EXPERIMENT # 01

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Objectives

 To verify by measurement, that maximum power is developed in a load when the load resistance is
equal to the internal resistance of the source.
 To construct a graph, using measured values of voltage, current and load resistance and calculated
power to verify graphically Objective 1 above.

Materials Required

a. LABVOLT test bench

b. Digital multimeter
c. Power Supplies
d. Resistors of various values
e. Breadboard

Information

The maximum power transfer theorem states that when the load resistance is equal to the source's
internal resistance, maximum power will be developed in the load. Since most low voltage DC power
supplies have a very low internal resistance (10 ohms or less) great difficulty would result in trying to
affect this condition under actual laboratory experimentation. If one were to connect a low value resistor
across the terminals of a 10 volt supply, high power ratings would be required, and the resulting current
would probably cause the supply's current rating to be exceeded. In this experiment, therefore, the
student will simulate a higher internal resistance by purposely connecting a high value of resistance in
series with the DC voltage supply's terminal. Refer to Figure 13.1 below. The terminals (a & b) will be
considered as the power supply's output voltage terminals. Use a potentiometer as a variable size of load
resistance. For various settings of the potentiometer representing R L, the load current and load voltage
will be measured. The power dissipated by the load resistor can then be calculated. For the condition of
RL = Ri, the student will verify by measurement that maximum power is developed in the load resistor.

Procedure

1. Refer to Figure 13.1, select Rin equal to 1 KΩ representing the internal resistance of the power
supply used and select a 10 KΩ potentiometer as load resistance RL.

a. Using the DMM set the potentiometer to 500 ohms.

b. Connect the circuit of Figure 13.1. Measure the current through and the voltage across R L.
Record this data in Table 13.1.
c. Remove the potentiometer and set it to 1000 ohms. Return it to the circuit and again measure the
current through and the voltage across RL. Record.
d. Continue increasing the potentiometer resistance in 500 ohm steps until the value 10 k ohms is
reached, each time measuring the current and voltage and recording same in Table 1. Be sure the applied
voltage remains at the fixed value of 10 volts after each adjustment in potentiometer resistance.

1. For each value of RL in Table 13.1, calculate the power input to the circuit using the formula:
Pinput = Vinput x IL
= 10 x IL,
since Vinput is always a constant 10 volts.

3. For each value of RL in Table 13.1, calculate the power output (the power developed in R L) using
the formula:
Pout = VRL x IL.

4. For each value of RL in Table 13.1, calculate the circuit efficiency using the formula:

% efficiency = Pout/Pin x 100.

5. On linear graph paper, plot the curve of power output vs. RL. Plot RL on the horizontal axis
(independent variable). Plot power developed in RL on the vertical axis (dependent variable). Label the
point on the curve representing the maximum power.
 Table 1.1

RL (Ω) IL (mA) VRL (V) Pinput (mW) Poutput (mW) % eff.

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

5,000

6,000

7,000

8,000

9,000

10,000
 EXPERIMENT # 02

Solving Circuits Using Mesh Currents

Objectives

 To write the mesh equations for a resistive circuit

 Prove through measurement, that the equations written in objective 1 are valid.

Materials Required

a. LABVOLT test bench

b. Digital multimeter
c. Power Supplies
d. Resistors of various values
e. Breadboard

Information

Refer to basic mesh analysis procedure covered in the theory course of EE 200 (3 - 1)

Loop A:

- Vs + (IA – IC) R1 + (IA – IB) R3 = 0

Loop B:

(IB - IA) R3 + (IB – IC) R2 + IBR4 = 0

Loop C:

Procedure

1. Select resistors and record the values in table 2.1

 Table 2.1: Selected resistors for the lab work

Componen Measured Value

t
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6

PART ONE

MESH CURRENT ANALYSIS

2. Using the circuit design in figure 14.1, write the loop equations for loops A and B in the boxes
given below:
3. Using Cramer’s rule/Determinants Method solve the equations in the space given below to
determine the mesh/loop currents.

4. Record the computed values of current.

IA: IB :

5. Using the computed loop currents, compute the current through each resistor (Note the direction
of current in each loop with consistency). Then measure current through each resistor and confirm your
calculations. Record the values in table 14.2.

Table 2.2: Current through individual resistors

Computed Measured Current

Current
I1
I2
I3
I4
6. Using the computed currents in each resistor, apply Ohm’s law to find computed voltage drop
across each resistor. Then measure the voltage across each resistor and confirm your calculations.
Record the values in table 2.3.

Table 2.3: Voltage drops across individual resistors

Computed Voltage Measured Voltage

V1
V2
V3
V4
 EXPERIMENT # 03

Norton theorem

Objectives

 To calculate the voltage across any one of several resistors in any circuit by using Norton’s
Theorem, and verify the results by measurements.

