RESEARCH

METHODS
Prepared by Meshack Mwau
ICS COLLEGE
 RESEARCH:
a way of examining your practice…

Research is undertaken within most professions.

More than a set of skills, it is a way of thinking: examining critically the various aspects of your professional
work. It is a habit of questioning what you do, and a systematic examination of the observed information to
find answers with a view to instituting appropriate changes for a more effective professional service.

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH

When you say that you are undertaking a research study to find answers to a question, you are implying that
the process;

I) is being undertaken within a framework of a set of philosophies ( approaches);

J) uses procedures, methods and techniques that have been tested for their validity and reliability;
K) is designed to be unbiased and objective .

Philosophies means approaches e.g. qualitative, quantitative and the academic discipline in which you
have been trained.

Validity means that correct procedures have been applied to find answers to a question. Reliability
refers to the quality of a measurement procedure that provides repeatability and accuracy.

Unbiased and objective means that you have taken each step in an unbiased manner and drawn each
conclusion to the best of your ability and without introducing your own vested interest.
(Bias is a deliberate attempt to either conceal or highlight something).

Adherence to the three criteria mentioned above enables the process to be called ‘research’.
However, the degree to which these criteria are expected to be fulfilled varies from discipline to discipline
and so the meaning of ‘research’ differs from one academic discipline to another.
The difference between research and non-research activity is, in the way we find answers: the process must
meet certain requirements to be called research. We can identify these requirements by examining some
definitions of research.

The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search.

re is a prefix meaning again, anew or over again
search is a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe. Together they form a
noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge,
undertaken to establish facts or principles.

Research is a structured enquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems and create
new knowledge that is generally applicable.
Scientific methods consist of systematic observation, classification and interpretation of data.
Although we engage in such process in our daily life, the difference between our casual day- to- day
generalization and the conclusions usually recognized as scientific method lies in the degree of formality,
rigorousness, verifiability and general validity of latter.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH:

Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer questions.

But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be
controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and critical.

-Controlled- in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome.
The concept of control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables (factors), you set up
your study in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship.
This can be achieved to a large extent in the physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as most of the research is
done in a laboratory. However, in the social sciences (Hospitality and Tourism) it is extremely difficult as
research is carried out on issues related to human beings living in society, where such controls are not
possible.
Therefore in Hospitality and Tourism, as you cannot control external factors, you attempt to quantify their
impact.
-Rigorous-you must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers to questions are
relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigor varies markedly between the physical and
social sciences and within the social sciences.

-Systematic-this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation follow a certain logical
sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some procedures must follow others.

-Valid and verifiable-this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your findings is correct
and can be verified by you and others.

-Empirical-this means that any conclusion drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from information
collected from real life experiences or observations.

-Critical-critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a research enquiry.
The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from drawbacks. The process adopted and the
procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.
For a process to be called research, it is imperative that it has the above characteristics.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
Research can be classified from three perspectives:
" application of research study
" objectives in undertaking the research
" inquiry mode employed

Application:
From the point of view of application, there are two broad categories of research:
1. pure research and
 2. applied research.
Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually challenging
to the researcher but may or may not have practical application at the present time or in the future. The
knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to the existing body of research
methods.

Applied research is done to solve specific, practical questions; for policy formulation, administration and
understanding of a phenomenon. It can be exploratory, but is usually descriptive. It is almost always
done on the basis of basic research. Applied research can be carried out by academic or industrial
institutions. Often, an academic institution such as a university will have a specific applied research
program funded by an industrial partner interested in that program.

Objectives:
From the viewpoint of objectives, a research can be classified as -descriptive
-correlational
-explanatory
-exploratory

Descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem, phenomenon, service or

programme, or provides information about , say, living condition of a community, or describes attitudes
towards an issue.

Correlational research attempts to discover or establish the existence of a relationship/ interdependence

between two or more aspects of a situation.

Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two or more aspects
of a situation or phenomenon.

Exploratory research is undertaken to explore an area where little is known or to investigate the possibilities
of undertaking a particular research study (feasibility study / pilot study).

In practice most studies are a combination of the first three categories.

Inquiry Mode:
From the process adopted to find answer to research questions – the two approaches are:
3. Structured approach
4. Unstructured approach

Structured approach:
The structured approach to inquiry is usually classified as quantitative research.
Here everything that forms the research process- objectives, design, sample, and the questions that you
plan to ask of respondents- is predetermined.
It is more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon by quantifying the
variation.
e.g. how many people have a particular problem? How many people hold a particular attitude?
Unstructured approach:
The unstructured approach to inquiry is usually classified as qualitative research.
This approach allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process.

It is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon without quantifying it.
Main objective is to describe the variation in a phenomenon, situation or attitude.
e,g, description of an observed situation, the historical enumeration of events, an account of different
opinions different people have about an issue, description of working condition in a particular industry.

Both approaches have their place in research. Both have their strengths and weaknesses.

In many studies you have to combine both qualitative and quantitative approaches.

For example, suppose you have to find the types of cuisine / accommodation available in a city and the
extent of their popularity.

Types of cuisine is the qualitative aspect of the study as finding out about them entails description of the
culture and cuisine

The extent of their popularity is the quantitative aspect as it involves estimating the number of people who
visit restaurant serving such cuisine and calculating the other indicators that reflect the extent of popularity.
THE RESEARCH PROCESS

The research process is similar to undertaking a journey.

For a research journey there are two important decisions to make-

1. What you want to find out about

or what research questions (problems) you want to find answers to;

1. How to go about finding their answers.

There are practical steps through which you must pass in your research journey in order to find
answers to your research questions.
The path to finding answers to your research questions constitutes research methodology.
At each operational step in the research process you are required to choose from a multiplicity of
methods, procedures and models of research methodology which will help you to best achieve your
objectives.

This is where your knowledge base of research methodology plays a crucial role.

Steps in Research Process:

1. Formulating the Research Problem

2. Extensive Literature Review

3. Developing the objectives

4. Preparing the Research Design including Sample Design

5. Collecting the Data

6. Analysis of Data

7. Generalisation and Interpretation

8. Preparation of the Report or Presentation of Results-Formal write ups of conclusions

reached.
Outline for Research Proposal.

1. Introduction - give a background to put the reader in context with what the project is about.

2. Statement of the problem.

3. Objectives of study.

4. Justification of study. (scientific and policy relevance).

5. Review of literature - gives universal views, synthesis and debate on other's views.

6. Theoretical/Conceptual framework - key concepts that guide the study.

7. Hypothesis - research questions ( in sentences) not more than three. One should be positive. The
other opposite and may be have a neutral question. Hypothesis must be stated in terms of relationships
between variables. Those variables must have come from discussion on the review of literature.

8. Definition of concepts & terms - from review of literature.

9. Method of data collection & analysis.

Possible topic may be floated. For instance, conflict management and resolution, democratization
process, small arms and light weapon, foreign debt relief, globalization & African leadership,
international trade investment, Election process, Human trafficking just to name a few.
Ordinarily all stages in research are related.

It is called a self corrective process. Generalization is tentative. They may bring other problems.

What is a research problem?

It helps lessen self-deception - the way we look at a problem is reality. One way to reduce self-
deception is thinking of the following:

Characteristics of a good problem statement:

What are the characteristics of a good problem statement?

i.) Problem of research should state a relation between two or more variables. For example. is
A related to B (and how). is A affected by B.
ii.) problem should be stated clearly without ambiguity. Preferably state the problem in a
question form.
iii.) Problem and problem statement should imply possibilities of empirical investigation.
What will help you have a good problem statement?

i). A good knowledge of 1st hand information.

ii). A good knowledge of literature on study or related to study.

Iii). Exposure to or discussion with persons who have knowledge of the study.

" The first step in formulation of a research problem is the discovery of a problem that needs solution or
explanation".

That's the end of our session. I will appreciate if I get your feed back before we embark on the next
session. It was a blessing having you in this session. Peter Maruga

IMPORTANCE / SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

Why is research important or significant?

Research is meant to inform action, to improve a theory and to contribute to developing knowledge in a
field or study.

Why is it important?

3. A tool for building knowledge and for facilitating learning.

4. Means to understand various issues and increase public awareness.

5. An aid to business success.

6. A way to improve lies and support truths.

7. Means to find, gauge and seize opportunities.

8. A seed to love reading, writing, analyzing and sharing valuable information.

9. Nourishment and exercise of mind.

Research is conducted with a purpose to understand:

Characteristics of research?

2. A systematic approach must be followed for accurate data. Rules and procedure are integral part of
the process that are set the objective. Researchers need to practice ethics and code of conduct while
making observations or drawing conclusions.

3. Research is based on logical reasoning and involve both inductive and deductive methods.

4. The data or knowledge that is derived is in real time from actual observations in natural settings.

5. There is an in depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies associated with
it.
6. Research creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more opportunities
for research…

Challenges experienced by researchers

In other books they might refer to challenges or problems encountered while undertaking research?

2. Choosing the right topic. Your research topic is the foundation on which everything else rests, so
it's crucial to choose carefully. You can't do anything until you figure out the basic focus of your
topic.
3. Develop a doable topic.
4. Determine what type of resources you have available such as time, money, people and choose a
topic you can do justice.
5. Find a theoretical basis to support your topic.
6. Read everything you can on the topic.
7. The key is to make sure the topic will hold your interest. You will be spending at least a lot of
time on your research project, so that it has to be compelling enough that you will go the
distance.
8. Look for a niche in which you can make a difference. You should be offering something new to
the field.
There are three purposes of research namely; Exploratory Research, Descriptive Research and
Explanatory Research.

Exploratory Research: As the name suggests, exploratory research is conducted to explore a group of
questions. The answers and analytics may not offer a final conclusion to the perceived problem. It is
conducted to handle new problem areas which haven't been explored before. This exploratory process
lays foundation for note conclusive research and data collection.

Descriptive Research focuses on expanding knowledge on current issues through a process of data
collection. Descriptive studies are used to describe the behavior of a sample population. In a descriptive
study, only one variable is required to conduct the study. The three purposes of descriptive research are
describing, explaining, and validating the findings. For example, a study is conducted to know if top level
management leaders in 21st century possess the moral right to receive a huge sum of money from the
company profit.

Exploratory studies are also referred to as formularize research studies. The primary objective or
purpose of exploratory research design is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation
or of developing the working hypothesis from an operational perspective.

Summary of the research process

Whatever approach or strategy is followed, the research process can usually be summarized as follows:

•Identify and formulate the research topic or problem

Select, narrow and formulate the topic or problem to be studied and conduct preliminary literature
search.

•Literature search and review

Read around the subject to help clarify your research topic, questions, and methods. Critically review
literature to compare your research with what has already been done, and to give context. This stage
interacts with other stages.

•Research objectives, questions, and hypotheses

Define clear questions and/or hypotheses.

•Research approach, design, and strategy

Select a research approach and design that will make it possible to answer research questions and plan
the overall research strategy.

Identify the data you want to record and from whom/where you are going to collect it (sampling).
•Data collection

•Data analysis

The data collected are prepared in such a way that they describe and highlight what was found in the
research. Analytical tools are used to describe the data and measure or explore relationships between
the subjects or items of interest.

•Generalization and write-up

The researcher relates the evidence collected to the research question(s), draws conclusions about the
question(s) or hypotheses, and acknowledges limitations of the research.

Exploring hypothesis. Are research questions stated in terms of relationships between variables?

An expectation about events based on generalization of the assumed relationship between variables.
Proposition states of the relationship between two or more variables can be tested, proved or
disapproved. it is an assumed precondition which can be tested to determine its relationship with the
facts. Hypothesis guides investigation. So what is a hypothesis?

Hypothesis is a tentative explanation or solution to the problem of study. Hypothesis is viewed as

instruments of theory. Hypothesis can deduce a theory. Finally hypothesis will be stated after literature
review. Some assumptions come from literature.

The simple rule of three hypotheses

9. The rule of positive hypothesis states that positive increase in A leads to positive increase in B. For
example, increased conflicts leads to increased changes in gender roles.

10. Negative hypothesis: increase in A leads to decrease in B for example commodities of political
processes in East Africa countries leads to decreased cooperation.

11. Null hypothesis: increase in A does not lead to change in B (status quo remains).

Hypothesis must remain universal so that they can be applicable in any case

Next is concept.

what is it? Think of (core or thrust) that guiding the study. A concept is an abstraction from reality that
helps to observe and clarify the phenomenon being studied. Reality can be behavior, institution,
organization, relationships or an event.

A phenomenon can be conflict, a community, a policy or programme, attitude or an event. some

concepts are direct abstractions of reality while others are only indirectly related in terms of reality to
the phenomenon. There are higher levels of abstraction and lower level of abstraction.
Sometimes, other concepts have to be used in order to understand the concept being studied. These
other concepts are known as "constructs" which have to be understood with reference to other
concepts. The researcher identifies the concepts in the following levels: Conceptual level and
Operational level.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research
objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object in
view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);

2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies with
this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);

3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);

4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).

