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Unit 4

Research Design

4.1. Meaning of Research Design

A “research design” is defined as” the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure.”

 The research design is the conceptual structural within which research is conducted.
 It constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data
 The design incorporates a framework of what the researcher is going to do
 Research Design is a Road Map or a Plan of Action
 Research design can be thought of as the structure of research
 it is the "glue" that holds all of the elements in a research project together
 It is also a framework or blueprint for conducting the business research project

The design decision deals with answers to the following questions:

 What is the study about?  What will be the sample design?

 Why is the study being done?
 Where will the study be carried out?  What techniques of data collection
 What types of data are required? will be used?
 Where can the required data are  How will the data be analyzed?
found?
 In what style will the report be
 What periods of time will the study prepared?
include?
Research design has the following major parts:

1. The sampling design: deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the
given study
2. The Observational design: relates the conditions under which the observations are to be
made;
3. The statistical design: concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed, and how the information and data gathered are to be analyzed.
4. The Operational Design: deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified
in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.

The important features of a research design

(i) A plan: - specifies the sources & types of information relevant to the research problem
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(ii) A strategy: - Which approach will be used for gathering and analyzing the data.

(iii) The time and cost budgets: - most studies are done under these two constraints

Research design must, at least, contain: 4

(a) a clear statement of the research problem;

(b) procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information;
(c) the population to be studied;
(d) methods to be used in processing and analyzing data

Need for research Design.

Research design is needed for the following reasons:6

1. helps the researcher to organize his ideas

2. facilitates the smooth running of various research operations;
3. makes research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money;
4. Serves as a framework for the process of reliable and valid data collection, and data
analysis.
5. Saves the researcher from offering hasty generalizations or misleading conclusions.
6. Serves as a basis for others to provide their genuine comments and comprehensive
review of the proposed study.

Characteristics of a Good Design.

Research design is said to be good if it satisfies the following: 4

1. A good design is often characterized by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient,

and economical and so on.
2. Generally, the design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data
collected and analyzed is considered a good design.
3. The design which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the best design
in many investigations.
4. Similarly, a design which yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for
considering many different aspects of a problem is considered most appropriate and
efficient design in respect of many research problems.
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Important Concepts Relating to Research Design=6

1. Dependent and Independent 4. Treatments.

variable
5. Experiment.
2. Control
6. Experimental Unit(s)
3. Experimental and Control Groups.
1. Dependent and Independent variable

 A variable can be anything that has more than one value (e.g. sex, age, weight, income,
religion, ESLCE scores).

 Variables should have operational definitions clearly stated.

If one variable depends on or is consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a dependent

variable and

The variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as an independent variable.

E.g. researcher could examine the impact of heavy drinking of alcohol on liver.

Heavy drinking of alcohol would be an independent variable and the effect e.g. liver disease
could be considered as dependent variable

2. Control

The technical term ’control’ is used when we design the study in a way that minimizes the
effects of extraneous variables.

In experimental researches, the term ‘control’ is used to refer to restraint on experimental

conditions.

Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the
dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables.

E.g. hypothesis: there is a relationship between children’s gains in social studies achievement
and their self-concepts.

3. Experimental and Control Groups.

In an experimental hypothesis –testing research when a group is exposed to usual conditions, it

is termed as ‘control group’.

When the group is exposed to some novel or special condition, it is termed an ‘experimental
group
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4. Treatments.

The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put are usually
referred to as ‘treatments’

5. Experiment.

The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some research problem,
is known as an experiment.

Experiments can be of two type’s viz. absolute experiment and comparative experiment.

If we want to determine the impacts of a fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is a case of

absolute experiment.

But if we want to determine the impact of one fertilizer as compared to the impact of some
other fertilizer, our experiment will be termed as a comparative experiment.

Often we undertake comparative experiments when we talk of designs of experiments.

6. Experimental Unit(s)

The predetermined plots or the block, where different treatments are used, are known as
experimental units. Such experimental units must be selected (defined) very carefully.

Types of Research Design

Research designs can be broadly categorized into three;

 Exploratory research design

 descriptive research design (diagnostic research studies) and

 Experimental (hypothesis-testing) research design.

1. Exploratory Types of Research Studies.

 also termed as formative research studies

 The main purpose: formulating a problem for more precise investigation/ developing
the working hypotheses from an operational point of view.

 The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights.

 The research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to provide
opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study.
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USE OF Exploratory Research Design

 Formulate a problem or define a problem more precisely

 Identify alternative courses of action
 Develop hypotheses
 Isolate key variables and relationships for further examination
 Gain insights for developing an approach to the problem
 Establish priorities for further research

Exploratory research design: two methods.

A. The survey of concerning literature and

B. The experience survey

A. the survey of Concerned Literature.

In this method, hypotheses formulated by earlier working may be reviewed and their usefulness
evaluated as a basis for further research.