Materials Required

a. LABVOLT test bench

b. Digital multimeter
c. Power Supplies
d. Resistors of various values
e. Breadboard

Information

Norton’s Theorem can be used for two purposes:

a. To calculate the voltage across (or current through) any component in any circuit.
b. To develop a constant current equivalent circuit, which may be used to simplify the analysis of a
complex circuit.

The steps used for Norton’s Theorem are listed below:

Step 1 Remove the resistor (R) across which you desire to calculate the voltage. Label these
terminals “a” and “b”. Short these terminals together and determine the current that flows through this
short. Call this short-circuit current In.

Step 2 With the terminal “opened” and sources replaced with their internal resistances (if any),
calculate the resistance “looking back” from the open terminals. This resistance is Rn.

Step 3 The voltage you wish to calculate will be:

Rn R
V =In
( R n+ R )
Where: In is from Step 1, Rn is from Step 2, and R is the value of the resistor removed in Step 1.

The constant current equivalent circuit is developed from the values calculated in the above steps. See
Figure 16.1.
 R n i s N o r t o n 's E q u i v a l e n t R e s i s t a n c e & I n i s t h e N o r t o n 's
C o n sta n t C urre n t So urc e

In R n R

F i g u r e 1 6 . 1 : N o r t o n 's C o n s t a n t C u r r e n t E q u i v a l e n t C i r c u i t
Procedure

R 1 = 1 K

1 2 V V
R 2 = 1 0 K R 3 = 3 K

F ig u r e 1 6 .2 : F o u r E le m e n t C ir c u it

1. The Norton’s Theorem will be used to find the voltage across R3. Connect the circuit of Figure
16.2.
2. Measure the voltage across R3 and the current through R3. Record.

VR3 = (meas) IR3 = (meas)

3. To apply Norton’s Theorem to calculate the voltage across R 3 the steps enumerated in the
Information part on page 1 are to be followed.

Step 1

4. Calculate (do not measure) , I repeat do not measure the short-circuit current, In, when R3 is
replaced by a short circuit:

In = (calc)
 R 1 = 1K a

In

12 V V
R 2 = 10K m A

F ig u r e 1 6 .3 : O n e E le m e n t S h o r t C ir c u it e d

5. Connect the circuit of Figure 16.3 (this is the circuit of Figure 16.2, with R 3 removed and
replaced by a short circuit, the ammeter). Make sure to use a current range higher than the calculated In
above. This measurement is the “short-circuit” current.

In = (meas)

Step 2

R 1 = 1K

R 2 = 10K R n

F ig u r e 1 6 .4 : C ir c u it f o r c a lc u la t in g R n = R t h

6. Refer to Figure 16.4, which is Figure 16.2 with R3 removed and the 12 V source replaced by a
short circuit (a dead voltage source). Calculate Rn from Figure and record.

Rn = (calc)

7. Connect the circuit of Figure 16.4. Use the DMM to measure R n. This measurement is the “back
resistance” = Norton resistance = Rn.

Rn = (meas)

Step 3

8. Use Norton’s Theorem (Ohm’s Law) to calculate the voltage (VR3) across R3 and record.
Rn R 3
V R 3= I n
( R n + R3 )
 VR3 = (Calc)

9. Compare the measured voltage from Para 2 with the calculated voltage in Para 8 above. If they
are not close, do both over again until the error is found.

10. Draw below a schematic diagram of the Norton’s Theorem equivalent circuit and label all
values.
 EXPERIMENT # 10

Clipper and Clamper circuits

Objectives:
 To experimentally analyze a Diode clipper circuit (series and parallel).
 To experimentally analyze a Diode clamper circuit (positive and negative).

Equipments/Components: Oscilloscope, Multimeter, Semiconductor diodes, Resistors and Function

Generator

Procedure:

Part (a): Clippers circuits

Ability to clip off a portion of an input.

1. Series Clippers: Connect the circuit shown in figure 1 , apply the AC input Vin and observe the
output. Draw the output v/s input in your notebook.

2. Series clipper with +ve DC supply: Connect the circuit shown in figure 2, apply the AC input
Vin and observe the output. Draw the output v/s input in your notebook.

3. Series clipper with -ve DC supply: Connect the circuit shown in figure 3, apply the AC input
Vin and observe the output. Draw the output v/s input in your notebook. What is the minimum
value of Vin to turn on the diode.

4. Parallel Clippers: Connect the circuit shown in figure 4, apply the AC input V in and observe the
output. Draw the output v/s input in your notebook.

5. Parallel clipper with +ve DC supply : Connect the circuit shown in figure 5, apply the AC
input Vin and observe the output. Draw the output v/s input in your notebook.

6. Parallel clipper with -ve DC supply: Connect the circuit shown in figure 6, apply the AC input
Vin and observe the output. Draw the output v/s input in your notebook. What is the minimum
value of Vin to turn on the diode.

Part (b): Clampers Circuits:

Clamp a signal to a different DC level.