Motivation in research

What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The possible
motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:

1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;

2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical problems
initiates research;

3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;

4. Desire to be of service to society;

5. Desire to get respectability.

However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new
things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like may as well
motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

The basic types of research are as follows:

(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries
of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of
affairs as it exists at present. In social science and business research we quite often use the
term Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies.
The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the
variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening.
Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher
seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people,
or similar data. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes
even when they cannot control the variables.
The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds,
including comparative and correlational methods. In analytical research, on the other hand,
the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make
a critical evaluation of the material.
(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or
fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization, whereas
fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of
a theory.
“Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”
Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are
examples of fundamental research.
Similarly, research studies, concerning human behavior carried on with a view to make
generalizations about human behavior, are also examples of fundamental research, but
research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business
problem is an example of applied research.
Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular
institution or the copy research (research to find out whether certain communications will
be read and understood) or the marketing research or evaluation research are examples of
applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for
some pressing practical problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding
information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing
organized body of scientific knowledge.
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of
quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative
phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind.
For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behavior (i.e.,
why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an
important type of qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the
underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews.
Other techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence completion tests,
story completion tests and similar other projective techniques. Attitude or opinion research
i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular
subject or institution is also qualitative research.
Qualitative research is especially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to
discover the underlying motives of human behavior. Through such research we can analyse
the various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make
people like or dislike a particular thing.
It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is relatively a
difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one should seek guidance from
experimental psychologists.
(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or
theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or
observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory.
It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by
observation or experiment.
We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is necessary to get
at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate
the production of desired information. In such a research, the researcher must first provide
himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results.
He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets
up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials
concerned so as to bring forth the desired information.
Such research is thus characterized by the experimenter’s control over the variables under
study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical research
is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some
way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be
the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
(v) Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are variations of one or more of
the above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the
time required to accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on
the basis of some other similar factor.
Form the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time research or
longitudinal research. In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period,
whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods.
Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research,
depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out. Research can as well be
understood as clinical or diagnostic research.

Such research follows case-study methods or in-depth approaches to reach the basic causal
relations. Such studies usually go deep into the causes of things or events that interest us,
using very small samples and very deep probing data gathering devices. The research may
be exploratory or it may be formalized.

The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypotheses rather than their
testing, whereas formalized research studies are those with substantial structure and with
specific hypotheses to be tested. Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources
like documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy
of persons and groups at any remote point of time.
Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing
conclusion - oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the
enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented
research is always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is not
free to embark upon research according to his own inclination.
Operations research is an example of decision-oriented research since it is a scientific
method of providing executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions
regarding operations under their control.

Research Approaches

The above description of the types of research brings to light the fact that there are two
basic approaches to research, viz., quantitative approach and the qualitative approach. The
former involves the generation of data in quantitative form which can be subjected to
rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion.

This approach can be further sub-classified into inferential, experimental and simulation
approaches to research. The purpose of inferential approach to research is to form a data
base from which to infer characteristics or relationships of population.

This usually means survey research where a sample of population is studied (questioned or
observed) to determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the population has the
same characteristics.
Experimental approach is characterized by much greater control over the research
environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on
other variables.
 Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment within which
relevant information and data can be generated. This permits an observation of the dynamic
behavior of a system (or its sub-system) under controlled conditions. The term ‘simulation’
in the context of business and social sciences applications refers to “the operation of a
numerical model that represents the structure of a dynamic process. Given the values of
initial conditions, parameters and exogenous variables, a simulation is run to represent the
behavior of the process over time.”5 Simulation approach can also be useful in building
models for understanding future conditions.

Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes,

opinions and behavior.
Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights and impressions. Such an
approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the form which
are not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis.
Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques and depth
interviews are used. All these are explained at length in chapters that follow.

Significance of Research

“All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and
inquiry leads to invention” is a famous Hudson Maxim in context of which the significance of research
can well be understood. Increased amounts of research make progress possible. Research inculcates
scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical habits of thinking and
organization. The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or
to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times.
i.) The increasingly complex nature of business and government has focused attention on the use
of research in solving operational problems. Research, as an aid to economic policy, has gained added
importance, both for government and business.
ii.) Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system. For
instance, government’s budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and desires of the people and on
the availability of revenues to meet these needs.
iii.) The cost of needs has to be equated to probable revenues and this is a field where research is
most needed.
iv.) Through research we can devise alternative policies and can as well examine the consequences
of each of these alternatives.
v.) Decision-making may not be a part of research, but research certainly facilitates the decisions of
the policy maker.
vi.) Government has also to undertake programmes for dealing with all facets of the country’s
existence and most of these will be related directly or indirectly to economic conditions. The plight of
cultivators, the problems of big and small business and industry, working conditions, trade union
activities, the problems of distribution, even the size and nature of defence services are matters
requiring research. Thus, research is considered necessary with regard to the allocation of nation’s
resources.
vii.) Another area in government, where research is necessary, is collecting information on the
economic and social structure of the nation. Such information indicates what is happening in the
economy and what changes are taking place. Collecting such statistical information is by no means a
routine task, but it involves a variety of research problems.
viii.) These days nearly all governments maintain large staff of research technicians or experts to
carry on this work. Thus, in the context of government, research as a tool to economic policy has three
distinct phases of operation, viz.,
(i) Investigation of economic structure through continual compilation of facts;
(ii) Diagnosis of events that are taking place and the analysis of the forces underlying
them; and
(iii) The prognosis, i.e., the prediction of future developments.
Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of
business and industry. Operations research and market research, along with motivational
research, are considered crucial and their results assist, in more than one way, in taking
business decisions. Market research is the investigation of the structure and development of
a market for the purpose of formulating efficient policies for purchasing, production and
sales. Operations research refers to the application of mathematical, logical and analytical
techniques to the solution of business problems of cost minimisation or of profit
maximisation or what can be termed as optimisation problems. Motivational research of
determining why people behave as they do is mainly concerned with market characteristics.

Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in
seeking answers to various social problems. It provides the intellectual satisfaction of
knowing a few things just for the sake of knowledge and also has practical utility for the
social scientist to know for the sake of being able to do something better or in a more
efficient manner. Research in social sciences is concerned both with knowledge for its own
sake and with knowledge for what it can contribute to practical concerns. “This double
emphasis is perhaps especially appropriate in the case of social science. On the one hand, its
responsibility as a science is to develop a body of principles that make possible the
understanding and prediction of the whole range of human interactions. On the other hand,
because of its social orientation, it is increasingly being looked to for practical guidance in
solving immediate problems of human relations. Research and Scientific Method
For a clear perception of the term research, one should know the meaning of scientific
method. The two terms, research and scientific method, are closely related. Research, as we
have already stated, can be termed as “an inquiry into the nature of, the reasons for, and
the consequences of any particular set of circumstances, whether these circumstances are
experimentally controlled or recorded just as they occur. Further, research implies the
researcher is interested in more than particular results; he is
interested in the repeatability of the results and in their extension to more complicated and
general situations.” On the other hand, the philosophy common to all research methods and
techniques, although they may vary considerably from one science to another, is usually
given the name of scientific method. In this context, Karl Pearson writes, “The scientific
method is one and same in the branches (of science) and that method is the method of all
logically trained minds … the unity of all sciences consists alone in its methods, not its
material; the man who classifies facts of any kind whatever, who sees their mutual relation
and describes their sequences, is applying the Scientific Method and is a man of science.”
Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations. The ideal of
science is to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts. Scientific method attempts to
achieve “this ideal by experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted
postulates and a combination of these three in varying proportions.” In scientific method,
logic aids in formulating propositions explicitly and accurately so that their possible
alternatives become clear. Further, logic develops the consequences of such alternatives,
and when these are compared with observable phenomena, it becomes possible for the
researcher or the scientist to state which alternative is most in harmony with the observed
facts. All this is done through experimentation and survey investigations which constitute
the integral parts of scientific method.
Experimentation is done to test hypotheses and to discover new relationships. If any, among
variables. But the conclusions drawn on the basis of experimental data are generally
criticized for either faulty assumptions, poorly designed experiments, badly executed
experiments or faulty interpretations. As such the researcher must pay all possible attention
while developing the experimental design and must state only probable inferences. The
purpose of survey investigations may also be to provide scientifically gathered information
to work as a basis for the researchers for their conclusions.
The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as
under:
1. It relies on empirical evidence;
2. It utilizes relevant concepts;
3. It is committed to only objective considerations;
4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only adequate and
correct statements about population objects;
5. It results into probabilistic predictions;
6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use in testing
the conclusions through replication;
7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.
Thus, “the scientific method encourages a rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dictated
by the demands of logic and objective procedure.” Accordingly, scientific method implies an
objective, logical and systematic method, i.e., a method free from personal bias or
prejudice, a method to ascertain demonstrable qualities of a phenomenon capable of being
verified, a method wherein the researcher is guided by the rules of logical reasoning, a
method wherein the investigation proceeds in an orderly manner and a method that implies
internal consistency. Importance of Knowing How Research is Done
The study of research methodology gives the student the necessary training in gathering
material and arranging or card-indexing them, participation in the field work when required,
and also training in techniques for the collection of data appropriate to particular problems,
in the use of statistics, questionnaires and controlled experimentation and in recording
evidence, sorting it out and interpreting it. In fact, importance of knowing the methodology
of research or how research is done stems from the following considerations:
(i) For one who is preparing himself for a career of carrying out research, the importance of
knowing research methodology and research techniques is obvious since the same
constitute the tools of his trade. The knowledge of methodology provides good training
specially to the new research worker and enables him to do better research. It helps him to
develop disciplined thinking or a ‘bent of mind’ to observe the field objectively. Hence,
those aspiring for careerism in research must develop the skill of using research techniques
and must thoroughly understand the logic behind them.

(ii) Knowledge of how to do research will inculcate the ability to evaluate and use research
results with reasonable confidence. In other words, we can state that the knowledge of
research methodology is helpful in various fields such as government or business
administration, community development and social work where persons are increasingly
called upon to evaluate and use research results for action.

(iii)When one knows how research is done, then one may have the satisfaction of acquiring
a new intellectual tool which can become a way of looking at the world and of judging every
day experience. Accordingly, it enables use to make intelligent decisions concerning
problems facing us in practical life at different points of time. Thus, the knowledge of
research methodology provides tools to took at things in life objectively.

(iv) In this scientific age, all of us are in many ways consumers of research results and we
can use them intelligently provided we are able to judge the adequacy of the
methods by which they have been obtained. The knowledge of methodology helps the
consumer of research results to evaluate them and enables him to take rational decisions
Research Process
The following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural guideline
regarding the research process:
(1) Formulating the research problem;
(2) Extensive literature survey;
(3) Developing the hypothesis;
(4) Preparing the research design;
(5) Determining sample design;
(6) Collecting the data;
(7) Execution of the project;
(8) Analysis of data;
(9) Hypothesis testing;
(10) Generalizations and interpretation, and
(11) Preparation of the report or presentation of the results,
i.e., formal write-up of conclusions reached.
A brief description of the above stated steps will be helpful.

1. Formulating the research problem: The best way of understanding the problem is to
discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with those having some expertise in the matter.
In an academic institution the researcher can seek the help from a guide who is usually an
experienced man and has several research problems in mind. Often, the guide puts forth the
problem in general terms and it is up to the researcher to narrow it down and phrase the
problem in operational terms. In private business units or in governmental organisations,
the problem is usually earmarked by the administrative agencies with whom the researcher
can discuss as to how the problem originally came about and what considerations are
involved in its possible solutions.

The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get himself
acquainted with the selected problem. He may review two types of literature—the
conceptual literature concerning the concepts and theories, and the empirical literature
consisting of studies made earlier which are similar to the one proposed. The basic outcome
of this review will be the knowledge as to what data and other materials are available for
operational purposes which will enable the researcher to specify his own research problem
in a meaningful context. After this the researcher rephrases the problem into analytical or
operational terms i.e., to put the problem in as specific terms as possible. This task of
formulating, or defining, a research problem is a step of greatest importance in the entire
research process. The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that
will help discriminating relevant data from
irrelevant ones. Care must; however, be taken to verify the objectivity and validity of the
background facts concerning the problem. The statement of the objective is of basic
importance because it determines the data which are to be collected, the characteristics of
the data which are relevant, relations which are to be explored, the choice of techniques to
be used in these explorations and the form of the final report. If there are certain pertinent
terms, the same should be clearly defined along with the task of formulating the problem. In
fact, formulation of the problem often follows a sequential pattern where a number of
formulations are set up, each formulation more specific than the preceding one, each one
phrased in more analytical terms, and each more realistic in terms of the available data and
resources.
2. Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it
should be written down. It is compulsory for a research worker writing a project to write a
synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research Board for
approval.
At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with
the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or
unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference
proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of
the problem. In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another.
The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand should be carefully studied.
A good library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.
3. Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher
should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is
tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical
consequences. As such the manner in which research hypotheses are developed is
particularly important since they provide the focal point for research. They also affect the
manner in which tests must be conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly the quality of
data which is required for the analysis. In most types of research, the development of
working hypothesis plays an important role. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited
to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to
guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right track. It
sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem. It
also indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.
How does one go about developing working hypotheses?

The answer is by using the following approach:

(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives
in seeking a solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible
trends, peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited
scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the
practical aspects of the problem.

Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a-priori thinking about the subject,
examination of the available data and material including related studies and the counsel of
experts and interested parties. Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise
and clearly defined terms. It may as well be remembered that occasionally we may
encounter a problem where we do not need working hypotheses, especially in the case of
exploratory or formulative researches which do not aim at testing the hypothesis. But as a
general rule, specification of working hypotheses in another basic step of the research
process in most research problems.
4. Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in clear cut
terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state
the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation of
such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information.
In other words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant
evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all these can be
achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. Research purposes may be grouped into
four categories, viz.,
(i) Exploration, (ii)
Description, (iii)
Diagnosis, and (iv)
Experimentation.

A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering many different
aspects of a problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study is that
of exploration. But when the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a situation
or of an association between variables, the suitable design will be one that minimises bias
and maximises the reliability of the data collected and analysed.

There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental hypothesis
testing. Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as before-and-after
without control,
after-only with control, before-and-after with control) or formal designs (such as completely
randomized design, randomized block design, Latin square design, simple and complex
factorial designs), out of which the researcher must select one for his own project.
 The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem,
involves usually the consideration of the following:
(i) the means of obtaining the information;
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be
organised
and the reasoning leading to the selection;
(iv) the time available for research; and
(vi) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.
(vii) 5. Determining sample design: All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry
constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the
‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when
all the items are covered no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But
in practice this may not be true. Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get
larger and larger as the number of observations increases. Moreover, there is no way of
checking the element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey or use of sample
checks. Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy. Not
only this, census inquiry is not possible in practice under many circumstances. For instance,
blood testing is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often we select only a few items
from the universe for our study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is
technically called a sample.
(viii)
(ix) The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the
sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any
data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population.
Thus, the plan to select 12 of acity’s 200 drugstores in a certain way constitutes a sample
design. Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples. With
probability samples each element has a known probability of being included in the sample
but the non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability.
Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling,
stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-probability samples are those based
on convenience sampling, judgement sampling and quota sampling techniques.
(x) A brief mention of the important sample designs is as follows:
(xi) : (i) Deliberate sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-probability
sampling. This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate selection of particular
units of the universe for constituting a sample which represents the universe. When
population elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease of access, it
can be called convenience sampling. If a researcher wishes to secure data from, say,
gasoline buyers, he may select a fixed number of petrol stations
 and may conduct interviews at these stations. This would be an example of convenience
sample of gasoline buyers. At times such a procedure may give very biased results
particularly when the population is not homogeneous. On the other hand, in judgement
sampling the researcher’s judgement is used for selecting items which he considers as
representative of the population. For example, a judgement sample of college students
might be taken to secure reactions to a new method of teaching. Judgement sampling is
used quite frequently in qualitative research where the desire happens to be to develop
hypotheses rather than to generalise to larger populations.
(xii) (ii) Simple random sampling: This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or
probability sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal chance of
inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has
the same probability of being selected. For example, if we have to select a sample of 300
items from a universe of 15,000 items, then we can put the names or numbers of all the
15,000 items on slips of paper and conduct a lottery. Using the random number tables is
another method of random sampling. To select the sample, each item is assigned a number
from 1 to 15,000. Then, 300 five digit random numbers are selected from the table. To do
this we select some random starting point and then a systematic pattern is used in
proceeding through the table. We might start in the 4th row, second column and proceed
down the column to the bottom of the table and then move to the top of the next column to
the right. When a number exceeds the limit of the numbers in the frame, in our case over
15,000, it is simply passed over and the next
number selected that does fall within the relevant range.

(xiv) Since the numbers were placed in the table in a completely random fashion, the resulting
sample is random. This procedure gives each item an equal probability of being selected. In
case of infinite population, the selection of each item in a random sample is controlled by
the same probability and that successive selections are independent of one another.
(iii) Systematic sampling: In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to select
every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street and so on. Sampling of
this type is known as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is usually introduced
into this kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start.
This procedure is useful when sampling frame is available in the form of a list. In such a
design the selection process starts by picking some random point in the list and then every
nth element is selected until the desired number is secured.
iv) Stratified sampling: If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not
constitute a homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to
obtain a representative sample. In this technique, the population is stratified into a number
of non-overlapping subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from
each stratum. If the items selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling
the entire procedure, first stratification and then simple random sampling, is known as
stratified random sampling.
v) Quota sampling: In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual
strata is often so expensive that interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from
different strata, the actual selection of items for sample being left to the interviewer’s
judgement. This is called quota sampling. The size of the quota for each stratum is generally
proportionate to the size of that stratum in the population. Quota sampling is thus an
important form of non-probability sampling. Quota samples generally happen to be
judgement samples rather than random samples.
(vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling: Cluster sampling involves grouping the population
and then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in
the sample. Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample its credit card holders. It
has issued its cards to 15,000 customers. The sample size is to be kept say 450. For cluster
sampling this list of 15,000 card holders could be formed into 100 clusters of 150 card
holders each. Three clusters might then be selected for the sample randomly. The sample
size must often be larger than the simple random sample to ensure the same level of
accuracy because is cluster sampling procedural potential for order bias and other sources
of error is usually accentuated. The clustering approach can, however, make the sampling
procedure relatively easier and increase the efficiency of field work, specially in the case of
personal interviews.
Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when the total
geographical area of interest happens to be big one. Under area sampling we first divide the
total area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical
clusters, then a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units in these
small areas are included in the sample. Area sampling is specially helpful where we do not
have the list of the population concerned. It also makes the field interviewing more efficient
since interviewer can do many interviews at each location.
(vii) Multi-stage sampling: This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling. This
technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical area like
an entire country. Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary
sampling units such as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within
towns. If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling procedure
is described as multi-stage random sampling.
(viii) Sequential sampling: This is somewhat a complex sample design where the ultimate
size of the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according to mathematical
decisions on the basis of information yielded as survey progresses. This design is usually
adopted under acceptance sampling plan in the context of statistical quality control. In
practice, several of the methods of sampling described above may
 well be used in the same study in which case it can be called mixed sampling. It may be
pointed out here that normally one should resort to random sampling so that bias can be
eliminated and sampling error can be estimated. But purposive sampling is considered
desirable when the universe happens to be small and a known characteristic of it is to be
studied intensively. Also, there are conditions under which sample designs other than
random sampling may be considered better for reasons like convenience and low costs. The
sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking into consideration the
nature of the inquiry and other related factors.

SUMMARY
Definition of A Research Project Proposal

A research proposal is defined as,“A document that is typically written by a scientist or academic which
describes the ideas for an investigation on a certain topic. The research proposal outlines the process
from beginning to end and may be used to request financing for the project, certification for performing
certain parts of research of the experiment, or as a required task before beginning a college
dissertation.”
OR
“The presentation of an idea that you wish to pursue.”
OR
“A document written by a scientist that describes in details the program for a proposed scientific
investigation. It is like an outline of the entire research process that gives a reader a summary of
information discussed in project.”
Significance and Purpose of Research Proposal
Generally, a research is a quest for knowledge through experimentation, investigation and diligent
search. It is aimed at discovery and interpretation of new knowledge or at resolving debatable existing
knowledge. There are systematic procedures and methods for explorations, targeted at obtaining new
knowledge. At the level of professional education, we have a pursuance for learning more and looking
beyond what is written, and contributing a little to the field we plan to dedicate our lives to. The starting
point of a research is to think of a good idea. Your research is as good as your idea.
Before starting any long term or complicated task, it is wise that we make a rough plan or a map which
will guide us throughout the course of the job. In the same way, before the commencement of our
research, we need to devote time and think logically on the area of our research and how we are going
to go about it. Professional universities demand that before carrying out the research project or
dissertation, the researcher submits a research proposal. The purpose of the research
proposal is to convince the research committee that the researcher has chosen the topic after great
consideration, carried out sufficient preliminary reading on the topic, possesses sound information of
the issues involved and is capable of providing broad details of the area under investigation.
What Does a Research Project Proposal Address?
Typically, a research proposal must answer three questions:
1. What do you plan to accomplish?
2. Why do you want to do it?
3. How are you going to do it?
The research proposal must contain ample information to persuade the readers that your research idea
is important and that you have a good grasp of the topic and major issues involved, and your
methodology is sound.
The quality of the research proposal conveys a lot about your project. Many a times, researchers run the
risk of rejection, not because their research idea is irrational but because the research proposal is poorly
written. Therefore, the tone of the proposal must be compelling, clear and coherent.
Types & Kinds of Research Proposals
Research proposals can be broadly categorized into the following types:
Academic Research Proposals
• Social research proposal
• Scientific research proposal
Commercial Research Proposals
• Sales proposal
• Grant proposal
• Business proposal
• Funding proposal
• Marketing research proposal
Outline & Format of a Standard Research Proposal
Although, there is no universal format for research proposal but following are the standard elements
which must be present in a proposal to earn it acceptance by the academic board:

Title: Statement of the Research Hypothesis

The title of the research must be clear and succinct, indicating the problem area around which the
research work will be undertaken. Mostly, the titles are expressed in functional relationship forms
because this highlights the dependent and independent variables. The titles can also be in the form of
informative statements. Background Analysis and Information
Under the caption of background, you need to describe the research problem under investigation.
Explain why you think the research topic you have chosen is worth doing. Give both personal and
business reasons to support your argument. The reasons you
provide must be scientific and logical and supported by evidences. You may also write down the major
issues the research topic will be addressing. Literature Review

The proposal must include a critical review of the literature you have studied for carrying out the
research. In this section, you acknowledge the researchers whose works have formed a foundation for
your research.
The literature review may lead you to the formation of a hypothetical statement, conceptual framework
and identification of dependent and independent variables. The literature review must also explain the
need for research on your topic. Research Questions & Objectives
In this section, you must write down the key research questions as they emerge from reviewing the
literature. Narrow down the objectives of your research in three to five pointers. Use higher level verbs
here such as: propose, evaluate, distinguish, analyze, design, appraise, predict, construct, generate,
compare, compile, justify, validate, and identify.

Research Plan
Your proposal must present a brief research plan that you will be undertaking. The research plan is
typically divided into seven phases:
1. Research Perspective
2. Research Design
3. Data Collection Methods
4. Sampling Strategy
5. Research Instruments
6. Data Analysis
7. Limitations of Your Research
Design and Methodology for a Scientific Research Proposal
A scientific research proposal differs from a social research proposal since the former
includes procedural methods, lab information, experiment methodology and other
technical details which the researcher intends to implement for his/her scientific
investigation and analysis.
Ethical Considerations
Mention any ethical issues the research will give rise to and how you intend to handle them.
Also write how you would be avoiding plagiarism. Timetable

In the end, mention how much time you will take to complete the research. Provide a brief
chronological illustration, explaining what amount of time is allocated to what research
tasks.
Resources, Citation and Bibliography
List down any special help or resources that you will be requiring or plan to consult. In case
of acceptance of your research proposal, you will be working on a detailed bibliography but
you can give a brief idea of the resources that you are attempting to begin with. Preferred
formats for citation such as Chicago and MLA. Significance of the Research Project
Mention the importance and rationale of the research topic which you have undertaken.
Explain the significance of the project in terms of its contribution to existing studies. If
you are applying for financial funding then you need to elaborate on reasons which
justify financial help.
Conclusion
While your introduction, literature review and significance of the study has already justified
your research project, a conclusion explicitly states the importance and implication of your
coursework.
Sources of Data Collection: Primary & Secondary
What is Data Collection?
Data collection is a standout amongst the most essential stages in carrying on a research.
You can have the best research plan in the world, however, in the event that you can’t
gather the necessary data you will not have the capacity to complete your venture. Data
collection is an extremely challenging work which needs exhaustive planning, diligent work,
understanding, determination and more to have the capacity to complete the assignment
effectively. Data collection begins with figuring out what sort of data is needed, followed by
the collection of a sample from a certain section of the population. Next, you have to utilize
a certain tool to gather the data from the chosen sample.

Sources of Data Collection

Normally we can gather data from two sources namely primary and secondary. Data
gathered through perception or questionnaire review in a characteristic setting are
illustrations of data obtained in an uncontrolled situation. Secondary data is the data
acquired from optional sources like magazines, books, documents, journals, reports, the
web and more. The chart below describes the flow of the sources of data collection. Sources
of Primary Data Collection
Primary data will be the data that you gather particularly with the end goal of your research
venture. Leverage of Primary data is that it is particularly customized to your analysis needs.
A drawback is that it is costly to get hold of. Primary data is otherwise called raw
information; the information gathered from the first source in a controlled or an
uncontrolled situation. Cases of a controlled domain are experimental studies where certain
variables are being controlled by the analyst.
 The source of primary data is the populace test from which you gather the information. The
initial phase in the process is deciding your target populace. For instance, if you are looking
into the attractiveness of another washing machine, your target populace may be newly-
weds.
Clearly, it’s impracticable to gather information from everybody, so you will need to
focus on the sample size and kind of sample. The specimen ought to be arbitrary and a
stratified random sample is frequently sensible. In our washing machine illustration,
sub populations may incorporate adolescent couples, moderately aged couples, old
couples, and previously wedded couples.
Sources of Secondary Data Collection
You can break the sources of secondary data into internal as well as external sources. Inner
sources incorporate data that exists and is stored in your organization. External data refers
to the data that is gathered by other individuals or associations from your association’s
outer environment.
Examples of inner sources of data incorporate, but are not restricted only to, the following:
• Statement of the profit and loss
• Balance sheets
• Sales figures
• Inventory records
• Previous marketing studies
If the secondary data you have gathered from internal sources is not sufficient, you can turn
to outside sources of data collection, some outside sources of data collection include:
• Universities
• Government sources
• Foundations
• Media, including telecast, print and Internet
• Trade, business and expert affiliations
• Corporate filings
• Commercial information administrations, which are organizations that find the data for
you

What is sampling?

