the lifetime of the plant’s operation and follow
The figure on pages 42 and 43 provides an overview of
up accordingly (e.g. when the O&M Contractor
the most important tasks associated with power plant
changes, or the teams change, or the plant is sold etc).
operation.
For single small and medium C&I and residential solar
6.1. Documentation Management System (DMS) parks (hundreds of kWp) it is possible to consider
simplified solutions, such as basic cloud storage
Solar PV plant documentation is crucial for an in-depth
services. In any case, the creation and following
understanding of the design, configuration and
updating of the documentation is mandatory for a
technical details thereof. It is the Asset Owner’s
proper operational management of the solar parks.
responsibility to provide those documents and if not
O&M providers for small to medium C&I and
available, they should, as best practice, be recreated at
residential solar parks with larger portfolios shall
the Asset Owner’s cost.
optimize their organization including the use of more
Before assuming any maintenance and/or operational advanced solutions similar to larger installations.
activities, it is important to understand in-depth the
technical characteristics of the asset. There are two
Information type and depth of detail/as-built
important aspects related to the management of this
documentation
information:
The documentation set accompanying the solar PV
plant should, as a best practice, contain the

documents described in Annex c. The IEC 62446 Operations team is that the maintenance tasks are
standard can also be considered to cover the documented back to and linked with the alarms
minimum requirements for as-built documentation. which might have triggered the respective
maintenance activity (work order management
In general, for optimum service provision and as a best
system log). Photographs from on-site should
practice, the O&M Contractor should have access to
complement the documentation (when applicable) –
all possible documents (from the EPC phase). The Site
photo documentation. Tickets (ticket interventions)
Operating Plan is the comprehensive document
should be stored electronically and made available to
prepared and provided by the plant EPC, which lays out
all partners. The Asset Owner should also maintain
a complete overview of the plant location, layout,
ownership of those records for future references.
electrical diagrams, components in use and reference
to their operating manuals, EH&S rules for the site and To learn from the past and ongoing operations and
certain further topics. All detailed drawings from the maintenance and to then be able to improve
EPC need to be handed over to the O&M Contractor performance via for example Predictive Maintenance
and being stored safely for immediate access in case in the following years, it is crucial that all data is stored
of PV plant issues or questions and clarifications with and that all workflows and alarms are stored to create
regards to permits and regulation. automatic logbooks of operation and maintenance
and alarms. Such data collection together with those
acquired by the monitoring tool can be used for
Management and control
further analysis and future recommendations to the
Regarding the document control, the following client. Such analysis and the respective outcomes
guidelines should be followed: should also be recorded.
• Documents should be stored either electronically Last but not least, there should be a proper
or physically (depending on permits/regulations) documentation for the curtailment periods as well as
in a location with controlled access. An electronic the repairing periods when the plant is fully or partly
copy of all documents should be available for all unavailable. This will all be recorded by the monitoring
documents. system to be able to measure lost energy during
maintenance activities. For this, having the correct
• Only authorised people should be able to view or
reference values at hand is crucial. For important
modify the documentation. A logbook of all the
examples of input records that should be included in
modifications should be kept. As a best practice,
the record control, see Annex d.
such a logbook should contain minimally the
following information: As in the case of the as-built documentation, all
records, data and configuration of the monitoring tool
• Name of person, who modified the document
and any sort of documentation and log that might be
• Date of modification useful for a proper service provision must be backed
up and available when required. This is also important
• Reason of modification and further
when the O&M Contractor changes.
information, e.g. link to the work orders and
service activities
6.2. Plant performance monitoring and supervision
• Versioning control should be implemented as a
best practice. Involved people should be able to The Operations team is responsible for continuous
review past versions and be able to follow through monitoring and supervision of the PV power plant
the whole history of the document. conditions and its performance. This service is done
remotely through the use of monitoring software
system and/or plant operations centres. The O&M
Record control
Contractor should have full access to all data collected
A key point is that necessary data and documentation from the site in order to perform data analysis and
are available for all parties in a shared environment provide direction to the Maintenance service
and that alarms and maintenance can be provider/team.
documented in a seamless way. Critical to the

6 Power Plant Operation / continued
FIGURE 4 OVERVIEW OF THE MOST IMPORTANT TASKS IN POWER PLANT OPERATION
DOCUMENTATION OPTIMISATION PER

MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DMS) OF O&M
The DMS is an important requirement which allow to To optimize O&M activities, reducing production losses The O&M c
trace changes during the lifetime of plant’s operation. and costs, the following information must be analyzed: monitoring
The important aspects to trace the PV plant management aggregatio
information are:
• Response Time correlated to classification of events
Information • Components and manuals and root causes Minimum
• Plant location overview • Analysis of costs incurred for various interventions requireme
• PV plant layout
• Electrical diagrams
• EH&S rules
POWER PLANT Recommen
Management control • Storage of documents CONTROLS
• Logbook of modification
• Access management
The Power Plant Controller is a control system that can
Record control • Alarms linked with manage several parameters, such as: GR
maintenance tasks
• O&M automatic logbook
• Unavailability documentation • Absolute Active Power Control
and recording • Power Factor Control
The O&M p
• Ramp Control
in accorda
• Frequency Control
The requir
• Reactive Power Control
• Voltage Control
PLANT PERFORMANCE
• Power qu
MONITORING AND SUPERVISION • Voltage re
• Managem
POWER GENERATION • Managem
The O&M contractor is responsible for monitoring and
supervision of PV plant performance. In the Fault
FORECASTING
Management there are different role and interaction levels: The specif
on the volt
The O&M contractor may provide forecasting
services, if required by the Asset Owner.
1st level support • Control Room
Forecast requirements are characterized by:
• Faults detecting
• Ticketing REPO
• Action coordinating
• Forecast horizon (typically below 48 hours) A
• Site Technician
• Time resolution (typically 15 minutes to one hour)
• Analysis and fault
• Update frequency:
resolution on site The Opera
• Day-ahead forecasts
• Intraday forecasts details see
2nd level support • PV engineers • Combined forecasts
• Account managers
• Project managers The most common KPIs for forecast quality are:
3rd level support • Vendors’s experts • Root Mean Square Error (RMSE)
• Project managers • Mean Absolute Error (MAE)
• Accounting managers

PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS MANAGEMENT
AND IMPROVEMENT OF CHANGE
ion losses The O&M contractor is responsible for the performance In the event that the design of a PV power plant needs
analyzed monitoring quality. The data, collected for different time to be adjusted, the O&M contractor should be involved
by the Local aggregation, should be analyzed at the following level: from the beginning in the following phases:
of events Minimum • Portfolio level • Concept

requirement (Central Control Room) • Design works
ntions • Plant level (Local Control Room) • Execution
• Inverter level (Local Control Room)
Implementation of the plant SCADA and monitoring system
Recommended • String level (Local Control Room) is required being able to trace all changes, including:
• Documentation of inverter replacement date

• Inverter manufacturer and type
• Inverter serial number
m that can
GRID CODE COMPLIANCE
In order to optimize the activities, the adjustments
needs to be applied to the following:
The O&M provider is responsible to operate the PV plant • Site Operating Plan
in accordance with the respective state grid code. • Annual Maintenance Plan
The requirements provided by the grid operator are usually: • Annual Maintenance Schedule
• Power quality
• Voltage regulation
• Management of active power POWER PLANT
• Management of reactive power SECURITY
The specificities and quality requirements depends
on the voltage level of the grid. It is necessary that, together with the O&M Contractor,
the Asset Owner put in place a Security protocol in case
rol Room, of intrusion on the PV plant. A specialized security service
rovide provider will be responsible for:
Owner. REPORTING AND TECHNICAL
• Intrusion systems
ASSET MANAGEMENT • Surveillance systems
• Processing alarms
• Site patrolling
hour) The Local Control Room team is responsible for providing
periodic reporting to the Central Control Room. For more
details see Chapter 5. Operation Planning. An intrusion system may be formed by:
• Simple fencing or barriers

• Alarm detection
• Alerting system
re:
• Remote closed-circuit television (CCTV) video monitoring
• Backup communication line (recommended)
Process for liaison with local emergency services,

e.g. police should be considered

Normally, in Fault Management (Incident situations, but thanks to their experience they can
Management) several roles and support levels fix most of the faults or at least create a
interact: workaround. They may also contact the Vendor’s
Hotline to help them with the diagnosis.
• With the help of monitoring and its alarms the
Operations Center (Control Room) detects a fault. • If 1st Level Support is not able to resolve the
It is responsible for opening a “ticket” and incident right away, it will escalate it to 2nd Level
coordinates the various actions of troubleshooting. Support. It consists of PV engineers or
It collects as much information and diagnostics as Project/Account Managers who have greater
possible in order to establish an initial technical skills, higher access permissions, and
documentation, tries to categorise the issue and enough time to analyze the fault in depth. They
even to resolve it on the spot. For example by may be internal or of the Vendor’s staff.
rebooting the communication systems from
• If the resolution of an incident requires special
distance. So, it becomes part of 1st Level Support.
expertise or access, 2nd Level engineers might need
Then it tracks the incidents until their resolution.
to contact experts (inhouse, Vendor’s or third
• If this doesn’t help or the fault cannot be party’s experts; = 3rd Level Support). In some
sufficiently categorised, the Operations Center organisations the Project/Account Managers can
may call a field technician who can be a local cover both the 2nd and 3rd Level Support, based on
electrician or member of the maintenance team. their seniority and experience.
They try to analyze and solve the fault on-site (1st
• When the fault is solved, the Operations Center
Level Support). Their knowledge and access rights
closes the ticket.
could be not sufficient for some specific
FIGURE 5 SUPPORT LEVELS IN FAULT MANAGEMENT
Operations center/ Field technician/ Vendor hotline

1st Level
Control Room maintenance team
PV engineer Vendor/
2nd Level
PV engineer
Expert 3rd party expert Vendor/

3rd Level
Expert

For small to medium C&I and residential solar parks 2. Plant level (minimum requirement)
simplified procedures could be applied to plant
3. Inverter level (minimum requirement)
performance monitoring and supervision activities.
The Fault management could be performed on daily 4. String level (as a recommendation)
basis introducing a classification of alarms by priority,
The analysis should furthermore show the required
e.g. with respect to rated power out of service.
data on the specific levels listed above and for
Depending on the level of development of the local different time aggregation periods from the actual
O&M market, it is also suggested to consider the recording interval up to monthly, quarterly (for
opportunity to provide during the execution phase a medium or large-scale) or semi-annual (for small-
first level maintenance training to local personnel scale installations) levels.
eventually involved in the project. During the operation
The analysis should also include the option for having
phase these local resources could be able (at least) to
custom alarms based on client specific thresholds
manage the first level troubleshooting and the small
such as for example business plan data or real-time
repairs with positive impact on reducing the time it
deviations between inverters on-site.
takes to intervene and restore solar parks production.
In particular, the agreed KPIs should be computed and
Such kind of approach could also support the
reported (see Chapter 11. Key Performance
development of the local O&M market increasing the
Indicators). Special attention should be paid to the
quality of the services provided. O&M providers for
fact that such KPI calculations should take into
small to medium C&I and residential solar parks with
consideration the contractual parameters between
larger portfolios shall optimise their organisation
O&M Contractor and Asset Owner , in order to provide
including cooperation with those local suppliers.
an accurate and useful calculation for evaluation and
Besides the data from the site, if a CCTV system is eventually liquidated damages or bonuses.
available on site, the O&M Contractor should, as a best
practice, be able to access it for visual supervision and
6.4. Optimisation of O&M
also have access to local weather information.
An essential part of Operations is the analysis of all the
The O&M Contractor is responsible for being the main
information generated throughout O&M, such as
interface between the plant owner, the grid operator
Response Time, and how this correlates to the various
and the regulator (if applicable) over the lifetime of the
classification of events and root causes. Another vital
O&M contract regarding production data. The
part of Operations is the analysis of costs incurred for
Operations team should be reachable by the Asset
various interventions, categorised into materials and
Owner via a hotline during daytime, when the system
labour. Having such information helps to further
is expected to generate electricity. The Operations
optimise the asset by reducing production losses and
team is also responsible to coordinate accordingly
the cost of O&M itself.
with the Maintenance service provider/team.
For more information on monitoring requirements,
6.5. Power plant controls
see Chapter 10. Data and monitoring requirements.
It should be noted that this task is usually not
applicable for small to medium scale installations.
6.3. Performance analysis and improvement
However, if applicable, the Operations team is the
The O&M Contractor makes sure that the responsible contact for the grid operator for plant
performance monitoring is correct. controls. The Operations team will control the plant
remotely (if applicable) or instruct the qualified
In general, the data should be analysed down to the
maintenance personnel to operate breakers/controls
following levels:
on site. The O&M Contractor is responsible for the
1. Portfolio level (group of plants) under control of the remote plant controls or emergency shutdown of the
O&M Contractor (minimum requirement) plant, if applicable and in accordance with the
respective grid operator requirements (see also 6.7.

Grid code compliance) and regulations (see 5.4. The requirements for such forecasts may differ from
Interface with local energy authorities and regulatory country to country and also depends on the contract
compliance). The plant control function varies from agreement for electricity dispatching between the
country to country and in some cases from region to Asset Owner and a trading service provider. Forecast
region. The respective document refers to details in PV requirements are characterised by the forecast
plant control regulation which are issued by the horizon, the time resolution, and the update frequency,
respective grid operator and (energy market) regulator. all depending on the purpose. For power system or
power market related purposes, forecast horizons are
The Power Plant Controller itself is a control system
typically below 48 hours and the time resolution is 15
that can manage several parameters such as active
minutes to one hour, in line with the programme time
and reactive power and ramp control of PV plants. The
unit of the power system or the market. Common
set points can normally be commanded either
products are day-ahead forecasts, intra-day forecasts
remotely or locally from the SCADA. Moreover, the
and combined forecasts. Day-ahead forecasts are
system should be password protected and log all the
typically delivered in the morning for the next day
executed commands. Any executed commands
from 0 to 24 and updated once or twice during that
should release real-time notifications to the
day. Intraday forecasts are delivered and updated
Operations team.
several times per day for the rest of the day and should
The following list shows typically controlled be delivered automatically by the forecast provider.
parameters in a PV plant:
For long-term planning of unit commitment and
• Absolute Active Power Control maintenance decisions, forecasts with longer time
horizons are used, typically one week or more.
• Power Factor Control
PV Power Generation Forecasts rely on numerical
• Ramp Control (Active and Reactive Power if
weather predictions, satellite data and/or statistical
needed)
forecasting and filtering methods. Most products
• Frequency Control combine several of these techniques. Good practice
requires numerical weather predictions for day-ahead
• Reactive Power Control
forecasting and a combination with satellite data for
• Voltage Control intra-day forecasts. In all cases, good practice requires
statistical filtering which in turn requires a near-real-
time data feed from the monitoring system to the
6.6. Power Generation Forecasting
forecast provider. For best practice, the forecast
Like the previous point, this task is usually not applicable provider should also be informed about scheduled
for small to medium scale installations. However, if the outages and the expected duration of forced outages.
Asset Owner requires Power Generation Forecasts, the
The most common KPIs for forecast quality are the
O&M Contractor may supply such forecasts (usually for
Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and the Mean
large scale plants). Forecasting services for PV power
Absolute Error (MAE). They are normalised to peak
generation are generally offered by operators of PV
power and not to energy yield.
monitoring services, however external services can also
provide this function. The Solar Monitoring Best
Practices Mark (www.solarbestpractices.com) is a 6.7. Grid code compliance
useful tool to help stakeholders select suitable
The O&M Contractor, and in particular the Operations
Monitoring Systems. When the Asset Owner requires
team is responsible to operate the PV plant in
Power Generation Forecasting from the O&M
accordance with the respective national grid code.
Contractor, they could choose a service level
The operator of the grid, to which the PV plant is
agreement with the forecast provider. This kind of
connected (either low voltage grid or medium voltage
activities may have an influence on the contract
grid or high voltage grid) provides the requirements for
agreement for electricity dispatching between the
power quality, voltage regulation and management of
Asset Owner and a trading service provider.

active and reactive power. The Operations team is installation of equipment and will lead to adjustment
responsible to ensure unintentional islanding is of operation and maintenance procedures and/or
avoided in cases of weak grids with frequent load documentation. It may also impact certain
shedding. In some countries (and/or regions) specific performance commitments or warranties provided by
grid codes for renewable energy generators and the O&M Contractor, which need to be adjusted.
consequently solar PV plants have been issued.
In any such case, the O&M Contractor should be
Depending on the voltage level of the grid the plant is involved in such changes to the PV power plant from
connected to, the specificities and quality the beginning. Concepts, design works and execution
requirements for the PV plant change. A higher level of need to be coordinated with ongoing O&M activities.
the grid usually has more specific and higher quality Implementation to the plant SCADA and monitoring
requirements. system is required. For data continuity and long-term
analysis, the monitoring system should be able to
Most of the utility scale PV plants connected to a grid
trace all changes of electrical devices. This should
are required to be controllable to meet the grid
include documentation of inverter replacement date,
operator requirements. Such plant controls allow the
manufacturer and type, and serial number in a
grid operator to adjust the power output from the PV
structured way for further analysis (e.g. spare part
plant according to the grid capacity and power
management, Predictive Maintenance analysis). The
frequency requirements.
monitoring of replaced devices will also facilitate the
It is expected that the O&M Contractor is familiar with O&M Contractor to verify that the new component is
all the details of the grid code and grid operator correctly configured and is sending data of good
requirements. Depending on the regulations, either the quality. Adjustments to the Site Operating Plan, the
grid operator himself is steering the PV plant controller Annual Maintenance Plan and the Annual Maintenance
(with remote signals) or the Operations team is Schedule need to be applied and the O&M Contractor
managing the plant controller per direction of the grid needs to familiarise the O&M staff with the operating
operator. manuals of the new equipment. Such change will have
a definite impact on Spare Parts Management and
Similar to some emerging markets around the world,
inventory (replacement). Depending on the
in the African context, a specific challenge facing O&M
significance of such changes, the O&M annual fee
providers is the fact that many inverters do not have
might need to be adjusted.
pre-configurations for the local grid code. In such
cases the O&M provider should turn to authorities to It is advisable that the O&M Contractor takes the lead
find the best solution. in the process of such change. The O&M Contractor is
the trusted partner of the Asset Owner and should
advise the owner in the decision making of such
6.8. Management of change
change processes. In the case of major changes the
In the event that the design of a PV power plant needs owner should also consider to inform lenders in the
to be adjusted after the Commercial Operation Date, decision process and provide concepts, proposals and
the O&M Contractor should, as a best practice, be calculations.
involved by the Asset Owner and the EPC Contractor
The fixed O&M fee does not usually cover such
and can be a main contributor if not the leader of this
services. The Asset Owner and the O&M Contractor
change process. Reasons for such changes can be
should manage changes in a rather formalistic way.
motivated by non-compliance of the PV power plant
This procedure might include the following steps:
with the capacity predicted by the EPC, by regulation
description of proposed change (including time plan,
(introduction of new PV power plant controls
costs, consequences, and alternatives), authorisation
regulations), by the unavailability of spare parts or
of the change by the Asset Owner, realisation of the
components, or by an interest to upgrade the PV
change, documentation by the O&M Contractor and
power plant. These events would cause some new
acceptance.
design works for the PV power plant, procurement and

6.9. Power plant security (CCTV) video monitoring. An access protocol would be
required if solar plants have CCTV when reactive and
It is important that the solar PV plant, or key areas of
planned works are carried out. This will ensure that
it, are protected from unauthorised access. This
authorised access is always maintained. This can be
serves the dual purpose of protecting the equipment
done by way of phone with passwords or security pass
of the plant and also keeping members of the public
codes, both of which should be changed periodically.
safe. Unauthorised access may be accidental, people
wandering into the plant without realising the For additional security and in high-risk areas it is advised
dangers, or it may be deliberate for the purposes of that there is a backup communication line installed (the
theft or vandalism. first thing that gets damaged in case of vandalism is the
communication with the surveillance station) as well
Together with the O&M Contractor and the security
as an infrastructure for monitoring connectivity and
service provider, the Asset Owner will put in place a
communication with the security system. As well as
Security Protocol in case an intrusion is detected.
any remote monitoring, it is likely that provision for
In most countries there are strict legal requirements onsite attendance is required when significant events
for security service providers. Therefore, PV power occur. Processes for liaison with local emergency
plant security should be ensured by specialised services, e.g. police, should be considered.
security service providers subcontracted by the O&M
Within the solar plant, there may also be additional
Contractor. The security service provider will be
areas with restricted access, for example locations
responsible for the correct functioning of all the
containing High Voltage equipment. When authorising
security equipment including intrusion and
access to the parks it is important that all workers or
surveillance systems as well as processing alarms
visitors are appropriately informed of the specific
arriving from the security system by following the
access and security arrangements and where they
Security Protocol and the use of the surveillance
should or should not be. Warning signs and notices can
systems installed on site. The security system
form an important part of this and may be mandated
provider will be also responsible for any site patrolling
depending on local regulations.
or other relevant services. The security service
provider should also assume liability for the security As well as the general security of the site over the
services provided. The O&M Contractor will coordinate lifetime of the park, particular attention should be made
with the security service provider and can optionally to periods of construction or maintenance when usual
act as an interface between the Asset Owner and the access arrangements may be different. It is important
security service provider. that security is maintained at all times particularly when
there are activities that may be of more interest to
The level of the adequate security measures depends
members of the public, children or thieves.
on various actors, including local legal requirements,
risk levels and the size of the power plant. For different The Asset Owner will likely have insurance policies in
power plant size categories, see the Introduction. A place directly or indirectly and these will be dependent
security system may be formed of simple fencing or on certain levels of security and response being
barriers but may also include alarm detection and maintained. Failure to meet these may have important
alerting systems and remote closed-circuit television consequences in the case of an accident or crime.

7
Power Plant
Maintenance
© Shutterstock
This chapter is about the various responsibilities and This maintenance is carried out at predetermined
tasks related to Maintenance. As outlined in the intervals or according to prescribed OEM and O&M
Introduction, in the African context, especially in the manuals. These are included in a detailed Annual
C&I and residential segments, all aspects of O&M are Maintenance Plan which provides an established time
assumed by the installer – including Power Plant schedule with a specific number of iterations for
Maintenance. carrying out the maintenance.
Maintenance is usually carried out on-site by It is under the responsibility of the O&M Contractor to
specialised technicians, or, in certain cases, prepare the task plan until the end of the contract,
subcontractors, in close coordination with the following the periodicities or frequencies contracted.
analyses prepared by the experts in charge of Power These activities should be reported to the Client (Asset
Plant Operation. Owner or Asset Manager). The reporting of this activity
is important to follow up the plan.
Figure 6 on the following page provides an overview
of the four main types of power plant maintenance. The “Annual Maintenance Plan” (see Annex e or
download it from www.solarpowereurope.org)
developed as an attachment of this report includes a
7.1. Preventive maintenance
list of regular inspections per equipment (e.g. module,
Preventive Maintenance (also called Scheduled inverter etc) and per unit of equipment (e.g. sensors,
Maintenance) activities are the core element of the fuses etc).
maintenance services to a PV plant. It comprises
An example of Preventive Maintenance is
regular visual and physical inspections, as well as
thermographic inspection aiming to identify defective
verification activities conducted with specific
panels on a PV plant. Indeed, several categories of
frequencies of all key components which are
anomalies (hot spots, hot strips, moisture ingress,
necessary to comply with the operating manuals and
soling, etc.) can occur, significantly reducing the whole
recommendations issued by the Original Equipment
plant productivity. Relevant inspection procedures are
Manufacturers (OEMs). It must also maintain the
performed either by operators with handheld cameras
equipment and component warranties in place and
or using remotely piloted drones or piloted aircraft
reduce the probability of failure or degradation. The
equipped with dedicated thermal and optical payloads.
activities should also comply with respective legal
It is noteworthy that aerial thermography as an
issues e.g. national standards for periodic inspection
innovative technology (see section on 13.1.1 Advanced
of certain electrical components. Technical
aerial thermography), can significantly benefit power
experience and relevant track records will optimise
plant maintenance procedures as it can lead to time
the activities further. The O&M contract should include
and cost savings as well as safety improvements.
this scope of services and each task frequency.

7 Power Plant Maintenance / continued
FIGURE 6 OVERVIEW OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF POWER PLANT MAINTENANCE
Preventive Maintenance
Preventive Maintenance are the core elements of the maintenance services to a PV plant. It comprises of regular
INCLUDED IN ALL O&M CONTRACTS
visual and physical inspections, as well as verification activities on all the key components of the solar park.
This maintenance is carried out at predetermined regular intervals according to prescribed OEM & O&M manuals
and are included in the “Annual Maintenance Plan”.
Corrective Maintenance
Corrective Maintenance corresponds to any activity performed to restore a PV plant system, equipment or
component to a functioning state, and occurs after a failure detection by remote monitoring or during an on-site
inspection. Corrective Maintenance includes Fault Diagnosis, Temporary Repair & Repair and can be divided into
3 levels of intervention: Intervention without the need of substitution, with the need of substitution and with the
need to intervene on the software of the device.
Predictive Maintenance
Predictive Maintenance is a condition-based intervention carried out following a forecast derived from the analysis
and evaluation of the significant parameters of the degradation of an item. The site must have “intelligent” equipment
and an appropriate monitoring software system, allowing the Operations team to perform regular monitoring,
supervision, forecast and performance data analysis of the main equipment of the PV plant (DC array, transformer,
inverter, combiner box and/or string level).
Extraordinary Maintenance
Extraordinary Maintenance actions are necessary when major unpredictable events require substantial activities to
restore the previous plant conditions. These interventions are required for damages due to Force Majeure, damages
due to a theft or fire, endemic failures of the equipment, modifications required by regulatory changes and equipment
wear or deterioration due to design faults.
Additional Services
The O&M agreement can foresee services other than electrical and mechanical plant maintenance. Some of these
additional services are generally included in the scope of work and the O&M annual fixed fee and some are not.
Additional services include PV site maintenance activities such as panel cleaning and vegetation control, general
site maintenance tasks like waste disposal and maintenance of buildings and on-site measurements such as
meter readings or thermal inspections.
© SOLARPOWER EUROPE 2020
Preventive Maintenance also includes ad-hoc The O&M Contractor should include in the plant
replacement of parts of inverters or sensors (Predictive production schedule, planned downtime for
Maintenance). In general, outside of the equipment Preventative Maintenance. For C&I installations, in
warranty terms or after its expiration it is important to cases where downtime is necessary to perform
follow detailed Preventive Maintenance procedures, Preventive Maintenance, its execution during the night
which are agreed upon in the Annual Maintenance Plan. would be considered best practice as the overall power

generation is not affected. For small scale and physical intervention on the device in order to
standalone installations, this is only a recommendation. substitute a part of it. An example would be an
inverter fan failure where the maintenance team
intervenes to substitute the fan in order to restore
7.2. Corrective maintenance
inverter functionality.
Corrective Maintenance covers the activities
• 3rd level: Intervention to restore device functionality
performed by the Maintenance team in order to
with a necessity to intervene on the software of the
restore a PV plant system, equipment or component
device. In general, this kind of Corrective Maintenance
to a status where it can perform the required function.
includes both labour activity carried out by
The Corrective Maintenance takes place after a failure
specialised technician (that could belong to the O&M
detection either by remote monitoring and
maintenance team or be subcontracted) and, often,
supervision or during regular inspections and specific
also an intervention on behalf of the device
measurement activities (see Annex e).
manufacturer’s maintenance team or of other
Corrective Maintenance includes three activities: external companies that have been licensed by the
device manufacturer to intervene and restore device
1. Fault Diagnosis also called troubleshooting to
functionality. This activity could be included in the
identify fault cause and localisation.
O&M agreement or billed separately to it, depending
2. Temporary Repair, to restore the required function on the specific scope of work agreed between the
of a faulty item for a limited time, until a Repair is parties. Generally however, this intervention is
carried out. excluded by the contractual scope of work especially
when the device manufacturers’ maintenance team
3. Repair, to restore the required function
or third party licensed company needs to intervene.
permanently.
By way of an example a 3rd level Corrective
In cases where the PV plant or segments need to be Maintenance could involve a device fault without
taken offline, the execution of scheduled Corrective apparent reason or specific broken component that
Maintenance during night or low irradiation hours could be restored only through reconfiguration or
would be considered best practice as the overall software update by the manufacturer.
power generation is not affected.
The scope of Corrective Maintenance activities and its
Corrective Maintenance can be divided into three “border” or definition with respect to Preventive
levels of intervention: Maintenance requires specific attention and it should
be properly defined in the Maintenance contract. For an
• 1st level: Intervention to restore the functionality of
easier comprehension, an example is presented below:
a device without the need for substituting a
component. In general, this kind of Corrective • A cable termination tightening activity using a torque
Maintenance includes only labour activity carried device for the correct fixation should be under the
out by a specialised technician (that could belong Preventive Maintenance scope of works, but
to the O&M maintenance team or be depending on the quantity and/or frequency, it could
subcontracted). This activity could be included in be considered a Corrective Maintenance activity.
the O&M agreement or billed separately on hourly
Usually the Corrective Maintenance is contractually
rates on top of the O&M contract, depending on the
obliged to comply with contractually agreed minimum
specific scope of work agreed between the parties.
Response Times (see 11.3.3. Response Time and
For example, it could consist of repairing a device
12.3.2. Response Time guarantee).
that stopped due to a failure.
Contractual agreements can foresee that the included
• 2nd level: Intervention to restore the functionality of
Corrective Maintenance will be capped on a per year
a device that requires substitution of a component.
basis. Depending on the type of the Asset Owner being
In general, this kind of Corrective Maintenance
a pure financial investor or an energy producer (e.g.
involves labour activity carried out by a specialised
utility or IPP) the requirements for coverage under the
technician (that could belong to the O&M
Corrective Maintenance will vary.
maintenance team or be subcontracted) plus the

Interventions for reconditioning, renewal and DC array, transformer, inverter, combiner box or/and
technical updating, save for the cases where those string level). This can identify subtle trends that would
actions are directly included in the scope of the otherwise go unnoticed until the next circuit testing
contract, should be excluded from Corrective or thermal imaging inspection and that indicate
Maintenance and included in the Extraordinary upcoming component or system failures or
Maintenance (see 7.4. Extraordinary Maintenance). underperformance (e.g. at PV modules, inverters,
combiner boxes, trackers etc level).
A key aspect of corrective maintenance is to be able
to track failures to their root cause, which is most Before deciding which Predictive Maintenance actions
often a problematic manufacturer/model/serial to recommend, the Operations team should
number but may also be linked to installation errors or implement and develop procedures to effectively
environmental conditions such as temperature inside analyse historical data and faster identify behaviour
enclosures; also track the efficacy of responses to changes that might jeopardise systems performance.
problems (what fixes the problem reliably?). These changes of behaviour are usually related to the
pre-determined or unpredicted equipment
degradation process. For this reason, it is important to
7.3. Predictive maintenance
define and to monitor all significant parameters of
Predictive Maintenance is a special service provided by wear-out status, based on the sensors installed,
O&M Contractors who follow best practices principles. algorithms implemented into the supervision system
It is defined as a condition-based maintenance carried and other techniques.
out following a forecast derived from the analysis and
Following such analysis, the Maintenance team can
evaluation of the significant parameters of the
implement Predictive Maintenance activities to
degradation of the item (according to EN 13306). A
prevent any possible failures which can cause safety
prerequisite for a good Predictive Maintenance is that
issues and energy generation loss.
the devices on-site can provide information about their
state, in such a way that the O&M contractor can For an efficient Predictive Maintenance, a certain level
evaluate trends or events that signal deteriorations of of maturity and experience is required, which is at best
the device. As a best practice, the device manufacturer a combination of knowledge of the respective
should provide the complete list of status and error system’s performance, related equipment design,
codes produced by the device together with the operation behaviour and relevant accumulated
detailed description of their meaning and possible experience and track record from the service provider.
impact on the function of the device. Additionally, a Normally it is a process that starts after the
standardisation of status and error codes through implementation of an appropriate monitoring system
inverters and dataloggers within a same brand should and the recreation of a baseline. Such baseline will
be followed and, in the future, this standardisation then represent the entire PV system operation as well
should be common to all manufacturers. as how equipment interacts with each other and how
this system reacts to “environmental” changes.
The Asset Owner or interested party that wants to
benefit from Predictive Maintenance should, as a best Predictive Maintenance has several advantages,
practice, select “intelligent” equipment set with including:
sufficient sensors, and opt for an appropriate
• Optimising the safety management of equipment
monitoring software system which should be able to
and systems during their entire lifetime.
provide basic trending and comparison (timewise or
between components and even between PV sites) • Anticipate maintenance activities (both corrective
functionality (minimum requirement). and preventive).
The Operations team of the O&M Contractor does • Delay, eliminate and optimise some maintenance
Predictive Maintenance thorough continuous or activities.
regular monitoring, supervision, forecast and
• Reduce time to repair and optimise maintenance
performance data analysis (e.g. historical
and Spare Parts Management costs.
performance and anomalies) of the PV plant (at the

• Reduce spare parts replacement costs. problems related to PV modules that might justify the
loss of performance. This is considered as a type of
• Increase availability, energy production and
Predictive Maintenance.
performance of equipment and systems.
• Reduce emergency and non-planned work.
Example 3
• Improve predictability.
The Operations team or the inverter provider monitors
The following four specific examples show how all critical parameters of the inverter and can provide
Predictive Maintenance might be implemented. information related to the health and performance of
each individual inverter as an absolute value or as a
relative comparison of different inverters at one PV
Example 1
site, or compare batch of inverters between different
An O&M Contractor signs a new contract for a PV plant PV sites. This type of information can help O&M
equipped with central inverters. Analysing its back-log Contractors to operate PV sites more cost effectively
of maintenance, the O&M Contractor knows that these without compromising the equipment health. On the
inverters showed several times in the past signs of other side, Asset Manager (or Owner) can also
power loss due to overheating. This might be related to compare how inverters are aging at various sites
problems in the air flow, filter obstructions, fans or managed by different O&M companies and evaluate
environmental changes (high temperature during how well their investment is being managed. For
summer). It was decided to monitor the temperature of instance, one O&M Contractor perceived as more
IGBTs (Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistors). Before any expensive might be providing more regular care to the
emergency action might be needed, in case these inverters compared to another; as a result, the
components have some variations in their behaviour, an inverters are operating in better condition and are not
“air flow inspection” is performed to detect if this ageing as fast, resulting in less stress and lower
change is related to the air flow. This type of activity is a expected failure.
condition-based inspection performed after the
detection of a change in a significant parameter. It is also
Example 4
considered as a type of Predictive Maintenance. The
final purpose is to identify if, for example, the ventilation Predictive maintenance for optimised hardware
systems will need some upgrade, replacement or if replacement cycle relying on big data analytics or
there is any type of air flow obstruction or even if it is artificial intelligence. For more information on this
required to anticipate replacing or cleaning the filters. innovation, see section 13.1.3. Predictive maintenance
for optimised hardware replacement.
Example 2
7.4. Extraordinary maintenance
The Operations team detects a possible
underperformance of one of the sections inside the Extraordinary Maintenance actions are necessary when
PV plant. This could be the power transformer, the major unpredictable events take place in the plant that
inverter or some particular PV generator area that require substantial activities and works to restore the
presents a lower performance when compared with previous plant conditions or any maintenance activity
others in the same conditions (or past behaviours generally not covered or excluded from the O&M
evidence of loss of production). After the anomaly Contract. “Force Majeure” events affecting PV plants
detection or recognition, an incident is created and have included high winds, flooding, hurricanes, tornados,
immediately sent to the Maintenance team. Before hail, lightning and any number of other severe weather
anything happens that might jeopardise contractual events. Extraordinary maintenance associated with
guarantees and might need urgent interventions, the severe weather include: Safety Shutdown; Inspection;
O&M Contractor decides to do a “General Infrared Electrical Testing (integrity of circuits and grounding);
Inspection” in the PV field taking general pictures with Remove/repair/replace decisions; and after repairs are
drones, also known as drones or manned aircraft. The completed a Recommissioning confirming proper
main purpose of this inspection is to identify possible operation and documenting changes made in the repair.

Generally, these activities are billed separately in the Best Practices of O&M agreements regarding
O&M contract and are managed under a separate Extraordinary Maintenance activities include:
order. It is advisable that the O&M contract includes
• General rules to quantify price and to elaborate a
the rules agreed among the parties to prepare the
schedule to perform repair activities, and the right
quotation and to execute the works. Both a “lump sum
of the Asset Owner to ask for third party quotations
turn-key” or a “cost-plus” method can be used for
to compare to the quotation of the O&M
such purposes.
Contractor; in this case a “right-to-match” option
Extraordinary Maintenance interventions are required should be granted to the O&M Contractor.
for:
• The obligation for the Asset Owner to have in place
• Damages that are a consequence of a Force a consistent “All Risk Property” Insurance including
Majeure event. loss of profit.
• Damages as a consequence of a theft or fire.
7.5. Additional services
• Serial defects or endemic failures3 on equipment,
occurring suddenly and after months or years from The O&M agreement can foresee services other than
plant start-up. those pertaining to electrical and mechanical plant
maintenance as per the above sections. Some of these
• Modifications required by regulatory changes.
additional services are generally included in the scope
In case the O&M Contractor was not the EPC of the of work and the O&M annual fixed fee and some are not.
plant, it is to be considered that also the following
Additional services not included in the O&M contract
occurrence is an Extraordinary Maintenance:
scope of work can be requested on demand and can
• Major issues of which O&M Contractor becomes either be priced per service action or based on hourly
aware during its ordinary activity i.e. defects or rates applicable to the level of qualification of staff
other problems that are not a consequence of required to perform the works. These hourly rates
equipment wear or deterioration and that are not usually escalate at the same rate as the O&M Service
of the O&M Contractor’s responsibility because fee. In some cases, a binding price list for the delivery
they can be reasonably considered to have been of some of these additional services can be included
caused by design mistakes (e.g. “hidden” defects in the O&M contract as well.
that require re-engineering).
For example, regular module cleaning is an important
Although not necessarily maintenance interventions, part of solar maintenance and the problems
also the following revamping and repowering can also associated with soiled modules is often
be included in the Extraordinary Maintenance list in underestimated. By way of example, just the effect of
the O&M agreement, or at least managed with the soiling resulting from regular wind induced dust
same rules. For more information on this, see Chapter carryover can result in a performance loss of 10%+
8. Revamping and repowering. within 2 weeks, and of 30%+ within a matter of 6
weeks. Prolonged periods of time between cleans can
After the approval by the Asset Owner of the O&M
result in bird droppings etching modules and lichen
Contractor’s proposal, activities may commence,
growth, both of which can be extremely difficult to
subject to availability of the required equipment and
remove. Module cleaning methods vary from manual,
special machinery (if required).
robotic and mechanical. Each have their own
The potential loss of energy between the event advantages and disadvantages. Cleaning frequencies
occurrence and full repair generally cannot be vary greatly on ground, rooftop and floating solar
considered in the SPV financial model, but it has to be arrays. The frequency of cleaning should be decided
considered that many of the above events are on a site-by-site basis and it may be that certain parts
reimbursed to the Asset Owner by the insurance of a site will need cleaning more often than other parts
company under any “All Risk Insurance” coverage that of the same site.
is in place.
3 For a definition of endemic failures and its repercussions in terms of
warranty, see → 5.3. Warranty management.

When choosing a module cleaning company, asset methodology (brush, waterless, etc.) in
owners and O&M providers should check the following: combination with 3rd party laboratory regarding
the effect of the cleaning strategy on the anti-
• The suggested method of cleaning is fully in-line
reflective coating (ARC) or glass.
with the module manufacturer’s warranty.
Pressure washing modules is not an acceptable For more information about the social implications of
cleaning method. water use in arid regions, see section 3.2. on
Environment and social aspects. For innovations
• The modules should be cleaned with high quality,
relevant for module cleaning, see section 13.3. on
ultra-pure water as best practice. Tap, mains or
Waterless cleaning of PV modules.
borehole water with high mineral content may
leave deposits on the module’s glass surface. Table 2 presents a non-exhaustive list of Additional
However, this might not be a possibility for every services. For more information on general market
plant size or location. Rainwater is suitable for trends as regards to whether these additional services
module cleaning, hence, rain water harvesting could are generally included in the O&M agreement or not,
be an economical option in the long run. see 12.1. Scope of the O&M contract.
• Health and safety considerations should be made Note that some of these items can be considered as
in regard to keeping their staff safe on site. This a part of the Preventive Maintenance. This depends on
should include some form of health and safety the agreement between the Asset Owner and the
accreditation and specific training for solar module O&M Contractor.
cleaning, including working at height, if cleaning
From a technological point of view, the usage of aerial
roof mounted modules.
inspections is beneficial to efficiently (time and costs)
• Cleaning cycles are based on the results of a soiling obtain a context awareness needed to perform better
study that adjusts the cleaning needs to each season. planning of site maintenance activities as well as
execution of on-site measurements (specifically
• Module manufacturer shall approve cleaning
thermal inspections).
TABLE 2 EXAMPLES FOR ADDITIONAL MAINTENANCE SERVICES
ADDITIONAL SERVICES
PV site maintenance Module cleaning

Vegetation management
Snow, sand or dust removal
General site maintenance Pest control
Waste disposal
Road management
Perimeter fencing repair
Maintenance of buildings
Maintenance of Security Equipment
On-site measurement Weekly/monthly meter readings
Data entry on fiscal registers or in authority web portals for FIT tariff or other support scheme
assessment (where applicable).
String measurements – to the extent exceeding the agreed level of Preventive Maintenance
Thermal inspections, I-V curve tracing, electroluminescence imaging (for more information,
see the section 10.10. Data collected by specialised PV module field inspections) – to the
extent exceeding the agreed level of Preventive Maintenance.

8
Revamping and Repowering
© Shutterstock
Revamping and repowering are usually considered to be represented in certain markets. It is recommended for
part of extraordinary maintenance from a contractual asset owners and O&M providers to prepare for
point of view – however due to their increasing Revamping and Repowering projects in the coming
significance in the solar O&M market, these Guidelines years. In certain legislations, the regulatory framework
are addressing them in a standalone chapter. may not enable Repowering yet, however Revamping
may have a strong role in African markets: for example,
retrofitting installations with batteries or replacing old
8.1. Definition and rationale of revamping and
batteries with better ones will not involve any increase
repowering
in the nominal power of the installation, however it may
Revamping and repowering are defined as the significantly increase its value for local communities.
replacement of old, power production related
There are numerous ways of repowering a PV plant. In the
components of a power plant by new components to
following we will concentrate on the two most important
enhance its overall performance. Revamping involves
opportunities of module and inverter repowering.
component replacement, but without substantially
changing the plant's nominal power, whereas repowering
involves increasing it. the diﬀerentiation to ordinary 8.2. Module repowering
replacement lies in the aim to increase the performance
Natural or increased degradation, underperformance
by exchanging all components within a functional area
or simple defects of modules which are not repairable
or a significant ratio of them. the aspects and
or available for direct replacement on the market may
consideration in the following sections focus on
force the investor to consider a module repowering.
repowering but apply in most cases also for revamping
This can be carried out for the entire PV plant or for
and even repair and extraordinary maintenance.
specific parts. When the repowering is focused on a
There are several reasons, why repowering of solar PV partial module replacement, it is recommended to
plants can be a necessary and/or beneficial exchange some more modules than technically
investment. For an overview, see Figure 7 on the required, to keep some intact old modules as spare
following page. parts for the future.
In the African context, Revamping and Repowering are Due to the fast development of PV technology it is not
not a major trend yet due to the relatively young age of very likely that the same components are still available
solar PV installations. However, Revamping and on the market in the required quantity or at a
Repowering are expected to become increasingly competitive price. Certainly, exchanging the identical
important as installations age. Some of the factors modules would make a repowering very simple, but
presented in the figure are increasingly relevant for the this would also reduce the utilisation of the repowering
African market – such as the availability of spare parts, opportunities in lower price and higher efficiency. In
when equipment suppliers are not adequately case different modules are to be used for the

FIGURE 7 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN REVAMPING AND REPOWERING AND THEIR MAIN DRIVERS
Revamping Repowering
Involves components replacement (mainly inverters Involves components replacement (mainly inverters
and modules), but without substantially changing the and modules), with substantially changing the plant's
plant's nominal power. nominal power.
Main drivers for Revamping or Repowering
• Aging solar assets: By the end of 2019, we expect more than 630 GWp of PV capacity installed worldwide. The fleet of
modules and inverters is getting older which leads to an increased failure rate, higher degradation and expiring warranties.
• Unavailability of spare parts and support: Many manufacturers of modules and inverters have left the market. This
complicates the supply of spare parts or repair solutions and may leave an exchange of components as the only alternative.
• Technological Improvements: The technological advancement of modules and inverters has been significant. Thus,
exchanging components can lead to an improved performance and availability. As further benefits new components
offer higher design flexibility and advanced features at reduced maintenance costs.
• Decreasing prices: The prices for PV components have decreased substantially. This trend helps to create an
economically feasible re-investment case.
• Additional benefits: A repowering project usually includes additional benefits, such as new warranty terms and
compliance with the latest regulations. Furthermore, it brings the opportunity to correct potential planning mistakes
from the initial construction.
repowering project, the following aspects need to be Electrical installation

considered during planning and executing:
• Depending on the rated power and the electrical
characteristics of the new module type a new
Mechanical installation string design can be inevitable. The maximum DC
power, voltage and current need to be in-line with
• If the modules have different dimensions in height,
the inverter requirements.
length and width, the compatibility with the
mounting system needs to be considered. Often • A mix of different electrical characteristics at one
adaptive challenges can be solved by applying new inverter or at least one MPP tracker should be
module clamps but in extreme cases (e.g. changing avoided. Alternatively, bypass diodes can be
from thin film to crystalline modules) a new integrated as protection in case of failures such as
mounting structure needs to be installed. reverse current.
• In case of higher weight and larger surface of the • Most likely, the new module type will have different
new module area the structural impacts on the connectors. Therefore, the string cable connector
mounting system or the building need to be needs to be replaced accordingly.
checked and aligned.
• The dimensioning of existing cables and fuses
• The new modules need to be integrated into the needs to be checked and verified to be suitable for
grounding system as before. the new DC-layout

8 Revamping and Repowering / continued
Further considerations spare parts are not available, the exchange with a new
component is inevitable. There are different strategies
• A module repowering might underlie regulatory
for inverter repowering which should be evaluated on
aspects, which will vary from country to country.
a case by case basis:
The regulatory body should be contacted well in
advance in order to clarify aspects such as: • Partial or complete exchange: If not all inverters are
affected a partial exchange of the inverter fleet of
• Maximum power to be installed
the PV system can be an option. This potentially
• Requirements for proving the faults of modules reduces the overall costs but it can also increase
the complexity regarding the electrical design or
• Registration of new modules
the implementation of two different inverter types
• Disposal of old modules into one communication concept on-site. If the
repowering does not affect all inverters on-site, it is
• Module repowering should be considered as a
advisable to store the old devices as potential spare
relevant interference into the electrical system. All
parts. Additionally, it can be practical to exchange
affected strings should be tested and
more inverters than technically required to store
documented according to IEC 60364-7-712:2017,
those as potential exchange devices for future
IEC 60364-6:2016 and IEC 62446-1:2016 after the
defects of the old inverter type.
repowering project.
• Exchange of same or different power class:
• The new string layout could be optimised about
Exchanging inverters with the same power class is
shading or DC / AC ratio. Furthermore, an in-depth
easier for the DC and AC integration. However,
check of the mounting structures, cables and
replacing multiple devices through one with a larger
connectors could be performed.
power class can increase the system efficiency and
• If not all modules are being exchanged and power reduce the component costs as well as future
measurements of these modules are being maintenance costs.
performed, it is recommended to install the old
When an inverter repowering is planned, several
modules according to their remaining power. This
factors need to be considered:
means all modules in one string or connected to
one MPP tracker should have similar power in order
to reduce mismatching losses. Mechanical installation
• Depending on the status of the old modules (and • If the new inverters have different dimensions or
the regulatory requirements), they can be either weight, a suitable solution for the installation or
sold to the secondary market or should be disposed mounting of the inverter needs to be prepared. The
or recycled by a professional provider. same accounts for a proper cabling if DC or AC
connections are changed.
8.3. Inverter repowering • The manufacturer of the new device might have
different requirements for the mounting with
As all electronic devices, inverters have a limited
regards to fixings, distance to other components or
lifetime. With increasing age and wear, the likelihood
to the roof, ventilation, etc. All requirements need
of failures and breakdowns increases. If the warranty
to be checked and implemented.
of the device has expired, a technically and
economically suitable solution needs to be identified. • The new inverters need to be integrated into the
Some manufacturers or service providers offer repair grounding system according to the standards and
and spare parts services. With new components it the manufacturers specifications.
might even be possible to increase the efficiency of
an older inverter, e.g. with a replacement of an old
Electrical installation
control board with a new device with better
performance characteristics, such as MPP tracking. If • The integration of the DC side to the new inverters
an identical replacement inverter, repair services or needs to follow the DC input requirements of the

new inverter. Eventually, the string length and the • Additional benefits may be utilised during the project.
number of connected strings need to be adjusted The new inverters could be optimised regarding
to suit the technical parameters of maximum shading or DC / AC ratio. When the new inverter has
current and voltage as well as ideal operational advanced features in comparison with the old
conditions. In case larger inverters will be installed, inverter, e.g. multiple MPP tracker, this could be an
additional DC combiner boxes might be required additional advantage for the repowering project.
and different or additional fuses are to be
• The noise levels of the inverters may vary, and it
integrated.
should be adequately checked against the
• If different inverter sizes are installed, the permitting and the neighbouring activities.
integration to the AC side needs to be re-
• Depending on the status of the old inverters, they
engineered. This includes the cable diameters,
can be either kept as potential spare parts, sold to
protection devices (fuses) and connectors.
the secondary market. If both options are not
• In any case the applicable electrotechnical rules practical, the devices should be disposed or
and regulations need to be followed. recycled by a professional service provider.
• New or different maintenance scope and intervals
Communication system need to be included into the preventative
maintenance schedule.
• Before choosing an adequate inverter, the
compatibility with the physical communication • All involved people should be informed about the
cables should be checked. changes and accordingly trained regarding
preventative and reactive maintenance.
• The installed data logger needs to support the new
inverter’s data protocol. Otherwise, an update or the In some cases, inverter repowering is even profitable
exchange of the data logger will be required. if the old inverter still operates with full availability, but
a new inverter produces more energy due to higher
• If different inverter types are installed, it can be an
efficiency or better operating conditions.
option to integrate the different component types
on different phases of one communication cable or
integrate them into one network. The compatibility 8.4. General repowering considerations
of the datalogger and the monitoring platform to
Although, a repowering project is mainly technically
work with different inverter types at one PV system
driven, for the owner of the PV system it is a
needs to be validated.
commercial re-investment case. Therefore, it is of
great importance to calculate a detailed and solid
Further considerations business case before the project and review it during
the project stages. All technical and commercial data,
• An inverter repowering might underlie regulatory
such as historical performance, future performance,
aspects, which will vary from country to country. The
revenues, costs, extended life span and changed
responsible regulatory institution should be
maintenance requirements need to be considered to
consulted well in advance to clarify aspects such as
come up with a prognosis of the future income
• Maximum power to be installed streams. With this, a classical return on investment or
break-even calculation can be performed and
• Compatibility to grid code and plant certificate
presented to the investor as a decision basis.
• Inverter repowering should be considered as a
As an additional analysis, it is recommended to
relevant interference into the electrical system. All
calculate the sensitivities of the most important
affected cables and connectors should be tested
factors. This will provide a better understanding of the
and documented according to IEC 60364-7-
influence of changing conditions, e.g. if the costs for
712:2017, IEC 60364-6:2016 and IEC 62446-1:2016
the project will change or the projected performance
during the repowering project
will be different to the assumptions.

8 Revamping and Repowering / continued
Each repowering activity should be approached as an Implementation

individual project, which can be structured as follows:
• Execution of repowering measures
• Project management
Performance analysis
• Constant quality control
• Historical yield assessment & identification of
performance issues • Commissioning and documentation
• Verification of issues on site with additional • Update of maintenance guidelines
inspections or testing
• Determination of root causes and areas for Review
improvement
• Technical evaluation regarding reliability and
performance
Potential assessment
• Commercial evaluation regarding costs and return
• Technical feasibility study of different options on investment
• Commercial analysis, taking investment costs and A rigorous project management and quality control
additional revenues or reduced losses into account across all project stages will ensure a realisation of the
project in time, budget and quality.
• Analysis of the regulatory requirements and their
implications
• Risk assessment for the case if the solution does
not meet expectations
Solution Design
• Detailed technical engineering
• Determination of all costs for time and material
• Setting up project plan
• Update commercial analysis with more precise
information

9
Spare Parts Management
© sarawuth wannasathit
It is important to differentiate between Consumables fully responsible for the cost of all spare parts within
and Spare Parts. the O&M fee, however, the more cost-effective
approach is to agree which are “Included Spare Parts”
“Consumables” are items which are intended to be
and which are “Excluded Spare Parts”.
depleted or worn out relatively quickly and then
replaced. they are necessary for the regular operation Included Spare Parts are those which the O&M
of the PV plant and O&M contractors should always Contractor is to be responsible for within the O&M fee.
have consumables on stock and maintenance crews Excluded Spare Parts are those which the Asset Owner
should carry consumables with them, together with is responsible for the cost of replenishing and do not
the relevant tools. fall within the O&M Contractor's O&M fee. This is a
flexible approach allowing the Asset Owner and O&M
“Spare Parts” are all the items (materials and
Contractor to agree which spare parts fall into which
equipment such as modules or inverters) listed on the
category. It enables both parties to have a level of cost
“Spare Parts List”, not in use or incorporated in the PV
certainty whilst balancing this with the Asset Owner's
plant, intended to replace similar items in the PV plant.
appetite for risk.
Spare Parts Management is an inherent and substantial
Ownership of spares is often with the Asset Owner
part of O&M that should ensure that spare parts are
from delivery to site or placement in the spares stock.
available in a timely manner for Corrective Maintenance
In the case of excluded spare parts, ownership
in order to minimise the downtime of (a part of) a solar
transfers to the Asset Owner from the date that the
PV plant. As regards to Spare Parts Management, the
O&M Contractor receives payment for the same.
following considerations have to be made:
Maintenance, storage and replenishment are the
• Ownership and responsibility of insurance
responsibility of the O&M Contractor. Besides
• Stocking level ownership matters, it is very important to make sure,
upon mutual agreement, that one of the parties
• Location of storage
undertakes the responsibility of insuring the spares: as
a. Proximity to the plant a recommendation spare parts stored on-site should
be insured by the Asset Owner and spare parts stored
b. Security
off-site should be insured by the O&M Contractor.
c. Environmental conditions
For a new PV plant, the initial spare parts for two years
Although it is best practice for the O&M Contractor to from COD are procured by the Asset Owner or the EPC
be responsible for replenishing the spare parts stock, it on behalf of the Asset Owner. However, it is best
is not necessarily responsible for the full cost of doing practice for the EPC and O&M Contractor to have
so. Some Asset Owners require O&M Contractors to be agreed upon the list. The O&M Contractor should, as a

9 Spare Parts Management / continued
best practice, recommend additional spares that they • Frequency of failure

deem necessary to meet the contractual obligations
• Impact of failure
(e.g. availability guarantees).
• Cost of Spare Part
Generally, it is not economically feasible to stock spare
parts for every possible failure in the plant. Therefore, • Degradation over time
the O&M Contractor together with the Asset Owner
• Possibility of consignment stock with the
should define the stocking level of specific spare parts
manufacturer
that make economic sense (Cost-Benefit Analysis).
For example, if a specific part in a solar PV plant has a • Equipment reliability
frequency of failure at least of once every year or more
However, for any given large C&I or utility scale solar
and the loss of revenues due to such failure is greater
PV system, there are certain spare parts that could be
than the spare part cost, it is important to have such
considered as essential to have – no matter the cost.
a spare part kept available. Some very large O&M
contractors now propose to own the spare parts in Table 3 on the following page below summarises a
their different warehouses in replacement or addition minimum list. This list is not exhaustive and system
of the asset owner spares stock. Since they operate a requirements and technology developments can lead
large number of sites, they limit the shortage of to this list being updated following discussion with
unusual spare part by maintaining a small stock. manufacturers, amongst others.
Regarding the stocking level, due to the very different Regarding the storage and warehousing, this should be
configurations and sizes of solar PV plants, it is very done in locations where the spare parts cannot be
difficult to define a hard number for stocking specific damaged (e.g. by humidity or high temperature
spare parts, however 0.2% of total module quantity is variations) and are easily identifiable as being owned
often found in commercial contracts for utility-scale by the Asset Owner. Additionally, the storage sites
and large installations, and 1% (but at least 1 module) should have appropriate security measures. The
for medium-scale installations. Furthermore, the decision of having either on-site or an off-site
regional portfolio of the O&M Contractor might also warehouse facility or just an agreement with the
influence this and as it was mentioned above, the suppliers to provide the spare parts, depends on many
determination of spare items and quantity is also factors, including the kind of part, the commercial
driven by the O&M Contractor’s contractual agreement, and the facilitation of the service
commitments and guarantees. provision. If the spare parts owned by the Asset Owner
are stored off-site, such spares should be stored
In the African context, when setting spare parts’
separately and be clearly identified as the property of
stocking levels, it needs to be considered that spare
the Asset Owner. While proximity to the plant is a
parts’ availability may be more limited due to the
parameter that needs to be evaluated on a case by
absence of local representations of manufacturers.
case basis, security and environmental conditions are
Issues related to logistics, the need for foreign
very important as they could lead to a loss of property
currency in order to get new spare parts and the
either through thefts or damage. In the African
requirement to import spare parts from outside of the
context, high temperature variations need to be
continent may contribute the higher stocking levels or
considered when storing spare parts. This may result
spare parts strategies that favour repair instead of
in a more centralised spare parts storage strategy in
replacement in certain situations.
order to enable air conditioning or heating of
In an attempt to define the stocking levels of Spare warehouses more cost efficiently.
Parts and Consumables, the following parameters
should be taken into consideration:

TABLE 3 MINIMUM LIST OF SPARE PARTS (NON-EXHAUSTIVE)
NO. SPARE PART
1 Fuses for all equipment (e.g. inverters, combiner boxes etc) and fuse kits
2 Modules – percentage of total module quantity:
• 0.2% for utility scale: >10 MWp
• 0.2% for large C&I between 1MWp and 10 MWp
• 1% (but at least 1 module) for medium C&I between 100 kWp and 1 MWp
• No need for spare parts on stock for (single) small C&I or residential <100 kWp
3 Inverter spares (e.g. power stacks, circuit breakers, contactor, switches, controller board etc)
4 Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
5 Voltage terminations (MV)
6 Power Plant controller spares
7 SCADA and data communication spares
8 Transformer and switchgear spares
9 Weather station sensors
10 Motors and gearboxes for trackers
11 Harnesses and cables
12 Screws and other supplies and tools
13 Specified module connectors (male and female should be from the same manufacturer)
14 Structures components
15 Security equipment (e.g. cameras)

10
Data & monitoring
requirements
© Ricardo Pereira
In general, the monitoring system should allow follow- power at standard test conditions in kilowatt-peak
up on the energy flows within a solar power plant or (kWp) for ease of performance comparison.
portfolio of (small) installations. In principle, it reports
All components and different aspects of technical data
on the parameters that determine the energy
management and monitoring platforms are described in
conversion chain. These parameters, along with the
the following paragraphs. It is also recommended to refer
most important energy measures in terms of yields
to the Monitoring Checklist of the Solar Best Practices
and losses, are illustrated in the following figure. These
Mark for a synthesis of the most important best practices
yields and losses are always normalised to installed PV
and recommendation with respect to these points.4
FIGURE 8 ENERGY FLOW IN A GRID-CONNECTED PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM WITH PARAMETERS, YIELDS AND LOSSES5
Gpoa
PV array Vdc Inverter Vac Grid
Idc Iac
Pdc Pac
Tamb, Tmod, Sw
Yr Ya Yf
Reference Yield Array Yield System Yield
Lc Ls
Array capture System
losses losses
PR
4 The best practice checklists of the Solar Best Practices Mark are 5 The figure is redesigned and based on a figure produced by 3E and
available at: www.solarbestpractices.com published in (Woyte et al. 2014).

In the African context, various factors have In addition to this, some dataloggers can also provide
contributed to the increase in monitoring PV plants the following functions:
installed on commercial and industrial sites. These
• Power Plant Controller (Monitoring & Control should
include but are not limited to:
be managed by one instance to avoid
• A decrease in the price in on-site data loggers communication issues regarding concurrent
access). The Power Plant Controller can be
• Ever-increasing monitoring capabilities of on-site
integrated in the datalogger or can be a separate
data loggers
device using the communication channel of the
• Legislation around connecting these PV plants to datalogger or even a separate specific one with
the local utility grid preferential bandwidth.
• Insurance requirements • Solar Energy Trading Interface (control the active
power by a third-party instance like energy trader).
• Greater efficiencies achieved through comparative
geo-location monitoring As a best practice, dataloggers installed should be
selected following a selection process list of criterion by
The fundamentals pertaining to the smart monitoring
the operating party as listed below. For example, an EPC
of commercial and industrial PV power plants versus
Contractor will choose and install the data logger used
the smart monitoring of large-scale PV power plants
to monitor the site. This datalogger should be selected:
are exactly the same. Greater deployment of machine
learning, artificial intelligence and lower-cost data • For its compatibility with the inverters and auxiliary
loggers together with the ever-increasing capabilities equipment present on site. Preference for inverter-
of these data loggers and a decrease in the price of agnostic dataloggers
internet connectivity throughout Africa has resulted
• For any command functionality that may be
in smaller C&I sites being able to be monitored in a
needed (this is site type and country specific)
similar manner as large-scale utility PV power plants.
• For its connectivity strength to the internet
There has been a rapid increase in the number of PV
plants on C&I sites in some parts of Africa. It is now • For its robustness (longevity of life and durability
common that the same solar project company or for the environmental conditions it will be kept in)
developer has deployed PV on multiple C&I sites
• For its, and the cloud server it is connected to, cyber
across the same city. Often similar equipment is used
security measures, namely the possibility to set up
on multiple C&I sites. This phenomenon has created
a VPN tunnel at least
an opportunity to achieve greater efficiencies through
a further advance of smart monitoring on these PV • For its capability to store data during internet
power plants. communication outages
The recording interval (also called granularity) of the
10.1. Data loggers datalogging should range from 1 minute to 15 minutes.
Within one monitoring environment granularity should
The main purposes of a datalogger are:
be uniform for all the different data collected.
• Collecting data of relevant components (inverters,
As a minimum requirement, data loggers should store
meteo data, energy meter, string combiners, status
at least one month of data. Historical data should be
signals) with every device registered separately
backed up constantly by sending it to external servers
• Basic alarm functionality (e.g. Field Communication and, after every communication failure, the data
issues, time critical events like AC Off) logger should automatically send all pending
information. Moreover, data transmission should be
• Provide a temporary data backup (in case of
secure and encrypted (see 10.8. Cybersecurity). There
missing internet connection)
should also be a logbook to track configuration
• Support the technicians during commissioning (e.g. changes (especially relevant when acting as Power
checking whether all inverters work and feed-in) Plant Controller).

10 Data and monitoring requirements / continued
As a best practice, the data logger should store a • For the list of indicators to be computed, see
minimum of three months of data locally and a full Chapter 11. Indicators computational inputs might
data backup in the cloud. Moreover, the operation of be selectable by the user.
the data logger itself should be monitored. Such
• Validation of data quality (e.g. through calculation
monitoring should be done out of an independent
of data availability).
server remotely and should ideally deliver information
on the status of operation of the data loggers on • Detection of malfunctions as well as long term
Operating System (OS) and hardware level and also degradations with customisable alarms.
provide alerts to the Operations room in case of
• Handling of alerts from field devices like
failures and communication loss.
dataloggers or inverters.
Best practice is to have dataloggers and routers constantly
• Calculate typical Key Performance Indicators (such
monitored. In the case of an error the staff on site will be
as Performance Ratio and Availability) with the
informed and may restart or repair the equipment.
possibility to adapt parameters.
Alternatively, a watchdog device could be used.
• Provision of consistent and easy to use aggregated
As a minimum requirement, the entire monitoring
KPI for the set up of customizable reports for single
installation should be protected by an uninterruptable
plants as well as for portfolios.
power supply (UPS). This includes data loggers,
network switches, internet modems/routers, • Making data available via a standardised interface
measurement devices and signal converters. for use in other systems.
For more information, see also IEC 61724-1 The monitoring portal should fulfil the following
Photovoltaic system performance – Part 1: Monitoring. minimum requirements:
• Accessibility level of at least 99% across the year.
10.2. Monitoring portal
• Interface and/or apps dedicated to use cases (on-
The main purposes of the Monitoring Portal are: site service, investor etc).
• Reading any type of raw data coming from any type • Customisable user Access Level.
of datalogger or other PV platforms with no
• Graphs of irradiation, energy production,
preference on brands and models.
performance and yield.
• Long-term archive for all raw data provided by the
• Downloadable tables with all the registered figures.
asset.
• Alarms register.
• Modelling each PV asset using all available
information regarding the actual set up and devices As best practice, the following features will also be
(type of devices, installation/replacement date, included in the Monitoring Portal:
modules-string-inverter system layout, modules
• Configurable User Interface to adjust the views
inclination, orientation, type of installation etc.).
depending on the target group (e.g. O&M Manager,
• Visualisation of aggregated data in the highest EPC, Investor, Asset Manager).
possible granularity (1 to 15 min is a best practice
• User configurable alarms.
for most of the indicators).
• User configurable reports.
• Visualisation of data in standard and specific
diagrams. • Ticket system to handle alarm messages.
• Computation and visualisation on dashboards and • Plant specific KPIs.
views of Key Performance Indicators . For the list of
• Integrate Third Party Data (e.g. Solar power forecast,
indicators to be computed, see Chapter 11.
Weather data, Satellite data for irradiance).
Indicators computational inputs might be
selectable by the user.

• Granularity of data should be adaptable for clearly documented. Data loggers should collect all
downloads of figures and tables. inverter alarms in accordance with original
manufacturers format so that all available information
The above lists are not exhaustive. For a
is obtained.
comprehensive overview of recommended
functionalities, refer to the Monitoring Checklist of the
Solar Best Practices Mark.6 10.4. Configuration
In the context of monitoring larger portfolios of (small to The configuration of the monitoring systems and data
medium) PV systems – in Africa –, each C&I site is pinned loggers needs to reflect the actual layout of plant details
using a geo-location. The type of PV equipment used on (hardware brand, model, installation details such as
the site is recorded. Data loggers are installed. However, orientation, wiring losses, set up date, ..) in order to
C&I smart monitoring will probably differ from large- perform the better expected performances simulation
scale PV plant monitoring because of the following: and obtain consistent insight about plant actual status.
Whenever this is not done during the plant construction
• Multiple weather stations are installed across the
phase, it should be done at commissioning phase or at
city by the same PV developer.
plant takeover by a new O&M Contractor
• The PV developer will perform research and use (recommissioning of the monitoring system).
local knowledge to divide the city into zones, taking
During commissioning, each single equipment
into account any micro-climatic or geographical
monitored should be checked to make sure it is
factors which can influence the yield of a PV plant
properly labelled in the Monitoring System, this can be
on a C&I site. These factors may include but are not
done by temporarily covering insolation sensors or
limited to mountains, urban-forests and distance
switching off others such as string boxes or inverters.
from the ocean.
The best practice is to have a Monitoring System
• Individual solar project companies or developers
capable to read and record all IDs from all sensors and
can now perform comparative monitoring of PV
equipment monitored, which will reduce the
plants within these defined zones within a city and
possibility of mislabelling elements and to trace
compare one PV plant to another.
equipment and sensor replacement along the life of
a. In this manner underperformance of specific PV the facility. Some Monitoring Systems have even an
plants can be quickly and efficiently identified. auto-configuration feature (plug-and-play) that
reduces start-up time and potential mistakes. This it
b. Rapid response mechanisms can be put into
is done by capturing automatically the device ID and
place whereby faults can be quickly identified
configuration information. This also allows for
and addressed.
automatic inverter or sensor replacement detection.
c. Through this constant monitoring and quicker
response to problem solving the yield of the PV
10.5. Interoperability
plant can be maximised and greater efficiencies
achieved. As best practice, the system should ensure open data
accessibility (bilateral possibility to receive and send
Over time the comparative analysis can be further
data), in order to enable easy transition and
developed using algorithms and machine learning to
communication between monitoring platforms. Table
warn of any performance issues. Furthermore, over
4 shows some examples of data integration options.
time, annual yield comparisons per site can be used
Because of the lack of unifying standards, this is
to further advance these algorithms and to create
normally not the case and every Monitoring System
predictive yield models.
provider has its own method to store and retrieve data.
Best practice systems have the possibility to retrieve
10.3. Data format data by using open interfaces such as RESTful,
providing interoperability between different systems.
The data format of the recorded data files must
respect standards such as IEC 61724 and has to be 6 The best practice checklists of the Solar Best Practices Mark are
available at: www.solarbestpractices.com.

Another important aspect of interoperability is the 10.6. Internet connection and Local Area Network
possibility to aggregate data from different platforms
The O&M Contractor should make sure to provide the
that normally serve different scopes of the PV
best possible network connectivity. As a minimum
business, such as administration, accountancy,
requirement, the bandwidth need to be sufficient to
planning & on site intervention, stock management
transfer the data in a regular way.
specific applications. This way, the information can be
exploited by the central monitoring platform without Whenever a fiber connection is available within the PV-
affecting the more specific external applications. For site area, this should be the preferred way to connect
example, an O&M Contractor works with several types to the internet, with industrial routers considered as
of ticketing system for different clients. The standard. In case a fiber connection is not available, 4G
monitoring platform should be able to collect data or wifi communication is preferred. Satellite, 3G or 2G
from all of them. On the other side, information of connections are the least preferred, but often the only
tickets managed from the central monitoring system available communication type. An additional back-up
should be automatically transferred to the dedicated system can be seen as best practice. It should be
ticketing application. avoided to transfer data of applications that need a
large bandwidth via Internet. For example, it should be
TABLE 4 EXAMPLES OF DATA INTEGRATION OPTIONS
METHOD ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
FTP Push or Easy to implement Not secure unless:

FTP Pull • Proper VPN is set up.
No need for additional
• Using sFTP or FTPs encryption method.
hardware
• FTP access control methods implemented.
Limited control of data flow to the FTP server
Modbus/TCP Reliable and secure Additional cost for additional hardware

(with
Best control of data flow More time-consuming implementation
additional
logger on site) Relies on the existing monitoring system hardware, hence, two
hardware vendors involved
API (or similar) Fast and easy to implement Small time lag from data collection to final destination (data pull
in the cloud technology requires automated back-filling technology in case of
No need for additional
data gaps or communications issues).
hardware
Relies on the existing monitoring system vendor, double fees for
Reliable depending on
monitoring.
providers’ conditions and
communication conditions (No control over data)
API may face data quality issues and limits – data granularity,
data depth, availability, correctness, currentness, completeness –
depending on the provider’s terms conditions (SLAs) and
technical abilities.

preferred to monitor CCTV (Closed-Circuit Television) firmware updates of the data logger should be disabled.
of the security system locally. Firmware updates are subject to change management
procedure with the monitoring service.
For PV plants larger than 1MW it is advised to have a
WAN connection and as an alternative an industrial All communication cables must be shielded. Physical
router that allows for mobile or satellite communication distances between (DC or AC) power cables and
back-up in case the WAN connection fails. A system communication cables should be ensured, as well as
with a reset capability in case of loss of internet the protection of communication cables from direct
connection is recommended. A direct connection to a sunlight. Furthermore, cables with different polarities
monitoring server with a service-level agreement (SLA) must be clearly distinguishable (label or colour) for
guarantees continuous data access. If data passes via avoiding polarity connection errors.
alternative monitoring servers without SLA, (e.g.
Pros and cons of different types of monitoring
monitoring portal of the inverter manufacturer), this
connections can be seen in Table 5 below.
SLA can no longer be guaranteed. The automatic
TABLE 5 PROS AND CONS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF MONITORING CONNECTIONS
MONITORING PRO CON COMMENT

CONNECTION
WIFI • Broadband • Modem/Provider dependent In residential installations (e.g.

• Real time monitoring • Requires skilled personnel social housing) often no
• Easy to set up • Can be intermittent Internet available. In some
• Possible issues when router is countries there are regional
replaced WIFI providers, which provide
a connection better than DSL.
LAN • Free • Modem/provider dependent In residential installations
• Broadband • Requires skilled personnel (e.g. social housing) often
• Real time monitoring • Additional cabling needed no Internet available.
• Reliable
Cellular • Large geographical coverage • Subscription based

2G/4G • Independent from local • Real time monitoring requires
Internet connection higher data volume
• Remote management • Easy to implement
• Bi-directional
• Plug&play installation
• High level of security using VPN
• Reliable (depending on the
geographical location)
LPWAN • Independent from local • Subscription based Not (yet) all cellular providers
(NB-IoT, Internet connection • Limited bandwidth, in some case offer each of these
LTE-M etc.) • Remote management insufficient for real time monitoring communication technologies.
• Bi-directional
• Good network penetration Monthly fee to be predicted
inside buildings low.
Bluetooth • Free • Only local monitoring possible

• Requires simple pairing protocol
LPWAN • Independent from local • Subscription based with in some case
(LoRa, Internet connection proprietary communication protocols
Sigfox etc) • Remote management • Limited bandwidth in some case
• Good network penetration insufficient for real time monitoring
inside buildings • Limited bi-directional communication

10.7. Data ownership and privacy Cybersecurity is a vast area and multiple measures are
imaginable. The following hints may help as a starting
The data from the monitoring system and data
point:
loggers, even if hosted in the cloud, should always be
owned by and accessible to the Asset Owner (or SPV). • Keep it simple: If possible, reduce the type of
Stakeholders such as the O&M Contractor, the Asset network devices to a minimum.
Manager or auditors during due diligence phases that
• As a recommendation, traffic of the network
need the data to perform their duties should be
devices may be monitored in order to detect
granted access. It is also important to have at least
abnormally high use of bandwidth.
two access levels (read-only, full access).
• Secure physical access to the network devices and
The monitoring system hardware can be provided by the
implement a secure password policy. Avoid the use
O&M Contractor or a third-party monitoring service
of standard passwords especially, and change all
provider (but the monitoring system hardware remains
factory setting passwords.
the property of the Asset Owner as part of the installation):
• Control access from Internet via strict firewall rules:
• If the O&M Contractor is the monitoring service
provider, the O&M Contractor has full responsibility • Port forwarding should not be used because this
for protecting and maintaining the data and the is a big security gap. Only router ports that are
proper functioning of the monitoring system. necessary should be opened.
• In case of a third-party monitoring service provider, • Reduce remote access to the necessary use
the responsibility for protecting and maintaining cases.
the data resides with the third-party monitoring
• The use of VPNs (Virtual Private Networks – a
service provider. The O&M Contractor should use
secure connection built up from the inside of the
his best endeavours to make sure the performance
private network) is necessary.
monitoring is correct, to the extent possible,
considering best practices as mentioned in • VPN access to the site from outside is a
previous paragraphs. The O&M Contractor’s ability minimum requirement.
to properly maintain and use the monitoring
• A VPN server or VPN service which works
system should be evaluated. If necessary, the O&M
without requiring a public IP on-site should be
Contractor should be appropriately trained to use
preferred.
the monitoring system. Data use by third party
monitoring providers should be extremely limited, • Each PV plant should have different passwords.
i.e. for the sole purpose of correcting bugs and
• Keep your documentation up to date to be sure
developing additional functions to their systems.
that no device was forgotten.
• Use different roles to the extent possible (e.g.
10..8. Cybersecurity
read only user, administration access).
Since PV plants will at least include inverters and
• Use professional (industrial grade) hardware;
power plant controllers (and monitoring systems) and
only this hardware provides the security and
these are expected to be accessible from (i.e.
administration functions your plant needs to be
connected to) the internet to enable surveillance and
secure.
remote instructions by operators, they have
significant exposure to cybersecurity risks. • Implement vulnerability management (i.e.
identifying and remediating or mitigating
Cybersecurity comprises technologies, processes and
vulnerabilities, especially in software and firmware):
controls that are designed to protect systems,
networks and data from cyber-attacks. Effective cyber • Improve insecure software configurations.
security reduces the risk of cyber-attacks and protects
• The firmware and software of devices should be
organisations and individuals from the unauthorised
kept up-to-date.
exploitation of systems, networks and technologies.7
7 Definition: https://www.itgovernance.co.uk/what-is-cybersecurity.