7. Negative Clamper: Connect the circuit shown in figure 7, apply the AC input V in and observe
the output. Draw the output v/s input in your notebook.

8. Positive Clampers: Connect the circuit shown in figure 8, apply the AC input V in and observe
the output. Draw the output v/s input in your notebook.
Comments and result:
Write down your comments and draw the waveforms.

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4
Figure 5

Figure 6

Figure 7

Figure 8
 EXPERIMENT # 11

AND/OR GATES USING SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES

Objective:
To experimentally analyze AND/OR gates based on semiconductor diodes.

Equipments/Components: Multimeter, diodes, resistors and DC power supply.

Procedure:
1. Table 1 and Table 2 show the logic for a two-input AND and OR gate respectively.
2. Connect the circuit for AND gate as shown in Fig. 1 and verify Table 1. Record the observations
as shown in Table 3. Use 0V for logic low input and 5V for logic high input.
3. Connect the circuit for OR gate as shown in Fig. 2 and verify Table 2. Record the observations as
shown in Table 4. Use 0V for logic low input and 5V for logic high input.
4. Change the value of Rs from 1KΩ to 100Ω and repeat Step 2 and 3. Using theory explain the
results you obtain.

Table 1 Table 2
Sr. No. Input A Input B Output Y Sr. No. Input A Input B Output Y
1. 0 0 0 1. 0 0 0
2. 0 1 0 2. 0 1 1
3. 1 0 0 3. 1 0 1
4. 1 1 1 4. 1 1 1

Table 3 Table 4
Sr. No. Input A Input B Output Y Sr. No. Input A Input B Output Y
(Volts) (Volts) (Volts) (Volts) (Volts) (Volts)
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.

5V

D1
Rs=1KΩ A
D1
Y
A D2
B Rs=1KΩ
Y
D2
B

Figure 2. A two-input OR gate

Figure 1. A two-input AND gate
 EXPERIMENT # 12

Zener Diode Characteristics and Application

Objective:

 To experimentally observe the characteristics curve of a Zener diode.

 To analyze the basic Zener based voltage regulator.

Equipments/Components:
 Multimeter
 DC supply
 Resistors
 Zener Diode

Lab measurements:

1. Construct the circuit shown in figure 1.Measure and record the value of Vz and Iz for each
increment of voltage Vs in Table 1.

2. Construct the circuit shown in figure 21.Measure and record the value of Vz and Iz for each
increment of voltage Vs in Table 2.

3. Draw the characteristics curve of Zener diode in forward and reverse region and calculate Rz.
You can observe that Vz is not exactly constant. This shall enable you to calculate the internal
resistance Rz of Zener diode.

4. From table 2, estimate the Zener test current IZ-Test which is the current that brings the Zener diode
in breakdown region.

5. design of a loaded Zener regulator. Refer to the loaded Zener regulator circuit shown in Fig3. Let
a 1k load be driven by Zener diode. Let us assume that the input supply Vs has a voltage
fluctuation from 1.5Vz to 5Vz. The objective of this design is to provide the load with constant
supply Vz even though the input voltage fluctuate from 1.5Vz to 5Vz. in order to meet this
objective, it is necessary that the Zener diode works in the breakdown region when the input
fluctuates between 1.5Vz to 5Vz. To achieve this objective, we have to ensure that IZ-Test flows
through the Zener diode when V is between 1.5Vz to 5Vz . Let IL be the load current. Therefore the
current flows through Rs when Vs = 1.5 VZ will be

Is= IZ-Test + IL
Rs = 1.5Vz – Vz
Is
The value of Rs will ensure that the Zener will be in breakdown region when supply is 1.5Vz . It is trivial
to note that Zener will be in breakdown if Vs > 1.5Vz . Change the input from 0.5Vz to 5Vz and tabulate
your results as shown in table 3.

Observations:

S.No Vs Vz Iz
. S.No Vs Vz Iz
.
1 0.1
2 0.2 1 0.5
3 0.3 2 1.0
4 0.4 3 1.5
5 0.5 4 2.0
6 0.6 5 3.0
7 0.7 6 4.0
8 0.8 7 5.0
9 0.9 8 6.0
10 1.0 9 7.0
11 2.0 10 8.0
12 3.0 11 9.0
13 4.0 12 10.0
14 5.0 13 11.0
15 10.0 14 12.0
15 13.0
Table 1
Table 2
S.No Vs VL (V) Is (mA) IL (mA) Iz (mA)
.

1 0.5 Vz
2 0.8 Vz
3 0.9 Vz
4 1.0 Vz
5 1.5 Vz
6 2.0 Vz
7 2.5 Vz
8 3.0 Vz
9 3.5 Vz
10 4.0 Vz
11 4.5 Vz

Table 3
Comments and result:

Write down your comments on reading obtained from table 1, 2 and 3. Why the load voltage V L doesn’t
remains constant even though the Zener diode is in breakdown region.