Sampling definition: Sampling is a technique of selecting individual members or a subset of the

population to make statistical inferences from them and estimate characteristics of the whole
population. Different sampling methods are widely used by researchers in market research so that they
do not need to research the entire population to collect actionable insights. It is also a time-convenient
and a cost-effective method and hence forms the basis of any research design. Sampling techniques can
be used in a research survey software for optimum derivation.

For example, if a drug manufacturer would like to research the adverse side effects of a drug on the
country’s population, it is almost impossible to conduct a research study that involves everyone. In this
case, the researcher decides a sample of people from each demographic and then researches them,
giving him/her indicative feedback on the drug’s behavior.

Types of sampling: sampling methods

Sampling in market research is of two types – probability sampling and non-probability sampling.
Let’s take a closer look at these two methods of sampling.

1. Probability sampling: Probability sampling is a sampling technique where a researcher sets a

selection of a few criteria and chooses members of a population randomly. All the members
have an equal opportunity to be a part of the sample with this selection parameter.

2. Non-probability sampling: In non-probability sampling, the researcher chooses members for

research at random. This sampling method is not a fixed or predefined selection process. This
makes it difficult for all elements of a population to have equal opportunities to be included in a
sample.

In this blog, we discuss the various probability and non-probability sampling methods that you can
implement in any market research study.

Types of probability sampling with examples:

Probability sampling is a sampling technique in which researchers choose samples from a larger
population using a method based on the theory of probability. This sampling method considers every
member of the population and forms samples based on a fixed process.
For example, in a population of 1000 members, every member will have a 1/1000 chance of being
selected to be a part of a sample. Probability sampling eliminates bias in the population and gives all
members a fair chance to be included in the sample.

i. There are four types of probability sampling techniques:

ii. Simple random sampling: One of the best probability sampling techniques that helps in saving
time and resources, is the Simple Random Sampling method. It is a reliable method of obtaining
information where every single member of a population is chosen randomly, merely by chance.
Each individual has the same probability of being chosen to be a part of a sample.
For example, in an organization of 500 employees, if the HR team decides on conducting team
building activities, it is highly likely that they would prefer picking chits out of a bowl. In this
case, each of the 500 employees has an equal opportunity of being selected.

iii. Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire
population into sections or clusters that represent a population. Clusters are identified and
included in a sample based on demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc. This makes it
very simple for a survey creator to derive effective inference from the feedback. For example, if
the United States government wishes to evaluate the number of immigrants living in the
Mainland US, they can divide it into clusters based on states such as California, Texas, Florida,
Massachusetts, Colorado, Hawaii, etc. This way of conducting a survey will be more effective as
the results will be organized into states and provide insightful immigration data.

iv. Systematic sampling: Researchers use the systematic sampling method to choose the sample
members of a population at regular intervals. It requires the selection of a starting point for the
sample and sample size that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling method
has a predefined range, and hence this sampling technique is the least time-consuming.
For example, a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a population
of 5000. He/she numbers each element of the population from 1-5000 and will
 choose every 10th individual to be a part of the sample (Total population/ Sample Size =
5000/500 = 10).

v. Stratified random sampling: Stratified random sampling is a method in which the researcher
divides the population into smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire
population. While sampling, these groups can be organized and then draw a sample from each
group separately.
For example, a researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of people belonging to
different annual income divisions will create strata (groups) according to the annual family
income. Eg – less than $20,000, $21,000 – $30,000, $31,000 to $40,000, $41,000 to $50,000,
etc. By doing this, the researcher concludes the characteristics of people belonging to different
income groups. Marketers can analyze which income groups to target and which ones to
eliminate to create a roadmap that would bear fruitful results.

Uses of probability sampling

There are multiple uses of probability sampling. They are:

i. Reduce Sample Bias: Using the probability sampling method, the bias in the sample derived
from a population is negligible to non-existent. The selection of the sample mainly depicts the
understanding and the inference of the researcher. Probability sampling leads to higher quality
data collection as the sample appropriately represents the population.

ii. Diverse Population: When the population is vast and diverse, it is essential to have adequate
representation so that the data is not skewed towards one demographic. For example, if Square
would like to understand the people that could make their point-of-sale devices, a survey
conducted from a sample of people across the US from different industries and socio-economic
backgrounds helps.

iii. Create an Accurate Sample: Probability sampling helps the researchers plan and create an
accurate sample. This helps to obtain well-defined data.

Advantages of Probability sampling

 i. Cost Effective
As the task of assignment of random number to different items of population is over, the
process is half done. This process saves cost and time to a great extent. We can take any
number of samples from this process.

ii. Involves lesser degree of judgment

While assigning the number to an item of the population, the person assigns it in a random
trend that makes the process of probability sampling more effective and more accurate.

iii. Comparatively easier way of sampling

Probability sampling does not involve any complex and long process. Thus, this is an easier
way for sampling.

iv. Less time consuming

This process is a simple and short process. This takes lesser time to complete. The saved time
can be used for analysis and interpretation.

v. Can be done even by non- technical persons

Assignment of Random number can be done by any kind of person after a short briefing as this
does not involve any lengthy, complex and crucial process

vi. Sample representative of population

Probability Sampling uses random numbers which ensures that the samples vary as much as
the population itself.

Disadvantages

i. Chances of selecting specific class of samples only

If a surveyor is appointed to survey about any data relating to family members, there is likely
chances that s/he will develop a trend of starting to number from the eldest member to the
youngest and numbers will be only increasing or decreasing only. In this case, only oldest or the
latest generations will be taken as samples.

ii. Redundant and monotonous work

As the surveyor is asked to do a repetitive job to assign the numbers and to take the
 information, there is likely chances that the surveyor suffers from monotony and the
effectiveness of the system will be reduced.

SAMPLING

Lesson Objectives:

By the end of the lesson, trainees should be able to:

1. Explain types of non-probability sampling

2. Explain advantages and disadvantages of non- probability sampling
3. Discuss the difference between probability and non- probability sampling

Types of non-probability sampling with examples

The non-probability method is a sampling method that involves a collection of feedback based on a
researcher or statistician’s sample selection capabilities and not on a fixed selection process. In most
situations, the output of a survey conducted with a non-probable sample leads to skewed results, which
may not represent the desired target population. But there are situations such as the preliminary stages
of research or cost constraints for conducting research, where non-probability sampling will be much
more useful than the other type.

Four types of non-probability sampling explain the purpose of this sampling method in a better manner:

1. Convenience sampling: This method is dependent on the ease of access to subjects such as
surveying customers at a mall or passers-by on a busy street. It is usually termed as convenience
sampling, because of the researcher’s ease of carrying it out and getting in touch with the
subjects. Researchers have nearly no authority to select the sample elements, and it’s purely
done based on proximity and not representativeness. This non-probability sampling method is
used when there are time and cost limitations in collecting feedback.
 In situations where there are resource limitations such as the initial stages of research,
convenience sampling is used. For example, startups and NGOs usually conduct convenience
sampling at a mall to distribute leaflets of upcoming events or promotion of a cause – they do
that by standing at the mall entrance and giving out pamphlets randomly.
2. Judgmental or purposive sampling: Judgmental or purposive samples are formed by the
discretion of the researcher. Researchers purely consider the purpose of the study, along with
the understanding of the target audience. For instance, when researchers want to understand
the thought process of people interested in studying for their master’s degree. The selection
criteria will be: “Are you interested in doing your masters in …?” and those who respond with a
“No” are excluded from the sample.

Judgement Sampling

Judgement sampling is one of the non-probability methods of sampling. Judgement sampling involves
the selection of a group from the population on the basis of available information. It is the selection of
the group by intuition on the basis of criteria deemed to be self evident. Under this method, units are
included in the sample on the basis of the judgement that the units possess the required characteristics
to qualify as representatives of the population.

Advantages of Judgement sampling

The chief advantages of the judgement sampling are as follows:

i. Judgement sampling eliminates 5e cost and time in preparing the sample

ii. Judgement sampling method enables the researcher to include the positive aspects of
stratification in the sample.

Disadvantages of judgement sampling

i. There is uncontrolled variability and bias in the estimates in Judgement sampling.

ii. The success of Judgement sampling method is solely dependent on a thorough knowledge of the
population and elimination of the use of inferential parametric statistical tools for the purpose of
generalization.
 iii. Complete reliance on intuition and hunch is risky in Judgement sampling.

1. Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is a sampling method that researchers apply when the
subjects are difficult to trace. For example, it will be extremely challenging to survey shelter less
people or illegal immigrants. In such cases, using the snowball theory, researchers can track a
few categories to interview and derive results. Researchers also implement this sampling
method in situations where the topic is highly sensitive and not openly discussed—for example,
surveys to gather information about HIV Aids. Not many victims will readily respond to the
questions. Still, researchers can contact people they might know or volunteers associated with
the cause to get in touch with the victims and collect information.
2. Quota sampling: In Quota sampling, the selection of members in this sampling technique
happens based on a pre-set standard. In this case, as a sample is formed based on specific
attributes, the created sample will have the same qualities found in the total population. It is a
rapid method of collecting samples.

Advantages of Quota sampling

i. Quota sampling ensures convenience in executing sampling study.

ii. When the respondent refuses to cooperate, he may be replaced by another person who is ready
to furnish information.

iii. Quota sampling is less expensive and speedy

 iv. When the population has no suitable frame, quota sampling is the only practical

method.

v. Collection of data through Quota sampling method is not a time consuming one.

Disadvantages of Quota sampling

i. The interviewer interviews people who are easily available and accessible. So, the possibility of
collecting valuable data is affected in Quota sampling.

ii. Bias arises in the matter of selection of sample units.

iii. The work of the interviewer cannot be supervised properly. So, there is no certainty of
correctness of data.

iv. Quota sampling method requires several investigators. Each one cannot be equally competent.
So, the results derived from the study may not be uniform.

Uses of non-probability sampling

Non-probability sampling is used for the following:

1. Create a hypothesis: Researchers use the non-probability sampling method to create an

assumption when limited to no prior information is available. This method helps with the
immediate return of data and builds a base for further research.
2. Exploratory research: Researchers use this sampling technique widely when conducting
qualitative research, pilot studies, or exploratory research.
3. Budget and time constraints: The non-probability method when there are budget and time
constraints, and some preliminary data must be collected. Since the survey design is not rigid, it
is easier to pick respondents at random and have them take the survey or questionnaire.
Difference between Probability Sampling and Non-Probability Sampling Methods

We have looked at the different types of sampling methods above and their subtypes. To encapsulate
the whole discussion, though, the significant differences between probability sampling methods and
non-probability sampling methods are as below:

Probability Sampling Methods Non-Probability Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling is a sampling

Non-probability sampling is a sampling
technique in which samples from a
technique in which the researcher selects
larger population are chosen using
samples based on the researcher’s subjective
a method based on the theory of
judgment rather than random selection.
probability.

Random sampling method. Non-random sampling method

The population is selected

The population is selected arbitrarily.
randomly.

The research is conclusive. The research is exploratory.

Since there is a method for

Since the sampling method is arbitrary, the
deciding the sample, the
population demographics representation is
population demographics are
almost always skewed.
conclusively represented.

This type of sampling method is quick since

Takes longer to conduct since the
neither the sample or selection criteria of the
research design defines the
sample are undefined.
 selection parameters before the
market research study begins.

This type of sampling is entirely This type of sampling is entirely biased and
Results unbiased and hence the results are hence the results are biased too, rendering the
unbiased too and conclusive. research speculative.

In probability sampling, there is an

underlying hypothesis before the
Hypothesis In non-probability sampling, the hypothesis is
study begins and the objective of
derived after conducting the research study.
this method is to prove the
hypothesis.

Research design definition

Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher. The
design allows researchers to hone in on research methods that are suitable for the subject matter and
set up their studies up for success.

The design of a research topic explains the type of research (experimental, survey, correlational, semi-
experimental, review) and also its sub-type (experimental design, research problem, descriptive case-
study).

There are three main types of research design: Data collection, measurement, and analysis.

The type of research problem an organization is facing will determine the research design and not vice-
versa. The design phase of a study determines which tools to use and how they are used.

An impactful research design usually creates a minimum bias in data and increases trust in the accuracy
of collected data. A design that produces the least margin of error in experimental research is generally
considered the desired outcome. The essential elements of the research design are:

1. Accurate purpose statement

2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research
3. The method applied for analyzing collected details
4. Type of research methodology
5. Probable objections for research
6. Settings for the research study
7. Timeline
8. Measurement of analysis
Proper research design sets your study up for success. Successful research studies provide insights that
are accurate and unbiased. You’ll need to create a survey that meets all of the main characteristics of a
design. There are four key characteristics of research design:

Neutrality: When you set up your study, you may have to make assumptions about the data you expect
to collect. The results projected in the research design should be free from bias and neutral. Understand
opinions about the final evaluated scores and conclusion from multiple individuals and consider those
who agree with the derived results.

Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the researcher involved expects similar results every
time. Your design should indicate how to form research questions to ensure the standard of results.
You’ll only be able to reach the expected results if your design is reliable.

Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available. However, the only correct measuring tools are
those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the objective of the research. The
questionnaire developed from this design will then be valid.

Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a population and not just a restricted
sample. A generalized design implies that your survey can be conducted on any part of a population with
similar accuracy.

The above factors affect the way respondents answer the research questions and so all the above
characteristics should be balanced in a good design.

A researcher must have a clear understanding of the various types of research design to select which
model to implement for a study. Like research itself, the design of your study can be broadly classified
into quantitative and qualitative.

Qualitative research design: Qualitative research determines relationships between collected data and
observations based on mathematical calculations. Theories related to a naturally existing phenomenon
can be proved or disproved using statistical methods. Researchers rely on qualitative research design
methods that conclude “why” a particular theory exists along with “what” respondents have to say
about it.
Quantitative research design: Quantitative research is for cases where statistical conclusions to collect
actionable insights are essential. Numbers provide a better perspective to make critical business
decisions. Quantitative research design methods are necessary for the growth of any organization.
Insights drawn from hard numerical data and analysis prove to be highly effective when making
decisions related to the future of the business.

You can further break down the types of research design into five categories:

1. Descriptive research design: In a descriptive design, a researcher is solely interested in describing the
situation or case under their research study. It is a theory-based design method which is created by
gathering, analyzing, and presenting collected data. This allows a researcher to provide insights into the
why and how of research. Descriptive design helps others better understand the need for the research.
If the problem statement is not clear, you can conduct exploratory research.

2. Experimental research design: Experimental research design establishes a relationship between the
cause and effect of a situation. It is a causal design where one observes the impact caused by the
independent variable on the dependent variable. For example, one monitors the influence of an
independent variable such as a price on a dependent variable such as customer satisfaction or brand
loyalty. It is a highly practical research design method as it contributes to solving a problem at hand. The
independent variables are manipulated to monitor the change it has on the dependent variable. It is
often used in social sciences to observe human behavior by analyzing two groups. Researchers can have
participants change their actions and study how the people around them react to gain a better
understanding of social psychology.

3. Correlational research design: Correlational research is a non-experimental research design

technique that helps researchers establish a relationship between two closely connected variables. This
type of research requires two different groups. There is no assumption while evaluating a relationship
between two different variables, and statistical analysis techniques calculate the relationship between
them.

A correlation coefficient determines the correlation between two variables, whose value ranges
between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is towards +1, it indicates a positive relationship
between the variables and -1 means a negative relationship between the two variables.

4. Diagnostic research design: In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to evaluate the underlying
cause of a specific topic or phenomenon. This method helps one learn more about the factors that
create troublesome situations.

This design has three parts of the research:

· Inception of the issue

· Diagnosis of the issue

· Solution for the issue

5. Explanatory research design: Explanatory design uses a researcher’s ideas and thoughts on a subject
to further explore their theories. The research explains unexplored aspects of a subject and details
about what, how, and why of research questions.

What is data analysis in research?

Definition of research in data analysis: According to LeCompte and Schensul, research data analysis is a
process used by researchers for reducing data to a story and interpreting it to derive insights. The data
analysis process helps in reducing a large chunk of data into smaller fragments, which makes sense.

Three essential things take place during the data analysis process — the first data organization.
Summarization and categorization together contribute to becoming the second known method used for
data reduction. It helps in finding patterns and themes in the data for easy identification and linking.
Third and the last way is data analysis – researchers do it in both top-down or bottom-up fashion.

Marshall and Rossman, on the other hand, describe data analysis as a messy, ambiguous, and time-
consuming, but a creative and fascinating process through which a mass of collected data is being
brought to order, structure and meaning.

We can say that “the data analysis and interpretation is a process representing the application of
deductive and inductive logic to the research and data analysis.”

Why analyze data in research?

Researchers rely heavily on data as they have a story to tell or problems to solve. It starts with a
question, and data is nothing but an answer to that question. But what if there is no question to
 ask? Well! It is possible to explore data even without a problem – we call it ‘Data Mining’ which often
reveal some interesting patterns within the data that are worth exploring.

Irrelevant to the type of data, researchers explore, their mission, and audiences’ vision guide them to
find the patterns to shape the story they want to tell. One of the essential things expected from
researchers while analyzing data is to stay open and remain unbiased towards unexpected patterns,
expressions, and results. Remember, sometimes, data analysis tells the most unforeseen yet exciting
stories that were not expected at the time of initiating data analysis. Therefore, rely on the data you
have at hand and enjoy the journey of exploratory research.

Types of data in research

Every kind of data has a rare quality of describing things after assigning a specific value to it. For analysis,
you need to organize these values, processed and presented in a given context, to make it useful. Data
can be in different forms; here are the primary data types.

• Qualitative data: When the data presented has words and descriptions, then we call it qualitative
data. Although you can observe this data, it is subjective and harder to analyze data in research,
especially for comparison. Example: Quality data represents everything describing taste, experience,
texture, or an opinion that is considered quality data. This type of data is usually collected through
focus groups, personal interviews, or using open-ended questions in surveys.
• Quantitative data: Any data expressed in numbers of numerical figures are called quantitative data.
This type of data can be distinguished into categories, grouped, measured, calculated, or ranked.
Example: questions such as age, rank, cost, length, weight, scores, etc. everything comes under this
type of data. You can present such data in graphical format, charts, or apply statistical analysis
methods to this data. The (Outcomes Measurement Systems) OMS questionnaires in surveys are a
significant source of collecting numeric data.
• Categorical data: It is data presented in groups. However, an item included in the categorical
data cannot belong to more than one group. Example: A person responding to a survey by telling his
living style, marital status, smoking habit, or drinking habit comes under the categorical data. A chi-
square test is a standard method used to analyze this data.
Data analysis in qualitative research

Data analysis and qualitative data research work a little differently from the numerical data as the
quality data is made up of words, descriptions, images, objects, and sometimes symbols. Getting insight
from such complicated information is a complicated process. Hence it is typically used for exploratory
research and data analysis.

Finding patterns in the qualitative data

Although there are several ways to find patterns in the textual information, a word-based method is the
most relied and widely used global technique for research and data analysis. Notably, the data analysis
process in qualitative research is manual. Here the researchers usually read the available data and find
repetitive or commonly used words.

For example, while studying data collected from African countries to understand the most pressing
issues people face, researchers might find “food” and “hunger” are the most commonly used words and
will highlight them for further analysis.

The keyword context is another widely used word-based technique. In this method, the researcher tries
to understand the concept by analyzing the context in which the participants use a particular keyword.

For example, researchers conducting research and data analysis for studying the concept of ‘diabetes’
amongst respondents might analyze the context of when and how the respondent has used or referred
to the word ‘diabetes.’

The scrutiny-based technique is also one of the highly recommended text analysis methods used to
identify a quality data pattern. Compare and contrast is the widely used method under this technique to
differentiate how a specific text is similar or different from each other.

For example: To find out the “importance of resident doctor in a company,” the collected data is divided
into people who think it is necessary to hire a resident doctor and those who think it is
 unnecessary. Compare and contrast is the best method that can be used to analyze the polls having
single answer questions types.

Metaphors can be used to reduce the data pile and find patterns in it so that it becomes easier to
connect data with theory.

Variable Partitioning is another technique used to split variables so that researchers can find more
coherent descriptions and explanations from the enormous data.

Methods used for data analysis in qualitative research

There are several techniques to analyze the data in qualitative research, but here are some commonly
used methods,

• Content Analysis: It is widely accepted and the most frequently employed technique for data analysis
in research methodology. It can be used to analyze the documented information from text, images,
and sometimes from the physical items. It depends on the research questions to predict when and
where to use this method.
• Narrative Analysis: This method is used to analyze content gathered from various sources such as
personal interviews, field observation, and surveys. The majority of times, stories, or opinions shared
by people are focused on finding answers to the research questions.
• Discourse Analysis: Similar to narrative analysis, discourse analysis is used to analyze the interactions
with people. Nevertheless, this particular method considers the social context under which or within
which the communication between the researcher and respondent takes place. In addition to that,
discourse analysis also focuses on the lifestyle and day-to-day environment while deriving any
conclusion.
• Grounded Theory: When you want to explain why a particular phenomenon happened, then using
grounded theory for analyzing quality data is the best resort. Grounded theory is applied to study
data about the host of similar cases occurring in different settings. When researchers are using this
method, they might alter explanations or produce new ones until they arrive at some conclusion.
 Data analysis in quantitative research

Preparing data for analysis

The first stage in research and data analysis is to make it for the analysis so that the nominal data can be
converted into something meaningful. Data preparation consists of the below phases.

Phase I: Data Validation

Data validation is done to understand if the collected data sample is per the pre-set standards, or it is a
biased data sample again divided into four different stages

• Fraud: To ensure an actual human being records each response to the survey or the questionnaire
• Screening: To make sure each participant or respondent is selected or chosen in compliance with the
research criteria
• Procedure: To ensure ethical standards were maintained while collecting the data sample
• Completeness: To ensure that the respondent has answered all the questions in an online survey.
Else, the interviewer had asked all the questions devised in the questionnaire.

Phase II: Data Editing

More often, an extensive research data sample comes loaded with errors. Respondents sometimes fill in
some fields incorrectly or sometimes skip them accidentally. Data editing is a process wherein the
researchers have to confirm that the provided data is free of such errors. They need to conduct
necessary checks and outlier checks to edit the raw edit and make it ready for analysis.

Phase III: Data Coding

Out of all three, this is the most critical phase of data preparation associated with grouping and
assigning values to the survey responses. If a survey is completed with a 1000 sample size, the
researcher will create an age bracket to distinguish the respondents based on their age. Thus, it
becomes easier to analyze small data buckets rather than deal with the massive data pile.
 Methods used for data analysis in quantitative research

After the data is prepared for analysis, researchers are open to using different research and data analysis
methods to derive meaningful insights. For sure, statistical techniques are the most favored to analyze
numerical data. The method is again classified into two groups. First, ‘Descriptive Statistics’ used to
describe data. Second, ‘Inferential statistics’ that helps in comparing the data.

Descriptive statistics

This method is used to describe the basic features of versatile types of data in research. It presents the
data in such a meaningful way that pattern in the data starts making sense. Nevertheless, the descriptive
analysis does not go beyond making conclusions. The conclusions are again based on the hypothesis
researchers have formulated so far. Here are a few major types of descriptive analysis methods.

Measures of Frequency

• Count, Percent, Frequency

• It is used to denote home often a particular event occurs.
• Researchers use it when they want to showcase how often a response is given.

Measures of Central Tendency

• Mean, Median, Mode

• The method is widely used to demonstrate distribution by various points.
• Researchers use this method when they want to showcase the most commonly or averagely indicated
response.

Measures of Dispersion or Variation

• Range, Variance, Standard deviation

• Here the field equals high/low points.
• Variance standard deviation = difference between the observed score and mean
• It is used to identify the spread of scores by stating intervals.
• Researchers use this method to showcase data spread out. It helps them identify the depth until
which the data is spread out that it directly affects the mean.

Measures of Position

• Percentile ranks, Quartile ranks

• It relies on standardized scores helping researchers to identify the relationship between different
scores.
• It is often used when researchers want to compare scores with the average count.
For quantitative market research use of descriptive analysis often give absolute numbers, but the
analysis is never sufficient to demonstrate the rationale behind those numbers. Nevertheless, it is
necessary to think of the best method for research and data analysis suiting your survey questionnaire
and what story researchers want to tell. For example, the mean is the best way to demonstrate the
students’ average scores in schools. It is better to rely on the descriptive statistics when the researchers
intend to keep the research or outcome limited to the provided sample without generalizing it. For
example, when you want to compare average voting done in two different cities, differential statistics
are enough.

Descriptive analysis is also called a ‘univariate analysis’ since it is commonly used to analyze a single
variable.

Inferential statistics

Inferential statistics are used to make predictions about a larger population after research and data
analysis of the representing population’s collected sample. For example, you can ask some odd 100
audiences at a movie theater if they like the movie they are watching. Researchers then use inferential
statistics on the collected sample to reason that about 80-90% of people like the movie.

Here are two significant areas of inferential statistics.

• Estimating parameters: It takes statistics from the sample research data and demonstrates something
about the population parameter.
• Hypothesis test: It’s about sampling research data to answer the survey research questions. For
example, researchers might be interested to understand if the new shade of lipstick recently
launched is good or not, or if the multivitamin capsules help children to perform better at games.
These are sophisticated analysis methods used to showcase the relationship between different variables
instead of describing a single variable. It is often used when researchers want something beyond
absolute numbers to understand the relationship between variables.

Commonly used methods for data analysis in research.

• Correlation: When researchers are not conducting experimental research wherein the researchers
are interested to understand the relationship between two or more variables, they opt for
correlational research methods.
• Cross-tabulation: Also called contingency tables, cross-tabulation is used to analyze the relationship
between multiple variables. Suppose provided data has age and gender categories presented in rows
and columns. A two-dimensional cross-tabulation helps for seamless data analysis and research by
showing the number of males and females in each age category.
• Regression analysis: For understanding the strong relationship between two variables, researchers do
not look beyond the primary and commonly used regression analysis method, which is also a type of
predictive analysis used. In this method, you have an essential factor called the dependent variable.
You also have multiple independent variables in regression analysis. You undertake efforts to find out
the impact of independent variables on the dependent variable. The values of both independent and
dependent variables are assumed as being ascertained in an error-free random manner.
• Frequency tables: The statistical procedure is used for testing the degree to which two or more vary
or differ in an experiment. A considerable degree of variation means research findings were
significant. In many contexts, ANOVA testing and variance analysis are similar.
Analysis of variance: The statistical procedure is used for testing the degree to which two or more
vary or differ in an experiment. A considerable degree of variation means research findings were
significant. In many contexts, ANOVA testing and variance analysis are similar.