• Use anti-virus software if possible and keep it up their products. Command functions should be sent
to date. using a secure VPN connection to the control device
(best practice). Double authentication would be an
• Avoid wireless access if it is not necessary.
even more secure option.
• Audit your network with the help of external
For further information, beyond the scope of this
experts (penetration tests).
document, please look at the EU Cybersecurity Act (EC,
• Keep your company safe: 2019) and the European Parliament’s study “Cyber
Security Strategy for the Energy Sector” (EP, 2016).
• Do not store passwords in plain text format, use
password manager (e.g. 1Password, Keepass
etc.) 10.9. Types of data collected through the monitoring
system
• Train your employees on IT security awareness.
1.0.9.1 IIrradiance measurements
• Do not share access from all plants to all
employees. Give access only to those who need Irradiance Sensors
it. This way damage can be prevented in case
For solar PV installations larger than 200kWp, it is best
one employee is hacked.
practice to measure solar irradiance in the plane of the
• Management of leaving and moving employees; PV array (POA) on-site by means of at least one
change passwords of plants which are overseen irradiance measurement device according to Class A
by an employee who have left the company or quality classification and ISO 9060:2018 (ISO 9060
moved to another department. 2018). The higher the quality of the pyranometer, the
lower the uncertainty will be.
It is therefore best practice that installations
undertake a cyber security analysis, starting from a Pyranometers class A are preferred over silicon
risk assessment (including analysis at the level of the reference cells because they allow a direct
system architecture) and implement a cybersecurity comparison of the measured performance of the PV
management system (CSMS) that incorporates a plant with the performance figures estimated in the
plan-do-check-act cycle. The CSMS should start from energy yield assessment.
a cybersecurity policy, and definition of formal
Irradiance sensors must be placed at the least shaded
cybersecurity roles and responsibilities, and proceed
location. They must be mounted and wired in
to map this onto the system architecture in terms of
accordance with manufacturers’ guidelines.
detailed countermeasures applied at identified points
Preventive Maintenance and calibration of the sensors
(e.g. via analysis of the system in terms of zones and
must follow the manufacturers’ guidelines.
conduits). These detailed countermeasures will
include the use of technical countermeasures such as The irradiance should be recorded with a granularity
firewalls, encrypted interfaces, authorisation and of up to 15 minutes (minimum requirement).
access controls, and audit/detection tools. But they
Further information on the categorisation of plant
will also include physical and procedural controls, for
sizes and the use of appropriate measuring
example, to restrict access to system components
technology is provided in IEC 61724-1.
and to maintain awareness of new vulnerabilities
affecting the system components.
Satellite-based Irradiance Measurements
As minimum requirements, loggers should not be
accessible directly from the internet or should at least If ground-based irradiance sensors are not available,
be protected via a firewall. Secure and restrictive irradiance data from a high-quality satellite-based data
connection to the data server is also important. service can be acquired as a minimum requirement in
order to allow at least regular plant performance
The manufacturer of the datalogger and the
verifications. This is also useful, if there is low confidence
monitoring platform should provide information on
on the data measured onsite by the Monitoring System.
penetration tests for their servers, any command
In particular, high quality satellite-based should be used
protocol activation channels and security audits for

for irradiation sensor data quality assessment. The an anemometer, at 10 m height above ground level.
longer the period considered the lower the error will be
Wind and ambient temperature data are normally not
for satellite-based irradiation data.
required for calculating PR unless this is a contractual
When satellite-based irradiance data is used, hourly requirement/agreement (e.g. according to specific
granularity or less (15 minutes if possible) is recommendations such as from NREL). However, they
recommended. The data must be retrieved once per are required when the PV plant is to be modelled in
day at least. operation or in retrospect.
Additionally, whenever the module temperature
1.0.9.2. Module temperature measurements measurements are not available or not suitable, wind
speed and ambient temperature coupled with
Module temperature can be measured for
installation specifications can be used to retrieve a
performance analysis in KPIs such as the
good estimation of module temperature. In this case,
temperature-corrected PR (see 11.2.4. Temperature-
15 minutes granularity of measurement is still the
corrected Performance Ratio).
best practice.
The accuracy of the temperature sensor, including
For plants larger than10 MWp, it is recommended to
signal conditioning and acquisition done by the
have automated data collection of independent hourly
monitoring system hardware, should be < ±1 °C.
meteo data (ambient temperature, wind speed, snow
The temperature sensor should be stuck with coverage, rainfall) from an independent meteo source.
appropriate and stable thermally conductive glue to The reason for this is that on-site meteorological
the middle of the backside of the module in the stations are subject to local phenomena and
middle of the array table, positioned in the centre of a installation-specific results. Data from an independent
cell, away from the junction box of the module (Woyte meteo-station is less subject to this while being also
et al. 2013). The installation should be in accordance more stable and robust with respect to long-term drift.
with manufacturer guidelines (e.g. respecting cabling They can therefore be used to evaluate the quality, and
instructions towards the datalogger). eventually replace, the on-site measurement.
PV module temperature is not supposed to be Therefore, for both performance assessment and
identical for all modules in a plant mainly due to detailed analysis purposes, it is recommended to
different wind exposure. Therefore, in large plants enable automated data collection from a nearby
more sensors will be required across the site because independent meteo reference. However, for
module temperature should be measured at different performance assessment the most important
representative positions, e.g. for modules in the centre measurement remains the in-plane irradiation (see 11.
of the plant and for modules at edge locations where Key Performance Indicators).
temperature variation is expected.
Solar resource data derived from satellite image
The granularity of module temperature data should be processing is available from several services at a
at least 15 minutes to perform a correct PR nominal per-site and per time-segment (such as one
calculation. week). The measurement error in satellite data might
be greater than that of an on-site instrument, but is
often more reliable than a mis-aligned, low class or
1.0.9.3. Local meteorological data
dirty on-site pyranometer and less susceptible to
It is best practice to measure ambient temperature, soiling or tampering.
wind speed, rain fall and other site relevant
meteorological measurement with the installation of
1.0.9.4. String measurements
a local meteorological station in accordance with the
manufacturers’ guidelines. Ambient temperature is Individual string current measurements may be
measured with a shielded thermometer, e.g. of the deployed when not supported by the inverters. String
PT100 type. The shield protects the sensor from level monitoring, as compared with inverter level,
radiative heat transfer. Wind speed is measured with allows for more precise trouble-shooting procedures.
Depending on module technology used in the plant,

strings can be combined (in harnesses) which can It should be noted that the precision of inverter-
help reducing operation costs. integrated measurements is not always documented
by the manufacturers and can be imprecise. For
In order to detect problems quickly and to increase the
example, energy or AC power measurements taken by
plant uptime, it is good to install string monitoring
inverters may differ substantially from the values
equipment (as a recommendation). This will
recorded by the energy meter. Monitoring systems
constantly measure the current of every string and
and reporting should specify and be transparent about
register those measurements every up to 15 minutes.
the devices used to acquire each measurement.
To reduce costs, the current sensor can potentially
measure more than one string, but it is not It is also very useful to have the Monitoring System
recommended to parallel more than two of them. collecting all inverter alarms as they are a valuable
source of information for fault detection. Also, low
importance alarms or warnings can be used for the
1.0.9.5. Inverter measurements
organisation of maintenance activities and even
Inverters have a big amount of values that are setting up Preventive Maintenance actions.
constantly measured by its hardware that can be
In certain cases, the grid connection has limits that
interrogated from the monitoring system and
must be always respected, such as the maximum AC
registered. The data sent from the inverter to the
power that can be injected. For these cases there are
monitoring system should, as a recommendation, be
two possibilities, one is to set limits using inverter
cumulative values to allow the monitoring of the
parameters, the second one is to install Power Plant
overall electricity generation of the inverter even in
Controller that will change inverter parameters
case of outages of the monitoring system.
dynamically. In both cases it could be useful to
Recommended variables to be monitored are: monitor inverter parameters and to program alarms
so that the O&M Contractor is notified when there is
• Cumulative Energy generated (kWh)
a parameter that has been changed wrongly and does
• Instant Active Power injected (kW) not respect certain limit.
• Instant Reactive Power injected (kVAr) Best practice for the measurement of inverter-based
variables is a 15-minute sampling and a granularity of
• Instant Apparent Power injected (kVA)
up to 1 minute. For ad-hoc performance analysis
• AC Voltage per each phase (V) purposes e.g. to allow the analysis of PV array
performance, root cause analysis or possible MPP-
• AC Current per each phase (A)
tracking problems, the input DC voltage and current
• Power Factor / Cos Phi need to be measured and stored separately.
• Frequency for each phase (Hz) In general, and as best practice, all common inverter
parameters should be logged by the data loggers,
• Instant DC Power for each MPPT (kW)
since there are a lot of additional important
• Instant DC Current for each MPPT (A) parameters such as internal temperature, isolation
level etc that could be useful for O&M services.
• Instant DC Voltage for each MPPT (V)
Inverters should detect overheating of its conversion
• Total instant DC Power for all MPPTs (kW)
components to protect themselves under extreme or
• Total instant DC Current for all MPPTs (A) abnormal operating conditions. Therefore, it is advisable
to record the temperature as provided by the inverter so
• Average instant DC Voltage for all MPPTs (V)
that ventilation performance can be assessed.
• Internal temperature (ºC)
• Conversion components temperature (ºC) 1.0.9.6. Energy meter
• Inverter failure signals One of the most important features of a Monitoring
System is the automated collection of energy meter
data with a granularity of up to 15 minutes. Gathering

energy meter data is required for invoicing purposes As a best practice, the following alarms should also be
but it is also the best reference for measuring energy followed by the O&M Contractor, but these alarms are
and calculating plant PR and Yield and is much more sent by separate systems other than the monitoring
accurate than using inverter data. system:
A high accuracy energy meter to measure energy • Intrusion detection
produced and consumed by the plant is normally
• Fire alarm detection
required by the utility. When this is not the case it is a
best practice to install a meter with a maximum The above lists are not exhaustive. For a
uncertainty of ± 0.5%, especially for plants > 100 kWp. comprehensive overview of recommended
functionalities, refer to the Monitoring Checklist of the
To allow data acquisition via the Monitoring System, it is
Solar Best Practices Mark.8
recommended to have a meter with two
communication bus ports as well as Automatic Meter
Reading (AMR) service from the Utility or Meter Operator. 1.0.9.9. AC circuit / Protection relay
It is recommended to monitor the status of MV switch
1.0.9.7. Control settings gear and important LV switches through digital inputs.
Whenever possible, it can also be useful to read and
It is important to monitor all control settings of the
register the alarms generated by the protection relay
plant at inverter level as well as grid injection level if
control unit via communication bus.
available. Many plants apply control settings for local
grid regulation (injection management) or
optimisation of the market value of the PV generation 10..10. Data collected by specialised PV module field
portfolio (remote control). These settings need to be inspections
monitored for reasons of contractual reporting or
Not all types of data are collected automatically
performance assessment.
through the monitoring system. Certain data are
collected via on-site measurements and field
1.0.9.8. Alarms inspections manually or with aerial inspections.
As a minimum requirement, the monitoring system PV modules are engineered to produce electricity for
will have the possibility of generating the following 25-30 years and nowadays are being deployed in ever
alarms and, at the user’s discretion, to have them sent more and ever bigger large-scale PV plants. Quality
by email: assurance is the cornerstone for long-term reliability
in order to maximise financial and energy returns and
• Loss of communication
therefore, the need for tracking down the source of
• Plant stops failures once the modules are installed becomes vital.
For that reason, field technical inspections, such as
• Inverter stops
infrared (IR) thermography, electroluminescence (EL)
• Plant with Low Performance imaging and I-V curve tracing, are being put into
practice in order to assess the quality and
• Inverter with Low Performance (e.g. due to
performance of PV modules on-site.
overheating)
Such field inspections can be part of contractual
As best practice, the following alarms will also be sent
preventive maintenance tasks or could be offered as
by the monitoring system:
additional services triggered by the O&M contractor
• String without current in cases where, for example, plant underperformance
is not clearly understood just by looking at the
• Plant under operation
monitoring data.
• Discretion Alarm
• Alarm Aggregation
8 The best practice checklists of the Solar Best Practices Mark are

10.10.1. Infrared thermography (IR) 10.10.2. I-V curve tracing on-site
Infrared (IR) thermographic data provides clear and Measurements of the I-V curve characteristic
concise indications about the status of PV modules determine the power, short-circuit current, open-
and arrays and are used in both predictive and circuit voltage and other relevant electric parameters
corrective maintenance. (shunt and series resistance, fill factor) of single PV
modules or strings. The shape of the curve provides
Depending on its temperature, every object (e.g. a PV
valuable information to identify failures and it also
module) emits varying intensities of thermal radiation.
provides with a quantitative calculation of power
As explained by Max Planck’s theories, this radiation
losses. A typical outdoors I-V curve measurement
measurement can be exploited for the determination
setup consists of a portable I-V curve tracer, which in
of the actual temperature of objects. Thermal radiation
combination with an irradiance sensor (a reference
– invisible to the human eye – can be measured using
cell usually) and a thermometer is used to measure
an infrared camera and is presented in the form of a
the PV modules electrical behaviour. Because on-site
thermal image. If abnormalities in PV modules occur,
ambient conditions differ greatly from standardised
this typically leads to higher electrical resistance and
lab values, the measured results should be translated
thus a change in temperature of the affected module
into STC.
or cell. Based on the visual form and quantifiable
temperature differences over the thermal image of a
PV module, abnormalities such as hotspots, inactive 10.10.3. Electroluminescence (EL) imaging on-site
substrings or inactive modules can be identified.
Another technology being deployed on-site for PV
In order for the thermographic data to be usable, a module quality control is EL imaging, which allows the
number of minimum requirements have to be met. identification with great detail of failures such as cell
Irradiance shall equal a minimum of 600 W/m2 and cracks and microcracks, which are invisible to the
shall be continuously measured on-site, ideally human eye and usually not conclusively identified by IR.
orthogonally to the module surface. Infrared cameras
During the electroluminescence (EL) phenomenon a
need to possess a thermal resolution of at least 320 x
material emits light in response to the passage of an
240 pixels and a thermal sensitivity of at least 0.1 K.
electric current. This is applied in order to check
Measurements shall be taken at a distance which
integrity of PV modules: here a current flows through
ensures that the resolution of the infrared image
the PV-active material, and as a result, electrons and
equals 5 x 5 pixels per 6” PV cell. Further requirements
holes in the semiconductor recombine. In this process
are to be found in IEC TS 62446-3 Part 3: Photovoltaic
the excited electrons release their energy as light. EL
modules and plants – outdoor infrared thermography.
imaging detects the near infrared radiation (NIR), i.e.
Besides PV modules, IR thermography can also be wavelenghts between 0,75 and 1,4 µm. The EL is
used to inspect other important electrical induced by stimulating single PV modules or strings
components of a PV plant, such as cables, contacts, with a DC current supplied by an external portable
fuses, switches, inverters and batteries. For more power source. The NIR emissions then are detected by
information, see IEC TS 62446-3 Part 3: Photovoltaic a silicon charged-coupled device (CCD) camera. This
modules and plants – outdoor infrared thermography is usually done in a dark environment because the
and IEA-PVPS T13-10:2018 report: review on infrared amount of NIR emitted by the PV modules is low
and Electroluminescence imaging for PV Field compared to the radiation emitted by the background
applications. light and from the sun. This means that EL imaging on-
site has to be done usually during the night or while
The utilisation of IR thermography alone is sometimes
covering the PV modules with a tent. A typical setup
not enough to reach a conclusive diagnosis on the
consists of a modified single-lens reflex (SLR) camera,
cause and the impact of certain PV module failures.
a tripod, a portable DC power supply and extension
Therefore, it is usually combined with the following
cables. Additionally, a high pass edge filter at 0.85 µm
complementary field tests.
may be used to reduce interfering light from other
sources. The resolution of the camera should be at

least high enough so that the fingers of the solar cells climatic conditions as well as type of encapsulant and
in the module can be clearly identified. The noise of backsheet used. The fluorescence signal furthermore
the camera output has to be as low as possible (lowest depends on type of defect like micro cracks in c-Si
ISO number possible) and the camera should be as cells, hotspots or glass breakage.
steady as possible in order to avoid blurry images.
Imaging of PV modules typically takes less than 60
Exposure times of 15 seconds are common.
seconds. An example of UV-fluorescence is given in
the following figure. The advantages of the technique
10.10.4. Flourescence imaging are that no modifications are necessary to the PV
systems and in combination with Electro-
UV-Fluorescence imaging is a non-destructive
Luminescence (EL) also there is potentially an
imaging technique for failure analysis of PV-modules.
evaluation of timelines possible as the fluorescence
The development of the technique started around
signal is a function of time. New cracks for instance
2010 with first publications in 2012 (Köngtes et al,
are only visible in EL because there was no time to
2012; Schlothauer et al, 2012; Eder et al, 2017;
“bleach” the fluorescence signal.
Muehleisen et al, 2018). UV-Fluorescence
measurements are performed in dark environment
(typically at night) by illumination of the PV-modules 10.10.5. Magnetic Field Imaging (MFI)
with UV-light (<400nm). Most encapsulants show
Magnetic field imaging (MFI) is a new and innovative
fluorescence in the visible region and thus the
method that allows to analyze flowing electric
material’s response can be captured with a
currents non-destructively, contactless and
photographic camera. No disconnecting nor powering
quantitatively.
of modules is required.
The underlying physics are very simple: every electric
The observed fluorescence of the encapsulation
current generates a magnetic field. A magnetic field
above the cells with respect to (i) spatial distribution,
sensor images this by simply being moved over the
(ii) intensity and (iii) spectral shift of the fluorescent
current-carrying component. Strength and direction
light is dependent on operation time in the field,
of the electric current can be inferred.
FIGURE 9 EXAMPLE UV-FLOURESCENCE IMAGES AFTER A SEVERE HAIL-STORM
SOURCE: Taken from W. Muehleisen (2018).

Current-carrying components such as solar cells, 10.10.6. Soiling measurements
modules or batteries have a characteristic current
The operational efficiency of modules is affected by
distribution. If components have defects that
soiling accumulation. Soiling limits the effective
influence the electrical current distribution
irradiance and, therefore, the output of the PV module.
significantly, the resulting magnetic field also changes
It is recommended to measure soiling in order to
in specific ways. These changes can be detected by
optimise cleaning schedules and thus revenues.
MFI and thus traced back to the defects.
Several methodologies exist for soiling monitoring, the
The fields of application are manifold. In PV, defects most basic being human inspections. A widely used
relevant for the operation of solar modules can be soiling measurement method is using ground-based
detected reliably (Lauch et al, 2018; Patzold et al, 2019). soiling reference modules consisting of a module that
These are, for example, broken connectors or ribbons remains soiled, a cleaned reference cell, an automatic
(see the figure), missing solder joints or defective washing station and measurement electronics. There
bypass diodes in the junction boxes of the modules. are several variations employing different principles to
measure the effect of soiling. Upcoming digital
The advantages of the measurement technique that
solutions for soiling monitoring include the analysis of
it is non-destructive, fast and quantitative (the
satellite imagery with remote sensing techniques,
measurement signal is proportional to the underlying
machine intelligence algorithms and statistical
electric current). A disadvantage of using magnetic
methods. Possible soiling analyses include taking a
fields is that the distance to the sample must be low,
swab of the soil to an analytical laboratory to
in the millimeter range, to result in high quality imaging
determine its nature (diesel soot; pollen; organic soil;
results. The measurement cannot resolve
inorganic dust) and the appropriate cleaning solution.
microscopic structures (< 100 µm), yet.
FIGURE 10 EXAMPLES OF MAGNETIC FIELD IMAGING (MFI)
Broken ribbon marked position Magnetic field measurement Magnetic field measurement (3D)
SOURCE: Lauch et al, 2018; Patzold et al, 2019.

NOTE: Left: Schematic of 3 BB solar cell, „x” indicates the position of brocken ribbon; center: Bx magnetic filed in 2D representation and more visual 3D on the right side.

11
Key Performance Indicators
© Shutterstock
This section deals with Key Performance Indicators • PV plant/O&M Contractor KPIs, which reflect PV
(KPIs), which provide the Asset Owner with a quick power plant performance and O&M service quality
reference on the performance of the PV power plant. at the same time.
The KPIs are divided into the following categories:
The O&M Contractor is generally responsible for the
• PV plant KPIs, which directly reflect the calculation of the KPIs and reporting to the Asset
performance of the PV power plant. PV plant KPIs Owner, see 5.1. Technical reporting.
are quantitative indicators.
It is important to underline that the O&M Contractor
• O&M Contractor KPIs, which reflect the cannot and is thus not responsible for providing
performance of the service provided by the O&M contractual guarantees for all the KPIs listed in this
Contractor. O&M Contractor KPIs are both chapter. For more information on suggested
quantitative and qualitative indicators. contractually guaranteed KPIs, see 12.3. Contractual
guarantees. When there are warranties in place it is
strongly advised that the party liable for the warranties
is not the only one to calculate the KPIs.
FIGURE 11 OVERVIEW OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF KPIS
PV plant KPIs Being both PV O&M contractor KPIs

plant KPIs and O&M
Directly reflect the performance Reflect the performance of the
of the PV power plant. PV plant KPIs
contractor KPIs service provided by the O&M
are quantitative indicators: Contractor. O&M Contractor KPIs
Reflect both plant and O&M Contractors
are both quantitative and
• Reference Yield KPIs measuring at the same time plant
qualitative indicators:
• Expected Yield performances and ability of the O&M provider
• Specific Yield to keep the PV power plant ready to produce:
• Acknowledgement Time
• Performance Ratio • Intervention Time
• Temperature-corrected • Contractual Availability
• Response Time • Resolution Time
Performance Ratio • Energy-Based Availability
R
• Reporting • O&M Contractor experience
• Energy Performance Index • Schedule attainment
• Technical Availability (Uptime)
• Preventive vs Corrective
• Tracker Availability
Maintenance ratio

11.1. PV power plant data 11.2.1. Reference Yield
PV power plant data can be split into two groups: The Reference Yield represents the energy obtainable
under standard conditions, with no losses, over a
1. Raw data measurements: data obtained directly from
certain period of time. It is useful to compare the
the PV plant and used for performance calculation.
Reference Yield with the final system yield (see
2. PV power plant KPIs using the raw data from the PV 11.1.2.3. Performance Ratio).
plant to give a more balanced overview of the
operation of the PV plant.
The Reference Yield is defined as:
11.1.1. Raw data measurements for performance HPOA
Yr(i) =
calculation GSTC
Where:
The following is a list of raw data measurements that Yr(i) = Reference Yield for the time period i expressed in peak sun
can be used to calculate KPIs: hours (h) or (kWh/kW)
HPOA(i) = Is the measured irradiation on modules’ plane for the time
• AC Apparent Power produced (kVA) period i (kWh/m2)
GSTC = The reference irradiance at standard test conditions (STC)
• AC Active Power (kW) (1,000 W/m2).
• AC Energy produced (kWh )

• AC Energy metered (kWh)
11.2.2. Specific Yield
• Reactive power (kVAR)
Specific Yield is the measure of the total energy
• Irradiance9 (reference for the plant or the sub- generated per kWp installed over a certain period of time.
plants) (W/m2)
This measure is generally calculated at plant AC
• Air and module temperature (Celsius degrees) energy metered. In both cases it indicates the number
of full equivalent hours a plant produced during a
• Alarm, status code and duration
specific time frame.
• Outages, unavailability events
This is a basic list and it is non-exhaustive.
Specific Yield is calculated as follows:
11.2. PV power plant KPIs Ei

Yi =
P0
Calculated KPIs give a more balanced view of the Where:
operation of a PV plant as they take into account the Yi = Plant Specific Yield for the time period i, expressed in (kWh/kWp)
or peak sun hours (h)
different operating conditions for each plant. Ei = Plant energy production or Plant energy metered
Suggestions for calculated KPIs along with relevant for the time period i (kWh)
formula can be found below. These KPIs can be P0 = Plant Peak DC power (nominal power) (kWp)
calculated over different time periods, but often they

are computed on an annual basis. When comparing
different KPIs or different PV power plants’ KPIs, it is
important to keep consistency in the time period used
in computation.
9 Although irradiance and irradiation are often used as synonyms, they
do not express the same physical quantities and should not be used
interchangeably (see IEC 61724-1:2017):
• Irradiance is the power of the sunlight at a specific moment per unit

of area, usually expressed in Watt per square meter (W/m2).
• Irradiation is the power of the sunlight integrated over a period of

time, e.g. an hour, a day or a year. In other words, irradiation is the
energy per unit of area calculated as the sum of irradiances over a
period of time. It is commonly expressed in kilowatt-hour per
square meter (kWh/m2).

11 Key Performance Indicators / continued
This measurement normalises plant output over a These definitions are based on (Woyte et al. 2014) in line
chosen time frame and thus allows the comparison with the IEC 61724-1:2017 and are common practice.
of the production of plants with different nominal
PR is measured for available times (see 11.4.1.
power or even different technologies (e.g. PV, wind,
Contractual Availability) at the inverter or plant level.
biomass etc). For example, the Specific Yield of a PV
Plant can be compared against the Specific Yield of a Note that special attention is needed when assessing
wind plant for investment decision taking or the the PR of overrated plants, where the output of the
Specific Yield of a 5 MWp ground mounted PV plant plant is limited by the inverter maximum AC output. In
can be compared directly to a 1 MWp double tracker such situations and for the period that overrating
PV plant’s Specific Yield. takes place, PR will calculate lower than normal
although there is no technical problem with the plant.
Calculating Specific Yield on the inverter level also
Stakeholders should be careful assessing PR values for
allows a direct comparison between inverters that may
overrated plants, although the amount of overrating is
have different AC/DC conversion rates or different
normally statistically constant or with negligible
nominal powers. Moreover, by checking inverter level
differences on a yearly basis.
Specific Yield within a plant, it is possible to detect
whether an inverter is performing worse than others.
11.2.4. Temperature-corrected performance ratio
11.2.3. Performance ratio In some situations, such as a commissioning test or
PV power plant handover from one O&M Contractor
The Performance Ratio (PR) is a quality indicator of the
to another, PR needs to be measured over a shorter
PV plant. As the ratio between the actual Specific Yield
time period, such as two weeks or a month. In such
and the theoretically possible Reference Yield, PR
situations, it is recommended to use a PR formula
captures the overall effect of losses of the PV system
corrected with temperature factor in order to
when converting from nameplate DC rating to AC
neutralise short-term PR fluctuation due to
output. Typically, losses result from factors such as
temperature variations from STC (25°C). As a best
module degradation, temperature, soiling, inverter
losses, transformer losses, and system and network
downtime. The higher the PR is, the more energy
efficient the plant is.
PR, as defined in this section, is usually used to report
on longer periods of time according to the O&M
contract, such as day, month or year. Based on PR, the
O&M Contractor can provide recommendations to the
plant owners on possible investments or interventions.
Performance Ratio is defined as:

Yf
PR =
Yr ×
100
Where:
PR = Performance Ratio over a year (%)
Yf = Specific Yield over a year (also called final yield)
expressed in (kWh/kWp) or peak sun hours (h)
Yr = Reference Yield over a year expressed in (kWh/kWp)
or peak sun hours (h)

practice, temperature should be registered with a time period i should be calculated by weighting the
granularity of up to 15 minutes (referred to as time mean temperatures of the time periods j according to
period j below) and the average temperature for the Specific Yield of this time period. 10
BOX 2 overrated plants (DC/AC ratio higher than 1) where the

Interpreting Performance Ratio output of the plant is limited by the inverter maximum
AC output (P0 > P0, AC). In such situations, when derating
Careful attention needs to be paid when interpreting PR,
takes place, PR will be lower than normal although
because there are several cases where it can provide
there is no technical problem with the plant.
misleading information about the status of the PV plant:
Stakeholders should be careful assessing PR values
for overrated plants, although the amount of derating
Seasonal variation of PR (lower PR in the hot months, is normally statistically constant or with negligible
higher in colder months) differences on a yearly basis.
The calculation of PR presented in this section neglects

the effect of PV module temperature, using the fixed Calculation of PR using GHI instead of POA
value for the plant’s power rating, P0. Therefore, the (misleading higher PR)
performance ratio usually decreases with increasing
Calculation of the PR using the Global Horizontal
irradiation during a reporting period, even though
Irradiance (GHI) instead of in-plane (POA) irradiance is
energy production increases. This is due to an
an alternative in situations where GHI measurements
increasing PV module temperature that results in lower
are available but POA measurements are not. The PR
efficiency. This gives a seasonal variation, with higher
calculated with GHI would typically show higher
PR values in the cold months and lower values in the
values which may even exceed unity. These values
hot months. It may also give geographic variations
cannot necessarily be used to compare one system
between systems installed in different climates.
to another but can be useful for tracking performance
This seasonal variation of PR can be significantly of a system over time and could also be applied to
reduced by calculating a temperature-corrected PR compare a system’s measured, expected, and
to STC, which adjusts the power rating of the plant at predicted performance using a performance model
each recording interval to compensate for differences that is based only on GHI.
between the actual PV module temperature and the
STC reference temperature of 25 °C (taking into
Soiled irradiance sensors (misleading higher PR)
account the temperature coefficient of the modules,
given as % of power loss per °C). Special attention is needed when assessing the PR
using data from soiled irradiance sensors. In this case,
PR will present higher values and will give the false
Interpretation of PR for overrated plants (misleading
impression that the PV plant is performing better than
lower PR)
expected and even some underperformance issues
Special attention is needed when assessing the PR of could remain hidden.
10 The temperature-corrected PR calculation is not consistently applied.

Therefore, this note clarifies in brief the best practice for calculating PR the same with as the high PR values and the use of an average value
using the formulas provided above. There are 2 methods to apply the of the PR does not take into account the different weight that PR
formula: may have over the day. This can artificially increase the PR by up to
a couple of percentage points.
• In the time-weighted method, PR is weighted over a period by the
time interval. An example would be if the SCADA system provides • In the irradiance-weighted method, irradiance as a sum counts
data in 1 min / 5min / 10 min average values. PR is then calculated higher irradiance values as more impactful on the total PR for any
for that 1 min / 5min / 10 min period and the resulting PR values are given period. This eliminates the weighting effect and provides a
then averaged. This method will generally yield higher PR values in more accurate PR. Therefore, all relevant measured parameters
the morning, while production is low and lower PR values mid-day, should be summed above and below the line over the calculation
but with high energy production. Therefore, low PR value are given period before any division and calculation of PR is performed.

11.2.5. Expected yield The advantage of using the EPI is that its expected
value is 100% at project start-up and is independent
Expected Yield Yexp(i) is the Reference Yield Yr(i)
of climate or weather. This indicator relies on the
multiplied by the expected PR and thus expresses
accuracy of the model. Unfortunately, there are more
what should have been produced over a certain period
than one established models for the Expected Yield of
of time i.
PV systems in operation and not all of them are
Note that Expected Yield is based on past values of transparent. Therefore, the use of EPIs is
irradiation data. Predicted Yield is based on forecasted recommended mainly for the identification of
data, from day ahead and hour ahead weather reports. performance flaws and comparison of plants. On the
other side, the Energy Performance Index is a useful
and simple KPI especially for small-scale systems.
Expected Yield can be defined as:
Yexp(i) = PRexp(i) × Yr(i) 11.2.7. Technical availability or uptime
Where:
Yexp(i) = Expected Yield for the time period i, expressed in (kWh/kWp)
Technical Availability (or Uptime), Contractual
or peak sun hours (h) Availability and Energy-based Availability are three
PRexp(i) = Average Expected Performance Ratio of the plant over closely related indicators to measure whether or not
the period i, based on simulation with given actual temperature
and irradiation and plant characteristics. (PRexp simulation is beyond
the PV power plant is generating electricity. The latter
the scope of the present document but for more information on this, two KPIs are explained in section 11.4. PV power
see Brabandere et al (2014), Klise and Stein (2009), NREL (2017), plant/O&M Contractor KPIs.
PVsyst (2017) and SANDIA (2017).)
Yr(i) = Reference Yield for the time period i (based on past irradiation Technical Availability is the parameter that represents
data) expressed in (kWh/kWp) or peak sun hours (h)
the time during which the plant is operating over the
total possible time it is able to operate, without taking
any exclusion factors into account. The total possible
11.2.6. Energy Performance Index time is considered the time when the plant is exposed
to irradiation levels above the generator’s Minimum
The Energy Performance Index (EPI) is defined as the
Irradiance Threshold (MIT). Technical Availability is
ratio between the Specific Yield Yi and the Expected
covered extensively in IEC TS 63019:2019.
Yield Yexp as determined by a PV model. The EPI is
regularly recalculated for the respective assessment
period (typically day/month/year) using the actual
weather data as input to the model each time it is Technical Availability is then defined and
calculated. This concept was proposed, e.g. in (Honda calculated as:
et al. 2012). T –T
At = useful down × 100
Tuseful
Where:
A t = Technical Availability (Uptime) (%)
The Energy Performance Index (EPI) Tuseful = Period of time with in plane irradiance above MIT (h)
is defined as: Tdown = Period of Tuseful when the system is down (no production) (h)
Y
EPI i = i
Yexp(i)
Where: Figure 12 on the following page illustrates the various
EPIi = Energy Performance Index for the time period i (%)
periods in time mentioned above.
Yi = Specific Yield for the time period i (kWh/kWp) or (h)
Yexp(i) = Expected Yield for the time period i (kWh/kWp) or (h)
Normally, only the time where irradiance is above the
MIT is considered and this is noted above as Tuseful,
where Tuseful = Ttotal – T(irr<MIT). Typical MIT values are 50
or 70 W/m2. MIT should be defined according to site
and plant characteristics (e.g. type of inverter, DC/AC
ratio etc).

FIGURE 12 VARIOUS PERIODS OF TIME FOR THE CALCULATION OF THE TECHNICAL AVAILABILITY
Ttotal
Tuseful T(irr<MIT)
Tdown
Technical Availability should be measured also at would not allow for any agreed exclusions in the
inverter level. Individual inverters’ Technical Availability availability. To calculate the technical tracker
A t k should be weighted according to their respective availability, the following formula can be used:
installed DC power Pk. In this case, the Technical
Availability of the total PV power plant Attotal with an
installed total DC power of P0 can be defined as follows: Technical tracker availability is
calculated as:
T –T
Technical Availability weighted by individual At_tracker = t_useful t_down × 100
Tt_useful
inverters’ installed DC power:
Where:
Pk A t_tracker = Technical Tracker Availability (%)
At total ∑
= 100 × (At k ×
P0
) Tt_down = Period of time when the tracker is down (h)
Tt_useful = Period of time when the tracker is functional (h)
Where:
A t total = Technical Availability of the plant (%)
A t k = Technical Availability of the inverter k
Pk = Installed DC power of the inverter k
Tracking performance availability
P0 = Plant Peak DC power (nominal power) (kWp)
Functional failure of a tracker can be an inaccurate

tracking or out of sync tracking compared to the set
For the calculation of Technical Availability, typically up point. This failure can often lead to shading or small
to 15 minutes of irradiation and power production data performance deviations, based on the deviation from
should be taken as basis, if granularity of components the sun path. The formula for the tracking
remains at the level of inverter or higher. Anything below performance availability is similar to the technical
the level of inverter is then captured with the availability, with one small change to the classification
Performance Ratio calculation presented above. of Tt_down. In this case the downtime is classified to any
time the tracker is x (can be defined per site,
depending on row spacing but ultimately can be
11.2.8. Technical tracker availability or tracker uptime
modelled in PVSyst to give you a good general value
Similar to Technical Availability, Technical Tracker for all seasons) degrees from the tracker set point. As
Availability is simply a ratio of the useful time long as the deviation angle is specified, this metric can
compared to the uptime or downtime of the tracker. be a good indicator to support the maximisation of
This measurement is a pure technical parameter and single-or dual-axis tracking performance.

11.3. O&M Contractor KPIs 11.3.3. Response time

As opposed to power plant KPIs, which provide the The Response Time is the Acknowledgement Time
Asset Owner with information about the performance plus the Intervention time. Used for contractual
of their asset, O&M Contractor KPIs assess the purposes, minimum Response Times are guaranteed
performance of the O&M service. The use of these on the basis of fault classes classified on the basis of
KPIs is not widespread in Africa yet, however they are the unavailable power and the consequent potential
increasingly considered a best practice. loss of energy generation and the relevance of the
failure in terms of their safety impact. For
The following time KPIs are illustrated in Figure 13.
recommendations on Response Time guarantees, see
12.3.2. Response Time price adjustment.
11.3.1. Acknowledgement time
The Acknowledgement Time (also called Reaction 11.3.4. Resolution time
Time) is the time between detecting the problem
Resolution Time (or Repair Time) is the time to resolve
(receipt of the alarm or noticing a fault) and the
the fault starting from the moment of reaching the PV
acknowledgement of the fault by the O&M Contractor
plant. Resolution Time is generally not guaranteed,
by dispatching a technician. The Acknowledgement
because resolution often does not depend totally on
Time reflects the O&M Contractor’s operational ability
the O&M Contractor.
11.3.2. Intervention time

11.3.5. Reporting
The Intervention Time is the time to reach the plant by
It is very important for the O&M Contractor to comply
a service technician or a subcontractor from the
with reporting requirements and reporting timelines.
moment of acknowledgement and whenever when
Content and timing of the reporting is generally agreed
visit by the O&M Contractor is contractually necessary
by the parties in the Contract agreement. Content of
(in certain cases remote repair is possible or the O&M
the reporting should be expected to be consistent and
Contractor is not able to repair the fault and third-
any change in content or format needs to be explained
party involvement is necessary). Intervention Time
by the O&M Contractor. Delivery of reports per the
assesses the capacity of the O&M Contractor how
agreed upon timeline is an important indicator for
fast they can mobilise and be on site.
reliability and process adherence within the O&M
Contractors organisation. See also 5.1. Reporting.
FIGURE 13 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT TIME, INTERVENTION TIME, RESPONSE TIME, RESOLUTION TIME
Acknowledgement time Intervention time Resolution time
Response time
DETECTING ACKNOWLEDMENT REACHING THE PV FAULT

THE PROBLEM OF THE FAULT PLANT BY TECHNICIAN RESOLVED

11.3.6. O&M Contractor experience 11.3.8. Preventive vs corrective maintenance ratio
Experience of the O&M Contractor with PV power This metric measures the reactive nature of the plant
plants in the particular country, region, grid maintenance work. Management desires reactive
environment and/or with PV power plants equipped work to lessen in proportion to proactive work. This
with certain technology or size can play an important indicator is based on the actual hours technicians
role. This is quite relevant for the selection of the O&M spend on jobs. The actual hours are measured
Contractor and can be tracked by the owner over time regardless of the originally estimated hours of the
(track record ). The Solar Best Practices Mark can help planners.
Owners to evaluate the track record of O&M providers.
When the maintenance O&M Contractor has control
For more information, see www.solarbestpractices.com.
over the equipment, the O&M Contractor decides
when to take certain actions to preserve equipment.
11.3.7. Schedule attainment When the equipment has control over the O&M
Contractor, the equipment drives the efforts of
Schedule Attainment (or Schedule Compliance) is the
maintenance. A more reactive plant environment has
ability of the O&M contractor to execute the
more circumstances of the equipment experiencing
preventive maintenance schedule within the required
problems and causing the O&M Contractor to break
timeframes, typically for a period of a week or month.
the weekly schedule. The proactive maintenance
O&M Contractors who adhere to the schedule as force in control of its equipment experiences few
much as possible ensure accomplishing as much circumstances of a sudden equipment problem that
preventive maintenance and other timely corrective interrupts scheduled work.
work as possible. Schedule compliance provides a
Best practice requires that the ratio of preventive vs
measure of accountability.
corrective maintenance is 80/20.
Low schedule attainment can provide key warning
signs to the asset owner regarding the O&M
11.4. PV power plant/O&M contractor KPIs
Contractor:
11.4.1. Contractual availability
• That preventive maintenance is not done which will
lead to equipment failures over time. Contractual Availability is Technical Availability with
certain contractually agreed exclusion factors (see
• O&M Contractor might not have sufficient number
below) applied in the calculation used as a basis for
of or qualified technical staff to performance
the general Contractual Availability guarantees
maintenance.
provided by the O&M Contractor to the Asset Owner
• O&M Contractor systems such as the and included in the O&M Contract. A best practice is
management of stores and spares, procurement a Minimum Guaranteed Contractual Availability of
processes are not effective. 98% over a year. (For more details on Availability
guarantee provided by the O&M Contractor, see 12.3.1.
• There are high levels of corrective maintenance
Availability guarantee).
work – which could be due to unsolved technical
issues. Contractual Availability is thus the parameter that
represents the time in which the plant is operating
over the total possible time it is able to operate, taking
Best practice requires > 90%, based on into account the number of hours the plant is not
the following formula: operating for reasons contractually not attributable to
the O&M Contractor (listed below in the same
Number of completed section).
Schedule schedules in the period
Attainment = Total number of
× 100
schedules for the period

Contractual Availability is therefore defined Contractual Availability weighted by

and calculated as: individual inverters’ installed DC power:
P
Ac =
Tuseful – Tdown + Texcluded
Tuseful × 100 P0∑
Ac total = 100 × (Ac k × k )
Where:
Where: Ac total = Availability of the plant (%)
Ac = Contractual Availability (%) Ac k = Availability of the inverter k
Tuseful = period of time with in plane irradiance above MIT (h) Pk = Installed DC power of the inverter k
Tdown = period of Tuseful when the system is down (no production) (h) P0 = Plant Peak DC power (nominal power) (kWp)
Texcluded = part of Tdown to be excluded because of presence of an
exclusion factor (see below) (h)
For the calculation of Contractual Availability, typically up

to 15 minutes of irradiation and power production data
Figure 14 below illustrates the various periods in time should be taken as basis, if granularity of components
mentioned above. remains at the level of inverter or higher. Anything below
the level of inverter is then captured with the
Like the Technical Availability, the Contractual
Performance Ratio calculation presented above.
Availability is also calculated for irradiance levels above
the MIT and measured at inverter level. Individual As Contractual Availability is used for contractual
inverters’ Contractual Availabilities ACk should be purposes, any failure time should only begin to run
weighted according to their respective installed DC when the O&M Contractor receives the error message.
power Pk. In this case the Contractual Availability of the If the data connection to the site was not available due
total PV power plant Ac total with an installed total DC to an external issue that is beyond the O&M
power of P0 can be defined as follows: Contractor’s responsibility, failure time should only
begin after reestablishment of the link. However if the
data connection was lost due to the unavailability of
the monitoring system, the failure time should count.
In general, the O&M Contractor should immediately
look at the root cause of the communication loss and
resolve it.
FIGURE 14 VARIOUS PERIODS OF TIME FOR THE CALCULATION OF CONTRACTUAL AVAILABILITY11
Ttotal
Tuseful T(irr<MIT)
Tdown
Texcluded
11 The Tdown represents the whole downtime, before the exclusions are
applied. Therefore, Texcluded is a part of Tdown in the diagram. In practice
you often first see that a plant is down (= measurement of Tdown) and
only in the course of troubleshooting one gets the information whether
you can exclude part of the downtime.

The Asset Owner and the O&M Contractor should • Downtimes caused by Serial Defects on Plant
agree on certain failure situations that are not taken components.
into account (exclusion factors) in the calculation of
• Depending on the O&M contract, time spent
Contractual Availability. Evidence should be provided
waiting for some spare parts to arrive can is
by the contractor for any exclusion factor and the
sometimes excluded from the calculation of
reason for excluding the event must not be due to an
Contractual Availability, however this is not
O&M contractor fault. Some good examples for
considered a best practice.
exclusion factors are:
• Force majeure.
11.4.2. Contractual tracker availability
• Snow and ice on the PV modules.
Like the Contractual Availability, the Contractual Tracker
• Damage to the PV plant (including the cables up to Availability also makes allowance for pre-defined
the feed-in point) by the customer or third parties exclusions, like maintenance, panel cleaning, etc. A
who are not sub-contractors of O&M Contractor, similar formula is used to the technical availability with
including but not limited to vandalism. provision made for any predefined contractual
exclusions (see above). The formula can be seen below.
• Disconnection or reduction of energy generation by
the customer or as a result of an order issued to the
customer by a court or public authority. Contractual tracker availability is
• Operational disruption by grid disconnections or calculated as:
disruptions in the grid of the grid operator. T –T +T
Ac_tracker = t_useful t_down t_excluded × 100
• Disconnections or power regulation by the grid Tt_useful
operator or his control devices. Where:
A t_tracker = Technical Tracker Availability (%)
• Downtimes resulting from failures of the inverter or Tt_down = Period of time when the tracker is down (h)
Tt_useful = Period of time when the tracker is functional (h)
MV voltage components (for example, transformer, Tt_excluded = Part of Tt_down to be excluded because of
switchgear), if this requires: presence of an exclusion factor (see above) (h)
• Technical support of the manufacturer and/or

• Logistical support (for example supply of spare 11.4.3. Energy-based availability
parts) by the manufacturer;
Energy-based Availability takes into consideration that
• Outages of the communication system due to an an hour in a period with high irradiance is more
external issue that is beyond the O&M Contractor’s valuable than in a period with low irradiance.
responsibility. Any failure time only begins to run Therefore, its calculation uses not time but energy
when the O&M Contractor receives the error (and lost energy) for its basis:
message. If the data connection to the site was not
available, failure time shall only begin after
reestablishment of the link. Energy-based Availability is defined as:
• Delays of approval by the customer to conduct Ei

Ae i = 100
necessary works; Ei + Eloss(i) ×
Where:
• Downtimes for implementation of measures to Ae i = Energy-based Availability for the time period i (%)
Eloss(i) = Calculated lost energy in the period i (kWh)
improve the PV plant, if this is agreed between the
Ei = Plant energy production or Plant energy metered in the time period i (kWh)
parties;
• Downtimes caused by the fact that the customer
has commissioned third parties with the Generally, the Energy Based Availability is used within
implementation of technical work on the PV plant; the O&M contract in the Availability guarantee chapter
and then generally the exclusion factors defined for
Contractual Availability apply for Energy-based
Availability too.
The following table provides an overview of different

types of Key Performance Indicators and their main
purposes.
TABLE 6 OVERVIEW OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF KEY PERFORMANCE INDICATORS AND THEIR PURPOSES
PV POWER O&M QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE 12 TO BE GUARANTEED USAGE MAIN PURPOSE

PLANT KPI CONTRACTOR MONITORED IN THE O&M
KPI WITHIN THE CONTRACT
O&M
CONTRACT
Reference ✓ X ✓ X ✓ X Useful during plant designing and

Yield economic valuation
Expected ✓ X ✓ X ✓ X Useful during plant designing and
Yield economic valuation
Specific ✓ X ✓ X ✓ X Useful during plant designing
Yield and economic valuation
Performance ✓ X ✓ X ✓ X Useful during plant life in order
Ratio to assess plant performances
over time
Temperature- ✓ X ✓ X ✓ X Useful FAC and PAC or in other
corrected specific moment in plant life to
Performance assess plant PR starting point
Energy ✓ X ✓ X ✓ X Useful during plant life in order to
Performance assess plant performances over
Index time, against plant expected
performance at plant designing
Technical ✓ X ✓ X ✓ X Useful during plant life in order
Availability to assess the how much time
(Uptime) during the time frame under
analysis the plant is ready to
produce
Technical ✓ X ✓ X ✓ X Useful during plant life in order
Tracker to assess the how much time
Availability during the time frame under
(Tracker analysis the trackers are well-
Uptime) functioning
Acknowledge- X ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ Useful during plant operation in
ment Time order to assess readiness of the
O&M Provider to “realise”
(detected by the monitoring
system and acknowledge by the
O&M provider) plant failures
Intervention X ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ Useful during plant operation
Time in order to assess readiness of
the O&M provider to reach the
plant upon a failure is “realised”
12 Qualitative data is concerned with descriptions, i.e. information that can

be observed but not computed (e.g. service experience). In contrast,
quantitative is measured on a numerical scale (e.g. Performance Ratio).

TABLE 6 OVERVIEW OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF KEY PERFORMANCE INDICATORS AND THEIR PURPOSES -
continued
PV POWER O&M QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE TO BE GUARANTEED USAGE MAIN PURPOSE

PLANT KPI CONTRACTOR MONITORED IN THE O&M
KPI WITHIN CONTRACT
THE O&M
CONTRACT
Response Time X ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ Useful during plant operation in

order to assess readiness of the
O&M provider from
acknowledging a failure and
subsequently reaching the site
Resolution X ✓ ✓ X X ✓ Useful during plant operation in
Time order to assess the time used to
solve a fault from when the
plant is reached
Contractual ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ Useful during plant life in
Availability order to assess how much
time during the time frame
under analysis the O&M
Provider keeps the plant ready
to produce
Contractual ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ Useful during plant life in order
Tracker to assess how much time
Availability during the time frame under
analysis the O&M Provider
keeps the trackers well-
functioning
Energy Based ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ Useful during plant life in
Availability order to assess how much
energy has been lost due to
causes attributable to the
O&M Contractor, during the
time frame under analysis
Reporting X ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Useful during plant operation in
order to assess reliability of
reporting services
O&M X ✓ X ✓ ✓ X Useful during O&M Contract
Contractor awarding/tendering in order to
experience assess O&M Contractor
reliability on a pure
documental analysis
Schedule X ✓ ✓ X ✓ X Useful during O&M Contract
Attainment awarding/tendering to assess
O&M Contractor reliability
Preventive vs X ✓ ✓ X ✓ X Useful during O&M Contract
Corrective awarding/tendering to assess
Maintenance O&M Contractor reliability and
ratio effectiveness

12
Contractual framework
© Shutterstock
This section contains a set of considerations for the A common contractual framework for PV O&M is
contractual framework of O&M services for the small, “fixed price” for specified scope of work such as
medium and large-scale C&I and utility scale segment. administrative, operations, and preventive
For a simplified contractual framework, see section maintenance and then “cost plus” for corrective
14.4. Contractual recommendations for standalone maintenance or additional services. For the “cost plus”
PV systems. part, labour rates, equipment markup, overhead and
profit are negotiated in the contract and added to the
A complement to the technical specifications detailed
actual equipment costs incurred in correcting
in the previous chapters, the contractual framework
unexpected problems.
described in this chapter are considered as a best
practice.
12.1. Scope of the O&M contract
As a best practice, we recommend using the O&M
template contract developed as part of the Open Solar Services to be provided by the O&M Contractor
Contracts suite of template contracts. This is a joint include:
effort of the Terrawatt Initiative and the International
Technical Asset Management (Most of these services
Renewable Energy Agency. SolarPower Europe
can be performed by either the O&M Contractor or the
contributed to the drafting of the template O&M
Asset Manager).
contract, which is one of six templates in a suite of
contracts designed to be used as a package to • Reporting to Asset Owner (referred to in the Open
streamline the procurement of solar projects and Solar Contracts templates as “Monitoring Services”,
make it simpler to aggregate projects using standard although the detail is to be determined by the
terms. Aside from the O&M contract, the other parties)
templates include: • Reporting on PV plant performance
• Implementation Agreement • Reporting on O&M performance
• Power Purchase Agreement • Reporting on incidents
• Finance Facility Agreement term sheet • Ensuring regulatory compliance
• Supply Agreement • Legal requirements for PV plant operation
• Installation Agreement • Power Purchase Agreements and
Interconnection Agreements
• Asset Management Agreement
• Power generation licence agreements
Copies of each contract and explanatory guidance can
be found at the Open Solar Contracts website: • Building permits and environmental permits
www.opensolarcontracts.org.

FIGURE 15 OVERVIEW OF THE SIX TEMPLATE CONTRACTS DEVELOPED UNDER THE OPEN SOLAR
CONTRACTS INITIATIVE
Lender Government Buyer
Finance facility Implementation Power purchase

agreement agreement
Investor Land provider

Asset owner
(project company)
O&M contractor O&M agreement Local authorities
Installation agreement Supply agreement Grid operator
Installation contractor Supplier
• Warranty management • Management of change (optional)

• Insurance claims • Reporting to Technical Asset Manager (in case O&M
Contractor is not the Technical Asset Manager)
• Contract management
Power Plant Maintenance

Power Plant Operations
• PV Plant Maintenance
• Plant documentation management
• Preventive Maintenance (which is referred to in
• Plant supervision the Open Solar Contracts as “Scheduled
• Performance monitoring and documentation Maintenance”, for more information, see 7.1.
Preventive Maintenance)
• Performance analysis and improvement
• Corrective Maintenance in accordance with
• Issue detection/diagnostics agreed Response Time guarantees (some types
• Service dispatch/supervision of maintenance activities may be beyond the
scope of the contract, for more information, see
• Security monitoring interface (optional) 7.2. Corrective Maintenance)
• Plant operation • Extraordinary Maintenance (generally not
included in the O&M fixed fee but it is advisable
• Plant controls
that the O&M contract includes the rules to
• Power Generation Forecasting (optional) prepare the quotation and to execute
Extraordinary Maintenance works, for more
• Grid operator interface, grid code compliance
information, see 7.4. Extraordinary maintenance).
• Maintenance scheduling In the Open Solar Contracts O&M template, this
would fall within “Additional Services”.

12 Contractual framework / continued
• Additional maintenance services (optional, see 7.5. 7.5. Additional services should be regulated within the
Additional services). In the Open Solar Contracts contract. A dedicated clause should indicate the
O&M template, this would fall within “Additional procedure that should include: (i) a proposal by the
Services” O&M Contractor within a fixed time frame, (ii) a fixed
period for the Asset Owner to accept it or request
In the table below is a non-exhaustive list of Additional
modification, (iii) a final approval. Pre-agreed tariffs for
services and general market trends with regards to
manpower, machinery renting etc could be agreed and
whether these Additional services are generally
a specific table could be attached as Contract Annex.
included in the O&M agreement or not.
This is provided for in the Open Solar Contract O&M
All the services not included in the scope and in the template, with reference to “Standard Rates”, which
fixed fee such as 7.4. Extraordinary Maintenance and can be pre-agreed for additional services.
TABLE 7 EXAMPLES FOR ADDITIONAL MAINTENANCE SERVICES AND GENERAL MARKET TRENDS
ADDITIONAL SERVICES GENERAL BEHAVIOUR
PV site Module cleaning Generally included, or as a priced option

maintenance Vegetation management Generally included, but need to specify perimetral vegetation
management and management on possible environmental
compensation measures
Sand and dust removal Generally not included and also generally not easy to provide
General site Pest control Generally not included
maintenance Waste disposal Generally included with reference to waste generated during O&M
activities
Road management Generally not included
Perimeter fencing repair Generally not included and often caused by force majeure (i.e.: theft)
Maintenance of buildings Generally not included
Maintenance of Security Generally not included, these activities are performed by a separate
Equipment surveillance and security provider in order to have clearly defined
responsibilities (see 6.10. Power plant security)
On-site Meter weekly/monthly Generally included since it feeds the periodical performance reporting
measurement readings to the Asset Owner
Data entry on fiscal registers or Generally this activity is deemed to the Asset Manager. Can be
in authority web portals for FIT however included in O&M scope of work
tariff assessment (where
applicable)
String measurements – to the Generally not included but a price could be agreed in advance in the
extent exceeding the agreed O&M contract
level of Preventive Maintenance
Thermal inspections – to the Generally not included but a price could be agreed in advance in the
extent exceeding the agreed O&M contract
level of Preventive Maintenance

Spare Parts Management incidents not affecting the performance, referring to
good industry practices in general. A further upside is
(See also Chapter 9 on Spare Parts Management)
that it makes the transition to a new contractor much
• Spare parts maintenance smoother and hence allows Lenders and Owners to
• Spare parts replenishment pick a contractor of their choice and with the sole
criterium of quality of services. Availability guarantees
• Spare parts storage (optional) and Response Time price adjustments avoid heavy
For more information on the specific items in the change management process due to the necessity of
above list, please view the respective sections and recalculating the guaranteed PR in case of power plant
chapters of the present Guidelines. handover, which is an obstacle in the market.
Although a PR warranty is not anymore standard in the
12.2. O&M contract fee independent/third-party O&M market, it is possible to
As a best practice, O&M services should be provided set a PR target that can trigger a joint analysis between
on a fixed fee plus escalation basis. See section 12.8 the Asset Owner and the O&M Contractor, in order to
in this Chapter which discusses how spare parts identify causes and agrees on possible corrective
management may impact on the contract fee. actions, including revamping projects.
12.3. Contractual guarantees and price adjustments 12.3.1. Availability guarantee
Although some O&M Contractors still provide A best practice is a Minimum Guaranteed Contractual
Performance Ratio (PR) guarantees, recent Availability of 98% over a year at least at inverter level.
developments including the recommendations of the In certain jurisdictions, such as in Mexico, where
Open Solar Contracts initiative, show that eliminating labour legislation and the requirements of the network
PR guarantee and only using Availability guarantees operator stipulate the presence of full-time technical
and Response Time price adjustments has several on-site staff, a Minimum Guaranteed Availability of
advantages. 99% can be provided – it should, however, be
appropriately reflected in the O&M agreement’s price.
PR is to a large extent a result of equipment choice,
design and construction, over which a (third-party) For contractual KPI reasons, Availability should be
O&M Contractor has little influence, beyond calculated at inverter level, on an annual basis. For
vegetation control and module cleaning. Moreover, more information on this, see 11.4.1. Contractual
removing PR as an O&M Contractor KPI makes power Availability.
plant handover from EPC to O&M Contractor or from The Availability achieved by the O&M Contractor is
O&M Contractor to O&M Contractor simpler. translated into Bonus Schemes and Liquidated
Generally, the PR warranties are applied on projects Damages. For more information on this, see 12.4.
where the O&M contractor remain the same company Bonus Schemes and Liquidated Damages.
(or a close company) as the EPC contractor, in which
case the O&M contractor carry on the risk of the
technology made by its sister company. 12.3.2. Response time price adjustment
Availability guarantees and Response Time price The O&M Contractor should be obliged to react on
adjustments protect the Asset Owner from poor alarms received from the plant through the monitoring
performing O&M Contractors. Availability is the KPI and supervision system within a certain period of time,
that best reflects O&M Contractor’s service. Thanks 7 days a week. This translates in a minimum
to the Response Time price adjustment, in case of guaranteed Response Time with the consequence of
events affecting the performance of the plant that are an adjustment to the contract price (the O&M fee)
not covered by the Availability guarantee, the payable to the O&M Contractor in the event of failure
contractor has to intervene in a pre-agreed timeframe to meet the Response Times. For a definition of
depending on the impact of the fault. Moreover, the Response Time, see 11.3.3. Response Time.
O&M Contractor is also obliged to intervene in case of

When setting a Response Time price adjustment, it is • If the costs exceed the above budget limit, the
recommended to differentiate between hours and Contractor should communicate the issue in
periods with high and low irradiance levels as well as writing to the Asset Owner within 8 business hours
fault classes, i.e. the (potential) loss of energy from the end of the Response Time.
generation capacity or relevance in terms of safety Force Majeure events are excluded from Response
impact of the failure. Time obligations.
An example for response times according to fault In the Open Solar Contracts O&M template, a failure
classes can be seen below in Table 8. (Note that this to comply with a Response Time by more than five
example considers a larger C&I or utility-scale solar PV business days on any one occasion may also entitle
power plant. In case of small-scale installations, an Asset Owner to terminate the O&M contract.
minimum Response Times may be longer.)
In case the replacement of an equipment is needed, 12.4. Bonus schemes and liquidated damages
the O&M Contractor should commit to make it
available to the plant's site and replace it within 8 The Availability guarantees provided by the O&M
business hours from the end of the Response Time, if Contractor can be translated into Bonus Schemes and
the spare part is included in the portfolio of minimum Liquidated Damages. The Bonus Scheme concept is
spare parts list. If the spare part is not included in the referred to in the Open Solar Contract O&M template
minimum spare parts list, the O&M Contractor should as the “Availability Bonus”. These ensure that the Asset
commit to order the spare part within 8 business Owner is compensated for losses due to lower-than-
hours from the end of the Response Time and to guaranteed Availability and that the O&M Contractor
replace it on the plant area in the fastest possible way, is motivated to improve their service in order to
after receiving the related spare part from the achieve higher Availability. Higher Availability usually
equipment supplier. leads to higher power generation and an increase of
revenues for the benefit of the plant owner. Hence the
In case the fault cannot be fixed by the O&M Bonus Scheme agreements lead to a win-win
Contractor and the equipment supplier's intervention situation for both parties and ensures that the O&M
is required, the following actions are necessary: Contractor is highly motivated. The Open Solar
• If the intervention requires spare parts up to the Contracts O&M template provides for a list of
limit under the O&M cost responsibility (see 12.8. “Excusable Events”.
Spare Parts Management), the O&M Contractor
Since the O&M Contractor’s responsibility is focused
may proceed without separate approval (insurance
aspects to be considered). on the O&M works for the PV asset, other influencing
factors like force majeure events, grid operator
activities to reduce the plant output, grid instability or
TABLE 8 EXAMPLES FOR FAULT CLASSES AND CORRESPONDING MINIMUM RESPONSE TIMES
FAULT CLASS FAULT CLASS DEFINITION RESPONSE TIME GUARANTEE
Fault class 1 The entire plant is off, 100% power loss. 4 daytime hours
Fault class 2 More than 30% power loss or more than 300kWp down. 24 hours
Fault class 3 0%-30% power loss 36 hours
NOTE: Fault classes and the corresponding Response Time guarantees APPLIED even if the duration of the respective power loss is
less than the corresponding Response Time guarantee, provided that the power loss may occur again.

offline periods should be exempted from the O&M 12.6. O&M contractors’ qualification
Contractor’s responsibility and therefore from any
The O&M Contractor has the means, skills and
Liquidated Damages. (See exclusion factors in 11.4.1.
capabilities to operate and maintain the plant in
Contractual Availability.)
accordance with the contractual obligations.
An example for Availability Bonus Schemes and Experience and availability of a professional
Liquidated Damages can be found below: organisation, skilled teams and access to spare parts
are criteria for the selection of the O&M Contractor. As
• Bonus Schemes: if the measured availability exceeds
the Minimum Guaranteed Availability, the additional O&M services are a combination of remote operations
revenue based on the base case scenario expected services and local maintenance activities, the Asset
annual revenue will be divided (50/50) between the Owner should make sure that both components are
Asset Owner and the O&M Contractor in well managed and interfaces between operations
percentages previously agreed. There are also often services and maintenance services are well defined,
minimum thresholds for bonuses to be due in case especially when subcontracted to different entities by
the overall plant energy do not meet certain target. the O&M Contractor where each entity is responsible
• Liquidated Damages: if the Minimum Guaranteed and can be held accountable for the overall O&M
Availability is less than the measured availability, performance.
100% of the lost revenue due to the Availability
shortfall from the Minimum Guaranteed Availability
12.7. Responsibility and accountability
based on the base case scenario expected annual
revenue will be compensated by the O&M The responsibility of the O&M Contractor is usually
Contractor. This is usually invoiced by the Asset defined in the Scope of Works, which forms a part of
Owner to the O&M Contractor. the O&M contract. In the Open Solar Contract O&M
• Bonuses can be offset against Liquidated Damages template, this is set out in the O&M Services Schedule.
and vice versa. A detailed description of the O&M scope items ensure
clarity of what the O&M Contractor will do during the
• The amount of Liquidated Damages should be
term of the contract. In addition to the Scope of
capped at 100% of the O&M annual fee on a period
Works, the Annual Maintenance Plan (AMP) and Annual
of 12 months. Reaching this cap usually results in
termination rights for the Asset Owner and the Maintenance Schedule (AMS) (please refer to
O&M Contractor, although in the Open Solar attachment “Annual Maintenance Plan”) outline the
Contracts O&M template, the right is only given to granularity and frequency of (predominantly)
the Asset Owner. Preventive Maintenance works. The execution of the
activities is being reported to the Asset Owner through
the regular reporting – this forms the minimum
12.5. Service standards
requirements. Best practices can be seen if the regular
O&M Contractor is to provide the services in reporting compares the executed activities with the
accordance with all laws, authorisations, good industry AMP and AMS, and outlines deviations and reasoning.
practice, planning consents, manufacturer's
Corrective Maintenance activities, which will be
warranties and operating manuals and to the standard
performed in case of any component failure or energy
of a reasonable and prudent operator.
generation shortfall, are controlled by performance
The Asset Owner should be entitled to instruct a third- commitments signed by the O&M Contractor. In the
party operator to provide the services at the O&M Open Solar Contracts O&M template, these are set out
Contractor's cost, where the O&M Contractor fails to as “Corrective Maintenance Services”.
provide the services and fails to follow a corrective
Moreover, the Availability Guarantee and Response
maintenance programme.
Time price adjustment explained in 12.3. Contractual
Guarantees and price adjustments of the present
chapter also represent a level of accountability of the
O&M Contractor.

In most countries there are strict legal requirements for transfers to the Asset Owner from the date that the
security service providers. Therefore, PV power plant O&M Contractor receives payment for the same.
security should be ensured by specialised security
Besides ownership matters, it is very important to make
service providers directly contracted by the Asset
sure, upon mutual agreement, that one of the parties
Owner or, exceptionally, subcontracted by the O&M
undertakes the responsibility of insuring the spares: as
Contractor. The security service provider should also
a recommendation spare parts stored on-site should
assume liability for the security services provided. For
be insured by the Asset Owner and spare parts stored
more information on this, see 6.9. Power plant security.
off-site should be insured by the O&M Contractor.
There should be a components, materials and spare
12.8. Spare parts management
parts defects warranty for 12 months from the date
The Open Solar Contracts O&M template takes two of installation, which should continue to apply even
approaches to Spare Parts management. Either the after expiry or termination of the O&M contract.
O&M Contractor takes full responsibility for Spare
For more information on Spare Parts Management,
Parts or there is a distinction between “Included Spare
see the Chapter 9. Spare Parts Management.
Parts”, which are included in the O&M Contractor's fee,
and “Excluded Spare Parts”, the cost of which would
be payable in addition to the fee plus a pre-agreed 12.9. Power plant monitoring
margin. In either case, replenishing Spare Parts stock
The O&M Contractor should operate and maintain the
will be the O&M Contractor's responsibility, although
metering system according to local regulations or
at the Asset Owner's cost in relation to Excluded Spare
norms. In some countries there are two metering
Parts. This guidance considers it best practice to take
systems: one that measures power injection in the
the second approach of clearly identifying Included
grid, owned and operated by the grid operator, and one
and Excluded Spare Parts, in order to find an
that measures power production, owned by the Asset
appropriate balance between the amount of risk that
Owner as part of the installation and operated by the
the Asset Owner is willing to accept against the cost
O&M Contractor.
of the O&M fee.
The O&M Contractor will also make sure that
Although it is best practice for the O&M Contractor to
performance monitoring and reporting is operated
be responsible for replenishing the spare parts stock, it
and maintained according to the monitoring
is not necessarily responsible for the full cost of doing
specifications and best practices (see 10. Data and
so. Some Asset Owners require O&M Contractors to be
monitoring requirements).
fully responsible for the cost of all spare parts within the
O&M fee, however, the more cost-effective approach is The Asset Owner has the right to carry out the
to agree which are “Included Spare Parts” and which are verification of the metering system to evaluate and
“Excluded Spare Parts”. control the exactitude of the measured data.
Included Spare Parts are those which the O&M
Contractor is to be responsible for within the O&M fee. 12.10. Reporting
Excluded Spare Parts are those which the Asset Owner
Reporting should be done periodically, as contractually
is responsible for the cost of replenishing and do not
agreed between the O&M Contractor (the Technical
fall within the O&M Contractor's O&M fee. This is a
Asset Manager) and the Asset Owner. The Asset Owner
flexible approach allowing the Asset Owner and O&M
should have the right to debate the report within a
Contractor to agree which spare parts fall into which
certain timeframe.
category. It enables both parties to have a level of cost
certainty whilst balancing this with the Asset Owner's For more information on industry best practices
appetite for risk. regarding Reporting, see 5.1. Technical reporting.
Ownership of spares is often with the Asset Owner
from delivery to site or placement in the spares stock.
In the case of excluded spare parts, ownership

13
Innovations
and trends
© BayWa r.e. renewable energy GmbH
O&M contractors are increasingly relying on 13.1. Smart PV power plant monitoring and data-
innovations and more machine and data-driven driven O&M
solutions to keep up with market requirements.
Traditional monitoring systems generally consist of
Innovations in O&M services are anticipated to reduce
on-site data loggers that collect electrical data from
the levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) by 0.8% to 1.4%
devices installed on the PV plant inverters, strings,
between 2015 and 2030. The savings are dominated
meters and weather data from meteorological
by improvements in OPEX and power plant availability,
stations. A management software then allows remote
and hence net Annual Energy Production (source: KIC
performance management, data visualisation, basic
InnoEnergy, 2015).
KPI calculations, reporting and alarm and ticket
The most important trends and innovations shaping management.
today’s O&M market are summarised in this section,
These systems, used on their own, commonly fail to
grouped into three “families”:
detect the root causes of underperformance. The
1. Smart PV power plant monitoring industry is therefore rapidly moving towards the
and data-driven O&M adoption of ‘smarter’ solutions based on advanced
2. Retrofit coatings for PV modules data mining techniques.
3. Waterless cleaning of PV modules. Data mining is the process of digging through data to
discover hidden connections and predict trends.
Sometimes referred to as “knowledge discovery in
databases,” the term “data mining” was not coined
until the 1990s. Its foundation is comprised of three
intertwined scientific disciplines as shown in Figure 16
on the following page.
Although data mining is not a new discipline, its
capabilities are now being unleashed due to the
potential of big data and increasingly affordable
computing power and storage. Its potential to enable
O&M contractors to move beyond manual, tedious
and time-consuming practices to quick, easy and
automated data analysis is now becoming more
tangible (source: SAS, 2018).

13 Innovations and trends / continued
FIGURE 16 DATA MINING FOUNDATIONS
Machine Algorithms that can learn from

Learning data to make predictions
Process of digging through data

Data
to discover hidden connections
mining and predict future trends
Artificial The numeric study

Statistics
Intelligence of data relationships
Human-like intelligence displayed

by software and/or machines
Adapted from: WWW.SAS.COM
13.1.1. Advanced aerial thermography Data acquisition

Purpose and description In this stage a flyover is performed where raw
thermographic infrared (IR) images and visual photos
The general functionality of thermographic data has
or videos are recorded. Depending on the solution
already been outlined in Chapter 10.10.1. Infrared
additional geolocation services and 3D modelling of
thermography. While thermographic inspections have
the entire plant may be offered. Some other solutions
become well established as a tool in preventive and
provide additional sensors to record weather variables
corrective maintenance scheduling, the amount of
(usually irradiance and ambient temperature) during
effort and manual labour required for data gathering
the flyover.
in the field has posed financial and operational
challenges for their widespread use.
Post-processing
Using thermographic cameras mounted on drones
(Remotely Piloted Aircrafts, RPAs or Unmanned Aerial The post-processing activities consists of all the data
Vehicles, UAVs) or purpose-modified piloted aircraft, processing and analysis techniques to produce the
instead of handheld devices, the operator flies over final report and all the related deliverables. These
the PV modules to capture thermographic images or activities can be done manually or automatically by
videos. This data is then analysed to create inspection means of specialised software.
reports which can be used to form the basis for
The activities comprised in this stage can be thought
preventive and corrective maintenance tasks. If
as serial list of subtasks described in the table on the
deployed properly, aerial thermography can bring a
following page.
number of operational and financial advantages.
The data acquisition stage is now well understood as
It is recommended to refer to the Aerial Thermography
drone technology ripens and becomes a trend. There
Checklist of the Solar Best Practices Mark for a
are already many companies that offer high-quality
synthesis of the most important best practices and
industrial aerial flights. Usually companies using drones
recommendation with respect to aerial
thermography.13
13 The best practice checklists of the Solar Best Practices Mark are

TABLE 9 AERIAL IR THERMOGRAPHY – POST-PROCESSING SUBTASKS
POST-PROCESSING SUBTASK DESCRIPTION
Geolocation of PV Manual or automated location of the PV modules inspected. Layout recreation with precise
modules geolocation down to individual module ID or even to module’s serial number.
Thermal anomalies Manual or automated detection of thermal anomalies, where the exact position of each
detection and affected PV module is identified on the plant’s layout. Minimum requirements for this
classification analysis can be found in IEC TS 62446-3:2017.
PV module failure Diagnosis and root-cause analysis of PV module failures. This is where the link between
analysis thermal anomaly and PV module failure is done (warning: not all the thermal anomalies may
be considered failures). Temperature differences should be projected to nominal irradiance
in accordance with IEC TS 62446-3:2017.
Data analytics Basic or advanced data treatment to describe the impact of failures in the PV plant. e.g.
degradation trends, failure distribution by harm degree and by module manufacturer; power
losses assessment and impact on revenue, etc.
Maintenance Actions needed to minimise yield losses based on defect criticality. It can be seen as a list of
implementation plan recommendations that can be directly translated into scheduled or corrective field operations.
Inspections follow-up Usually as a cloud-based platform, it’s where the results of previous inspections can be easily
compared with new ones, e.g. year-to-year power degradation.
Reporting Report created manually or automatically. In most cases the report is tailored to the
customer’s needs and requirements. It contains the summary of the findings and additionally,
depending on the provider, it could contain some calculations of estimated power losses.
Source: BAYWA R.E.
as a daily-work tool do not only conduct IR inspections portfolios as human-error drives down the accuracy
of PV plants, but also industrial aerial inspections of oil of thermal imaging assessment. This means that
ducts, off-shore oil extraction platforms, roads, bridges companies with automated solutions have a huge
and wind turbines, just to name a few. Therefore, the advantage in this regard.
data acquisition stage is an activity that could be easily
Aerial inspections and their associated post-processing
outsourced by O&M contractors, mitigating the risks
activities are evolving very rapidly and the quick
related to technology obsolescence and avoiding the
adoption of new technologies is of high strategic
costs of drone regular maintenance.
importance in today’s highly competitive O&M market.
There are some companies which utilise specially
modified piloted aircraft in lieu of drones for
Pilots
inspections of large sites and portfolios. These
systems have advantages of much faster capture Any aerial thermography or other PV module and plant
times (up to 150 MW/hr) while maintaining high monitoring application involving drones or piloted
resolution due to the higher quality of cameras which aircrafts must be carried out by a licensed operator
can be used. These systems have the disadvantage and in accordance with all local and EU-level civil
that the costs can be prohibitive for individual sites aviation regulations. Before any such operations can
due to greater mobilization costs. take place, each flight must be thoroughly planned
from a logistics, regulatory and safety perspective, and
Most companies today still rely on manual data
a comprehensive on-site risk assessment conducted,
processing, which represents a big drawback for large

with findings recorded in a flight log. In addition to the Aerial thermography is becoming a widely accepted
collected inspection data, each flight should also be and employed tool of inspection in corrective
fully recorded in terms of date, time, wind speed and maintenance worldwide. Given the price drop in
direction and battery levels. equipment (both RPAs and thermographic cameras),
it will become even more available. Further innovation
is to be expected in autonomously controlled RPAs as
Advantages and disadvantages
well as data analysis using Artificial Intelligence.
With the advent of aerial inspections, resources
If deployed properly, aerial inspection could become a
required for data collection can be significantly
cornerstone technology for effective O&M and they
reduced. Aerial infrared (IR) thermography might
would not only be an activity performed just to
seem a trivial activity, but when not conducted
comply with contractual obligations.
following a set of minimum technical requirements
(described in IEC TS 62446-3:2017), it is almost of no
use for effective plant maintenance. In that context, 13.1.2. Automated plant performance diagnosis
high-quality IR images captured by an aerial platform
Purpose and description
and their proper post-processing allow for a detailed
PV module failure analysis that could trigger As described in SolarPower Europe’s Global Market
conclusive maintenance decisions. Furthermore, field Outlook, the PV industry showed in 2017 the highest
interventions can be optimised, and PV plant growth in the energy market, with total capacity
underperformance can also be better understood and installed of nearly 100 GW worldwide. In such a
addressed (e.g. faulty modules that need to be context, PV plant reliability is subject to higher
replaced can be identified with precision and high- reliability requirements. With special consideration for
quality IR images can be used as proof in warranty aging plants where the secondary market is growing,
claiming processes). Aerial thermography reduces the automating diagnostics of PV assets is crucial.
inspection time and the number of personnel on site.
Until now, plant performance assessment is typically
For instance, using this method, a 12MWp PV plant can
executed in a top-down approach, analysing low
be inspected in a single day. Additionally, since images
performing objects by drilling down from substations,
are taken from the air, the data yields a helpful
inverters to junction boxes and strings. This process
overview to check whether plant layout and other
is time consuming and expert dependent.
documents are correct.
Furthermore, the process does not guarantee revealing
As with any form of thermography, the inspection all underperformance issues.
method is limited by meteorological conditions: For
Automated bottom-up diagnosis using advanced big
the inspection data to be of value, a minimum
data mining techniques can overcome the
radiation of 600 W/m2 is required. For drone
disadvantages of classic plant performance
inspections, in order for the RPA to be controlled
assessment by experts: time saving of expert data
safely, and depending on the type of RPA used, wind
handling, more error prone and better diagnosis
speeds should not exceed 28 km/h.
performance.
State of play
State of play
The demand for IR inspections is growing fast, and so is
Big data mining algorithms have been successfully
the range of services offered by new players in the
applied to solar plant data and have proven to reveal
market, who are now pushing aerial inspections beyond
performance issues beyond top-down expert analysis
basic reporting. Advanced aerial inspections, understood
in a semi-automated way. Further R&D into this
as semi-automated or fully-automated solutions are
subject area serves to make the algorithms more
being put into practice for both IR inspection stages,
robust for automated application on large portfolio’s
data acquisition and post-processing.
and bringing them to root-cause failure identification.

FIGURE 17 AUTOMATED PLANT PERFORMANCE DIAGNOSIS
Optimisation
Valuie
Fault n t
atio sigh
diagnosis mn
ed Fore
om
Rec
Fault
detection
ght
Insi State of the art is
somehwere here
Analysis
tion
rma dsight
Info Hin
Complexity
Source: ACHIM WOYTE, 3E
13.1.3. Predictive maintenance for optimised Preventive maintenance is scheduled periodically

hardware replacement according to contractually agreed schedules based on
expert knowledge. On top of that, condition-based
maintenance may be scheduled when the operator
Operational costs of PV plants can have a significant identifies an unexpected deviation in performance
impact on the total LCOE and therefore, on the through the monitoring system, even before the
profitability of a project. Optimisation of operation system would fail. Different maintenance
quality, reducing maintenance costs and maximising optimisation models are employed to find the optimal
plant performances, is the key for a successful project. balance between the costs and benefits of
This process goes through a trade-off between maintenance interventions. All those models count on
reducing the number of interventions and spare parts the probability of failure of each component of the PV
replacement during the lifetime of a project while system and the impact of possible single device
ensuring the plant performs in the best conditions. failure over the entire system. For example, in the case
FIGURE 18 PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE FOR OPTIMISED HARDWARE REPLACEMENT
Year?
4.0%
Replacement rate (4%)
When is the right time Optimal replacement

3.0% to replace an inverter? cycle for predictive
maintenance
2.0% Cost per time unit under

the optimal age-based
replacement policy
1.0%
0.0%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Year
Source: ACHIM WOYTE, 3E

of PV inverters, it is still uncertain what their actual programs in the medium to long term. This will of
lifetime will be under site specific operating course reduce the overall risk of a PV project and
conditions. In practice, inverters will not fail at a hence increase the investing opportunities.
precise given moment in time as often modelled in the
business plan. Moreover, failure-based maintenance
13.1.4. PV plant yield forecasting
i.e. replacing the inverter(s) when this fails may not be
the most efficient solution. Purpose and description
A good predictive monitoring system could help on Electricity generation from PV plants is limited by the
assessing the optimal hardware replacement cycle by varying availability of the sun’s radiation. Even though
modelling the uncertainty in the time-to-failure with grid operators are generally obliged to dispatch PV
a known probability distribution function. plant production at all times, the growing penetration
Maintenance optimisation models can provide tools of PV may force new regulations to guarantee grid
relying on the output from root cause analyses, stability and the correct balancing of electricity supply
remaining useful life time analyses and alerting and and consumption at all times, causing unpredictable
prediction of assets failures in the optimal planning of losses to plant owners (curtailment).
maintenance and related resource allocation.
Ramp-rate control with and without local storage is
Big data analytics can bring added value at any stage currently studied in order to mitigate the impact of fast
of O&M objectives: analysis from observation of irradiance fluctuations on power system stability.
collected information to fault detection, fault Approached from the generator side, large PV plants
diagnosis and finally optimisation through could also contribute to power system stability by
recommendations issued from the advanced providing upward or downward reserves. Technically, this
monitoring system. Today different approaches are is possible; however, particularly the provision of upward
proposed. Whereas classic Artificial Intelligence (AI) reserves will reduce the overall performance of the plant
proposes an advanced diagnostic through knowledge- in question. The business case for such operation
based models, unsupervised and supervised learnings modes will depend on the incentives available for
methods offer different approaches (e.g. neural deviating from the objective of maximum energy yield.
networks) using statistical approaches.
State of play
The prediction of PV production is becoming an
Advantages: essential tool to capture economies in a market with
large penetration of variable renewable energy
• Lowering the cost of ineffective scheduled
maintenance sources. Expected PV yield output accounting for
specific PV plant simulation model and forecasted
• Reducing device downtime meteorological resource is a well proven technology.
Disadvantage: Algorithms that are able to match weather forecasts
with PV plant characteristics in order to predict energy
• Methods are often very sensitive to device models production on an hourly basis for few hours ahead and
and brands and can thus not be generalised easily. up to the next 48 hours are already playing an
important role in the monitoring software market.
State of play The market is rapidly moving towards the need of
Today, no model has been proven to be completely advanced intra-day correction of the forecasted
reliable. Big-data analysis allows easy recognition of a energy production at sub-hourly resolution and by
fault and, in some cases, provides a clear diagnosis taking into account actual PV plant conditions like
and recommendations on the short-term actions to remote curtailment, broken inverters, local losses, etc.
take to avoid probable upcoming issues. The trend is Therefore, long and short-term data collection
to model the behaviour of the entire system and to constitute an added value to improve the PV plant
plan optimal maintenance and hardware replacement yield forecasting.