Figure1

Figure2

Figure 3
 EXPERIMENT # 13

BJT as a Switch

OBJECTIVE:

 To theoretically and experimentally analyze the use of BJT as a switch.

Equipments/Components:
 Multimeter
 Transistor
 Resistors
 LED
 DC power supplies
 Function generator
 Oscilloscope

Lab Measurement:

 Figure 1 shows a simple BJT switch that is used to drive an LED.

 Estimate the DC current gain, βdc of the BJT using DMM.
 By forward biasing the LED, estimate the forward voltage drop, V FLED of the LED. Usually
this value is between 1.5V to 3V.
 Suppose our design requirement is to operate the BJT as a switch such that a current of 10mA
flows through the LED when the switch is ON, i.e. I C(SAT) = 10mA when the BJT is in
saturation. Using (1), we can calculate the value of R C that will enable a current of 10mA to
flow through the LED when the BJT is in saturation, i.e. when V CE = 0V.

V CC =I C RC +VF LED +V CE (1)

 The required base current to get 10mA saturation current can be estimated using (2).

I C( SAT )
I B( SAT )=
β dc

(2)

 Practically it is better to keep the base current a bit high. This is called ‘hard saturation’. Let
the hard saturation current be represented by I B(SAT-HARD). For example IB(SAT-HARD) can be 2
times IB(SAT). This ensures that the base current is high enough to keep the transistor in
saturation. The required value of RB to pump IB(SAT-HARD) into the base of the transistor can be
calculated using (3).
 V BB −V BE
RB =
I B ( SAT− HARD)

(3)

 Construct the circuit as shown in Fig. 1 with the calculated values of R C and RB. Now apply a
timer input (0 and 5V level) from function generator at base and observe the blinking of LED.
Also observe the input and output on oscilloscope at dual mode. We can observe that when
Vin = 0V Vout = Vcc (ON State) and when Vin = 5V , Vout = 0V (OFF State).

Figure 1
 EXPERIMENT # 14

BJT Emitter-Feedback Biasing.

Objective:
 To analyze a BJT emitter-feedback bias circuit.
 Compare the Q-point stability of the emitter-feedback bias with a base-bias
circuit.

Equipments/Components: Multimeter, transistor, resistors and DC power supplies.

Theory/Procedure:
1. Refer to the circuit shown in Fig. 1. The circuit parameters are defined as follows:
 IB  Base current
 IC  Collector current
 VCE  Voltage at collector w.r.t. emitter
 VBE  Voltage at base w.r.t. emitter
 RC  Collector resistance
 RE  Emitter resistance
 RB  Base resistance
 VCC  Collector supply

2. The basic transistor equations are given by (1) and (2), where βdc is the DC
current gain of the transistor.
I E =I C + I B .

(1)

I C =β dc I B .

(2)

3. Calculate the saturation current, IC(SAT) of the transistor using (3).

V CC
I C ( SAT ) =
R C+ R E .

(3)

4. Adjust the value of the base current such that the collector current is
approximately IC(SAT) /2. Experimentally observe the value of IC and IB and estimate
 the value of βdc using (4). Verify the value of βdc from the data sheet of the
transistor.

IC
β dc =
IB .

(4)
5. We shall now set the collector current of the transistor as per our own choice.
Suppose we would like to have a collector current of 4mA. The required value of
IB can be calculated using (5). The value of R B can be calculated using the
equation of the base-emitter loop, (6).
I
I B= C
β dc .

(5)

V CC −V BE
I B=
RB +( β dc +1) R E .

(6)

6. Adjust RB to the value obtained from (6). Experimentally verify the value of IC.
Also measure VCE and verify its observed value using (7).

V CE=V CC −I C R C −I E RE .

(7)

7. Draw the load line of the circuit and locate the Q-point (VCE , IC) on the load line.

8. We shall now evaluate the stability of the Q-point by observing how variation of
βdc effects the collector current. The transistor’s DC current gain changes due to
change in the collector current. By varying R B, increase the base current so that
the collector current increases to 18mA. Measure the base current and calculate
βdc using (4). Compare it with βdc calculated in Step 4. We shall now compare
these observations with the base-bias configuration (Lab. 9) in which no feedback
is provided for Q-point stability. Construct a base-bias circuit such that its
saturation current is 20mA. Measure βdc at IC = 4mA and 18mA. Compare the
variation in βdc of base-bias and emitter-bias circuits. Using theory explain why
emitter-feedback bias gives better stability for Q-point as compared to the base-
bias circuit.

9. Try to improve the Q-point stability by increasing the value of the feedback
resistor, RE. Compare your results with theory.
 VCC=20V

RB RC=1kΩ

RE=1kΩ
 EXPERIMENT # 07

Design and Analysis of a Common Emitter Amplifier

Objective:

 To design and experimentally analyze a common-emitter amplifier.

Equipments/Components: Multimeter, transistor (2SC828), capacitors, resistors, DC power

supply, sine wave generator.