Considerations in research data analysis

 i. Researchers must have the necessary skills to analyze the data, Getting trained to demonstrate a
high standard of research practice. Ideally, researchers must possess more than a basic
understanding of the rationale of selecting one statistical method over the other to obtain better
data insights.
ii. Usually, research and data analytics methods differ by scientific discipline; therefore, getting
statistical advice at the beginning of analysis helps design a survey questionnaire, select data
collection methods, and choose samples.
iii. The primary aim of data research and analysis is to derive ultimate insights that are unbiased. Any
mistake in or keeping a biased mind to collect data, selecting an analysis method, or choosing
audience sample il to draw a biased inference.
iv. Irrelevant to the sophistication used in research data and analysis is enough to rectify the poorly
defined objective outcome measurements. It does not matter if the design is at fault or intentions
are not clear, but lack of clarity might mislead readers, so avoid the practice.
v. The motive behind data analysis in research is to present accurate and reliable data. As far as
possible, avoid statistical errors, and find a way to deal with everyday challenges like outliers,
missing data, data altering, data mining, or developing graphical representation.

Data analysis in quantitative research

Preparing data for analysis

The first stage in research and data analysis is to make it for the analysis so that the nominal data can be
converted into something meaningful. Data preparation consists of the below phases.

Phase I: Data Validation

Data validation is done to understand if the collected data sample is per the pre-set standards, or it is a
biased data sample again divided into four different stages

• Fraud: To ensure an actual human being records each response to the survey or the questionnaire
• Screening: To make sure each participant or respondent is selected or chosen in compliance with the
research criteria
• Procedure: To ensure ethical standards were maintained while collecting the data sample
• Completeness: To ensure that the respondent has answered all the questions in an online survey.
Else, the interviewer had asked all the questions devised in the questionnaire.

Phase II: Data Editing

More often, an extensive research data sample comes loaded with errors. Respondents sometimes fill in
some fields incorrectly or sometimes skip them accidentally. Data editing is a process wherein the
researchers have to confirm that the provided data is free of such errors. They need to conduct
necessary checks and outlier checks to edit the raw edit and make it ready for analysis.

Phase III: Data Coding

Out of all three, this is the most critical phase of data preparation associated with grouping and
assigning values to the survey responses. If a survey is completed with a 1000 sample size, the
researcher will create an age bracket to distinguish the respondents based on their age. Thus, it
becomes easier to analyze small data buckets rather than deal with the massive data pile.

Methods used for data analysis in quantitative research

After the data is prepared for analysis, researchers are open to using different research and data analysis
methods to derive meaningful insights. For sure, statistical techniques are the most favored to analyze
numerical data. The method is again classified into two groups. First, ‘Descriptive Statistics’ used to
describe data. Second, ‘Inferential statistics’ that helps in comparing the data.

Descriptive statistics

This method is used to describe the basic features of versatile types of data in research. It presents the
data in such a meaningful way that pattern in the data starts making sense. Nevertheless, the descriptive
analysis does not go beyond making conclusions. The conclusions are again based on
 the hypothesis researchers have formulated so far. Here are a few major types of descriptive analysis
methods.

Measures of Frequency

• Count, Percent, Frequency

• It is used to denote home often a particular event occurs.
• Researchers use it when they want to showcase how often a response is given.

Measures of Central Tendency

• Mean, Median, Mode

• The method is widely used to demonstrate distribution by various points.
• Researchers use this method when they want to showcase the most commonly or averagely indicated
response.

Measures of Dispersion or Variation

• Range, Variance, Standard deviation

• Here the field equals high/low points.
• Variance standard deviation = difference between the observed score and mean
• It is used to identify the spread of scores by stating intervals.
• Researchers use this method to showcase data spread out. It helps them identify the depth until
which the data is spread out that it directly affects the mean.

Measures of Position

• Percentile ranks, Quartile ranks

• It relies on standardized scores helping researchers to identify the relationship between different
scores.
• It is often used when researchers want to compare scores with the average count.
For quantitative market research use of descriptive analysis often give absolute numbers, but the
analysis is never sufficient to demonstrate the rationale behind those numbers. Nevertheless, it is
necessary to think of the best method for research and data analysis suiting your survey
 questionnaire and what story researchers want to tell. For example, the mean is the best way to
demonstrate the students’ average scores in schools. It is better to rely on the descriptive statistics
when the researchers intend to keep the research or outcome limited to the provided sample without
generalizing it. For example, when you want to compare average voting done in two different cities,
differential statistics are enough.

Descriptive analysis is also called a ‘univariate analysis’ since it is commonly used to analyze a single
variable.

Inferential statistics

Inferential statistics are used to make predictions about a larger population after research and data
analysis of the representing population’s collected sample. For example, you can ask some odd 100
audiences at a movie theater if they like the movie they are watching. Researchers then use inferential
statistics on the collected sample to reason that about 80-90% of people like the movie.

Here are two significant areas of inferential statistics.

• Estimating parameters: It takes statistics from the sample research data and demonstrates something
about the population parameter.
• Hypothesis test: It’s about sampling research data to answer the survey research questions. For
example, researchers might be interested to understand if the new shade of lipstick recently
launched is good or not, or if the multivitamin capsules help children to perform better at games.
These are sophisticated analysis methods used to showcase the relationship between different variables
instead of describing a single variable. It is often used when researchers want something beyond
absolute numbers to understand the relationship between variables.

Commonly used methods for data analysis in research.

• Correlation: When researchers are not conducting experimental research wherein the researchers
are interested to understand the relationship between two or more variables, they opt for
correlational research methods.
• Cross-tabulation: Also called contingency tables, cross-tabulation is used to analyze the relationship
between multiple variables. Suppose provided data has age and gender categories presented in rows
and columns. A two-dimensional cross-tabulation helps for seamless data analysis and research by
showing the number of males and females in each age category.
• Regression analysis: For understanding the strong relationship between two variables, researchers do
not look beyond the primary and commonly used regression analysis method, which is also a type of
predictive analysis used. In this method, you have an essential factor called the dependent variable.
You also have multiple independent variables in regression analysis. You undertake efforts to find out
the impact of independent variables on the dependent variable. The values of both independent and
dependent variables are assumed as being ascertained in an error-free random manner.
• Frequency tables: The statistical procedure is used for testing the degree to which two or more vary
or differ in an experiment. A considerable degree of variation means research findings were
significant. In many contexts, ANOVA testing and variance analysis are similar.
Analysis of variance: The statistical procedure is used for testing the degree to which two or more
vary or differ in an experiment. A considerable degree of variation means research findings were
significant. In many contexts, ANOVA testing and variance analysis are similar.

Considerations in research data analysis

vi. Researchers must have the necessary skills to analyze the data, Getting trained to demonstrate a
high standard of research practice. Ideally, researchers must possess more than a basic
understanding of the rationale of selecting one statistical method over the other to obtain better
data insights.
vii. Usually, research and data analytics methods differ by scientific discipline; therefore, getting
statistical advice at the beginning of analysis helps design a survey questionnaire, select data
collection methods, and choose samples.
viii. The primary aim of data research and analysis is to derive ultimate insights that are unbiased. Any
mistake in or keeping a biased mind to collect data, selecting an analysis method, or choosing
audience sample il to draw a biased inference.
ix. Irrelevant to the sophistication used in research data and analysis is enough to rectify the poorly
defined objective outcome measurements. It does not matter if the design is at fault or intentions
are not clear, but lack of clarity might mislead readers, so avoid the practice.
x. The motive behind data analysis in research is to present accurate and reliable data. As far as
possible, avoid statistical errors, and find a way to deal with everyday challenges like outliers,
missing data, data altering, data mining, or developing graphical representation.

Research Reports: Definition

Research reports are recorded data prepared by researchers or statisticians after analyzing information
gathered by conducting organized research, typically in the form of surveys or qualitative methods.

Reports usually are spread across a vast horizon of topics but are focused on communicating information
about a particular topic and a very niche target market. The primary motive of research reports is to convey
integral details about a study for marketers to consider while designing new strategies. Certain events,
facts and other information based on incidents need to be relayed on to the people in charge and creating
research reports is the most effective communication tool. Ideal research reports are extremely accurate in
the offered information with a clear objective and conclusion. There should be a clean and structured
format for these reports to be effective in relaying information.

A research report is a reliable source to recount details about a conducted research and is most often
considered to be a true testimony of all the work done to garner specificities of research.

Characteristics of an Effective Research Report

An effective research report has—at least—the following four characteristics:

10. Focus: an effective report emphasizes the important information.

11. Accuracy: an effective report does not mislead the reader.
12. Clarity: an effective report does not confuse the reader.
13. Conciseness: an effective report does not waste the reader’s time.

Tips for Writing Research Reports

Writing research reports in the manner can lead to all the efforts going down the drain. The tips for writing
impactful research reports:

 Prepare the context before starting to write and start from the basics: This was always taught to
us in school – be well-prepared before taking a plunge into new topics. The order of survey
questions might not be the ideal or most effective order for writing research reports. The idea is to
start with a broader topic and work towards a more specific one and focus on a conclusion or
support, which a research should support with the facts. The most difficult thing to do in reporting,
without a doubt is to start. Start with the title, the introduction, then document the first
discoveries and continue from that. Once the marketers have the information well documented,
they can write a general conclusion.
 Keep the target audience in mind while selecting a format that is clear, logical and obvious to
them: Will the research reports be presented to decision makers or other researchers? What are
the general perceptions around that topic? This requires more care and diligence. A researcher will
need a significant amount of information to start writing the research report. Be consistent with
the wording, the numbering of the annexes and so on. Follow the approved format of the company
for the delivery of research reports and demonstrate the integrity of the project with the objectives
of the company.
 Have a clear research objective: A researcher should read the entire proposal again, and make
sure that the data they provide contributes to the objectives that were raised from the beginning.
Remember that speculations are for conversations, not for research reports, if a researcher
speculates, they directly question their own research.
 Establish a working model: Each study must have an internal logic, which will have to be
established in the report and in the evidence. The researchers’ worst nightmare is to be required to
write research reports and realize that key questions were not included.

 Gather all the information about the research topic. Who are the competitors of our customers?
Talk to other researchers who have studied the subject of research, know the language of the
industry. Misuse of the terms can discourage the readers of research reports from reading further.
 Read aloud while writing. While reading the report, if the researcher hears something
inappropriate, for example, if they stumble over the words when reading them, surely the reader
will too. If the researcher can’t put an idea in a single sentence, then it is very long and they must
change it so that the idea is clear to everyone.
 Check grammar and spelling. Without a doubt, good practices help to understand the report. Use
verbs in the present tense. Consider using the present tense, which makes the results sound more
 immediate. Find new words and other ways of saying things. Have fun with the language whenever
possible.
 Discuss only the discoveries that are significant. If some data are not really significant, do not
mention them. Remember that not everything is truly important or essential within research
reports.

 Try and stick to the survey questions. For example, do not say that the people surveyed “were
worried” about an issue, when there are different degrees of concern.
 The graphs must be clear enough so that they understand themselves. Do not let graphs lead the
reader to make mistakes: give them a title, include the indications, the size of the sample, and the
correct wording of the question.
 Be clear with messages. A researcher should always write every section of the report with an
accuracy of details and language.
 Be creative with titles– Particularly in segmentation studies choose names “that give life to
research”. Such names can survive for a long time after the initial investigation.
 Create an effective conclusion: The conclusion in the research reports is the most difficult to write,
but it is an incredible opportunity to excel. Make a precise summary. Sometimes it helps to start
the conclusion with something specific, then it describes the most important part of the study, and
finally, it provides the implications of the conclusions.
 Get a couple more pair of eyes to read the report. Writers have trouble detecting their own
mistakes. But they are responsible for what is presented. Ensure it has been approved by
colleagues or friends before sending the find draft out.

WRITING OF A RESEARCH REPORT:

Purpose of This Guide

This guide is intended to help researchers write more effective and more readable reports of empirical
research studies. It will be helpful to people who are generally good writers but have little or no experience
at writing this type of research report. It may also be helpful to people who are experienced at writing this
type of research report but whose reports are not as readable and effective as they might be.
This guide is not intended to be a complete course in writing—not even a complete course in writing
research reports. It focuses on the problems that arise in the writing of a particular type of research report.
Many people who write reports of empirical research studies also write theoretical papers, methodological
papers, position papers, book reviews, or other types of articles. Some of the advice in this guide may apply
to those other types of writing, but much of it will not.
This guide is intended to be a compendium of helpful advice, not a list of requirements. The advice it
contains is the product of many years of experience in writing research reports and attempting to help
others write them. Nevertheless, it represents the opinions of one person. It does not necessarily represent
the position of ETS.