The researcher should review and build upon the work already done by others,

If hypotheses have not yet been formulated, his task is to review the available material for
deriving the relevant hypotheses from it.

B. Experience Survey.

It means the survey of people who had practical experience with the problem to be studied.

The main purpose: obtain insight into the relationships between variables and new ideas
relating to the research problem.

People who are competent and can contribute new ideas may be carefully selected as respondents

The researcher must prepare an interview schedule for the systematic questioning of
informants who are carefully selected.

The interview must ensure flexibility in the sense that the respondents may be allowed to raise
issues and questions which the investigator has not previously considered.

2. Descriptive and diagnostic research Design

Descriptive research concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual or

group, whereas diagnostic research studies determine the frequency with which something
occurs or its association with something else.
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Diagnostic research studies concerning whether certain variables are associated

Descriptive research concerned with specific predictions, with narration of facts and
characteristics concerning individual, group or situations

3. Research design in case of experimental research studies.

Experimental studies (or hypothesis –testing research studies), the researcher tests the hypotheses
of causal relationships between variability.

It requires procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase reliability, but will permit
drawing inferences about causality.

Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research:

When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-

testing research. It can be of the experimental design or of the non-experimental design.
Research in which the independent variable is manipulated is termed ‘experimental
hypothesis-testing research’ and a research in which an independent variable is not
manipulated is called ‘non-experimental hypothesis-testing research’.

Basic Principles of Experimental Designs

Professor Fisher: enumerated three principles of experimental designs:

a) the principle of Replication;

b) the principle of randomization; and

c) The principle of local control.

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1. The principle of Replication:

This principle refers to the repetition of the experiment more than once.

 Each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one.

 Suppose we are to examine the effect of two varieties of rice.

 Divide the field into two parts and grow one variety in one part and the other variety in
the other part.

 compare the yield of the two parts and draw conclusion on that basis

For principle of replication to this experiment, more reliable

2. The principle of randomization: Conduction of experiment under this principle provides

protection against the effect of extraneous factors by randomization.

3. The principle of Local Control:

 Under this principle, the extraneous factor, the known source of variability, is made to
vary deliberately over as wide a range as necessary.

 The variability it causes can be measured and hence eliminated from the experimental
error.

 This means that we should plan the experiment in a manner that we can perform a two-
way analysis of variance
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Unit 5: Sampling Design…

5.1 census and sample survey

All items in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘Universe’ or ‘Population.’

A complete enumeration of all items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry

--all items are covered, no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained.

But in practice this may not be true.

Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the
number of observation increases.

There is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey or use
of sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and
Energy.

When the field of inquiry is large, this method becomes difficult to adopt because of the
resources involved.

Government is the only institution which can get the complete enumeration carried out.

Exam. Population census conducted once in a decade

Sometimes it is possible to obtain sufficiently accurate results by studying only a part of total
population. In such cases there is no utility of census surveys

When the universe is a small one, it is no use resorting to a sample survey.

When field studies are undertaken in practical life:- considerations of time and cost almost
invariably lead to a selection of respondents i.e., selection of only a few items.

The respondents selected should be as representative of the total population as possible in order
to produce a miniature cross-section.

The selected respondents constitute what is technically called a ‘sample’ and the selection
process is called ‘sampling technique.’ The survey so conducted is known as ‘sample survey’.

Algebraically, let the population size be N and if a part of size n (which is < N) of this population
is selected according to some rule for studying some characteristic of the population, the group
consisting of these n units is known as ‘sample’.
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Researcher must prepare a sample design for his study i.e., he must plan how a sample should
be selected and of what size such a sample would be.

IMPLICATIONS OF A SAMPLE DESIGN

A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population.

It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the
sample.

Sample design is determined before data are collected.

There are many sample designs from which a researcher can choose.

 Some designs are relatively more precise and easier to apply than others.

 Researcher must select/prepare a sample design which should be reliable and appropriate
for his research study.

5.2 STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN

While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the following points:

(i) Type of universe:

The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define the set of objects, technically
called the Universe, to be studied.

 The universe can be finite or infinite.

 In finite universe:- the number of items is certain,

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 in an infinite universe:- the number of items is infinite

(ii) Sampling unit:

A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting sample. Sampling unit
may be:-

 a geographical:- state, district, village,

 construction unit:-house, flat,

 social unit:-family, club, school,

 An individual.

(iii) Source list:

It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn. It contains the names of
all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only).

Such a list should be comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate.

It is extremely important for the source list to be as representative of the population as possible.

(iv) Size of sample:

 Refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute a sample.
 The size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too small.
 It should be optimum.

An optimum sample is one which fulfills the requirements of: efficiency, representativeness,
Reliability and flexibility.