Theory/Procedure:
Refer to the common-emitter amplifier shown in Fig. 1. The circuit parameters are defined as
follows:
 IE  DC emitter current.
 VCE  Voltage at collector w.r.t. emitter. (DC)
 VBE  Voltage at base w.r.t. emitter. (DC)
 VB  Voltage at base w.r.t. ground. (DC)
 VE  Voltage at emitter w.r.t. ground. (DC)
 RC , RL , RE  Collector resistance, load resistance, emitter resistance.
 βac, βdc  AC, DC current gain of the transistor.
 R1 and R2  Resistances of voltage divider network.
 VCC  Power supply.
 AV  Voltage gain of the amplifier.
 re
’
 AC emitter resistance.

Vcc=20V

R1 RC Co=0.1µF
Vo
Cin=0.1µF

RL=10KΩ
Vin
R2 RE CE=10µF

Figure 1.

Part (1) Design Specifications for the Amplifier:

1. The input impedance of the amplifier should be roughly 5KΩ.
2. The output impedance of the amplifier should not exceed 1KΩ.
3. The voltage gain of the amplifier should be around 100.

Part(2) Design Equations:

Using the following simple rules and equations, design the amplifier to meet the above
requirements.

1. R1 and R2 should be chosen such that the requirement of Z in(AMP) is met, where Zin(AMP) is
the input impedance of the amplifier,
'
Z IN ( AMP )=R 1||R2||β ac r e . (1)

2. Using (2), calculate RE such that RIN (base) >10R2, where RIN (base) is the input impedance of
the base for DC signal.

R IN ( base)=β dc R E
. (2)

3. Calculate the value of R C to meet the requirement of the amplifier’s output impedance.
Equation (3) will give the saturation current of the transistor. The minimum saturation
current should be 10mA. In case the requirement of saturation current is not met, change
the appropriate circuit parameters.

V CC
I C ( SAT ) =
R C+ R E . (3)

4. Using (4), calculate r’e required for the given voltage gain.

RC||R L
A v =−
r 'e . (4)

5. Using (5), calculate the required emitter current.

25 mV
r 'e =
IE . (5)

6. Calculate the values of R1 and (or) R2 using the following equations.

V E =I E R E . (6)

V B =V BE +V E . (7)

R2
V B= V
R1 + R 2 CC . (8)

Part (3) Experimental Analysis:

1. Draw the DC load line of the circuit and locate the Q-point (VCE , IC) on the load line.
Observe the value of IE and compare it with the value calculated using (5). Also measure
VCE and verify its observed value using (9).

V CE=V CC −I C R C −I E RE . (9)
2. Draw the re - model of the amplifier.

3. Using theory, estimate the range of input signal frequency for the given coupling
and by-pass capacitors.

4. Apply a sinusoidal input signal having amplitude of 1mV and frequency of 8-

10KHz. Measure Vo and calculate the voltage gain. Compare it with the calculated value
obtained from (4). Also observe the phase shift between the input and output signals.

5. Increase the input voltage and measure the voltage gain. You will observe
reduction in the gain. You will also notice reduction in gain if the frequency of the input
signal is decreased. Using theory, try to explain why this happens.
 EXPERIMENT # 15

Analysis of a Common Collector Amplifier

OBJECTIVE:

 To experimentally analyze a common collector amplifier.

Equipments/Components: Multimeter, transistor (2SC828), capacitors, resistors, DC power

supply, sine wave generator.

Theory/Procedure:
Refer to the common collector amplifier shown in Fig. 1. The circuit parameters are defined as
follows:
 IE  DC emitter current.
 VCE  Voltage at collector w.r.t. emitter. (DC)
 VBE  Voltage at base w.r.t. emitter. (DC)
 VB  Voltage at base w.r.t. ground. (DC)
 VE  Voltage at emitter w.r.t. ground. (DC)
 RL , RE  Load resistance, emitter resistance.
 βac, βdc  AC, DC current gain of the transistor.
 R1 and R2  Resistances of voltage divider network.
 VCC  DC Power supply.
 AV  Voltage gain of the amplifier.
 r’e  AC emitter resistance.
 Zin  Input impedance of the amplifier.
 Zo  Output impedance of the amplifier.
 RS  Output impedance of the source.

Vcc=20V

R1=10KΩ

Cin=2.2µF
Co=100µF
Vo
Vin
0.1Vpp, 5KHz R2=5KΩ RE=1KΩ
RL=1KΩ

Figure 1
Circuit Equations:

R2
V B= V CC
R1 + R 2 . (1)

V E =V B −V BE . (2)

VE
I E=
RE . (3)

V CE=V CC −I E R E . (4)

25 mV
r 'e =
IE . (5)

R E||R L
AV =
( R E||R L )+r
e' . (6)

Z in =R1||R2||β ac ( R E||R L +r ' )

e . (7)

RS
Z o= ||R E
β ac . (8)

Step 1.
Experimentally verify the DC conditions of the circuit using (1) – (4).

Step 2.
Experimentally measure the voltage gain of the amplifier and verify it using (6). You will observe
that AV is close to unity. Also observe that there is no phase shift between the input and the
output.

Step 3.
Calculate the input and output impedance of the amplifier using (7) and (8). Assume a typical
value of 150 for βac. It is worth noting that Zo is around 150 times less than the output impedance
of the input source.

Step 4.
In this step we shall experimentally check the significance of Z o. Use the signal generator that has
50Ω output impedance. Set the generator voltage to 0.2V p. Directly connect a 470Ω load resistor
across the signal generator and measure the voltage across the resistor using the oscilloscope.
You will observe some attenuation. Verify this result using the potential divider rule. Now
connect the signal source with the common collector amplifier and replace R L in Fig. 1 with the
470Ω load. You will observe less attenuation in this case. Use (7) and (8) to explain your results.
 EXPERIMENT # 04

RC Coupled Cascade Amplifier Experiment

OBJECTIVE:

The purpose of this experiment is to demonstrate the AC operation of RC-Coupled

multistage amplifier.

Some Circuit Notes:

1) The transistor is a general purpose NPN transistor (C1383 / C945 / C 828), or

equivalent. For pin configuration, please refer to data sheet in appendices section of
course website.
2) Assume Beta = 300, VBE = 0.7V in the prelab analysis.

Prelab:
Show only calculations in prelab. Tables should be form in In lab measurement section
for both measured and calculated values.

1. Calculate the dc parameters for both stages and record them in the “DC analysis”
table in “calculated” column. Show all the calculations in prelab.

2. Perform the ac analysis for both stages and record them in “AC analysis” table in
“Calculated” column. Follow the given steps. This will take you step-by-step through
the process. Show all the calculations.

AC Analysis: Find AV1, AV2 and AVT

Find AV1
We need to find Rc1’ = R3 || RL1. RL1 for the first stage is Zin for the second stage.
 Find Zbase for Q2. Zbase = (re2 + R9)
 Find Zin for Q2. Zin = R6 || R7 || Zbase
You found re1 = 26mV / IE1 in DC analysis. Use it now to find Av1.

Av1 = Rc1
R4 + re1
Find AV2
Now find Rc2’ = R8 || R11.
You found re2 = 26mV / IE2 in DC analysis. Use it now to find Av2.

Av2 = Rc2
R9+ re2
Find AvT

Gains multiply in cascaded configuration.

AvT = (Av1)(AV2)

Lab Measurements

In-lab circuit measurements:

1. Measure and record the ALL dc parameters including voltages and currents in “DC analysis”
table in “Measured” column” with the signal generator disconnected from the circuit.

2. Connect the signal generator to the circuit and set the output to an appropriate value using the
oscilloscope.

3. Measure and record the ALL ac parameters including voltages at each nodes and gains in “Ac
analysis” table in “measured” column using the oscilloscope.

4. Compare measured and calculated gain and find % error

%Error = (Measured – calculated)

Calculated

5. Open the coupling capacitor between 1st and 2nd stage and measure the AC voltage at collector of
first stage. Compare this value with VO1 in “AC analysis measured” column.

6. Replace the coupling capacitor that you removed in (5). Make sure that the amplifier is working
normally. Connect the scope to the collector of stage 2. Note that the value of ac voltage and
record it. It should be the same as the value recorded in “measured “column” of “ac analysis”
table. Remove the load resistor R11 and note the value of VO2 again.

7. Note the value of VO1 with load resistor removed from the circuit. Compare the value of V O1 with
value you recorded previously with load resistor in the circuit.
Observations:

DC Analysis Table:

Parameter Calculated Measured Parameter Calculated Measured

VB1 VB2
VC1 VC2
VE1 VE2
IC1 IC2
1 2
VCE1 VC2

AC Analysis Table:

Parameter Calculated Measured

AV1
AV2
AVT
VO1 (CC disconnected)
VO2 ( without R11)
VO1 ( without R11)

Comments and conclusions

Sketch the wave form at every node in the circuit given below. Explain any significant
discrepancies. Also, answer the following questions:

 How would you account the error found in (4). Give reasons.
 Explain why the table value of VC1 in “measured” column is lower than value found in (5).
 Why the ac collector voltage of stage 2 without RL found in (6) is higher than the collector
voltage with RL.
 Does the removal of load resistor of stage 2 have an impact on the output of stage 1 in (7)?
 Based on your answer to question above, what is your opinion of the use of a 2 nd amplifier as
means of isolation the 1st stage from the load?
Figure 1 - Cascaded RC coupled Amplifier
 EXPERIMENT # 05

Darlington Pair Amplifier

Abstract:

Two transistors may be combined to form a configuration known as the Darlington pair
that behaves like a single transistor with a current gain equivalent to the product of the
current gain of the two transistors. This is especially useful where very high currents need
to be controlled as in a power amplifier or power-regulator circuit. Darlington transistors
are available whereby two transistors are combined in one single package but we will
construct Darlington pair by using 2 BJTs in the lab. The base-emitter volt-drop is twice
that of a normal transistor.