Characteristics of an Effective Research Report

An effective research report has—at least—the following four characteristics:

14. Focus: an effective report emphasizes the important information.

15. Accuracy: an effective report does not mislead the reader.

16. Clarity: an effective report does not confuse the reader.

17. Conciseness: an effective report does not waste the reader’s time.

Working Ahead

You can begin writing the report of your study before you have actually done the

study. Working ahead on your report allows you to use your time more efficiently, but there is an even
better reason for doing it. Working ahead on the report helps you plan and conduct the study, because it
forces you to think systematically about what you want the study to accomplish.

You can begin writing the introductory section of the report as soon as you have decided on the general
approach your study will follow. You don’t have to wait until you have determined all the details of the
method.
You can write the method section of the report before you have analyzed the data. You can even begin
describing your method before you have collected the data, although you may have to make some changes
if the procedure does not go exactly as planned.
You can begin writing the results section of the report before you finish analyzing the data. You can begin
writing it before you finish collecting the data, or even before you start collecting the data! Of course, you
won’t have any results to report, but you can use made-up data to create examples of the tables and
figures that will communicate your results. The decisions you make in creating these tables and figures will
help you decide how to analyze your data.

Terminology, Notation, and Writing Style

Terminology

Know your audience and what terms they understand. Many research reports include technical terms.
Before you start writing the report, decide who your intended readers are. If you don’t know whether those
readers will be familiar with the technical terms you intend to use, make an effort to find out. If you are
going to use any technical terms that will be unfamiliar to many readers, provide an explanation of those
terms—but don’t include detailed explanations of technical terms that the people reading the report will
already know and understand correctly.

Label each variable in your report with a term that describes only what it actually measures. Avoid labels
that have excess meaning —labels that imply more information than the measurement of the variable
actually provides. If the measurement is a score on a vocabulary test, call it word meanings; don’t call it
verbal ability. If the measurement is a score on a task of classifying objects, call it classifying objects; don’t
call it nonverbal reasoning.
If your report introduces a new concept, don’t use labels that are commonly used for some similar
concept. Avoid using terms like Type I error and Type II error or liberal and conservative. When readers see
a familiar term, they expect that term to have its usual meaning. If the meaning you intend is not exactly
the same as the usual meaning of the term, the readers will be confused. Use a different term.
If you introduce a new term, make sure the readers understand that you are

introducing a new term. Don’t explain the term in a way that implies that your new term is already in
common use. Instead of saying simply, “ABC [your new term] means XYZ,” say, “In this report, we will use
the term ABC to mean XYZ.”
Use short, descriptive labels. If your report includes two or more treatments (or conditions, or
measurements, or groups of students, etc.), try to identify each one by a short descriptive label of one,
two, or three words. Labels like “Treatment A” and “Treatment B” don’t help the reader remember which
treatment is which. Short descriptive phrases make much better labels. Finding a short phrase that
accurately describes a treatment or condition is sometimes difficult, but if you can do it, you will make your
report much easier to read.
Don’t use the same term to mean two or more different things. If you use the term weighted average to
refer to an average of subscores on a test, don’t use that same phrase to refer to a statistic computed for a
combined group of students.
Don’t refer to the same thing by two or more different names. Your readers will not all realize
immediately that interactive learning refers to the activity you described as a small-group exercise. You
cannot assume they will all know that the effect size is the same thing as the standardized mean difference.
Choose one term for each concept and use it consistently throughout the report.

Abbreviations

Avoid unfamiliar abbreviations. Don’t use abbreviations (or acronyms, like NAEP or STEM), unless you are
sure they will be familiar to the readers. Unfamiliar abbreviations make your report hard to read. The more
new or unusual abbreviations your report contains, the harder it will be for the readers to remember what
each abbreviation means. If you want your report to be readable, the ideal number of new abbreviations to
use is zero. Don’t even think about using a new or unfamiliar abbreviation unless (a) the phrase it replaces
is quite long or very difficult to read and (b) that phrase appears many times in your report.

You may find that using abbreviations makes it easier for you to write the report. In that case, go ahead
and use them in your first draft. Then use a “find and replace” instruction in your word processor to replace
each new or unfamiliar abbreviation with the phrase it represents.

Include the complete phrase at least once. Every abbreviation or acronym in the report should be written
out in full where it first appears in the report—even if it will be familiar to most readers, even if you think it
is obvious or common knowledge.
Be careful when you make up a new abbreviation. If you must use a new abbreviation in your report,
don’t use an abbreviation that your readers will associate with a different term or
phrase. Also avoid any abbreviation that readers might consider inappropriate because it looks like some
other word. Before you decide on a new abbreviation, find some people like those you expect to read your
report, show them the abbreviation you intend to use, and ask them if they have ever seen it before —and,
if so, what its meaning was. Also ask them if they can think of a way the abbreviation might be seen as
inappropriate. Finally, make sure you are not using the same abbreviation for two different phrases. (The
“find” instruction in your word processor makes this kind of checking easy to do.)
Mathematical Notation

Reports that include mathematical formulas or equations are often difficult to read because of problems
with the notation. A thorough discussion of these problems would be beyond the scope of this guide, but
some problems are too common or too basic to ignore.

Each symbol should have one and only one meaning. Don’t use a symbol to mean one thing in one
formula and then use the same symbol to mean something else in another formula. If your report includes
mathematical formulas, check to make sure you haven’t used the same symbol to mean two different
things.
Don’t change notation. Don’t use different symbols to represent the same thing in different parts of the
report.

Avoid new uses for symbols that have traditional meanings for your readers. If your readers are
accustomed to seeing a symbol used with a particular meaning, you will confuse them if you use that
symbol to mean something different. For example, in psychometrics, θ is commonly used to represent an
unobservable ability that the questions on a test are intended to measure, but in statistical decision theory,
it is used to represent the unknown true value of any variable. Many readers will be accustomed to seeing r
for a correlation, µ for a mean, and σ for a standard deviation; in general, try to follow the conventions
your readers are accustomed to. If you are writing for readers who are accustomed to seeing capital letters
for population values and lower case letters for sample values, follow that convention in writing your
report. If you are unsure what your readers will think when they see a particular symbol, find some people
like those who will read your report, and ask them about the symbols you intend to use.

Writing Style

Many research reports are ineffective because the writing style makes them hard to read. A discussion of
the problems commonly found in bad writing (ambiguous pronouns, misplaced modifiers, etc.) would be
beyond the scope of this guide. However, some kinds of problems are especially common in research
reports.
Avoid long sentences. This problem is easy to eliminate. All you need to do is to divide each long sentence
(35 words or longer) into two or more short sentences. The total number of words may increase, but the
result will be clearer communication.
First-person pronouns such as I and we are now allowable in scholarly writing. For many years, authors of
research reports observed (and journal editors enforced) the custom of avoiding the words I and we, and
the possessive our. Those days are over. Simple sentences beginning with I or we are now acceptable in
research reports, and they tend to make your writing clearer and more readable. The Publication Manual of
the American Psychological Association (American Psychological Association [APA], 2010) includes the
following examples:

Correct: We reviewed the literature.

Incorrect: The authors reviewed the literature. (p. 69)

Preferred: We conducted our survey in a controlled setting.

Nonpreferred: The survey was conducted in a controlled setting. (p. 77)

Writing Each Section of the Report

Writing the Introduction

According to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, “The body of a manuscript
opens with an introduction that presents the specific problem under study and describes the research
strategy. Because the introduction is clearly identified by its position in the manuscript, it does not carry a
heading labeling it the introduction” (APA, 2010, p. 27)

Decide what background information to include. (By background information, I mean general information
about the topic, rather than information specifically about the research you are reporting.) Many research
reports include far too much background information; a few reports do not include enough. Unnecessary
background information tends to be either (a) information that
anyone likely to read the report would almost surely know or (b) information that is not necessary for
understanding the report.

State the research questions early. The most important thing to include in the introduction of a research
report is a clear, concise, explicit statement of the questions that the research was intended to answer.
This statement should come near the beginning of the report —as soon as the reader has enough
information to understand the reason for doing the research. Unfortunately, in some reports, the first
explicit statement of the research questions comes at the end of a long introduction, 1 or (worse) after the
description of the method for the study, or (still worse) after the presentation of the results. And in some
reports (worst of all), there is no explicit statement of the research questions.

State the research questions in plain and simple language. Use technical language only where it is
absolutely necessary. State the effects you are investigating in positive terms; don’t state them as statistical
null hypotheses to be rejected.
State the research questions precisely. The research questions should be questions that the research
described in the report can actually answer. In some research reports, the research questions are stated in
language that goes far beyond anything that the study described in the report could possibly determine.
The statement of the research questions should not promise more information than the results of the
study could possibly deliver.

Before you cite a paper (or article, book chapter, etc), read it and think about it. In

most research reports, the introduction includes a review of previous research, with a brief summary of the
findings of each study. When you write a review of previous research, read the report of each study you
include, and decide for yourself what the study really showed—don’t simply quote the generalizations,
recommendations, speculations, or opinions of the person who did the research.
L) Putting the research questions at the end of the introduction is consistent with the Publication
Manual of the American Psychological Association, which states, “After you have introduced the problem
and have developed the background material, explain your approach to solving the problem. In empirical
studies, this usually involves stating your hypotheses or specific questions” (APA, 2010, p. 28).
Nevertheless, I stand by my recommendation to state the research question earlier, which I believe will
result in a more reader-friendly report.
Writing the Method Section

In many research reports, the method section is tedious, or confusing, or both. It doesn’t have to be that
way.

Begin with an explanation of the logic of the research design. Don’t describe the details of your method
until you have outlined the general procedure and explained how it will answer the research questions you
stated in the introduction. Detailed descriptions of the participants, the measurement instruments, and the
data collection procedures become far more meaningful when the reader understands the basic design of
the study and the reasoning behind it.

Include the important details; leave out the unimportant details. Deciding which details are important
enough to include in the report is sometimes difficult, but there is a general principle that may help. The
report should include the details that could make a substantial difference in the results. If the study
includes a questionnaire or a test that many readers will not be familiar with, the report should include
examples of the questions or problems. (If the test or questionnaire is under copyright protection, you will
need to get permission from the author or publisher.) It may also be worthwhile to include the entire
questionnaire or test in an appendix, if it is not too long.
Think about how much detail to include in describing your procedures. The basic principle to follow is that
your report should include the details that a reader would need in order to conduct a similar study. It is
especially important to describe unusual or unfamiliar aspects of your study and your procedures. To
satisfy this rule while still keeping your report readable, you can include a brief, general description of the
procedures in the body of the report and present the details in an appendix.
If you transformed any variables, explain why. Some research data analyses involve transformations of
one or more variables. A measurement may be replaced by its square root or by its natural logarithm. A
percentage may be replaced by a normal deviate (the score having that percentile rank in a normal
distribution). If your data analysis includes any transformations of variables, explain the reason for using
each transformation, unless you are sure that the reason will be obvious to all readers of the report.

Writing the Results Section

In many research reports, the results section proceeds step by step, with each step forming the basis for
the next. First come the results showing that the variables were measured reliably and
that the samples were representative of their populations. Then come the results showing that the data
met the assumptions of the statistical procedures used in the main analyses. Then, finally, come the results
that actually answer the research questions. This organization of the results section is systematic and
logical, but it is also, for most readers, a waste of time.

Put the most important results up front. Write the results section as if you expected half the readers to
stop reading after the first paragraph and half of the others to stop reading after the first page. Begin with
the results that directly answer the research questions. Then, for the benefit of those readers who are
more deeply interested, present the results of the other analyses that support the main results.
Think about which statistical information to include. When you finish your data analysis, you will probably
have enough statistical information to tell the readers of your report far more than they want to know
about your research. Most authors of research reports tend to include too much statistical information,
possibly to make sure they are not leaving out anything important. However, if the report is too long,
people will not read it. (If your report is too long because your study attempted to answer several research
questions, you may need to write two or more separate reports.)

Think about how to present the statistical information. When you write your results section, you will have
to decide what information to present in tables and graphs and what information to present in the text of
the report. Present the most important results—those that directly answer the research questions—in
more than one way. You can describe those results verbally in the text and illustrate them visually in graphs
or present them numerically in tables.
Start with the tables and graphs. A good way to approach the task of writing the results section is to begin
by making the tables and graphs. First, make a small set of tables and graphs that will communicate the
important results of the study. Then, add the tables or graphs that will make it easy for the more deeply
interested readers to find the additional information they are likely to want. When you make each graph or
table, use the title and the labels to give the reader enough information to understand that graph or table
without looking at anything else in the report. Finally, write the text of the results section. Summarize
briefly in words what each table and each graph shows, adding further details or explanations where you
need to. Write the text so that it will communicate the important results clearly to someone who reads it
without looking at any of the tables and graphs.
What really matters is the size of the effects. The important statistical information in your results is the
size of the effects, not their statistical significance levels. It is important to report statistics describing the
size of the effects, even if the effects are not statistically significant. This information not only tells the
reader how large an effect you actually observed; it is also important for researchers who want to include
your study in a meta-analysis. Your results, combined with those of other researchers who investigated the
same question, may yield a statistically significant effect, even if your results by themselves did not.

I am not arguing against reporting statistical significance levels. Significance levels caution people against
overinterpreting results that are based on small numbers of observations. They provide some assurance
that an observed effect is not just a result of sampling variability. But remember that the level of statistical
significance is not as important as the size of the effect or the difference that answers each research
question.