While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine the desired precision as also an
acceptable confidence level for the estimate.

(v) Parameters of interest:

In determining the sample design:-One must consider the question of the specific population
parameters which are of interest.

For instance, we may be interested in estimating the proportion of persons with some
characteristic in the population, or we may be interested in knowing some average or the other
measure concerning the population.

There may also be important sub-groups in the population about whom we would like to
make estimates.
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(vi) Budgetary constraint:

Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a major impact upon decisions relating to
size and type of sample. This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.

(vii) Sampling procedure:

The researcher must decide: - the type of sample he will use, The technique to be used in
selecting the items for the sample and Technique or procedure stands for the sample
design itself.

5.3 CRITERIA OF SELECTING A SAMPLING PROCEDURE

Two costs are involved in a sampling analysis:

 the cost of collecting the data and

 The cost of an incorrect inference resulting from the data.

Researcher must keep in view the two causes of incorrect inferences viz., systematic bias and
sampling error.

A systematic bias (non-sampling error) results from errors in the sampling procedures, and
it cannot be reduced or eliminated by increasing the sample size. Usually a systematic bias is
the result of one or more of the following factors:

Sources of non-sampling errors

Non-sampling errors arise from:

 Defects in the sampling frame.

 Failure to identify the target population.
 Non response.
 Responses given by respondents.
 Data processing and
 Reporting, among others.

1. Inappropriate sampling frame:

If the sampling frame is inappropriate i.e., a biased representation of the universe, it will
result in a systematic bias.

2. Defective measuring device:

If the measuring device is constantly in error, it will result in systematic bias

In survey work, systematic bias can result if the questionnaire or the interviewer is biased.
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Similarly, if the physical measuring device is defective there will be systematic bias in the data
collected through such a measuring device.

 Questionnaire

 Interview

 respondents

3. Non-respondents:

If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially included in the sample, there may arise a
systematic bias.

The reason is that in such a situation the likelihood of establishing contact or receiving a
response from an individual is often correlated with the measure of what is to be estimated.

4. Indeterminacy principle:

Sometimes we find that individuals act differently when kept under observation than what they
do when kept in non-observed situations. For instance, if workers are aware that somebody is
observing them in course of a work study on the basis of which the average length of time to
complete a task

5. Natural bias in the reporting of data:

Natural bias of respondents in the reporting of data is often the cause of a systematic bias in
many inquiries.

There is usually a downward bias in the income data collected by government taxation
department, whereas we find an upward bias in the income data collected by some social
organization.

People in general understate their incomes if asked about it for tax purposes, but they
overstate the same if asked for social status or their affluence.

Generally in psychological surveys, people tend to give what they think is the ‘correct’ answer
rather than revealing their true feelings.

Sampling errors are the random variations in the sample estimates around the true population
parameters.

Since they occur randomly and are equally likely to be in either direction, their nature happens
to be of compensatory type and the expected value of such errors happens to be equal to zero.
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Sampling error decreases with the increase in the size of the sample, and it happens to be of a
smaller magnitude in case of homogeneous population.

Sampling error can be measured for a given sample design and size.

The measurement of sampling error is usually called the ‘precision of the sampling plan’. If
we increase the sample size, the precision can be improved.

But increasing the size of the sample has its own limitations viz.,

A large sized sample increases the cost of:-

 collecting data and also

 Enhances the systematic bias.

Thus the effective way to increase precision is usually to select a better sampling design which
has a smaller sampling error for a given sample size at a given cost.

In brief, while selecting a sampling procedure, researcher must ensure that:-

The procedure causes a relatively small sampling error and helps to control the systematic bias
in a better way.

5.3.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN

The characteristics of a good sample design as under:

 Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.

 Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
 Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study.
 Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way.
 Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in general, for
the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.

Why sample? Discuss the important of sampling

What are the differences of parameter and population?

What it mean sample is representative?

Different types of sample designs

There are different types of sample designs based on two factors

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 The representation basis and

 The element selection technique.

On the representation basis:

 probability sampling

 Non-probability sampling.

Probability sampling is based on the concept of random selection, whereas non-probability

sampling is ‘non-random’ sampling.

On element selection basis the sample may be :

 unrestricted or

 Restricted.

When each sample element is drawn individually from the population at large, then the sample
so drawn is known as ‘unrestricted sample’, whereas all other forms of sampling are covered
under the term ‘restricted sampling’.

Classification of Sampling

1. Non-probability samples

– Convenience
– Judgment
– Quota
– snowball

2. Probability samples

– Simple random sample

– Systematic random sample
– stratified random sample
– Multistage random sample
– Cluster sample

Probability Sampling: Known, nonzero probability for every element

Non-probability Sampling: Probability of selecting any particular member is unknown

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Convenience Sampling:

 Also called haphazard or accidental sampling.