OBJECTIVE:

The purpose of this experiment is to implement and observe the performance of a CE

driven Darlington pair amplifier.

Some Circuit Notes:

1) The transistor is a general purpose NPN transistor (C1383 / C945 / C 828 ), or
equivalent. For pin diagram, refer to data sheet in the appendices section of course
website.

2) Assume Beta = 300, VBE = 0.7V in the prelab analysis.

Prelab
Show only calculations in prelab. Tables should be form in In lab measurement section
for both measured and calculated values.

 Calculate the DC parameters (V and I ) at every node and also calculate F and Av
and note down in table 1.

Lab Measurements

In-lab circuit measurements:

1. Connect BJTs and circuit components as per Figure 1.

2. Measure and calculate all DC parameters (V and I) in the circuit and note down in
table 1.
3. Apply input signal (sine wave) of peak-to-peak amplitude in the range of volts
(30- 50 mV) of frequency 1kHz to 5kHz from the frequency generator.
4. Check signal at different nodes of the BJT connected with the components.
5. Determine and measure Vo and note down in table 1.
6. Verify measured and calculated Av value.
 7. Compare the calculated D = 12 and measured D from Ic / Ib.

Observations:

Table 1:

Parameters Calculated Measured

VB1
VE1
VC1
IC1
VB2
VE2
VC2
IB2
IC2
VB3
VE3
VC3
IC3
1
2
D
AV

Comments and Result:

Show the observed and calculated value in table form. Sketch the waveform at every
node in the circuit. Give the reasons of any discrepancy found in results.
Figure 1
 EXPERIMENT # 06

Frequency Response of CE amplifier

OBJECTIVE:

The purpose of this experiment is to observe the frequency response of a CE amplifier

with two different by-pass capacitors

Some Circuit Notes:

1) The transistor is a general purpose NPN transistor (C1383 / C945 / C 828 ), or

equivalent. For pin diagram, refer to data sheet in the appendices section of course
website.

2) Assume Beta = 300, VBE = 0.7V in the prelab analysis.

Prelab

Show all calculations in prelab.

1) For the circuit in figure 1 , calculate the values of all DC parameter and AC gain
(Avmax)of the circuit and note down in table 1.
2) Take Cs = 10 µF and Cc = 1 µF. We are going to observe the frequency response
of CE amplifier with different CE capacitor.
3) Calculate cutoff frequencies for all capacitors with 2 different CE values.
a. 100µF
b. 20µF

Note that fLE should be dominant frequency among the three frequencies otherwise change the
value of CE to make the frequency dominant.

Lab Measurements

In-lab circuit measurements:

1. Connect the circuit of figure 1.

2. Measure all the DC parameters and note them with calculated values in table 1.
3. For CE = 100µF: Now apply the AC signal and calculate the maximum gain of
the circuit.

 Set the frequency range at 10 kHz and rotate the frequency dial from 0 to 360
degree (a complete rotation) and observe the maximum output that is constant
for a wide range of frequency. This is the maximum output of the circuit and
calculates the maximum gain of the circuit (Avmax ) and note down in table 1.

4. Now start with 50Hz frequency and note the value of V o at different frequencies
(50Hz, 100Hz, 500Hz, 1kHz, 5kHz, 10kHz, 50kHz, 1Mhz) and note down in
 table2. Also find the lower and higher cutoff frequencies where the output is
70.7% of Vomax.

5. Repeat the step 3 and 4 for CE = 20µF.

Observation:

Parameters Calculated Values Measured Values

VB
VE
VC
IC
IB

VCE
AVmax
fLCs -
fLCc -
Table 1
For CE = 100µF: For CE = 20µF:
Measured Cutoff frequency: fLCE= ____ Measured Cutoff frequency: fLCE= ____
Calculated Cutoff frequency: fLCE=____ Calculated Cutoff frequency: fLCE =___

Frequenc Vo Av Av(db) Frequency Vo Av Av(db)

y (Hz) =20log Av (Hz) =20log Av
50 50

Table 2 Table 3

COMMENTS AND RESULTS:

Draw the graph on semi-log graph paper between frequency and A v(db) .Draw the
graph for both capacitors on same graph paper and measure the bandwidth for both
capacitor values. Also show the change in db per decade.
Answer the following questions:

 What are the effects of bypass capacitor values on cutoff frequencies?

 What is the effect of CE on bandwidth of the CE amplifier?
 Is higher frequency response dependent of CE?
 Why are we taking fLCE as a dominant frequency?

Figure 1

EXPERIMENT # 08
 Differential Amplifier

Abstract:

The Differential amplifier has its greatest application in ICs. Its design is normally related
to IC fabrication techniques. It consists of two transistors that have same characteristics.
The output is proportional to the difference between the two input signals. In common
mode DA rejects the signal whereas in differential mode it amplifies the signal.

Purpose of the Experiment

 The purpose of this experiment is to implement and observe the output waveforms
of DA in the two modes.
 To find CMRR of the differential amplifier.

Some Circuit Notes:

1) The transistor is a general purpose NPN transistor (C1383 / C945 / C 828 ), or
equivalent.

2) Assume Beta = 300, VBE = 0.7V, Vcc = 9V, Rc = 3.9KΩ in the prelab analysis.

Prelab
Show only calculations in prelab. Tables should be form in In lab measurement section
for both measured and calculated values.

Calculate the DC parameters (V and I ) where is required.

Lab Measurements

In-lab circuit measurements:

8. Connect BJTs and circuit components as per Figure 1.

9. Measure and calculate all DC parameters (V and I) in the circuit and note down
Apply common mode input signal (sine wave) of peak-to-peak amplitude in the
range of volts (30- 50 mV) of frequency 1kHz to 5kHz from the frequency
generator.
10. Observe the output waveform .
11. Determine and measure Vo and Acm and note down.
12. Now apply different input signals (sine wave) at base of Q1 and Q2 of peak-to-
peak amplitude in the range of volts (30- 50 mV) of frequency 1kHz to 5kHz
from the frequency generator.
13. Observe the output waveform.
14. Determine and measure Vo and ADM and note down.
Formulae:

ACM = Vo/Vind

ADM = Vo/ΔVind.

CMRR = 20log ADM/ACM (dB)

Table 1:

Parameters Calculated Measured

VB1
VE1
VC1
IC1
VB2
VE2
VC2
IB2
IC2

Comments and Result:

Show the observed and calculated value in table form. Sketch the waveform for both
modes of operation. Give the reasons of any discrepancy found in results.

EXPERIMENT # 09

Operational Amplifier Experiment

Abstract:

The purpose of these experiments is to introduce the most important of all analog
building blocks, the operational amplifier (“op-amp” for short). The Lecture notes on my
website gives an introduction to these amplifiers and a smattering of the various
configurations that can be used in. Apart from their most common use as amplifiers (both
inverting and non-inverting), they also find applications as buffers (load isolators), adders
& subtractors, integrators, differentiators amplifiers, impedance converters, filters (low-
pass, high-pass, band-pass, band-reject or notch), and differential / instrumentation
amplifiers.

OBJECTIVE:

Design and implement basic operational amplifier circuits including inverting, non
inverting and summer amplifier with various feedback networks and examine their
properties.

Pre Lab:

Read out the lecture notes on op-amp circuits.

Lab Measurement:

Note: Use Dual power supply (fig 5) with Op amp for biasing.

Inverting amplifiers (Voltage - shunt feedback)

Choose Ri = 1kand Rf= 10kin fig 1. Using a sine wave input of appropriate
magnitude, measure the gain of the circuit Repeat for Rf = 50k. What is the calculated
gain for each of these cases? Compare them.

Parameter Calculated Measured

Av (Rf = 10k)
Av (Rf = 50k)

Non-inverting amplifier (Voltage-series feedback)

Repeat the above procedure for non-inverting amplifier (fig 2).

Parameter Calculated Measured

Av (Rf = 10k)
Av (Rf = 50k)
Summer Amplifier (Adders):

Set up the summing amp circuit (fig 3) with R1 = R2 = Ri =10k and Rf =20 k. Use the
voltage divider to provide 2 different AC inputs with same frequency and appropriate
magnitude. ( You can also do this experiment by using DC source instead of AC).
Measure Vout for values of Va and Vb and verify that Vout = - Rf (Va + Vb)/Ri..

Now change the configuration by taking R1 = 10k , R2= 20k and Rf = 20k. Supply single
AC voltage (or DC) to both inputs and measure Vout.

Compare both outputs with calculated values of Vout.

Parameter Calculated Measured

Vo (R1 = R2 = Ri =10k and Rf =20k)
Vo(R = 10k , R = 20k and R = 20k)
1 2 f

Differential Amplifier (Subtractor):

Set up the circuit shown in fig 4 for subtracting two voltages. Use Ri = Rf = 10 k.. Use the
voltage divider to provide 2 different AC inputs with same frequency and appropriate
magnitude. ( You can also do this experiment by using DC source instead of AC).
Measure Vout for values of V1 and V2 and verify that Vout = Rf (V2 - V1)/Ri.

Parameter Calculated Measured

Vo (Rin =10k and Rf =10k)

Comments and Results:

Compare the calculated and measured value of gains in all 4 applications in table form.
 Fig: 3 Summer Amplifier

Fig 4: Difference Amplifier

Fig 5: Dual Power supply