Don’t report meaningless significance levels. It is not necessary to report a significance test for every
statistic, and in some cases it makes no sense at all. If you used people’s scores on a measure to separate
them into a high-scoring group and a low-scoring group, you don’t need to show that the groups differ
significantly on that measure. If your study includes two measures of the same characteristic, you don’t
need to show that the correlation between them is significantly different from zero.

Use statistics that communicate your results clearly. What statistics should you use to report your
research findings? There is no one-size-fits-all answer to this question, but there is a basic principle worth
keeping in mind. Use statistics that answer the research questions as directly as possible, in terms that will
be easy for the readers of the report to interpret. For example, a table of group means and standard
deviations is nearly always easier to interpret than an analysis-of-variance table. The results of a regression
analysis can often be described clearly by reporting the predicted values of the outcome variable for a few
carefully selected values of the predictor variable.
Numbers or a percentage? Often, the statistical information that directly answers a research question is a
proportion represented by a pair of numbers: 23 of 35 students, 14 successes in 18 attempts, etc. In these
cases, you have to decide whether to report the absolute numbers, the percentage, or both. In general,
when the numbers are large, the percentage is more meaningful; 138of 437 is difficult to process, while
32% is clear. But when the numbers are small, it is better to report the absolute numbers; 2 of 7 is more
informative (and easier to visualize) than 29%.
What if the percentages do not sum to 100%? Often, a research question can be answered effectively by
reporting category percentages (for example, the percentages of students classified as basic, proficient,
and advanced). Many research reports use category percentages to report demographic information, such
as the ethnic composition of a group of students. Normally, these percentages sum to 100%, but
sometimes they do not. Missing data can result in a sum of less than 100%. Overlapping categories can
result in a sum greater than 100%. Rounding error can make the sum either slightly greater or slightly
smaller than 100%. When category percentages do not sum to 100%, explain the reason. A single sentence
in parentheses or a one-sentence footnote will do the job.
A table or a graph? Sometimes it is hard to decide whether to present the results of a particular analysis in
a table or in a graph. To make this decision, ask yourself what you are trying to communicate—the actual
numbers (scores, percentages, etc.) or the relationships between the numbers. Tables are better than
graphs for presenting the actual numbers, but graphs are far better than tables for showing the
relationships between numbers.

Tables

The most common use of tables in research reports is to present numerical information.

I think it makes sense to distinguish between two purposes for presenting this information:

" To communicate the main results of the study to the readers of the report; or

" To provide a reference document containing the detailed results of the study.

The tables that are intended to communicate the main results should appear in the body of the report.
They should be small and simple, so that readers can get the essential information from them quickly and
easily. The level of precision (the number of decimal places) should be no higher than is needed to show
the important effects. Tables that are intended for reference purposes should be placed in an appendix.
They can be larger and more complex, and the numbers can be reported to a greater level of precision.

For the tables in the body of the report, smaller is better. The fewer numbers a table contains, the
greater the impact of each number. One way to make a table smaller is to include
fewer levels of each variable. Although you may have computed the results for ten different values of a
variable, three selected values may be enough detail for most readers.
To make your tables readable, don’t include more precision than you need. Your computer printout may
show the mean scores for the experimental group and the control group as 3.4452 and 2.7836, but the
comparison will be clearer (and the table easier to read) if you report them as 3.4 and 2.8. Your computer
printout may show correlation coefficients to four decimal places, but correlations are traditionally
rounded to two decimal places, and your report will be easier to read if you report them that way.
Label your tables clearly. Whether a table is intended mainly for communication or for reference, be sure
to label it clearly. Give the table a title that says clearly what the table is intended to show. Use row and
column headings that can be clearly understood, even by a reader who has not read anything else in the
report. Do not use symbols or abbreviations as row or column headings, unless those symbols or
abbreviations are so commonly used that you can be sure that everybody who reads the report will know
them. Make sure to specify the units in which the numbers are expressed: scaled-score points, standard-
deviation units, minutes of instruction, etc. This information should be in the row or column headings, if it
is not in the title of the table.

Some useful advice on constructing tables for presenting different types of statistical results is available in
Presenting Your Findings, published by the American Psychological Association (Nicol & Pexman, 2009).

You can use tables for non-numerical information. Tables are often used to present numerical
information, but they are also useful for presenting non-numerical information. Many types of information
can be presented more clearly and concisely in a table than in a written paragraph. Presenting the
information in a table can also make the organization clearer to the reader. Table 1 is an example of a non-
numerical table. It summarizes the information in the first two paragraphs of this section.
Table 1

Two Types of Numerical Tables in Research Reports

Tables for communication Tables for reference

Purpose Communicating results to readers

Location Body of report
As small as possible, given the
Size purpose of the table.

Low—just enough to show the

Precision important comparisons

Documenting results for future

reference Appendix
Large enough to contain the results
to be stored for reference

Low, medium, or high

Graphs

Graphs are nearly always the best way to show comparisons or relationships between

numbers. Of course, the type of graph you use must be appropriate for the information you want to
communicate. Different kinds of information call for different kinds of graphs. See the appendix for advice
about using some common types of graphs to communicate different kinds of statistical information.
Label each graph clearly. Give each graph a title that says clearly what the graph is intended to show. If the
graph has axes, label them in terms that can be clearly understood, even by a reader who has not read
anything else in the report. Don’t use symbols or abbreviations to label the graph, unless those symbols or
abbreviations are so common that all readers of the report will surely interpret them correctly (e.g., the
usual abbreviations for the months of the year). If the graph has axes, make sure that either the axis label
or the title of the graph clearly indicates the units of measurement for the numbers on each axis (e.g.,
scaled-score points, standard-deviation units, minutes of instruction).
Don’t try to put too much information into a single graph. A graph that includes too much information
will be difficult to read. But how much information is too much? That question has to be answered on a
case-by-case basis. A line graph with three lines that lie close to each other and cross in several places will
be difficult to read—more difficult than a graph with six lines that are clearly separated and do not cross. A
bar graph with five groups of four bars can be fairly easy to read, if the four bars in each group show the
same pattern. But if the pattern is different for each
group, the graph is likely to be confusing. One way to find out whether a graph is easy to read and
interpret correctly is to make the graph, label it clearly, and ask one or two people unfamiliar with your
research to interpret it. If they cannot interpret it easily and correctly, you need to simplify the graph.

Don’t let the graphing software make all the decisions. Many graphs are confusing or misleading because
of the default options in the software that produced the graphs. You don’t have to accept those default
options. You can usually make better choices, if you think about what you want the graph to show.
Make the symbol shapes and shadings meaningful. One way that the default options produce bad graphs
is by their choice of shapes and shadings. Shadings that represent ordered categories (such as basic,
proficient, and advanced) should change steadily from lighter to darker in a way that corresponds to the
order of the categories (e.g., light shading for basic, darker for proficient, and darkest for advanced). If a
graph shows data points for groups that vary in two different ways, the shape and shading of the symbols
should indicate the ways in which the groups differ. For example, if your graph compares male and female
students in grades 3, 5, and 7, you can use symbols of a different shape for each grade, with light shading
for female students and dark shading for male students. If other graphs in your report compare the same
groups, you should use the same shapes and shadings in those graphs also.

Specify the range of values. Another way that the default options produce bad graphs is by their choice of
the range of values of each variable to include in the graph. Sometimes the range of values shown in the
graph extends beyond the range of values that are possible. Sometimes the range of values shown in the
graph leaves out a large part of the possible range, resulting in a graph that makes small differences look
large. Often, if a report includes two or more graphs of the same variables, the default options will produce
graphs with different ranges of values for the same variables. As a result, an amount or a difference of a
given size (e.g., 20 scaled-score points) will look larger in one graph than in the other. Readers will find it
difficult to compare the results reported in the two graphs. Specifying the range of values for each variable
in each graph is worth the effort. It enables you to produce graphs that communicate clearly without
confusing or misleading the reader.
Adjust the shape of the graph to avoid distortion. In some graphs (especially in some scatterplots), the
two axes of the graph represent the same variable, with the same range of possible
values. In this case, the graph should be square; the two axes should be the same length. But even if you
specify the range of values to be the same on both axes of the graph, the software may produce a graph
with the horizontal axis much longer than the vertical axis. The resulting graph will give the reader a
distorted view of the relationship the graph is intended to show. Differences on the horizontal axis will look
much larger than the same size differences on the vertical axis. If that happens, change the dimensions of
the graph, to make the two axes the same length.

Make sure the graphs in your report are large enough to be read easily. The main purpose of using a
graph is to present information in a way that makes it possible to see the important relationships quickly
and easily. If the graphs in your report are too small, the labels will be difficult to read, and the graphs will
not clearly show the relationships they are intended to show. If you reduce four pages of graphs to two
pages, but the graphs are too small to read, you haven’t saved two pages; you’ve wasted two pages!
Keep the graphs simple, for clearer communication. Resist the temptation to decorate your graphs with
shadow effects, three-dimensional effects, etc. These kinds of decorations actually make the graphs less
effective at communicating the information they are intended to communicate. Use shading only where it
is meaningful. For example, there may be regions of a graph where no data are possible. You can use
shading to indicate those regions.

Writing the Discussion Section

The discussion section is the part of the report where you summarize the results of your study and relate
them to the research questions your study was intended to answer.

Return to the research questions. A good way to begin the discussion section is to repeat the research
questions, following each question with a brief description of the relevant results. For some of the research
questions, your results may not clearly imply an answer. If that happens, explain why your results do not
answer the question.
Point out the limitations of your study. It is unlikely that your study was so methodologically perfect, so
complete, and so comprehensive as to provide the ultimate answer to each of the research questions.
Most research studies can include only a few of the conditions worth investigating —different types of
schools and students, different ways of measuring each variable, etc. It is not likely that the set of
conditions included in your study was so large and diverse that you can safely generalize the results to
every situation that readers would want to know about. Let the readers know that you are aware of the
shortcomings of your study as well as its strengths.
Discuss possible alternative explanations for the results of your study. These could include anything that
might account for your results, other than the variables you investigated. After presenting each of these
alternative explanations, you can explain why you think it is less plausible than your own explanation.
Compare your research results to the results of other studies on the same topic. Be sure to present these
comparisons in a way that will be meaningful to a reader who does not know about those other studies.
Conclude by explaining the importance of your study. What are the practical implications of your results?
Who can use the information your study provided?

What about suggestions for further research? Specific suggestions for research studies that someone
might do as a follow-up to your study are always appropriate for the discussion section. But do not
conclude your report with a general plea for more research on the same subject. If your readers have read
more than one or two research reports, you can be fairly sure that they are tired of reading, “Clearly, more
research is needed.”

The Abstract

The abstract is the most important part of a research report (except possibly for the title).

Many people who read the abstract will not read any other part of the report.

Write the abstract last. Although the abstract will be the first thing the readers read, it should be the last
part of the report that you write.
Establish priorities. The abstract must be concise and clear. It does not need to be complete. When you
write an abstract, you have to establish priorities for the information to include in it. First, what was the
study about? What questions was it designed to answer? (To keep the abstract brief, you may have to
include only the most important research questions.) Next, what type of study was it? (An experimental
comparison, a longitudinal study, a cross-sectional comparison, etc.) What kinds of people participated,
and how many of them? Finally, what were the most important findings?
Keep it within the word limit. Make sure your abstract is within the specified word limit. If it is slightly too
long, you can probably eliminate a few words here and there, without making it
unclear or hard to read. If the abstract is more than a few words over the limit, you will have to take
something out. You may have to leave out the less important results or some information about the
research method. But first, take out any background information that is not absolutely necessary. The
abstract is not the place for it.
Writing for Journals

Writing a journal article is very different from writing a project report. Probably the most important
difference is that you are writing for different people. Never take a portion of a project report and submit
it, unaltered, to a journal.

Who reads project reports? Project reports tend to be read by people who have a particular interest in the
project. Other people may read a project report if they are especially interested in the specific research
questions investigated, but most of the readers are people involved in some way with the research or with
the organization sponsoring the research. Consequently, project reports tend to contain a large amount of
detail about the participants (and the organizations they represent), the measuring instruments, the
results, and even the sponsorship of the project.

Who reads journal articles? Journal articles are published for a group of people who are much more
diverse in their interests. The people who read a journal article tend to be much less interested in the
specific participant populations and measuring instruments in the study, but much more interested in the
extent to which the results will generalize to other populations and measuring instruments. Few journal
readers will be interested enough to read through a detailed presentation of the results. What they want is
an answer to the question, “What is especially interesting or important about this research?” If you are
writing a paper that you hope to get published in a journal, write it with this type of reader in mind.
Journal space is limited. Conciseness is important. Journal editors will appreciate it if you minimize the
number of tables and figures. A paper for a journal should include only those tables and figures that
communicate the main results of the study. Any readers who want to see your results in greater detail can
contact you and request them.
Use the format specified by the journal you are writing for. Journal editors want submitted papers to
follow the journal’s specified format for headings, tables, figures, equations,
etc. That information is available on each journal’s website, usually in the form of a reference to a
particular style manual, with any exceptions noted specifically.

Look at the journal. The best way to know whether your report is appropriate for a particular journal is
to look at several issues of the journal. Notice the content, style, and length of the articles. If the content
of your report seems appropriate for a particular journal, but the style or length is noticeably different,
rewrite the report before submitting it to that journal.
References

American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological

Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Nicol, A. A., & Pexman, P. M. (2009). Presenting your findings (6th ed.). Washington, DC:

American Psychological Association.