A clear communication protocol between devices in Standardisation efforts (e.g. SunSpec Alliance’s Orange
the field (sensors, modules, inverter, loggers, etc.) Button initiative) are taking place throughout the PV
would help to improve the intra-day forecasting and market and will help to improve on configuration costs
better exchange with the energy grid. A for solar monitoring. However, the solar monitoring
comprehensive exchange of information between the industry will also benefit heavily from the emerging
devices can be used by the simulation model to Internet-of-things technologies that further improve
compute performance expectations. This can be plug-and-play behaviour of device communication,
achieved by a trained machine learning system where improve the quality and the security of the
the operator can set, review and validate specific communication and reduce the cost of hardware.
conditions. In this frame, a proper standardization of
terminology and languages used by any
communicating device onsite is crucial. The topic of
Internet of Things and its application to PV is Advantages
addressed in the following Section 13.1.5.
• Reduce the cost of monitoring hardware and
infrastructure.
13.1.5. Internet of Things (IoT) and auto-configuration • Reduce the cost of configuration and maintenance
Purpose and description of the monitoring infrastructure.
• Improve the quality and the stability of the data.
Solar monitoring, being a crucial function in the asset
operations, is often still a painful and costly process: • Improve the security level and the options for
failing or unstable local hardware, failing bidirectional communication.
communication between the local devices, failing
Disadvantages
communication with the cloud or data centre
infrastructure, configuration issues in loggers or in the • Existing hardware and monitoring equipment will not
portal, high costs for communication, configuration or be necessarily compatible with the new Internet-of-
reporting. Things technologies resulting in hybrid solutions until
the former technologies are phased out.
Additionally, requirements with respect to the
interaction of the solar power plants with the grid and
the electricity markets, increase and put new State of play
specifications on the speed, the protocols and the
Many Internet-of-Things (IoT) technologies have
security levels applied.
passed the prototype phase and are available for
Internet of Things (IoT) in photovoltaic systems massive deployment. However many different
represents an interoperability environment where all technological solutions and approaches are still
devices in the field are connected to each other and available in the market and no final best-practice
spontaneously show themselves as available to be approach has emerged.
connected to the system. Additionally, each
Again, this leads to a standardisation issue for
connecting device should provide the following
industry-wide adoption of Internet-of-Things
information:
technology within the solar industry and as such
• Device parameters (brand, type, Serial Number, benefits from its advantages will be reduced when
internal datasheet specifications) considering PV on a larger scale.
• Device status and conditions (operational status,
temperature, etc.)
• Connection with other devices & mapping (strings
connected, inverter, sensor position, etc.)
• Any other relevant information

13.1.6. Future best practices in document Advantages and disadvantages

management systems
The idea of meta-tagging documentation allows any
Purpose and description document to be tagged with different criteria. This
way any piece of information can be stored over
Asset contractual and technical documentation as
multiple time areas, assets, records or any relevant
described in today’s Best Practices can be handled
criterium. The-meta tagging allows the user or the
either physically or electronically, as far as the employed
applications to filter information on relevant criteria
Document Management System (DMS) keeps all
only. For example, only pictures from a certain period,
documents ready consultation by or transfer to relevant
or only plans from a defined equipment type. This way
stakeholders. The inventory of technical documentation
of meta tagging also avoids the need for documents
linked to a portfolio of plants can become very complex,
to be copied or stored in multiple locations.
especially in an era where the solar sector is moving
towards a secondary market. Considering the number
of documents to be stored and exchanged per plant, the State of play
increasing number of stakeholders that should have
In terms of technological readiness and market
free access to a subset or the totality of the
uptake, digital DMS solutions using meta-tags and full-
documentation, the physical exchange and storage of
text search are already existing and adopted by some
files becomes nearly impossible to be maintained
Asset Managers and O&M contractors. This
without a proper quality process. Electronic document
technology could become soon a best practice,
management and storage is thus becoming a best
though the standardisation of document tagging in
practice within the Solar industry.
the solar industry is not yet implemented.
At the same time, the use of meta-tags instead of a
Document recognition and meta-tag auto-filling is
classical tree structure is a technique of filing that is
already available on most documents including some
becoming more widespread where asset
scanned file types via OCR (Optical Character
documentation can be considered as relevant to
Recognition). At a next level, image recognition and
different stakeholders or belonging to different
auto-tagging would save operational time.
portfolios. The use of meta-information and their
standardisation under a common nomenclature is
seen as the next best practice, especially to facilitate
13.2. Retrofit coatings for PV modules
the contractual management of big portfolios and the
maintenance operations. 13.2.1. Anti-soiling coatings
Next to meta-tagging documents with additional Purpose and description
information, making any document (scan, word, xls,
Solar cells, just like human eyes, need a clean field to
mail, etc.) full text searchable adds to the best
function properly. Deposits and particles covering the
practices to make sure that all information can be
surface of PV panels, like soiling, staining, dirt and
listed and searched for when the need occurs.
grime, leaves, pollen, bird droppings, lime-scale and
Both technical and contractual documentations, other environmental or industrial pollutants, prevent
including device replacement, scheduled solar radiation from reaching the cells of PV modules
maintenances, operators contacts, calendar of and inevitably the efficiency and the optimal function
operations, intervention reports, should be tagged and of the solar system is reduced.
electronically stored using a standardised terminology.
Soiling influences the levelised cost of electricity
This will facilitate their retrieval and updates as well as
(LCOE) in two ways: by leading to an O&M cost
operation management or transition of a plant to a
(periodic cleaning), and by reducing the energy
new O&M contractor.
produced from 1%-10% in normal cases and up to 80%
Additionally, the selected DMS should allow a suitable in extreme situations. In general, the presence of dirt
user management system that will automatise the or any other particles on the module surface has an
exchange and security of sensitive documents impact on the anti-soiling properties; specific coating
between stakeholders. products with anti-soiling properties which also

provide anti-reflective performances have been already installed in the field. Applied to the surface of
developed in the last years. the panels, these coatings reduce the reflection and
thereby the losses due to reflection resulting in a
higher energy output.
Innovative new coatings specifically engineered for
Modules treated with anti-soiling coatings get dirty
aftermarket application are based on the same
less quickly and are easier to clean and therefore
technology platform as the leading anti-reflective
maintain higher performance levels for longer,
technology for new modules. These coatings reduce
reducing the amount of module cleaning necessary
the amount of light reflected off the glass, allowing
and increasing yield by up to 3%. This is particularly
more light to travel through to the solar cell and to be
interesting in arid regions, as anti-soiling coatings can
converted into electricity.
help to reduce water use for PV module cleaning.
An ARC works by providing an incoming photon with
Some anti-soiling coatings can also be used to restore
a very gradual transition from air to glass. It does this
corroded PV module surfaces. Most anti-soiling
by varying the porosity of the material from very high
coatings are relatively easy to use so that they can be
at the coating-air interface to very low at the coating-
applied by the O&M Contractor.
glass interface. An ARC layer has typically a thickness
When it comes to applying coatings to already of 120-150nm and can be applied on the module
installed modules in general, the O&M Contractor surface through special equipment, commonly
should carefully evaluate possible consequences for named “applicator”, or via spray. Both technologies
PV module warranties and for any incentive or tariff provide different results in terms of layer uniformity,
schemes. thickness and performance. The more controllable is
the coating process the better will be the final result.
Retrofit anti-soiling coatings are a layer applied on the
surface of the modules that in principle do not affect ARC is based on a silica-gel solution that is applied on
the properties of the glass surface and that can be the module surface. Once applied, the solution
removed if needed for warranty purposes. become a solid layer after a period of curing. Tests
executed with mechanical application show power
gain in the range of 3%-5%. An additional point to be
State of play
considered when it comes to ARC retrofit technology
There are already various commercially available anti- is the durability of the coating layer. A good ARC should
soiling coatings that can be applied on PV modules last for at least 5 years with a physiological yearly
that have already been installed. New solutions are degradation that shouldn’t reduce the coating
also being developed – some of which outperform properties more than 30% from its original
older anti-soiling coatings or even anti-reflective performance.
coatings in terms of power gain. The new generation
of retrofit anti-soiling coatings are mostly based on
spray technologies but some anti-soiling coating
suppliers are developing specific solutions for desertic Retrofit anti-reflective coatings can increase module
areas that are applied via mechanical systems. output in the field by up to 3-4%. In some cases, pilot
tests have shown energy gains up to 5%.
13.2.2. Anti-reflective coatings When it comes to applying coatings to already installed
modules in general, the O&M Contractor should
carefully evaluate possible consequences for PV module
Reflection losses are one of the first loss factors warranties and for any incentive or tariff schemes. An
occurring in the energy flow when converting sunlight ARC, if applied properly through a mechanical
to electricity via the PV power plant. application specifically developed for the purpose, does
not damage the module surface. A new generation of
New anti-reflective coatings (ARC) that can be applied
modules has an ARC applied during the manufacturing
directly via a ‘retrofit’ method onto PV modules
process. A coating supplier that performs ARC properly

should be able to provide the client specific warranties 13.3. Waterless cleaning of PV modules
(e.g. product liability insurance).
In many places around the globe which receive
significant precipitation at least once a month, the need
State of play to wash solar panels is almost irrelevant. A study
published in the International Journal of Sustainable
There are already commercially available anti-
Energy found that one gram of dirt per square meter
reflective coatings that can be applied in a retrofit
can decrease a panel’s output by more than 30 percent,
manner. Other products are currently being developed
which is why commercial PV farms often employ some
and tested to substantiate the applicability of the
form of cleaning (Al-hasan & Ghoneim, 2007).
solution on a large scale and data will be collected
from different locations. However, many utility-scale and commercial and
industrial PV sites in Africa are located in arid climates.
“Mature” ARC technologies which has been tested for
These arid regions are known for large amounts of
years are already available. They provide reliable
dust and insufficient rainfall to automatically clean
results both in terms of durability and
solar panels. Furthermore, in some of these regions,
overperformance. This coating solution is based on a
access to clean water is a problem which further
mechanical application via a controlled process that
exacerbates the problem of cleaning solar modules.
involves pre-coating measurements, quality control
during the coating process and post-coating Various solutions have been launched over the past
measurements. For this purpose, sophisticated few years including nano-coating the glass on solar
equipment such as spectrometers, able to measure modules installed in arid areas (see also section 13.2.1.
the variation (%) of reflection before and after the on Anti-soiling coatings), the use of pneumatic
coating process, are needed. The market provides a cleaning systems which employs pressurised air jets
wide offer of such devices and with prices in the range and robots which use a combination of brushes and
of 5-9k EUR, but not all spectrometers are good for air blowers to remove dust, sand and bird droppings
ARC applications. from modules without using water.
Further research in this field is ongoing in multiple
facilities globally and it is expected that the outcome
of this research will result in ever-better solutions and
PV yield performance as these solutions are
commercialised.

14
O&M for standalone solar
installations with storage
© Shutterstock
In 2017, about 850 million people in the world remained Standalone solar PV systems are often combined with
without access to electricity, and about 70% of those Energy Storage Systems (ESS). ESS are a set of
people live in Sub-Saharan Africa (ARE, 2019; ESMAP, technologies whose aim is to decouple energy
2019). Due to dramatical cost reductions for solar- generation from demand. The systems allow for
battery-based systems, it is expected that most new excess electricity to be “stored” and released during
mini-grids will be based at least partially on solar. periods of high electricity demand, providing cost-
Therefore, standalone PV plants and mini-grids are very saving opportunities to consumers and ensuring a
important for electrification of off-grid areas in Sub- steady and safe electricity supply. Energy storage can
Saharan Africa. contribute to better use of renewable energy in the
electricity system since it can store energy produced
Operation of mini-grids is probably one of the most
when the conditions for renewable energy are good,
complex matters of PV, because it depends on many
but demand may be low.
variables like composition of the generator, local
distribution of consumers, consumption profile, The selection of a storage system can significantly
strategy for later integration into a centralized grid etc. influence a project’s overall O&M strategy. Technical
For this reason, are limiting our first approach to O&M parameters such as battery lifetime, efficiency, depth
of PV plants in off-grid areas to standalone systems – of discharge (DoD) and/or power density, should be
with or without Energy Storage Systems (ESS). taken into consideration at the development stage to
select the adequate ESS and avoid unnecessary costs
In consequence, this chapter is to assist in the
throughout the project’s lifecycle.
application of the best practices, detailed in the
previous chapters of the document, to off-grid PV
plants. All best practices mentioned in these 14.1. Environment, Healthy & Safety
Guidelines could be theoretically applied to off-grid
Necessary precautions as outlined in Chapter 3.
systems, however in the case of off-grid systems
Environment, Health & Safety should be taken for
there will be different priorities. Apart from providing
standalone solar PV systems. Further emphasis should
the highest possible care in the most cost-efficient
be placed on training and skills required for working in
manner to deliver the lowest levelized cost of
heights and on roofs. It is more likely that access to the
electricity (LCOE), other objectives are at least as
system is available to other parties not directly
important, such as:
involved in the upkeep of the solar system. Installers
• Availability of electricity at the moment of and O&M providers should provide “stakeholder
demand and ease of maintenance; training” for people working or living in the proximity
of the installation.
• Availability of professional knowledge: expertise
is not always available; Proper signalization of dangers should be displayed
beside any hazardous device.
• Local instead of central monitoring.

14 O&M for standalone solar installations with storage
/ continued
EH&S considerations for Energy Storage Systems It is best practice to design the system in a way that
allows straightforward removal and replacement of
Most batteries are subject to environmental
modules. The system itself should be easily accessible
regulations that require recycling or proper disposal at
for inspection without needing to significantly
end of performance period. The ESS mentioned above
disassemble the ESS system. Disposal of hazardous
are electrical appliances and as such are subject to
material should comply with local and national rules
significant health & safety risks. To prevent hazards
and regulations.
(e.g. uncontrolled release of energy), an appropriate risk
assessment must be performed during the design and When dealing with owners of off-grid standalone
planning phases and necessary safety precautions systems, who are usually not professional solar
implemented. The hazards must be identified during stakeholders, additional thought must be given to the
these stages and appropriate measures taken to information provided to them at all stages of project
mitigate risk and to protect those operating the lifecycle.
system. The main risks are: impact, excessive heat,
• Retailers/installers should be clear about the need
crush or water penetration and electrical shock There
for ongoing maintenance and make sure this is
is also a significant health and safety risk of poisoning
reflected in any financial analysis provided to
or mishandling hazardous materials, especially the
customers. Best practice would involve either
sulphuric acid electrolyte added to lead-acid batteries.
• The retailer providing maintenance service
Both external and internal factors should be
themselves (or)
considered during the risk assessment since, in some
cases, the ESS itself can be the cause of hazardous • Ensuring a clear and continuous handover to 3rd
event. The major hazards for large-scale ESS can be party O&M.
categorised as follows:
• Provide a manual to the homeowner with contact
• Electrical, occurring when there is direct contact information and description of operational indicators
between a person and the system and procedures they can do, including clear
documentation that states the customer as
• Mechanical, occurring after a physical collision
responsible for maintaining original insolation/shade.
• Poisoning or exposure to hazardous materials
• Other, occurring due to an explosion, fire, thermal 14.2. Monitoring & reporting
runaway, or the leaking of chemical components
In the case of standalone systems, the Asset Owner is
from the system.
typically not a solar professional, therefore reporting
To avoid risks, the system should not overheat, come needs to be easily understood and clear. The purpose
into contact with water, or suffer from either electrical of reporting is to verify the asset is performing in
stress or high humidity. The risk of electrical shock can accordance to expectations as promised by the
be mitigated - as is common practice in photovoltaic retailer/installer in the selling process.
plants - with appropriate electrical insulation: for
A central question is to ensure the accuracy of the
instance, by wearing appropriate personal protective
performance monitoring of a standalone PV system,
equipment (PPE). The energy storage system should
given the likely absence of a pyranometer and module
be maintained by trained technicians since improper
temperature sensors.
handing increases the risk of electrical shock. For
personnel qualifications during the installation and
maintenance of stationary batteries, reference should Key Performance Indicators
be made to IEEE 1657 - 2018.
For reporting to Asset Owners, emphasis shall be
Safety data sheets should be provided to those placed on the Energy Performance Index (EPI) rather
operating the system. In case of repair or replacement, than Availability, Downtime or Performance Ratio. EPI
addition or alteration of the system, the safety system is an easily explainable metric that does not require an
should be re-evaluated and, if necessary, additional in depth understanding of solar. (See 11.1.2.6. Energy
safety systems implemented. Performance Index for more details)

If EPI is greater than 100% the system is performing It is a minimum requirement to monitor the charging
to expectation based on actual weather conditions status of the batteries, because it may have a great
experienced. importance for battery lifetime. For example, a
charging level of under 50% should be avoided for
The expected yield based on actual weather
lead-acid batteries. The information of the battery
conditions must use the same assumptions (PR,
monitor shall be accessible for the responsible of O&M
shade, degradation) as was made to invest. The EPI
of the off-grid system, above all the charging status in
should be reported to Asset Owner at least annually,
% of total capacity.
but O&M Provider should be reviewing and take
action more frequently (monthly). Another important component of an off-grid system is
the charge controller (also called solar regulator). It
limits the rate at which electric current is added to or
Reference yield data collection
drawn from electric batteries, prevents overcharging,
In order to accurately calculate the Energy and may protect against overvoltage, which can reduce
Performance Index, collection of Reference Yield battery performance or lifespan and may pose a safety
(Local Irradiation) and temperature data is required. risk. It may also prevent completely draining a battery
(“deep discharging”), or perform controlled discharges,
The following methods can be applied for collection
depending on the battery technology, to protect battery
of reference yield as seen in Table 10 below.
life. Apart from normal maintenance tasks, it is
important to control the error log file for entries.
Operating and monitoring of energy storage systems
To increase the lifecycle and efficiency of an ESS, the 14.3. Maintenance
implementation and regular follow-up of an efficient
Even though off-grid systems are designed to require
monitoring system is essential. ESS should always be
minimum maintenance, it is important to adhere to
equipped with an Energy Management System (EMS)
this maintenance plan, in order to ensure availability
to track charge/discharge states and make sure that
and normal lifetime of the systems’ components. For
the system does not exceed/go under the prescribed
a proposed maintenance plan for standalone PV
charging limits. The EMS should also gather data
systems, see Annex f.
coming from energy meters, auxiliary systems and
operating parameters, such as temperature, voltage,
current, power level, state of charge, state of energy
and warning messages, in order to assess the
condition of the ESS daily.
TABLE 10 METHODS SUGGESTED FOR THE COLLECTION OF REFERENCE YIELD
REFERENCE YIELD ACCURACY HARDWARE COMMENT

SOURCE COST
Onsite Pyranometer High* High For more information, see 10.9.1. Irradiance measurements.
Public pyranometers may be used if available.
Module level sensor High High
Satellite Data Medium-High** None For more information, see 10.9.1. Irradiance measurements.
Cell Sensors Medium Low
Local Comparison Medium-Low None The established baseline must be verified.
Historic Data Low None Monthly variation may be +/-20%.
* Pyranometers and cell sensors needs periodical cleaning and recalibration to keep the highest level of accuracy. If this cannot be sustained, a good satellite irradiation data set is preferable.
** Satellite data accuracy depends on type of source. However, the best references have a granularity of 3x3 km² and do not include local shades.

14 O&M for standalone solar installations with storage
/ continued
Maintenance of energy storage systems In the last years another type of dry cell battery has
spread rapidly: lithium-ion batteries (LIB). They
The most critical parts of off-grid systems are the
combine high power density (small size), high cycle-
batteries (or ESS). There are two types of batteries:
count (number of charge-discharge cycles during
• Wet cell batteries (or flooded cell batteries) lifetime), and fast recharge times. They may also
operate at higher ambient temperatures as compared
• Dry cell batteries
to lead-acid batteries. Furthermore, a LIB pack
The wet cell batteries used in off-grid PV systems are normally includes a battery management system,
normally vented lead acid batteries (VLA batteries). In which facilitates battery handling. They are (still) more
principle thick lead-based plates that are flooded with expensive than lead-acid batteries, but prices are
an acid electrolyte. The container is unsealed (“vented”), decreasing rapidly.
because gases produced during operation need to
Apart from battery typology, three factors determine
escape to the air. Therefore, the batteries have to be kept
battery lifetime:
upright and the area be well ventilated to ensure safe
dispersal of the hydrogen gas it produces during 1. Ambient temperature
overcharging. Normally they are kept in dedicated
2. Cycling
battery rooms, and strict safety measures have to be
observed. VLA batteries are highly reliable, if 3. Quality of maintenance
maintenance instructions are observed (for example,
The rated capacity of a battery is based on an ambient
adding water in order to regenerate the electrolyte
temperature of 25°C. Any variation from this operating
liquid). However, flexibility is limited, because after some
temperature can alter the battery’s performance and
months it will be difficult to add new batteries to an
shorten its expected life. Depending on the type of
existing system. It is important to use VLA batteries for
battery, this factor may be more or less important.
solar application. VLA batteries for cars or motorcycles
are inappropriate and will break down quickly. Each cycle (discharge and subsequent recharge)
reduces the battery’s relative capacity by a small
A dry cell battery uses a paste electrolyte, with only
percentage, albeit a much smaller percentage for LIB.
enough moisture to allow current to flow. Therefore, it
The length and depth of the discharge cycle
can operate in any orientation without spilling. Valve-
determines the reduction in battery capacity.
regulated lead-acid batteries (VRLA batteries; sealed
lead-acid batteries, captive electrolyte lead-acid Gradual decrease in battery life can be monitored and
batteries) are lead batteries with immobilized sulfuric evaluated through voltage checks, load testing or
acid electrolyte. Since they are sealed within monitoring. Periodic preventive maintenance extends
polypropylene plastic and hydrogen recombines with battery string life by preventing loose connections,
oxygen inside the battery, water or gases do not removing corrosion and identifying bad batteries
escape under normal conditions, and water needs not before they can affect the rest of the string. By
to be added. For this reason, they are also called respecting the manufacturer’s maintenance
‘maintenance-free’ batteries, even if this term is guidelines, the end of battery life can be accurately
misleading, because it only refers to water refilling. estimated and replacements scheduled without
They are ‘valve-regulated’, because security valves will unexpected downtime.
vent the batteries, when gas pressure becomes too
In order to perform a systematics maintenance, a plan
great inside the battery, for example because of
on location showing how component and system
excessive overcharging.
must be tested is required. In case of reparation or
Two common types of VRLA batteries used in PV replacement or of any component within the system,
systems are: it should be checked whether the change comply with
the applicable regulation.
• Gel batteries, which use a silicon dioxide gel as
electrolyte.
• Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) batteries, where a
fiberglass mats absorb the electrolyte. 14 Note: this list is intended to be illustrative and not limiting.

The storage system (battery) should be provided by basic spare parts in stock, as described in chapter 9 on
an operational manual, including at least the following Spare Parts Management. Failing this, care should be
topics14: taken to select component manufacturers which can
provide local service and fast replacement of faulty
• System overview and site layout.
goods. In this case, the inverter, charge controller, and
• System component description. batteries are the most important spare parts.
• Maintenance cycles for all components, including
the actions to be taken during the inspection and 14.4. Contractual recommendations for standalone
maintenance activities. PV systems
• Safety instructions. To ensure maximum availability of a solar asset, the
owner should perform or subcontract a proper
operations and maintenance activity. The Asset Owner
Spare parts management
should have access to a customer support hotline and
In order to guarantee a nearly 100% availability of the know who to contact in the event of issue. This
system, strategical spare parts need to be stocked on information should ideally be placed next to the
site, such as fuses and surge protections. If inverter. O&M services for distributed systems should
economically feasible, the O&M provider should have cover the incidents seen in Table 11 below.
TABLE 11 INCIDENTS COVERED BY O&M SERVICE AGREEMENTS FOR DISTRIBUTES SOLAR SYSTEMS
INCIDENT CLASSIFICATION COMMENT
Inverter alarms Minimum Alarms generated by the inverter should be acknowledged at least daily.
requirement Maintenance responsible should take necessary actions in the shortest delay
(within 2days)
Monitoring Failure Minimum O&M Provider should have good guidelines and troubleshooting guides that
requirement allow system owner to self-diagnose and resolve within 2 days.
Inverter failure Minimum As soon as inverter failure is indicated by inverter alarms or monitoring failure
requirement a replacement should be installed within 1 day.
System Level Best Practice Duration and frequency of reporting should be according to the expected
Performance Alerts accuracy and availability of live irradiation data.
Best Practice for monthly comparison, minimum annually.
Module- String/ Recommended For commercial projects with more than one inverter, reporting should be at
Inverter Level minimum at inverter level.
Alerts String or MPPT level reporting to alert to string failure is recommended where
possible.
Module cleaning Minimum The expectation for module cleaning planning should be based on the site, the
(and pyranometers requirement installation type and size, the environmental conditions.
or sensor cells if Actual planning of module cleaning can be adjusted based on the performance
present) (EPI) of system over time.

References
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dust accumulated on their surface”, in: International Journal of visualization of hailstorm damages of photovoltaic plants”,
Sustainable Energy, Web: Renewable Energy 118 (2018) 138-145.
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/147864505002
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Laboratory. http://sam.nrel.gov.
ARE (Alliance for Rural Electrification) (2019), Annual Report 2019,
Web: https://www.ruralelec.org/publications/annual-report-2019 NREL, 2018. Best Practices for Operation and Maintenance of
Photovoltaic and Energy Storage Systems, 3rd Edition. National
Brabandere, K. De; M. Richter; F. Assiandi and B. Sarr. 2014. Renewable Energy Laboratory, Sandia National Laboratory,
“Engineering Models for PV System Operations,” Performance SunSpec Alliance and the SunShot National Laboratory
Plus WP2 Deliverable D2.3, Jul. 2014. Multiyear Partnership (SuNLaMP) PV O&M Best Practices
Working Group; December 2018, Web:
Eder G.C., Y. Voronko, P. Grillberger, B. Kubicek, K. Knöbl, “UV- https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy19osti/73822.pdf
Fluorescence Measurements as Tool for the Detection of
Degradation Effects in PV-Modules”, 34th EUPVSEC 2017. N. Reich, B. Mueller, A. Armbruster, W. G. J. H. M. van Sark, K. Kiefer, and
C. Reise. 2012. “Performance Ratio Revisited: Is PR > 90%
ESMAP (Energy Sector Management Assistance Program) (2019), Realistic?” Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications
Mini Grids for Half a Billion People: Market Outlook and 20 (6): 717–26. doi:10.1002/pip.1219.
Handbook for Decision Makers, Web:
https://www.esmap.org/new_esmap_report_minigrids_for_half Patzold M., K. Kaufmann, C.-M. Lin, M. Rudolph, D. Lausch, “Quantitative
_a_billion_people Evaluation Of Soldering Contacts During Thermal Cycling Using
Magnetic Field Imaging (Mfi), 36th EUPVSEC 2019
European Commission. 2018. “Energy storage”. Web:
https://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/technology-and- Pelland, Sophie; Jan Remund; Jan Kleissl; Takashi Oozeki and Karel De
innovation/energy-storage Brabandere. 2013. “Photovoltaic and Solar Forecasting - State of
the Art.” Report IEA PVPS T14-01:2013. International Energy
European Commission. 2019. “Cybersecurity Act”. Web: Agency Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme.
https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-
market/en/news/cybersecurity-act-strengthens-europes- PVsyst SA. 2017. PVsyst Photovoltaic Software.
cybersecurity http://www.pvsyst.com.
European Parliament. 2016. Cyber Security Strategy for the Energy Richter, Mauricio, Karel De Brabandere, John Kalisch, Thomas Schmidt,
Sector (IP/A/ITRE/2016-04 PE587.333. Web: and Elke Lorenz. 2015. “Best Practice Guide on Uncertainty in PV
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Services, Markets and Competitors, 2013-2017”, Greentech
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https://pvpmc.sandia.gov/
IEC 61724-1:2017. Photovoltaic system performance - Part 1:
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Systems: Good Practices and Systematic Analysis.” In 28th EU
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Stefan Mau, and Hans Georg Beyer. 2014. “Analytical Monitoring
Köntges M., S. Kajari-Schröder, I. Kunze, “Cell Cracks Measured by UV of Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems - Good Practice for
Fluorescence in the Field”, 27th EUPVSEC 2012. Monitoring and Performance Analysis.” Report IEA-PVPS T13-03:
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2018.

A Annex
A. Applicable international standards for solar O&M
Generic for O&M

IEC 62446-1:2016 Photovoltaic (PV) systems - Requirements for testing, documentation and maintenance - Part 1: Grid
connected systems - Documentation, commissioning tests and inspection
IEC 62446-2 Photovoltaic (PV) systems - Requirements for testing, documentation and maintenance - Part 2: Grid
connected (PV) systems – Maintenance of PV systems
IEC TS 63049:2017 Terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) systems – Guidelines for effective quality assurance in PV systems
installation, operation and maintenance
IEC 60364-7-712:2017 Low voltage electrical installations - Part 7-712: Requirements for special installations or locations - Solar
photovoltaic (PV) power supply systems
System Performance and Monitoring
IEC 61724-1:2017 Photovoltaic system performance - Part 1: Monitoring
IEC TS 61724-2:2016 Photovoltaic system performance - Part 2: Capacity evaluation method
IEC TS 61724-3:2016 Photovoltaic system performance - Part 3: Energy evaluation method
IEC TS 61724-4 Photovoltaic system performance - Part 4: Degradation rate evaluation method (not yet published as of
October 2019)
IEC TS 63019:2019 Photovoltaic power systems (PVPS) – Information model for availability
ISO 9847:1992 Calibrating field pyranometers by comparison to a reference pyranometer
Specialised Technical Inspections
IEC TS 62446-3:2017 Photovoltaic (PV) systems - Requirements for testing, documentation and maintenance - Part 3:
Photovoltaic modules and plants - Outdoor infrared thermography
IEC 61829:2015 Photovoltaic (PV) array - On-site measurement of current-voltage characteristics
IEC TS 60904-13:2018 Photovoltaic devices - Part 13: Electroluminescence of photovoltaic modules
Other supporting documents
IEC TS 62738:2018 Ground-mounted photovoltaic power plants - Design guidelines and recommendations
IEC TR 63149:2018 Land usage of photovoltaic (PV) farms - Mathematical models and calculation examples
IEC 60891:2009 Photovoltaic devices - Procedures for temperature and irradiance corrections to measured I-V characteristics
IEC 61853-1:2011 Photovoltaic (PV) module performance testing and energy rating - Part 1: Irradiance and temperature
performance measurements and power rating
IEC 61853-2:2016 Photovoltaic (PV) module performance testing and energy rating - Part 2: Spectral responsivity, incidence
angle and module operating temperature measurements
IEC 61853-3:2018 Photovoltaic (PV) module performance testing and energy rating - Part 3: Energy rating of PV modules
IEC 61853-4:2018 Photovoltaic (PV) module performance testing and energy rating - Part 4: Standard reference climatic profiles
IEC 60904-5:2011 Photovoltaic devices - Part 5: Determination of the equivalent cell temperature (ECT) of photovoltaic (PV)
devices by the open-circuit voltage method

B Annex
B. Proposed skill matrix for O&M personnel. (Download it from www.solarpowereurope.org)
Planned
name Surname Function
First
Comms
Data &
Electrician
Trainee
Electrician
Trainee
Electrician
Trainee
Electrician
Trainee
supervisor
Electrician/
supervisor
Electrician/
supervisor
Electrician/
supervisor
Electrician/
Administration
Administration
Administration
Engineer
Electrical
Managerial/
Engineer
Electrical
Managerial/
Engineer
Electrical
Managerial/
Engineer
Electrical
Managerial/
Not required
Health & Safety
Company’s Services introduction
Health & Safety assessment test
Manual Handling
Required
Display Screen Equipment
Risk Assessment
Occupational Health & Safety training course
Training to handle Health & Safety in a team
Update required
Certification of Occupational Health & Safety
First Aid at Work
HV Substation Access
Managing Contractors
Other task, company or country relevant

requirements (e.g. working at height, asbestos
awareness, use of specific equipment,
construction/installation certificate etc.)
mental
Environ-
Certificate of Environmental
Management and Assessment
Other relevant training course and/or
certificate of Environmental Management
Metering
Certain Monitoring tool training Monitoring &
Meter accreditation and calibration
Other relevant skills (e.g. data handling tool)

PV Modules
Basic knowlege about the installed product

(e.g. handling, general sefety guidlines,
installation etc.; see also recommendations
by module manufacturer/installation manual)
Basic measurement skills (e.g.
thermography, power measurements)
Inverter
Power Electronics
Learning Tools Interoperability (LTI)
Other skills (e.g. experience with specific

product and type of inverter)
Electrical
Certification of Electrical Qualification
Other relevant skills (e.g. Specific Inspection &

Test training, relevant accredited courses etc.)
Data & Comms
Termination of specific communication cabling
Installation of the monitoring system
Installation and connection of meters
Installation of satellite broadband system
Other skills

C Annex
C. Documentation set accompanying the solar PV plant. (Download it from www.solarpowereurope.org)
INFORMATION TYPE AND DEPTH OF DETAIL / AS-BUILT DOCUMENTS
NO. MINIMUM DESCRIPTION COMMENTS

REQUIREMENTS
1 Site • Location / Map / GPS Coordinates

Information • Plant Access / Keys
• Access Roads
• O&M Building
• Spare Parts Storage / Warehouse
• Site Security Information
• Stakeholder list and contact information (for example, owner of the site,
administration contacts, firefighters, subcontractors / service providers, ...)
2 Project • Plant Layout and General Arrangement “Lightning Protection
Drawings • Cable routing drawings System layout
• Cable list drawing” can be
• Cable schedule/ cable interconnection document considered as
• Single Line Diagram optional
• Configuration of strings (string numbers, in order to identify where
the strings are in relation to each connection box and inverter)
• Earthing/Grounding System layout drawing
• Lightning Protection System layout drawing
• Lighting System layout drawing (optional)
• Topographic drawing
3 Project • Shading study/simulation
studies • Energy yield study/simulation
• Inverter sizing study
4 Studies • Voltage drop calculations
according to • Protection coordination study
national • Short circuit study
regulation • Grounding study
requirements • Cable sizing calculations
• Lightning protection study
5 PV Modules • Datasheets
• Flash list with PV modules positioning on the field
(reference to string numbers and positioning in the string)
• Warranties & Certificates
6 Inverters • O&M Manual
• Commissioning Report
• Factory Acceptance Test
• Inverter settings
• Dimensional drawings
7 Medium • Medium Voltage/Inverter Cabin layout and general arrangement drawing
Voltage/ • Medium Voltage/Inverter Cabin foundation drawing
Inverter • Erection procedure
Cabin • Internal Normal/Emergency Lighting Layout Drawing
• Fire Detection and Fire Fighting System Layout Drawing (if required)
• HVAC system Layout Drawing
• HVAC system Installation & O&M Manual
• HVAC Study (according to national regulations)
• Earthing system layout drawing
• Cable list
8 MV/LV • O&M Manual
Transformer • Commissioning Report
• Factory Acceptance Test Report
• Type Test Reports
• Routine Test Reports
• Dimensional drawing with parts list

C Annex / continued
NO. MINIMUM DESCRIPTION COMMENTS

REQUIREMENT
9 Cables • Datasheets
• Type & Routine test reports
10 LV & MV • Single Line Diagram “Protection relays
Switchgear • Switchgear wiring diagrams settings” and
• Equipment datasheets and manuals “Switching
• Factory Acceptance Test report procedure” are
• Type Test Reports considerations for
• Routine Test Reports the MV Switchgear
• Dimensional drawings
• Protection relays settings
• Switching procedure (according to national regulations)
11 HV Switchgear • Single Line Diagram
• Steel structures assembly drawings
• HV Switchyard general arrangement drawing
• HV Equipment Datasheets and Manuals (CTs, VTs, Circuit Breakers,
Disconnectors, Surge Arresters, Post Insulators)
• Protection & Metering Single Line Diagram
• HV Equipment Type & Routine Test Reports
• Interlock study
• Switching procedure (according to national regulations)
12 UPS & • Installation & O&M Manual
Batteries • Commissioning report
• Datasheets
• Dimensional Drawings
13 Mounting • Mechanical Assembly Drawings
Structure • Warranties & Certificates
14 Trackers • Mechanical Assembly Drawings
• Electrical Schematic Diagrams
• Block diagram
• Equipment Certificates, Manuals and Datasheets (Motors, Encoders)
• PLC list of inputs and outputs (I/O) by type (Digital, Analog or Bus)
• Commissioning reports
15 Security, • Security system layout/general arrangement drawing
Anti-intrusion • Security system block diagram
and Alarm • Alarm system schematic diagram
System • Equipment manuals and datasheets
• Access to security credentials (e.g. passwords, instructions, keys etc)
16 Monitoring/ • Installation & O&M manual I/O list includes e.g.
SCADA system • List of inputs by type (Digital, Analog or Bus) sensor readings that
• Electrical Schematic diagram are collected by
• Block diagram (including network addresses) data loggers.
• Equipment datasheets
17 Plant Controls • Power Plant Control System description
• Control Room (if applicable)
• Plant Controls instructions
• Breaker Control functionality (remote / on-site) and instructions
• List of inputs and outputs
18 Communication • Installation and O&M manual
system • System internal communication
• External Communication to monitoring system or Operations Centre
• IP network plan
• Bus network plans

D Annex
D. Important examples of input records in the record control. (Download it from www.solarpowereurope.org)
RECORD CONTROL
NO. ACTIVITY TYPE INFORMATION INPUT RECORD REFERENCES/ COMMENTS

TYPE
1 Alarms / Alarms Date and Time, Affected Power, Equipment Code /

Operation description Name, Error messages / Codes, Severity
Incidents Classification, Curtailment Period, External
Visits/Inspections from third parties
2 Contract Contract Project Name / Code, Client Name, Peak Power
Management general (kWp)
description
3 Contract Asset Structure Type, Installation Type
Management description
4 Contract Contract Contract Start and End Date
Management period
5 Contract Contractual Contract Value, Availability (%), PR (%), Materials /
Management clauses Spare parts, Corrective Work Labour
6 Corrective Activity Detailed Failure Typification, Failure, Fault Status, EN 13306 - Maintenance.
Maintenance description Problem Resolution Description, Problem Cause Maintenance terminology
7 Corrective Corrective Associated Alarms (with date), Event Status EN 13306 - Maintenance.
Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance terminology
event
8 Corrective Corrective Date and Time of Corrective Maintenance Creation EN 13306 - Maintenance.
Maintenance Maintenance (or Work Order), Date and Time status change Maintenance terminology
event log (pending, open, recovered, close), End date and
time of the intervention, Start date and time of the
intervention, Technicians and Responsible Names
and Function
9 Corrective Intervention Affected Power and Affected Production,
Maintenance equipment/ Equipment Code / Name
Element name
10 Inventory Warehouse Inventory Stock Count and Movement, Equipment
Management management Code / Name
11 Monitoring & Equipment Date, Status log (protection devices, inverters,

Supervision status monitoring systems, surveillance systems)
12 Monitoring & Meteo data Irradiation, Module temperature, Other meteo IEC 61724 - Photovoltaic
Supervision variables (ambient temperature, air humidity, wind system performance
velocity and direction, …) monitoring - Guidelines
for measurement, data
exchange and analysis
13 Monitoring & Production / AC active and reactive power at PV Plant Injection IEC 61724 - Photovoltaic
Supervision consumption Point and other subsystems or equipment, system performance
data Consumption from auxiliary systems, Other monitoring - Guidelines
variables (DC/AC voltages and currents, frequency), for measurement, data
Power from DC field exchange and analysis
14 Monitoring & Performance PV Plant Energy Production; PR; Expected vs Real
Supervision data

D Annex / continued
RECORD CONTROL
NO. ACTIVITY TYPE INFORMATION INPUT RECORD REFERENCES/ COMMENTS

TYPE
15 Preventive Intervention Affected Power and Affected Production,

Maintenance equipment/ Equipment Code / Name, Intervention Start and
Element name End Date
16 Preventive Maintenance Measurements, Preventive Maintenance Tasks
Maintenance description Performed, Problems not solved during activity
and its Classification and Typification, Technicians
and Responsible Names and Function
17 PV Plant Commissioning Commissioning Documentation and Tests IEC 62446 - Photovoltaic
Documentation Results (PV) systems -
Requirements for testing,
documentation and
maintenance - Part 1: Grid
connected systems -
Documentation,
commissioning tests and
inspection
18 PV Plant Operation and Equipment Manuals, PV Plant O&M Manual IEC 62446 - Photovoltaic
Documentation maintenance (PV) systems -
documentation and
connected systems -
Documentation,
inspection
19 PV Plant System As built documentation (Datasheets, wiring IEC 62446 - Photovoltaic
Documentation Documentation diagrams, system data) (PV) systems -
documentation and
connected systems -
Documentation,
inspection
20 Warranty Claims Affected Equipment, Claim Description,
Management registration Occurrence Date; Communications between
O&M, client and manufacturer/supplier

EQUIPMENT TASK IMPORTANCE FREQUENCY EXTENT
Modules Integrity inspection & replacement Minimum requirement Y T
Thermography inspection Recommendation Y T

E Annex
Measurements inspection if required Y S
Check tightening of clamps Minimum requirement Y R
Modules cleaning According to local conditions (Y) T
Sample internal inspection of junction boxes (if possible) Recommendation Y T
Electrical cabinets and Integrity check & cleaning Minimum requirement Y T

switchboards
Documents inspection if required Y T
- Array/string junction box
Check labelling and identification Minimum requirement Y R
- Generator junction box
- AC switchboards Electrical protections visual inspection & functional test Minimum requirement Y T
- AUX switchboard
Check fuse status Minimum requirement Y T
Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition

- General utilities switchboard
- Weather station’s cabinet Check surge protection status (if applicable) Minimum requirement Y T
- Monitoring system cabinet
Check integrity of cables & state of terminals Minimum requirement a Y T
- Communication cabinet
- Security system board Sensor functional verification (if applicable) Recommendation a Y T
- Other cabinets
Measurements inspection Best practice a Y T
Thermographical inspection Recommendation a Y T
Check tightening Minimum requirement a Y T
Lubrification of locks Minimum requirement a Y T
Monitoring operation test (if applicable) Recommendation a Y T
Cables Integrity inspection Minimum requirement Y R
- DC / AC cables Check labelling and identification Minimum requirement Y R

- Cables in switchboards, cabinets,
Check cable terminals Minimum requirement Y R
inverters
E. Annual Maintenance Plan: On-grid. (Download it from www.solarpowereurope.org)
Measurements inspection Recommendation Y R
Inverters Integrity check & cleaning Minimum requirement Y T
- Central inverters Documents inspection Best practice Y T

for both utility and distributed solar plants. For distributed, please take into account the following legend.
- String inverters
Electrical protections visual inspection, check correct operations Minimum requirement Y T
Check fuses Minimum requirement Y T
Check surge protections Minimum requirement Y T

a: distributed: only if required; b: distributed: recommendation; c: distributed: not applicable; d: distributed: best practice
D: Daily, M: Monthly; Q: Quarterly; SA: semi-annual; Y: yearly; nYr: every n years; T: Total installation; S: Defined subset; R: random subset.
plan is conceived for a 50 kW to 1 MW fixed mount rooftop installation with secure access. The maintenance plan applies
The abbreviations describe the importance and frequency of the maintenance tasks related to each component of the solar plant:
The utility maintenance plan is conceived for a 3-5 MW site (land-locked site far from seashore). The distributed maintenance
Thermographical inspection Best practice b Y T
Sensors functional verification Minimum requirement Y R
119
120
Inverters Measurements inspection Minimum requirement Y T
- Central inverters Check parameters Minimum requirement Y T

- String inverters
Functional test of ventilation system Minimum requirement SA T
Check batteries According to manufacturer’s (Y) T

recommendations
Replace batteries (3yr) T
Replace fans (5yr) T

E Annex / continued
Safety equipment inspection Minimum requirement Y T
Clean filters Minimum requirement SA T
Replace filters Minimum requirement 2yr T
Transformer c Integrity check & cleaning According to local conditions (Y) T
- Power transformer Check labelling and identification Minimum requirement Y R
- AUX transformer Thermographical inspection Best practice Y T
Functional verification of sensors & relais Minimum requirement Y T
Check parameters Minimum requirement Y T
Check oil level (if applicable) and max. temperature Minimum requirement Y T
Check of cooling system (fans) if applicable Minimum requirement Y T
Check of MV surge discharger devices (if applicable) Minimum requirement Y T

MV switchgear Integrity check & cleaning According to local conditions (Y) T
incl. protection devices c
Safety equipment inspection Minimum requirement Y T
Electrical protections visual inspection Minimum requirement Y T
Thermographical inspection, if possible Recommendation Y T
Sensors functional verification Minimum requirement Y T
Measurements inspection Minimum requirement Y T
Check correct operation Minimum requirement Y T
Check cables terminals Minimum requirement Y T
Battery / UPS check Minimum requirement Y
Mechanical lubrication According to manufacturer’s (5yr) T

recommendations and necessity

Replace certain mechanical parts (5yr) T
Battery / UPS replacement (3yr) T

MV switchgear Check protection parameters According to local grid code (5yr) T

incl. protection devices c
Functional check of protection devices (5yr) T
Power analyser c Integrity check & cleaning Minimum requirement Y T
Measurements inspection Minimum requirement Y T
Software maintenance Recommendation Y T
Monitoring operation test Minimum requirement Y T
Check parameters Minimum requirement Y T
Energy meter Integrity check & cleaning Minimum requirement Y T
Check values and parameters Recommendation Y T

Check of communication devices (modem, converters) if applicable Recommendation Y T
Power control unit c Check batteries According to manufacturer’s recommendations (Y) T
Functional verification Y T
Integrity check & cleaning Minimum requirement Y T
UPS c Integrity check & cleaning Minimum requirement Y T
Check batteries According to manufacturer’s recommendations (Y) T
Functional test of ventilation system (if applicable) Best practice Y T
Emergency generator Integrity check & cleaning According to manufacturer’s recommendations (Y) T
(if applicable) c
General maintenance (Y) T
Check correct operation (Y) T
Replacement of filters (5yr) T
Lights and electric sockets Integrity check & cleaning Minimum requirement Y T
Check conformity to local security standards Minimum requirement 3yr T
HVAC (if applicable) Integrity check & cleaning According to manufacturer’s recommendations (Y) T
Functional verification (Y) T
Change of air filters (Y) T
121
122
Water supply system (if applicable) Integrity inspection If applicable Y T
Fire detection central (if applicable Integrity check & cleaning According to manufacturer’s recommendations (Y) T
and local requirements
Battery inspection (Y) T
Sensors functional verification (Y) T
Cleaning of cameras & sensors (Y) T

E Annex / continued
Lightning protection (if applicable) Integrity inspection Minimum requirement Y R
Fences and gates Integrity inspection Minimum requirement Y T
Lubrication of locks Minimum requirement SA T
Vegetation Vegetation clearing According to local conditions (Q) T
Paths Integrity inspection Best practice Y T
Vegetation clearing Recommendation Y T
Drainage System General cleaning Minimum requirement SA T
Manholes Integrity inspection Best practice Y T
Buildings Integrity check & cleaning According to local requirements (Y) T
Lubrification of locks Minimum requirement SA T
Documents inspection According to local requirements (Y) T
Check fire extinguishers (Y) T
Check earthing (3yr) T
Safety equipment Integrity check & cleaning Minimum requirement Y T
PV support structure Integrity inspection Minimum requirement Y R
Check tightening Minimum requirement Y R
Check potential equalization Minimum requirement 2yr T
Tracker system c Integrity check & cleaning Minimum requirement Y T
Check correct operation According to manufacturer’s recommendations (Y) T
Check tightening (Y) R
Mechanical lubrication SA T

Weather station d Integrity check & cleaning According to manufacturer’s recommendations (Y) T
Functional test of sensors (Y) T
Check batteries (if applicable) (Y) T
Monitoring operation test (Y) T
Irradiation sensors Integrity check & cleaning According to manufacturer’s recommendations Q T

and local requirements
Calibration 2yr T
Monitoring operational test Y T
Communication Board Functional communications check Minimum requirement D T
Intrusion detection and Integrity check & cleaning Minimum requirement Y T

verification system c
Functional verification of intrusion detection According to manufacturer’s recommendations (Y) T

Functional verification of alarming Y T
Functional verification of cameras M T
Specific maintenance Y T
Stock of spare parts d Inventory of stock Minimum requirement Y T
Visual inspection of stock conditions Minimum requirement Y T
Stock replenishment Minimum requirement M T
123
124
Modules Integrity inspection & replacement of broken modules Minimum requirement Y T
Check tightening of clamps Minimum requirement Y R
Modules cleaning According to local conditions (Y) T

F Annex
Electrical cabinets and switchboards Integrity check & cleaning Minimum requirement Y T
- Array/string junction box
Documents inspection (if applicable) Best practice Y T
- Generator junction box
- AC switchboards Check labelling and identification Best practice Y R
Electrical protections visual inspection & functional test Minimum requirement Y T
Check surge protection status (if applicable) Minimum requirement Y T
Check integrity of cables & state of terminals Minimum requirement Y T
Measure Uoc and Isc of individual strings Best practice Y T
Check tightening of terminals Minimum requirement Y T
Lubrification of locks Minimum requirement Y T
Cables Integrity inspection (where accessible) Minimum requirement Y T

- DC / AC cables
Check labelling and identification Best practice Y R
- Cables in switchboards, cabinets, inverters
Check cable terminals Minimum requirement Y T
Charge controller Integrity check & cleaning Minimum requirement Y T

The standalone PV maintenance plan is conceived for a 10-300 kWp site.
Documents inspection Best practice Y T
Check surge protection (if applicable) Minimum requirement Y T
Check error log Best practice Y T
String inverters / charge controller Integrity check & cleaning Minimum requirement Q T
Documents inspection Best practice Y T
Performance test of inverter (10 min at maximum rated power) Best practice, according to manufacturer's recommendations Y T
Check fuses Minimum requirement Y T
Check surge protection Minimum requirement Y T

F. Annual Maintenance Plan: Standalone off-grid systems. (Download it from www.solarpowereurope.org)
Functional test of ventilation system Minimum requirement SA T

D: Daily, M: Monthly; Q: Quarterly; SA: Semi-annual; Y: Yearly; nYr: Every n years; T: Total installation; S: Defined subset; R: Random subset.
The abbreviations describe the importance and frequency of the maintenance tasks related to each component of the solar plant:
Clean filters Minimum requirement Q T

Replace filters According to local conditions (2yr) T
Batteries Integrity check & cleaning (especially the terminals) Minimum requirement Y T
Thermography of battery terminals Best practice Y T
Check the electrolyte level in each cell (VRLA) Minimum requirement * Q T
Check batteries, for example According to manufacturer's recommendations (Y) T

- Measure float voltage and current of the entire bank
- Measure terminal voltage of individual batteries
- Visual check of state of sulfation (VRLA)
- Check specific gravity of electrolyte (VRLA)
- Check voltage balance and internal temperature (LIB)
- Check status / error log of battery management system (LIB, if available)
Functional test of ventilation system (if applicable) Minimum requirement SA T
Emergency generator (if applicable) Integrity check & cleaning According to manufacturer's recommendations (Y) T

Replacement of filters (5yr) T
Lightning protection (if applicable) Integrity inspection Minimum requirement Y R
Fences and gates Integrity inspection Minimum requirement Y T
Lubrication of locks Minimum requirement SA T
Vegetation Vegetation clearing According to local conditions (Q) T
PV support structure Integrity inspection Minimum requirement Y R
Check tightening Minimum requirement Y R
Check potential equalization Minimum requirement 2yr T
Spare parts Check for completeness Minimum requirement Y T
Complete spare parts According to manufacturer's recommendations (Y) T
* Best practice: monthly
125
SolarPower Europe - Leading the Energy Transition
Rond-point Robert Schuman 2-4, 1040 Brussels, Belgium
T +32 2 709 55 20 / F +32 2 725 32 50
info@solarpowereurope.org / www.solarpowereurope.org
ISBN NUMBER 9789464073461

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Operation &

NETWORKING & INFORMATION EVENTS

www.get-invest.eu @GET_invest GET.invest

WALBURGA HEMETSBERGER DAVID ACHI SEGUN ADAJU ENOCH AGYEPONG

RICARDO COSTA PEREIRA NIVESHEN GOVENDER KAMAL GUPTA GEOFFREY KAILA

MATTHEW MATIMBWI ISAIAH D. NYAKUSENDWA JOHN VAN ZUYLEN

Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition 3

Design: Onehemisphere, Sweden. Email: contact@onehemisphere.se.

Published: March 2021.

4 Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition

Sponsor members of SolarPower Europe:

Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition 5

Foreword 3 6.3. Performance analysis

2 Definitions 20 8 Revamping and Repowering 56

6 Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition

10.10.2. I-V curve tracing on-site 75 12.8. Spare parts management 96

Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition 7

Table 1: Proposed indicators/values Figure 1: Overview of a selection of applicable

List of boxes Figure 15: Overview of the six template

8 Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition

AC Alternating Current ISO International Organization

Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition 9

10 Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition

Power plant operation Revamping and repowering

Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition 11

12 Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition

Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition 13

FIGURE 1 OVERVIEW OF A SELECTION OF APPLICABLE STANDARDS FOR O&M (STATUS: 2019)

General O&M activities PV components and BoS

Other support standards

14 Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition

Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition 15

16 Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition

Lender (financing bank)

Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition 17

FIGURE 2 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES BY DIFFERENT STAKEHOLDERS IN THE FIELD OF O&M

ENGINEERING OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

Technical Asset Management

• Reporting • Warranty management

Plant documentation management Plant operation:

PV Plant Maintenance: Spare parts storage

18 Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition

Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition 19

FIGURE 3 CASE STUDY OF A YIELD REVIEW OF A CHALLENGED PV POWER PLANT PROJECT

Cumilative cash flow plan vs. actual

Cash infusion ∼38% of initial investment =

Investment Exploitation phase Time

SOURCE: EXXERGY. © SOLARPOWER EUROPE 2020

20 Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition

Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition 21

22 Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition

Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition 23

24 Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition

Operation & Maintenance Best Practice Guidelines / Africa edition 25

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