 The sampling procedure of obtaining the people or units that is most conveniently
available
 Convenience samples (ease of access)
 sample is selected from elements of a population that are easily accessible

Judgment Sampling

 Also called purposive sampling

 An experienced individual selects the sample based on his or her judgment about some
appropriate characteristics required of the sample member

 Purposive sampling (judgmental)

 You chose who you think should be in the study

Snowball Sampling

 A variety of procedures

 Initial respondents are selected by probability methods

 Additional respondents are obtained from information provided by the initial respondents

 Snowball sampling (friend of friend….etc.)

Quota Sampling

Ensures that the various subgroups in a population are represented on pertinent sample
characteristics to the exact extent that the investigators desire

It should not be confused with stratified sampling.

Quota sampling

 Probability of being chosen is unknown

 Cheaper- but unable to generalize

 potential for biases

Probability sampling

Probability samples are:

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 Simple random sampling

 Systematic sampling
 Stratified Random sampling
 Multi-stage sampling

 Cluster sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling

In simple random sampling, every individual in the target population has an equal chance of
being part of the sample.

This requires two steps:

A. Obtain a complete list of the population.

B. Randomly select individuals from that list for the sample

The selection is usually made with the help of random numbers.

Suppose there are N=800 students in a school from which a sample of n=8 students is to be
taken.

The students are numbered from 1 to 800. Since our data runs into three digits we use random
numbers that contain three digits

All numbers exceeding 800 are ignored because they do not correspond to any serial numbers in
the data

2. Systematic Sampling

In this method first we have to number the data items from 1 to N.

Suppose the sample size is n, then we have to calculate the sampling interval(i) by dividing N by
n and generate a number between 1 and N/n and select that data item to be in the sample.

Other items in the sample are obtained by adding the sampling interval N/n successively to the
random number.

Advantage of this method is that the sample is evenly distributed over the entire data.

The town of Fairfax is divided up into N = 200 blocks which are numbered consecutively

A 10 percent sample of blocks is to be taken, which gives a sampling interval of k = 10.

Sampling Procedures (Methods of Sample Selection)…

Good Example:
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Sampling interval (i) =N/n

i= 200/10 = 20

Systematic sampling example

3. Stratified Random Sampling

In stratified random sampling, the researcher first divides the population into groups based on a
relevant characteristic and then selects participants within those groups.

Stratified random sampling will be used to ensure adequate representation of both males and
females.

Stratified Random Sampling is applied whenever the researcher has interest on issues like:

 Demographics,
 Age,
 Gender,
 Race,
 Region,
 Urban/Rural etc

Sampling Procedures (Methods of Sample Selection

1. Select a suitable frame

2. Select the stratification variable(s) and the number of strata, H

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3. Divide the entire population into H strata. Based on the classification variable, each element
of the population is assigned to one of the H strata

4. In each stratum, number the elements from 1 to Nh (the pop. size of stratum h)

5. Determine the sample size of each stratum, nh, based on proportionate or disproportionate
stratified sampling,

6. In each stratum, select a simple random sample of size nh

4. Multi-Stage Sampling

In multi-stage sampling, other sampling techniques may be used at the different stages.

For example, the first stage may use random sampling, the second stage may use purposive
sampling, and the third stage may use stratified sampling.

The steps in multi-stage sampling are as follows:

1. Organize the sampling process into stages where the unit of analysis is systematically grouped.
2. Select a sampling technique for each stage.
3. Systematically apply the sampling technique to each stage until the unit of analysis has been
selected.

5. Cluster sampling

Cluster: a group of sampling units close to each other i.e. crowding together in the same area or
neighborhood
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Sample Size for One Sample, Continuous Outcome

In studies where the plan is to estimate the mean of a continuous outcome variable in a single
population, the formula for determining sample size is given below:

Where

Z is the value from the standard normal distribution reflecting the confidence level that will be
used (e.g., Z = 1.96 for 95%),

σ is the standard deviation of the outcome variable and E is the desired margin of error.

Example 1:

Given z=1.96(95), σ=20, Σ=5

To estimate the sample

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Sample Size for One Sample, Dichotomous Outcome

In studies where the plan is to estimate the proportion of successes in a dichotomous outcome
variable (yes/no) in a single population, the formula for determining sample size is:

Where

Z =confidence level that will be used (e.g., Z = 1.96 for 95%)

E is the desired margin of error.

P is the proportion of successes in the population.

Example 2:

An investigator wants to estimate the proportion of freshmen at his University who currently
smoke cigarettes (i.e., the prevalence of smoking). How many freshmen should be involved in
the study to ensure that a 95% confidence interval estimate of the proportion of freshmen who
smoke is within 5% of the true proportion?

Because we have no information on the proportion of freshmen who smoke, we use 0.5 to
estimate the sample size as follows: