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EHOICE
Ei IVlT.JI-TIPIE
F#TTIOI\I WITH:
i ..j.,:.:: . 1

ui .,..,i
/, n sour 360 QUESTIoNS
/ sor-lrtol.ts i CcTMMENTS
tii { coNClsE INFoRMATioN . . "dt
.l:i1E

11 ,

Li
u ,4Li}ERT" J
fl{lKEtE
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 ii

Acknawledgements ,lt

Contents v

EHAFTER FAEE

I. IELL STRUITURE, OIFFTJSIIIN/ISMUSIS I , ,l:

2. ENZYMES/FNEI} ANII NUTRITIU}I IN FLAI,ITS 13

2t

4. Zfr

5. 34

E. !+h

7. /+8

trE
8. rJd

g. RESPII,ISES IN PLANTS --.- E2

E7

12. E5

I3. gI

lIl. PLANT REPRII}UETIIN ...-.. -r.-tr.d,. [!E

J5. IIUMAN REFIIBDUETIHN l[/+

tE. EENETIIS \t2

17, EIOLUUY tzE

i'
 BiologSu 2

EHFIPTEliI
trELL STHUtrTUHE, trIFFUSION ANEI O5MO5I5

Question 1
Fig. 1.1 shows a plant cell,

dle .sdir* ,* e'o**St**w+

Fig. 1.1
a) ldentify and state the firnctions of the structures labelled A and B. tol
b) List two differences between the plant cell shown in Fig 1 and an animal cell.
IBiol ogyl 5090121Q 1 /2003]

Solutions
(a) i) Structure A: vacuole
Function of structure A: stores sap and control the movement of materials and
out of the cell.
*Take note:

, Ihe concgntration of.cell sap in the vacuole cnntrols the movement of substances (including
"
water) in and out of the-iell.
+_i ii) Structure B: nucleus
Function: controls all cell activities and stores genetic information
(b) - ptant celt has cellwallwhile animal celt has no cellwall
- Plant cell has a large permiltent vacuote while;the animal cell has no large
permanent vacuole.

Question 2
Fig 1.2 is a typical animal cell showing structures as seen under an electron
microscope.

r\
\a/ rl

T\
Fig. 1.2
 Biolaq,)-

EHFIPTER I
. EELL 5THUtrTUf,E, E/,IFFUSIT,,N ANEI OSMT'515

. Question 1
Fig. 1.1 shows a plant cell.

eP, @{x* ,s mord_]-e

L.eil lldii
L-
A

chlcroplast
L-
Fig. 1.1
L- a) ldentify and state the functions of the structures labelled A and B. tol
b) List two differences between the plant cell shown in Fig 1 and an animal cell.
L- lB i o lo g y/50 9 0 I 2t Q1 I 2003I

Solutions
t- (a) i) Structure A: vacuole
Function of structure A: stores sap and controt the movement of materials and

t_ out of the cell.

*Take note:

t" The concgntration of'cell sap in the vacuole controls the movement of substances (inrluding

water) in and out of thicell.

' -

ii) Structure B: nucleus

[='
Function: controls all cell activities and stores genetic information
(b) - plant cell has cellwa{fwhile animal cell has no cellwall
l,- - Plant cell has a large permanent vacuole while:the animal cell has no large
permanent vacuote.
t_
Question 2
1_ Fig 1.2 is a typical animal cell showing structures as seen under an electron
microscope.
1_ (\

1_ a\\a/
\rt
r Fig. 1.2

t_
 * Take note:The order of enzymes that work un protein is
as follnws;

chymutrypsin
+ carboxYPePtidase

:
(b)
(i) Fate of glucose',
respiration to provide
!
: The products of starch (glucose) are used in tissue
the bodY with energY'
!

(ii) Fate of amino acids

up new different
- The amino acids from proteins are used in building
of cells and new
proteins which form part of the cytoplasm and enzymes
tissues.

Quesfion 5
in the body'
(a) Explain how a meal rich in fats (lipids) is digested
1e]

to' intestines (colon) are used

,,, Explain how substances absorbed by the large
by the human body. tzl
human intestine and the
(ii) what are the similarities between the lining of the
plant root for the absorption of nutrient? 1+1
[Biolo gY/50 9 OI 2t Qs t2OO7 I

Solution
(a) Digestion of food rich in fat (lipids) occurs in the
small intestine (duodenum)'

oncethefoodreachesthsduodenum,theliversecretesbile.Thebilesalts
The emulsified food
contained in bile emulsifies the fat food into fat droplets.
pancreas, into fatty acids and
is then worked on by lipase coming from the
glycerol.
i

(b)
by bacteria in the
(i) The colon absorbs fatty acids (from digested fibres
\7 excess water. Water acts as solvent and a transport
colon), bile salts and

(
, (ii)
plants root aie fairly long
I
- Both the lining of the human intestines and the
andpresentsalargeabsorbingsurfacefornutrients.

.,tt^trrrRr,- lrl;,a FYci,ri\tNEtitt' fi\lNift* BiolOgy 2

 lliohtiq.v 2
-
L ln the lining of human intestines are found villi (tiny projections) which
function in absorption of nutrients. Similarly, the roots have elongated

t -
growths on the root hairs which absorb nutrients.

t
Both the lining of the human intestines (epithelium) and that of the roots
t are very thin so that the fluids containing nutrients can pass rapidly

t -
through,
Both the lining of the human intestines and the roots are connected wiih

t a network of transporting vessels. Capillaries and xylems for human

intestines and the roots, respectively.

t Question 4
(a) Explain how the human body digests the following food substances contained
in a boilecl egg;
(i) Fats 141
1_
(ii) Proteins 1s1

(b) What happens if the products of the digested proteins in the egg are more
t_ . than what the body needs? I3l

t- [Biology 509A t 21220A31.

Solutions
t__
(a)

I (i) Fafs
Fats are digested in the small intestine (duodenum) by lipase. Once fats
reach the small intestine, bile is secreted into the duodenum by the liver.
l_- Bile contains salts that ernulsify the fats for easy digestion by the enzyme
Iipase. Lipase fronr pancreatic juice digests fats to fatty acids and glycerol.
L (ii) Proteins
Protein digestion begins in the stomach where pepsin from the lining of the
L. stomach digests proteins into soluble peptides. The peptides from the
stomach are then digested by several protease enzymes in the duodenum
L- which breaks down peptides to imino acids.
(b) lf the products of digestion of proteins in the egg are more than what the body
L. -needs,
the amino acids which are not needed have their amino (l.JH2) groups
removed and the residue is changed to glycogen. The glycogen ban be.stored
L-
or oxidised to provide energy. This process is simply known as deamination,

L.
 t)iotost )
, crirNr;tsti tNI;trtvnttclN (ptt.ccssts o'rrr.,tt.tnauxL'.^uv cnNnt. ,
\/ I)igcstitrn
I)igcstion is thc proccss by which largc lbocl nrolcculcs arc chcniically brokcn clo\\,n
into srnallcl'oncs which oan bc absorbcd by thc cpithclium ol'thc alinrcnterry urnal. r-
linzynrcs ard thc chcnrioals which cligest lbocl in thc alirncntary carral, Dilfcrcnt typcs
o['cnzynrcs vvork on clil'l'crcnt kincls ol lbod. "fhc lbllorving tablc surunialiscs thc
kintls ol'loods ancl thc crlzyrllcs working on thcm. -

Irood tvpc Sitc of rligcstion I,lnzymcs at worl< liinal roduct

-l
Amylasc (salivary
Carbohytlratcs Mouth Duoclcnun-r ancl pancrcatic ) Glucosc
E

[)rotci St-q4-_c]1 Protease Anrino acicls

a
I)uodcnunl ccrol and

"Absor'ption
a
'l'lrc snrull intcstinc consists ol'thc cluoclcnum ancl ilcum. Ncarly rll thc absolptiou o1'
tli-ccstc(l liroci takcs placc in thc ilcum. l'hc ilcum contaius villi throu,eh rvhich
a-
nrolcculcs ol'cli-ucstccl lilocl ilass into ctr routc to thc blood strceur. Absorption of'thc
I

i
prorlucts ol'digcstion ancl.other clict itcms involves both diflusiou and activc transport.
Aniino acids, srrgi.ll's ancl salts arc, ccrtaitrly, takcn up by activc trattsport.
Assirn iilt itrn
Assimilatitln is thc utilization o1'cligcstcrl matcrial in thc body.'lhcproducts ol'
digcstion arc carriccl arounrl thc lrody in thc bklocl. I;rom the bloocl. cells absorb anrl ---
rusc thc glucosc. lirts anrl amino lcicls.
(ilucosc is rrse'rl irt lcspirutiou to pror,iclc cncrgv uccclctl l'or chcrnicitl t'cltctions in the'
cclls. t -l_
Irills llKrYitlc tNicc ils nrUch ()1-L-ncl'q),i.rs Strqars
I)r'olcius urc tuuittlv trsccl lirr grorvth artcl rcpair. I'he1- cln also bc rtscci us ellel'qy
s()r,u'L:csil'thc dict is dcllcicnt in clrbohyclratc ancl lht.
-l_ I

l)rotcin rirolcculcs cousist ()l'l()ns chuius ol'anrintl acicls. Whcn thcy arc riigcstctl. thc
_1_
tttolcculcs arc brtlkcn upirrt into ctrustitucnt ltrtriuo acitls. l'he amincl acids ltt'c
ri'bsorlrcrl into tltc blood sllcilur aitlusctl trl build u1'r clitl'crent tissuc's.
_l_
_L_
-,J
"l

t
*

4t tF aVaRtlraE-r Rrrr-T[1
 lliokry.v )
Question 3

Figure 2.3 shows stages in the process of making yog.hurt using fresh milk.

STAGE t heat the milk slowly to boiling point.

I
v
STAGE 2 Allow to cool to lukewarm.
I
Y
STAGE 3 Add bacterial starters to the milk.
I
+
STAGE 4 Pour the mixture into containers which have been thoroughly cleaned.
I

+
STAGE 5 lncubate the mixture of milk and starter for about B hours at 40"c.
i
Y

STAGE 6. Once the yoghurt has set, place in a refrigerator.

Fig 2.3

Using the stages shown IN Fig 2.3, and your own knowledge on the topic; answer the
following questions.

(a) Suggest any two ways: in which other bacteria oiher than that in the starter" in
stage 3, is prevented frgm gr,owi4g in the milk being used for making
:yoghurt.[2] :,- , ,.;?,, :

(b) Why is the rnilk cooled before adding the bacterial starter? 1t1

(c) What happens to the bacteria iq*,the,starter afterthe starter has been added to
the lukewarm milk in stage 3? .121
. , rj; i i.,tl ii. t . t"-' .
(d) rl/hat happens to the milk after the bacterial starter has been added and the
mixture is left to incubate in stage 5? 12)

(e) Why is it necessary to rinse the containers in boiling water in stage 4? lzl
[Biology 509012220031
..:
t"
,

Solutions
(a)
(i) By heating the milk to a temperature about BS"c

* Take note: Heating kifls and denatures the bacteria. :

(iii)Thorough cleaning of the glassware in which the milk is stored.

I
W
I
il
* Take note:

This renders the barteria inactive. For' ,rrrurriul

Biologr 2

results in yoghurt making, a good sterile technique

:

i'
I
is required (includes sterilization and cooling uf the milk, pr0pBr cleaning and heat treatment of

glassware) ---
(b) Milk is cooled in order to provide an optimum growth temperature for the
bacterial starter.
(c) The bacteria grow and act on lactose, converting it to lactic acid.
(d) The milk will ferment as the lactose is converted to lactic acid by bacteria. *
Lactic acid adds a sour taste of yoghurt.
(e) This is done to elinrinate unwanted bactena which might interfere with the
process from the containers

-J

-*-1
_)

--l
lt_l-
, T'J
*
ti
l!
tl
ii *
i

Ji
I

rl
ti
*
/11
/ :l
/1

HNoLUTNc; THE ExfltittNERt' ri\rNET* - Biology 2

r-)n1< A Dtndttr.l 6f lnilie*iva Elrreinacc
 EHFIPTE g
PLANT NUTHITItrN
Questiotn 1

(a) Compare and contrast nutrition in a guava and Rhizopus fungus, 14) i ,

(b) Discuss the importance of saprophytic nutrition to the environment. t4I

IBiolo gy/5 09 0I 2l QB t20 1 21

S olution
(a) Guava plants are autotrophic, they are able manufacture their own food
through the process of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis occurs in the green
leaves of the plants. Green leaves use water combined with carbon dioxide
using light energy trapped by chlorophyll to synthesize their food (organic
material). The organic matter is then transported to all parts of the plant and
some stored as starch.
ln contrast, rhizopus fungi are heterotrophic; they lack chlorophyll and cannot
manufacture their own food but obtain their organic material from external
sources. Rhizopus fungi have extracellular digestion by secreting enzymes
into environment and absorbing the nutrients produced. Fungi store their food
as glycogen which is used when needed.
(b) Saprophytic nutritiorr is a type of rlltrition where organisms obtain their food
from dead and decaying matter. Saprotrophs are decomposers and liberate
energy for their own use by breaking down conrplex organic matter from the
dead bodies of organisms. This process releases vital chemical elements into
the soil which are absorbed by plants Thus. saprophytic nutrition helps in
recycling of organic materials from dead organisms to living ones.
*Take note:
Fungal and bacterial saprotrophs are referred to as saprophytes, while animal saprotruphs

are called saproznites.

 Y-.
Biolog 2 -l
Question 2
Fig. 3.1 shows a cross section of a leaf:

Fig 3.1
(a) Cells iabelled X, Y, and Z are capable of making glucose when the leaf is -
exposed to sunlight.
(i) Place the cells X, Y and Z in order of increasing amount of glucole in
each cell, after the leaf has been exposed to two hours of sunlight, --:
i il ,
starting with the least amount of glucose. t1I
iif
Ilr
(ii) Give reasons for your answer in (a) (i) above. [z]
'lt
(b)
ili
(i) ldentify the part labelled B. itI *
iii
1i
(ii) ldentify the structures labelled A t1I
I

(iii) Explain the role of the part labelled{ during photosynthesis. r

-I
li 1t1

lli (iv) State three differences between respiration and photosynthesis. 1s1
lli
Biology/509 Alil Q1 t2OO51
lii
:L,
So/utions

r
l1i

iii (a) (i) Y,Z, X

,:ili t

lill (ii) The production of glucose by photosynthesis depends on the amount of

I itt chloroplast cclntained by the cell. Cell Y has least number of chloroplast while
cell X has the highest amount of chloroplast.
_f
iii

rl
ili
li
(b)
(i) Part B is air space I
rll (ii) Structuie A is the chloroplast
(iii) Fart A (chloroplast) contains chlorophyll which traps light energy needed
_1,.
ll
I

il for photosynthesis it is as well the site of photosynthesis process.

I
)
r<NcrrulNE THE gxFtrntNeRg' rirNElr* - Biology 2 I
 \

' Biologt )
(iv)
1. ln photosynthesis carbon dioxide is as raw material while in respiration
carbon dioxide is a by-product.
2. Light energy is required for photosynthesis to occur while light is not a

requirement for respiration to occur.

3. Photosynthesis involves enzymatic reaction while enzymes are not
involved in respiration.

Quesfion 3'
(a) What do you understand by the term photosynthesis? 1a1-

(b) Explain how the structure of a leaf of a bean plarit is adapted to photosynthesis.lol
(c) Explain how human beings benefit from photosynthesis.ltl
IBiology 5090t21220081

t_ (a) PhotosynthesiS is the process illJliffireen plants, using ligl#energy

L trapped by chiorophyll as a catalyst and water combined with carbon dioxide,

synthesize their own food.
* A/.El. See nates on photosynihesis on page 25.
t_
(b) ln orderto carry out the process of photosynthesis, green leaves are adapted
in the following ways; 3
L- Leaves are broad and flat shaped to offer a large surface area to capture
as much light as possible and for maximum absorption of carbon dioxide.
L- - Flatness of the leaves permit carbon dioxide to diffuse across short
i';ri i;'"':'clibta:n-ces to reach the inner cells.
.
L- - ,, [-2;gg.spaees between cells inside the leaf provide an easy passage
through which carbon dioxide can diffuse.
Numerous stomata on the lower surface of the leaf allow the exchange of
L- carbon dioxide and oxygen with the air outside.
- The majo;[!y o,ltg,llglpplasts are packed into the palisade layer. This
L. results in maximum absorption of light which reaches the chloroplasts
without bein$'absorbeO ny too many cellwalls

L. ' ' ''1'

- The sp'r'eading;networ,l( j6f veins provides a good water supply to ihe
photosynthesizing cells,
(c) By the process of photosynthesis, plants produce carbohydrates (sugars)
L. which arb eaten by human beings. Humans also use oxygen in cell respiration.
which is a by-product of photosynthesis. Carbohydrates manufaCtured by
L. plants can be converted to fat or proteins in some plant species and also in

plant eating animals which are in turn eatep by human beings. ln this case
L. humans directlv benefit from photosynthesis.
;:
r
I'.
Biolog-2
, ,,,:,

Quesffon 3
(a)
(i) ln what named process and under what environmental conditions would a
mesophyll cell of a flowering plant give out oxygen?
-:, t. I :
tsl ' ,.
;-::: ::

(ii)
. . ..

Describe an equation which is the summary of the proceEs by which a

. -:
*
mesophyll cell gives out oxygen. [3]

(b) Explain why plants need water? 1a1 ' ''" r' l
-
, [Biolog y 5O9Ot2tZ2003!

(a) :, , i ': :'

(i) Mesophyll cells give out oxygen by the process of photosynthesis. - )
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use light energy to convert

,COz,Qrtd water into simple-sgga,$

,j I .,.....
(glucose). Qxygen is,?:,by prodtrct,of this
t:

.l
pfocess Oxygg=1 iq,givg.n,9ut ir1 b-right hght when the rate of ,, n
t .,
photosynthesisisfasterthanthenateofrespiration...:.:... -1r
_t-
J
* /v.el. See notes on Easeous exchange,in plants.qn the snlution of [12 of 2g[4
::

i 'l :

ttgitrztt=lgr
. : Garbon:dioxide,+ Watbr.-
"'l:':'>
':1]"|'r
-- ?
GluEose + Oxygb'n' 4 fi1:p:r' rr::' :

'' ':ltlol{lllt!'ll . ,' .r,

"'"t'
{

!
(b) Water acts as a iolvent, transporting, combining and chemically breaking _1-
dgwn,substancgs,(c?r'bohydra.tes,, proteins,. salts and similqrchernicals).

Question S
(a)
(i)
' :,, , , ...i .., ..
:
Explain what'is:me'ant byihe term'photosynthesis-
''''i . ir',
(ii) Give an equatibn summa!"izing,lhe proce.ss gf,photgsVn[hesisq,.1s1
(b) How are the productg ol photosynthesis digtr:ibr,rted
:..'r-::'.
. :

:. "'i;
:

to.
':
'

lzl .
;i'l-" : ;': lll 'l:r'
.

therrest of,th,e plant?

I
(c) How does photosynthesis benefit;
(i) A caterpillar? 721
(ii) A bird of prey? 121

[Biology 509012t 220011

 Solutions

(i) Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants using light energy
convert CO2 and water into simple sugars (glucose).

risrtt ttt+ts',
(ii) carbon dioxide + water Glucose + oxygen + ATP
.:ltloroltltr ll

(b) Products of photosynthesis (glucose) are distributed through-the phloem to.

the rest of the parts of the plant by translocation. The products are first
converted into sucrose and move through the phloem. The mass flow of
materials in the phloem occurs because of hydrostatic pressure, which
develops as a result of osmosis.
(c)
i) A caterpillar feeds on plant matter: and is provided with the carbohydrate.
Manufactured by plants. Through the process of photosyntfiesis.
ii) A bird of prey feeds on animal organisms which feed on plant materials.
Hence, the energy flows in form of carbohydrate passes to the bird of prey
via the prey which feeds on plants and is eaten by the bird.
) t
CONCISE,INFORMATION OHE TROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS)
./ Photosynthesis is the process by whibh green plants, use water combined with carbon
-
dioxide r-rsing light energy trapped by chlorophyll as a catalyst to synthesize their own
lood ororgarr ic requ irements.
t Photosynthesis is summarised as follows;

Word equation
) Carbon dioxide * Water-+ Glucose + Oxygen

A.*TLr*rl,r, 6COz+ 6HzO

lishtenersy
CrHrzOe + 60z + ATp :

, Chlorophyll

- Photosynthesis is a two stage chemicalprocess;

a) Lieht reaction (dependant on light)
Light splits water into hydrogen and oxygq{i. The oxygen is released into the
a atmosphere and the hydrogen remains in the leaf for use in the next stage.
b)- Dark reaction (lndependent on lieht) ,

a
Here the hydrogen that was gotten from water combines with carbon dioxide from
the atrnosphere to form glr,rcose.

a
 ,/ Adaptations or leaves for photosynthesis
Plants have developed structures that suit their various functions, this is called
adaptation. The table below
Biotost )
I
+
,/ Factors affecting photosynthesis
The rate of photosynthesis is affected by a number of different factors. These include
Light intensity, Temperatr-rre, Carbon dioxide and water. If any of these factors are in
shorl suppty, they will limit the rate of photosynthesis. They are said to be limiting -
factors. _1_

Question 4
(a) Describe ways in which a farmer would increase the rate of photosynthesis in
-L
i
I
I

I
a green house. 1a1

(b) Explain why a bean plant will not produce seeds unless its rate of
*t
I

i
photosynthesis is greater than the rate of respiration. [4] *L
[Biol o gy 509 2t z20o 4]
I
0t

Solutions -L
(a) The rate of photosynthesis can be limited by light iqtensity, carbon dioxicie
.,:l
-L
1
l

concentration and temperature. These are referred to as factors limiting

riii
i1
iili
irl
photosynthesis. lnsufficient light will limit photosynthesis despite having
ri.ll
iil
i plenty of water and carbon dioxide. ln the presence of sufficient light and

ill
:,1
t'i
il
,'i
favourable temperature, the rate of photosynthesis will be low if carbon L
trll
I

rli
1,ri;
rjri
,il
dioxide concentration is lou.r, Also in cold temperatures, the rate of
photosynthesis will be low despite having other factors in good amount.
A farmer needs to balance the light intensity, CO2 concentration and
1
r'li
li
il
temperature in order to increase the rate of photosynthesis in a green house. _l_
l,r
..,;l
a\;ti
ln case of insufficient or too much light, a farmer can use artificial light so that
lii
l. ' photosynthesis can continue beyond daylight hours or in higher than normal _l-
I
I
tll
/
l,;t
irli; light intensity. Paraffin lamps can also be used inside green houses to
/
ilr
\.lt
increase the rate of photosynthesis. The use of paraffin lamps inside a _t.
ii'
l
greenhouse maximises the rate of photosynthesis because the burning
_l
I

ilil
l
paraffin produces carbon dioxide and helt is also produced.
lr
li' * /v.8. See notes on Green houses 0n page
-
27.
_I
(b) Oxygen and glucose produced by photosynthesis are required for aerobic
i

respiration. When the rate of respiration is low or equal to the rate of _I

photosynthesis all the sugar produced by photosynthesis will be used up in
r{NtrtLUtI\G THE €xFur\lrNelqs, mutr\ilt* - Eiologv 2
_t
 Biolog 2
respiration. Thus, no sugar will be left for seed production. To have enough
,
sugar,, whicn is a requirement in seed production, the rate of photosynthesis
needs to succeed that of respiration in plants.
* N.8. See notes on Easeous exchange plants,
in

'/ A green house is a building with glass or plastic walls and roof, used for curltivafing"
and protection of certain plants. Green houses are designed to controlthe balance o1'
temperature, moisture and light to suit the groMh requirements fcr plants.

,/ [{ow farmels ii'rtervene to pron'}ote growth in green houses.

The rate of photosynthesis and growtir in gfleeil plarrts can be limited by light
intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature.
Lieht intensit),
Without enough light, Plants cannot photosynthesize very quickly even if there is
errough water and carbon dioxidc.
Carbon dioxide concentration
Even if there is plenty of light a plant cannot photosynthesize with insufficient COz
'l-emperature
When hot, the rate of photosynthesis increases, therefq:e plants cannot
photosynthesize if it gets too cold.
The knor,vledge of the lirniting factors can be used to increase photosynthesis and crop
growth in green houses. Artificiai methods are used to supply light, CO2 and heat.

,/ Gaseous exchange in plants. ,

l
Creen plants respire as rryell as photosynthesize. The tivo processes are reverse of each
other.
J.1
ll rlt rr 5i rti lr ;5 i,
CarbondioxidefWater#glucose+oxygen+ener8Y

In day light while photosynthesis is going on, plants take in carbon dioxide and give
ottt oxygen. This exchange of gas is the opposite of that resulting from respiration,
which uses up oxygen and produces carbon clioxide. AII the carbon dioxide prodr-rced
during respiration is used up by photosyntiresis. At the same time, all the oxygen
needed by respiration is provided by photosynthesis. Only when the rate of
photosynthesis'is f'aster than the rate of respiration will carbon dioxide talcen in and
the excess oxygen given out.
lltht LIi!HT E]FiIi;HT LI ,:]HT

t ;:::1:,i r:.iti 'i rr iliS r'ls1.ri t .-rti i,rr ra::Fir;:tii,ri)

ti:;r'ithi:-i: i-{..)f r:, rrtlit:i';{.ii:

rrn l)l)'jtn s,.,r-rtli+li I rirte +f t'*:ili i I sti +ti ;;rriil

l:r llrti:,s';rrthe:;i I firrt;r tl i:rri
;:,li,itt,:,",rrtlr ts i i: iq Lt:il . r i s l:r i t ;rti ,i t'i
,:,:,Irl ll i til.iti i:r tr 1^r,: i trt
 ffi&4ffiUffift-ffiffiry @
ffiffiffitrffiPdBffifl#ffi ffiffiMffiffiffi
z.Question'l
Descnibe the composition and functions of lymph. tal
IB i o io g y/5 0 9 AI2 I QOb I 20 1 01

Solurtioms
The source of lymph is the plasma (fluid portion of blood).it therefore has a
composition comparable to blood plasrna constituting of water and dissolveci
substances such as digestive end products, metabolic wastes, hormones,
antibodies, antigens, vitamins, mineral salts, ln addition, lymph is rich in white blood
r
cells (lymphocytes).
The fciiowing are functions of tymph:
-L
- Acts as a "middle man" which transports oxygen, food rnaterial, hormones, etc, -L
to the body cells and brings carben dioxide and other metabolic wastes, from the
body cells to blood and then finaliy pours the same into the venous system. -L
- Body cells are kept moist by the iymph.
- Lymph nodes produce lymphocytes. Lymph takes lynrphocytes anci antibodies -L
-
from the lymph nodes to the blood.
lt destroys the invading microorganisms and foreign particles in the lymph
a
nodes.
_l_
- lt at:sarbs and transports fat and fat soluble vitamins frontrthe intestines. Lymoii
capillaries present in the intestinal villi are caiied lacteals which are associated
-lr
-
" with absorption and transpoi"tation of fat and fat soluble vitamins.
lt brings plasma macromolecuies synthesized in the liver cells and hormones I
produced in the endocrine glands to the blood. These molecules cannot pass
intc the narrow Lrlood capillaries but can ciffuse into the iymphatic capillaries. I
- i-,,.1i..,1r irta i'"iains the vOlume of the blOod, aS Soon aS the volume of the blood
reclui;es in iiie blood vascular system, the lynrph nushes fr,:m the lyrnphatic I
system to the blood vascular system,
I
r
,r
 Biolog: 2

L Question 2

Explain how oxygen in the alveolus finally reaches a liver cell, t6I

L
I

l
IB iolo g yi 5 09 0 tzt Q1 0I 2007]

L ) Solution
Oxygen in the alveoius diffuses into the capillaries at the surface of the alveoli and is

L dissolved in blood. From the capillaries itgoes to the pulmonary vein which tr.ansport
it to the heart, were it is received in the left ventricles and then to the left airium. Thd

L ,) contraction'of the hft ventricles pushesthe biood out of the heart into thg aorta, and
the aortrbranehes into thehepatb arteries which deliver theblood bontaining
!

L ) , oxygeninto the liver and finally oxygen diffuses totFre liverceills.

L ) Que-stion 3,
(a) Figure 4.1 shows an area of the skin undergoingthe healing process after a

L ) person has. had a cut.

[;',ir: teri:.i

r-
r- t

Iil
(
Fig. 4.1 :

(i) ldentify structure O and the type of blood vesse,[ P, shown in figure 4.1.tzi
( ii) Explain how the scab wa$fffmed on tne p#son's skin. t3l
(iii) State one essential nutrient needed in the person's diet that helps in

il clotting. I1l

td
[Bidogy 5090l2t220081
Solutions '!

(a)
(i) Structure O: Phagocyte (white blood cell)
Blood vesse! P: Capitlary
E
(ii) The platelets burst upon exposure to air and are release an enzyme called
E
thrombokinase. Thrombokinase changes Prothrombin, a plasma protein
(
into an active form called thrombin. Thrombin changes insoluble fibrinogen

IJ into so,luble fibrin. The conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin occurs in the

 Biolog, 2
tissue. The mesh traps red and iivi-:i-ie bior:d cells anr-{ this ieac.ls to
Ei-nraticn of a sc'ab.
{i;i) tJaiciurn.

i,;,. g"ti; l- ",

r
'l
Frgure 4.2 shovrrs sections of bioocl \ies,$el$ Fi anil S

.-,.--t- 'I--.'."',,,
I

I
,,-;---
.,t ,,r' 1-

. lJ, r,li
lt :-

Fig. 4.2 Eil,:',:,,:l i'-:.:: ;l l-'l lit.iLit,'!.-i

(a)

(i) the type of blood vessei$ showrr in iig 2 1 lz) .

Nai-rre
,

(ii) Describe struciurai differences between the biood vessels R and S. l2l
(b) Two patients went to the hospital on suspicion that they had malaria inlection. -L
Their blood samples revealed the follorruing; -t
Patient X - had ns malarial pai'asite and was anaemic.
Patient Y - had malarial parasites and was anaemic. _l_
(i) Explain how malaria can cause anaemia. 1t1

(ii) State other possible causes of anaemia in patient X. t1l

-L
(iii)Patient X with blood group A needed,u O,oo5166sfusion. Name a possib,le
donor. t1l
f Bi oio
:

gy 5090 t X Z20A2l.
I
Solutions *L
(a)
(i) Blood vessel R is an artery. 1, *L
Blood vessel S is a capillary
(ii) Arteries (R) have thick walls in order: to transport blood under high
pressure whereas the capillaries have thin walls (one cell thick) for easy
-,L

"'*
'diffusionofmaterialsbetweenthebIoodandtissuecells:
' * rv.B.'[herk notes on blood vESSB|s,
-l-
r(b) ' , '' -.1"
(I) Anaemia is a condition where the number of red blood cells or
concentration of haemoglobin is low; lVlalaria causes anaemia clr.re to the
_1,.
e:<cessive destructiorr of,er.vthpoc,,,i*s (red bloocl cells) ancl non-aveilability
i-{r:"ir-ii i IEr\rd'! .I-L-{ffi' .i6'}rrm*i'o*****, t"i\tif,?\*in.r'rv} ,.- [?inlnorr ?
I
 t\
J Biolo14,2

L r:f iron for production of enoLrgh red blood cell$. The destruction of red
blood cells is usually compensatdd by production of much more red blood
,i
I

L cells; however, the failure to produce the needed amount of red blood cells
imthe bone marrow means a fall in blood cell count leading to haemolysls

L (anaemia caused by excessive red blood cell destruction). Non availability

'a
of iron (cornponent of Hb) for production of red blood cells also contribertes

L (il)
to low production of red blocd cells"
Other possible causes of anaemia irrclude;

L Reduced prcduction of r.ed Lliooci cells.

Destruction of red blood ceils.

L (iil)
Excessive Bleeding.
Another person from either hlood group A or O.

L :

1- P- SLIIVIM A
i
RY OIr N OTIIS ON'f l{AN S i}OF.'l' ir .,!,4N I lvl A t - S.
Bloocl composition.
Blood is a connective tissucr nrade ulr olrrecl blood cells, white blood cells and
l_ plntck:is. The iiquicl part of the blocd is calied piasrrra and consists of u,ater rnd
dissolved subslances such as cligestivc cncl proclucts, rlctabolic l'astes^ honrrones.
.l-he
antibiotics. anlitoxins. vitamirrs. n.iineral sarits ancl piasrna proteins. table belon
1_ shou,s types o1'cells foLrncl in blooci.
CU,N,iPONI]NT oRtGIl.'l IILJNCI'ION
l_ Ited blood cells Bone rttarrrllt, Transport o.vi'gen irrtd
sonre carbon dioxide

l_ White blood celh

a) Phagocytes Ilone rnzrrrow S Engulf bacteria

l_ b) Lymphocytes Ilone marrow

Lymphoid tissue
Production of
aritibiotics.
Spleen

t_ Platelets Borrr-'rlen'ou, Start bloocl clottinu

mechanisnrs.

l_ !
Blood clotting Mechanisrn

I- The process of blood clotting involves four main steps as foltowJ

I . Bursting of platelets at danraged body tissues whe.p--exp.osed to air. After bursting,

L platelets release enzyme thrombokinase.

2. Thrombokinase converts inactive prothrombin to active thrombin.
3. Thrornbin changes insoluble fibrinogen to soluble fibrin. This conversion requires
t_ the presence of calcium ion.
 4.Fibrin f,orms a mesh (net) over the wound. This mesh traps red and white blood
cells, leading to the formation of a clot over the wound.
Biolog"' )
I
,/ Blood vessels and their functions.
As blood circulates round the body, it passes through a series of arteries, capillaries I
and veins.
The table below compares the structures and functions ofrhe b{ood.vessels

ARTERY VEINS CAPILLARY

I
Transport blood away from Transport blood towards the Links arteries to veins for _[
the hearl. ' heart. exchange.of materials
between blood and tissues.
No semi lunar valves (except Semi lunar valves at intervals No semi lunar valves.
-I.
l
where blood leaves the along the length to prevent
heart). back {'low of blood.
- Pressure of blood is high - Low pr€ssure of blood, low - Pressure of blood falls and
and has a pulse. or no pulse detectable. no pulse detectable.
- Blood flow is rapid.
- Low blooel volume.
- Blood flow is slow.
'Much higher blood volume
- Blood flows very slowly.
- High blood volume.
*I.
than that in arteries or
capillaries
}
- tslood oxygenated except in - Blood deoxygenated except - Mixed oxygenated and
pulmonary aftery.

lvnica *lema af
tolTagcnftbret
in pulmonary vein.

lrrriia nterna of
c,rllagtrr fikes
deoxygenated blood.
l
$
./'
*1- }
oJo

turuca ftedra sf sflroolh

enclr-rttreliuni c ell./
q
-t
tnnica nredia of e$toslh
mvsck: '{fld eLastic flbtes
muscle asd elastic fibre }

_t
,/ Dual circulation.
}
Thi.s is a type of circulation where blood passes through the heart tvrice durring one
circulation around the body. It involves purlmonary circulation and systemi:c
c irc u lation }
- Puhnonary cirgrrl4fion. '. 1

This is the flou,,of tdgod frorn.the right ventricle to the lungs through the pulmonary. }
-
artery and from thE lungs to the left atrium through the pulmonary vein. '
.v.i
Sy,stemicrcirculation; ': '", '., ', ',.,, ",
This is the flow of blood from the left ventricles to the re st of the body through the }
aofta and frorn the rest of thelbody to the right atrium through the i,erra c,ir,;r, :

}
-_
rN
. Biologl, 2
Lyn:phatic. systern.
u,
I-yrtphatic system is a form of open circr"rlatory system consisting ofilynrphatic
I

capillarics, l),niplratic vessels, lymph nocles and lymphatic organs inciuding the spleerr
t_
Mechanisrn

L. filtration atthe arteriole end of the capillaries, The

Tissrue fluic1 is flonned by pressurre
diagrarl below illustrates the fomiation of iymph fluid;
r, . . '. 4 "

L. tissr.rr tluid

t
t ,{,ttetiile 'y'erruk

t l, I
.+, { =-.frr,
eJ
el r_j.r
---,'

t HIG}J PFfj:]TJI-IFE
a=':_r}
''!-)
LfJ I rr r FF'L'Ji:1LIFII

L part of pla*tia seel:s or.li 'a'.t' l;r r,r- rtui,:i er:rer :: u apr.ltuii

t 'l'issLre flLrid is

riurtUt's in ttvo u'ays

nonlally retLirnecl
fr!.PlLLP-fi'r' e,E0

to blood at thc same i'zitc that it is prodLrced.

-[his

q
t_ E i) Osmosis.
Most of the flrrid Iost fi'orn the capitlarics is retLlrned b1'o';tnusi" 'is a l'esltlt o1'
liiglter proteirr concerriration in the capillaries is greater than the extriicellular
l_ fluid.

t ii) Lymphatic s1,stenr.

The fluid rernaining after osmosis drains into blindly ending Iyrnphatic capiliaries

t and once inside lhese, the fluid is termed lymph. Thc lymphatic capillarics join to
forni large lymphqtic vessels. T'he lyrnph vessels ernpty the lyrnph into the blood
system at the sr-rbcfaviorr veins.iLrst after they leavc the arms and.iLrst bcfbre they'

t-
reach thc heart.

l-
I
T
I i
 ffiHFEWT"ffiFry ffi _1-
THANSPOHT IN F' ANTS )

-L
Question ]L
(a) (i) State the processes involved
soil to the leaf. tsl
iru

(ii) Give two uses of water in the leaf.

the movement of water molecules from the

121
I
IBiology/S090/2/QB/2 008]
-L
selution
r(a) (i)
- Absorption
-L
- Osmosis _t
- Transpirational pull
*Take note:
_t
- Water is absorbed from the soil by the roots cells. _L
- By osmosis water motles from one cellto the next in the rost and other parts of the plant.
- Water is drawn from plant vessels, roots and from the soil by using aJrrce referred tu as J,-
trnaspirational pull
(ii) water is used in the leaf as; (1) a raw material in the process of _1'-
photosynthesis and (2) a solvent for sugars manufactured by the leaf,

;
_l.
Question 2
Figure 5.1 shows an experiment to investigate the movement of coloured solution in _1
a plant.
_l
_t
--l
_r
Fig 5.1 '
':
'''t
,':ta) Name the process by which; -T
(i) Water in the solution was absorbed by the plant, t1l
..
j
:,,t-j .'
(ii) Coloured solute in the solution was absorbed by the plant. -t
I
1r1
1:r1.,
:', ; ,(b) Why was oil put oil put on top of the coloured solution? 1t1
i:';:
t-,:':
}{N(]lt lNCi THE EXFIIT\INEFISI' fT\lNE rM * Biolocv 2
;i', : . ,.u', '.
 T
r_ (c) Figure 5.2 shows the cross section of the stem obtained from fiEure 2,1 at the
Biologt, 2

r- end of the experiment.

:i- a\
t=1
'i ,r.
-"i

Lf,
r_ ,:q;
,r+. itr'"
u;r
B
I. (i)
Fig 5.2

LJsing the letter X, label the part of the figure which was sustained by

r_ (ii)
the dye. t1l
ldentify the part you have labelled X on the figure 2.2.

r_ ( iii) Name two substances transported by part X and give one function for each.i+l
\
r- [Biology 509 0 l2lz20

Solutions
1 11

I (a) i) Osmosis
ii) Diffusion

tL '* Iake note

Diffusinn is the movement uf particles from a region nf their higher concentratinn in a reginn of

IL their lower concentration. Ismosis is like the 'diffusion' of water except it invnlves a seiectively
permeable membrane which the water particles cross tr: get to their regiun of iower

tL concentritin'rr. Iherefore water moves by usmnsis while solutes mnve by rlifiusion/active

transport.

tL (b) The oil was put on top of the coloured solute

air from diffusing into the solution.
!g
prevent gases/particles in the

tL (c)

IL
IL i) Part X is the xylem vessel. :

* Take notelhe xylem vessel transpnrts water and dissolved solutes from the ronis to the shonts.

ii) Name: Water

Function: to act as a solvent

Name: Calciurn ions

Function: help in the forrnation of cell walls and promotes root growth0.
 Biologr 2
Quesfiorr 3 }
Fig 5,3 shows the lower surface of a leaf.

l, -I
-lr
-lr
_1
Fig 5.3
]
(a) (i) ldentify and state the fun actions of the pails labelled A and B. t4l

(ii) What happens to part A in windy conditions? 1t1 }

(b) (i) What would be the effects of excessive loss of water on B? 12)

(ii) By what process do gases leave the leaf? 1t1 -I"

(c) How is the cactus prant,,,HH;:::;JffiJiss bv evaporation? t1l
--1
\
,, . Solution \
}

Part A: stomata }
Function: allow gases (Oxygen/carbon dioxide) in and out of the leaf,
Part B: guard cells _1,
Function: controls the opening and closing of the stomata
(ii) ln windy conditions part A (stomata) remains open as the diffusion shells il,
get wiped away by the wind. To nluch wind can dgmqge part A (stoma)
(il) (i) Excessive loss of water will cause part labelled B (guard cells) tc become _f
smaller and week.
(ii) Diffusion }
(c) Cactus does not have leaves but depend on chlorophyll in the outer tissue of
their skin to conduct photosynthesis. By eliminating leaves transpiration is _t
reciuced.
-l
l

'r

I
_I
L , ao*a,,u,Nnnornno* ,Orrnorolo*, or rro*rr ro o*r, aor.lr-rrrt1lifl','
L Plants irr hot arid envir.onments have found ways of eliminating tlreir water loss to avoid

dehydration. Some of the adaptations desert plants Lrse are:

L -
'
The absencc of leaves: elirnination or great reduction of leaf size reduces transpiratiorr.

Srnaller stonrata or lower frequency of stomata pores. This redr,rces the opportunity to
1_ water loss.
- Special water storage capability: succulent plants which store water in specialised
r_ ._.
tissues. This allows plant to avoici dehydration by providing a means to rehydrate from
their stored watcr sources.
r_ - Periods of dormancy: sorne plants become dormant during periocl of arid environment.
- Alternative root structure: phreatophyes have adapted to arid environemt by growing
r_ long roots which allow them to acess moisture deep belor,,'the surface of the soil and

I- reach the water table.

"L
/'t

t_ Question 4
(a) Explain the process of transpiration.
t_ t4l
(b) Describe three environmental factors which affect transpiration. [z]
(c) ReJate the significance the environment.
IL "r,rar,:[lil|;ffi:land 12]

t_ Solution
(a) Transpiration is the evaporation of water from the surface of the plant, mainly

il_ from leaves, and more water particles move up within the plant to take up
their place. Transpiration occurs mostly through the stomatal openings of the

t_ leaves. The mass flow of liquid water from the roots to the leaves is driven in

part by capillany action, but primarily driven by water potential differences.

l_
(b) Factors affecting transpiration include:
n_ - Humidity: if the relative humidity is very high, the rate of transpiration will
be very low. The lower the relative humidity the higher the rate of
t* - transpiration.
-
l* Temperature: higher temperature ensures faster rate of evaporation.'of
water at the surface of the plant resulting in increased rate of transpiration.

I- Light: light affects the opening and closing of stomata which determines
the amount of water loss. ln bright lights stomata are open and much
 'lJiol|':t -
vapour passes through them to the atmosphere fthich increases
ir transpiration.
I

(c) Transpiration is significant to plants in that it allows the movement of water in

the plant hence helps in transportation of substances dissolved in water round
the plant. Transpiration ensures the air the atmosphere is not dry ancl this
I

rl
i helps cool the environment making it suitable for habitation.
l'l

Quesfiom 5
1l

I
(a) E;<plain i!'re following terms;
I

lr.
'l-i-anspiratton puii.
ii
l
ii) i2l

iii) l-ranslocation " 12)

i:ii) ,i:,iation. i?-J

ib) uresci'ib+ i:ow a single.r:otometei" can ile sei up i* si-r,::r,nl tia;,.,,.:rrrr.,\,,'l. ,

[Biology SA9A l2l2201 0) __1-

Solutionsl r,'

(a) -L
(t) Ti:anspirational pull is a suction bv which water is drawn from piant
: vessels, roots and finally f:-om the soii caused by water loss from th'* -L
leaves.
--L
(ll) Translocaiion is the movement of solubie food n'raterial within a plani

n
N.B. See further notes nn translriation -L
(iii) Guiation is the process ny rninicn a piant losses liquid or water from the _[
tips and margins of leaves.
_[
(b) A potometer is an instrument used tc measure the rate of transpiration. A
simple potometer can be set trp as foiicws; first insert a leafy shoot, that has
bee;n cut halfi,ray and its lourer body (including roots) ren:oved, into a calibrated
-T
capiiiary tutre urith a tapped water reserr,,oir above it(refer to the diagi-am b*ic,w) _l
Fill the inside of the capillary and the reservoir above it u"rith watel" and close tl"le
tan lo begin the experiment. fhe meniscus wiil begin to rilove along the _t
caiibratiorts, due to waten loss by t.i'anspii'iatloil anci cont{nuous water,gain,
_t
_t
 Bialo.glt )

at*r r* 5 er'Jr' i r
,/'i':

,ii r,.':.rt*r ttteni slLtr: r

Fig 5.4

Question 6

Fig. 5.5 shows an experiment set up using a potometer.

Water
Capillary tube reservoir

$crew clip

Scale in mm
Fig 5.5

ln the above experiment, the distance moved by meniscus along the capillary tube in
30 minutes was measured and recorded. The meniscus was brought back to zero.
Two leaves were removed and the distance moved by the meniscus in 30 minutes
was again measured and recorded. T'he process of moving two leaves at a time was
repeated until all the leaves were removed.

The readings were as given in the table below:

NOTE: Other factors remained unchanged

Twig Distance (in mm) moved by meniscus

in 30 minutes
Alt leaves present 15.0
-Two leav'es removed 12.2
four leaves removed 7.1

Six leaves removed 3.9

Eight leaves removed 1.0
 R'';r's '
(a)
(i) What does the moveinent of the meniscus measure? I1l
(ii) How woulcJ you return the meniscus to zero? 1t1

(iii) What was the effect of decreasing the number of leaves present on the
I
twig? 1r1

(iv) Explain why the meniscus still moves when there are no leavbs on the
I
shoot. [1]

IBiology/5 0 9 0 t 2l Qzl 20041

I
Sotrution
(a) ,,'
I
(i) lVleasures the rate of transpiration
(ii) Ttrie rneniscus is reiurned to zei-o b5r pushing in water frorn the syringe.
t
(iii) Recluced the distance rnovecj by the meniscr.rs.
(iv) Transpiration mainly occurs at the suriace of the leaves, decreasing the
r
numbefof leaves on the twig reduces evaporation of water from the plant F
i

rL
hence reducing the rate of transpiration.
l}.
(v) The twig could as well transpire frorn the stem, therefore, even after
L
removing all ihe stems transpiration continued taking place hence the
F.
movement of the meniscus.

Quesffon 3.
Figure 5.6 shows two cross diagrams frorn rJiffei'ent parts of a dicotyledonous plani.
L

,;-'::=:::':la ':;==1-:;i-
,,.i1'-- t-7 - !;'.,
ii lt L

I
ir
-'
I r-1]r ': 'T,rJi I I

/i
rl'' it"l l'ttl .li'

Fig 5.6 Fl.rrit 1:,ir t ':...

F'1.-irit 1:,irt ,'
E

(a)
(i) Which diagram shows the croSs section of i) root, ii) stem? Explain your
E
ansvver?
o
- 1+1

(ii) What ere the shaded regions in the diagrams? Give the reason for their t-

,Jifferent distributions? [z] :

l
(h) Hei'baceCIus stems and woody stems were clamped !n water fig 5.i'(a; and in
concentrated sait solution fig 5.7(b) as shown beiow.
I
 Biologt 2

rvonrly lierhac*or,rs
stems st*tr1

,,l.,iitgr {;
Fig 5.7(a) Fig 5.7(a)

(c).Describe what will happen in fig 5.7(a) and fig 5.7(b). Explain your answer. t4l
IBiology SO}Ot 2t Z2OO2|
Solutions
(a)
(i) Root: Plant part W
Explanation: ln dicot roots the pith is absent and the xylem are arranged
in a star like formation while the phloem alternate.

Explanation: in dicot stems the phloem and xylem form a ring around the
pith. They are separated by a cambium.
(iii) Xylem

* N;8, ,[heck notes on arrangemEnt of vascular

tissues in plants.

, (b) Fig 5.7(a): ln figure 5.7(a) the mass of herbaceous stem will increase. No
significant change will be noticed in the woody stem.
Exptanation: This is because the sap in celts of herbaceous stem is more
concentrated than water, causing the water to move into the stem by osmosis.
Little change is noticed in the woody stern because the cells in wood are
dead.

ic) Fig 5.7(b): tn figure 5.7(b), the mass of herbaceous stem witl decrease.
Explanation: ThiS is because the osmotic potential of salt solution is greater
than that of cell sap of the herbaceous stem. This will result in the stem celts
losing water by osmosis.
 Biolog 2

h*rhfidre,:'r.t:; t*;ootly Irerl:sr."*or"rs

Stelrl stems st*tt1

,.l,,ater
{"
Fig 5.7(a) Fig 5.7(a)

(c) Describe what will happen in fig 5.7(a) and fig 5.7(b). Exptain your answer. t4I
[B iolo gy 5O9Ot 2\Z2.OO21

Sotutions
(a)
(i) Root: Plant part W
Explanation: ln dicot roots the pith is absent and the xylem are arranged
in a star like formation while the phloem alternate.
(ii) Stem : plant part V
Explanation: in dicot stems the phloem and xylem form a ring around the
pith. They are separated by a cambium.
(iii) Xylem

* N;B..[heck
notes 0n arrangemBnt of vascular tissues in plants.

, (b) Fig 5.7(a): ln figure 5.7(a) the mass of herbaceous stem will increase. No
significant change will be noticed in the woody stem.
Explanation: This is because the sap in cells of herbaceous stem is more
concentrated than water, causing the water to move into the stem by osmosis.
' ' Little change is noticed in the woody'stem because the cetls in wood are
dead.

(c) Fig 5.7(b): tn figure 5.7(b), the mass of herbaceous stem will decrease.

'
, Explanation: Thig is because the osmotic potential of salt solution is greater
than that of cell sap of the herbaceous stem. This will result in the stem cells
losing water by osmosis.
;FF"
I

i;i,, '/ Transport in plants involves movement of water, mineral salts and photosynthetic
products in various tissues of the vascular bundle.
|1, , ,/ Tissues involved in the transport system include,
Xylern: transports water and mineral salts up the plant.
Phloern: transpotts photosynthesis products (and honnones) in plahts
Cambium: carries out cell divisions to produce new cells, including xylem and
phloenr.

'/ The tigure below shows the arrangenrent of vascular tissues in monocots and dicots.

[i,i{:nt :rt+r]l [.iic,:'t t':,c.t

'/-A\
G\r'6
t-
sf l*lli t*l @@
1:iilo*ni E
SAD
@)
\*v,1
lrl,-'r l'r,] i 1:, t r: t+ lli f\.'1{}l ri,:,lt r.:,,:,t

{a 9
\7
N 60-*\
(pG(Ds qry
t@ ol

-w- 3w
Transpiration pull
Water absorbed from the soil enters the plant through the robt hairs. Water travels r"rp
the stem to the leaves. At the surface of the leaves, water is evaporated thr<lugh the
stomata. This continued loss of water by the leaf fonns suction by which more water
is drawn from the veins in the leaf and stem and finally from the roots and soil. This is
known as transpiration pull.
Rate of Transpiration.
The loss of water to form vapour from the plant leaves is called transpiration. The rate
of transpiration can be affected by a nurnber of factors discussed below.

Relative humidity: if the relative hurmidity is very high, the ra-te of transpiration will

,f
be very low. The lower the relative hurnidity, the higher the rate of transpiration.

Wind: windy conditions result in increased transpiration rate. This isbecause in still
air a layer of saturated air builds up around the leaf forming diffr.rsion shells. These
"reduce the steep of diffusion gradient between the intenral atmosphere of the leaf and
r:I
:

the external atrnosphere.

_t
i- I'

Temperature: the higher the temperature the greater the rate of evaporation of water
frorn the mesophyll cells.
 Light: light affects the opening and closing of stomata which determines the amount
of water loss by leaves. Usually stomata open by day and closes at night.

r' Measuring transpiration rate using a photometer

A potometer is an instrument used to determine the rate of transpiration of a plant by
measuring water uptake. The following is a potometer set up to measure the rate of
transpiration of a plant.
4,
L*iriy ,,,tr,r,+t
l'rSenrriil'

'- .'irter1.:r'r,rl c cntr;r,l ti trti ::f glg

:rir l:'r.t1:bl*
n

,:;1:,ill,iril t,-rh*
trf ir.'.tttr

When using the potometer, it is assumed that water uptake is equal to water loss
thr,rugh transpiration. The distance moved by the air bubble/meniscus, the cross
sectional area of the capillary tube and the time taken need to be known in order to
calculate the transpiration rate using the equation below.
distance moued x cross section area of tlw tube
rate of transpiration =
time taken

,/ Translocation
. Most carbohydrates manufactured in the leaves and other green parts are distributed
through the phloern to the rest of the plant by translocation. Translocation includes the
transport of foods, water, salts and hormones.
Carbohydrates are converted into sucrose (transported sugars) and move through the
phloem. An area where the sucrose is made is cailed a 'source' whereas an area where
it is being taken from sieve tubes is called a sink. Sinks include roots, stems, growing
fruits e.t.c.

f
f I
 EHFIPTER E
EHEATHINE ANi' Htr5PIHATION
quesrron 7

Fig. 6.1 is a graph showing changes in volume of airduring breathing in the lungs of
a person.

Lirng V'o{urne
idm'i
)

*-.4
I

)
u*.-,q*"""!q1.r4*

Fig 6.1 Stage P Stage Q

i

ffi )

M
(i) Which letter shows the process of inspiration taking place? 1t1

(ii) Suggest activities taking place at stages P, Q, and R. t3l

Explain why there is an increase in air volume during stage Q. t1l-
Describe the changes which will take place in the thorax during inspiration in
order to facilitate the increase in volume during stage Q. t3l
lBiology/S090121Q1120121 :

r' $olution
ilil (i) letter S
*Take note: during inspiration the volume of the lu,ngs increases. Letter S

ffiii points at the increase graph while T points at decreasing graph.

(ii) P - resting/walking/ eating etc
Q - running/ climbing a hill/ or any strenuous activity
R - resting/walkingieating etc
^Take note: _1
when doing nBrmEl activities such as resting CIr vvalking less energy is required from respiratinn,
hence', changes in lung volume as a result uf breathing mechanism will he low. Hnwever, when involved

in strenuous activities changes in lung volume are large, This is done to allsw more oxygen in for
-I
respiration and more Earbun dioxide frrm respiratiun tn be.expired. -J
.d ;lraRttraEar nrxl-TM _Eli^l^Err, -J
r_ (b) During stage Q there is increase in air volume to allow much oxygen to be
Biotog;' 2

absorbed and used during respiration

r_ l:
i (c) During inspiration the diaphragm contracts, the external intercostals muscles and

r_ i
internal intercostals muscle contracts respectively, the ribcage moves upward
resulting on the increase of the volume of the lungs.

r_ Question 2

I .:
i
I
t
i
,
Fig. 6.2 shows part of the respiratory system of an insect.

t_
.Carbon dioxide
-..,...
Oxygen

Fig 6.2

(a) ldentify the parts labelled D and E. Lzl

(b) Explain how oxygen from the atmosphere is able to reach the tissue labelled
E. l2l
(c) Explain how the energy released frgm respiration in an insect is used. t3l

(d) State two ways in which the respiratory system shown differs from that of a

fish. 121

I B i
sil/f, os o/r2lo 3{?
-or! Prl lI

: .r,.. : l.,,;.:riiii ;-j,r, ,'l:,. .',r. .: I

Solution
(a) Part D: spiracle ".,i,,i',',:6r,ii,:,,
Part E: respiratory cells
(b) Oxygen diffuses from the outside air directly into the tissues (E), without the
:i.

need for transportation blood. Oxygen passes through the spiracles (pair of
holes) which lead into air filled sacs. Extending from these are branched tubes
called tracheae which eventually,brancles into numerous smaller tubes, the
,, :
tracheoles. Oxygen moves through !l,ris
lracheal system and eventually
reaches the tissues at a very short period of time.
(c) The energy released from respiration is used in an insect for locomotion
(flying, hop.ping), in breathing movement of the abdomen and in reproduction.
 7 L----I

Biotogt 2
(d) lnsects breath through small paired holes called spiracles, which open into the L---,

tracheae. The tracheae and tracheals deliver oxygen directly to air sacs and
tissue cells and carry away carbon dioxide. A fish's respiratory system is a
pump nnechanism. The mouth opens and closes, forcing water across the gill
filaments and gill rackers a1d'facilitating the exchange of gases between the
water and blood vessels.
I

I
lr

Question 4
Fig. 6.3 shows part of the respiratory system of an insect.
l

Spiracles

I'
l. L,
t.
u: j,
rl:
r': I

UI
r'I I

lt:
t,
i,>r
il
, L-

Fig 6.3
(i) Which labelled parts G, H and I of the respiratory system of an insect is the:
(a) Trachea?
(b) Air space 121

(ii) An insect undergoing strenuous activities needs oxygen at a faster rate for
respiration. Explain how such an insect is able to increase its gaseous
exchange. 1t1

[Biology/509 OtZt QU2ao81

Solution
(i) (a) trachea: G
(b) Air space: H

, ('? The pumping action during strenuous activities sequences air into and out
of the tgf;heal system thereby increasing the rate of gaseous exchange.
l

lll
l'
 I

ompare and contrast gaseous exchange in a fish and an insect. lzl

Solution
the
l
4
tsects breath through small paired holes called spiracles, which open into
acheae. The tracheae and tracheals deliver oxygen directly to air sacs and tissue
and carry away carbon dioxide. A fish's respiratory system is a pump
i
l
rechanism. The mouth opens and closes, forcing water across the gill filaments and
rll fackers and facilitating the exchange of gases between the water and blood

I
 Biologr

CHFIPTER 7
EXtrHETION
Question 1

Figure 7.1 shows the urinary system and the blood supply.

l<ey

-+,:li t titic,tr,:,f:
[:,1,i,i,:l f l,:'.'.'

_t
Fig 7.1 -! L

(a) On figure 4,1, label structures F, G and H. tg1

_l-
(b) State two processes that are involved in urine formation. lz)
(c) The table below shows the relative quantities of several substances in the
_l_
1,,
1,i
lrl
lii
ll

I
hlood in the renal artery and in the renal vein.
I
Relative quantitv in blood in Relatiye quantitv in blood in
lr
Substance }
renal arterv (arbitrarv unitJ renal vein (arbitrarv unit.)
Glucose
Oxygen
10.0
100.0
9.5
40.0
-L
Sodium Salts 32.0 27.O
-L
Urea
Water
6.0
180.0
2.5
175.4 I
Explain what happens in the kidney to bring about the changes in the relative
quantities of;
I
- Glucose _1,-
- Oxygen
- Sodium salts
_1,'
- Urea
[Biolo gy 5090l2t Z.20 1 1l
_r
_r
L Solutions
Biolog't 2

r-. (a) v€r10 covo

I'-. ' ul'e,tet-

ui'cthro H

(b) 1. Ultra filtration

2. Osmoregulation
(c) Glucose: Small quantities of glucose are diffused into the kidney cells for the
process of respiration, hence the change.
- Oxygen: A good amount of oxygen is used up by the renal cells for the
process of respiration.
- Sodium salts: Excess sodium salts are removed by the kidney and are
excreted.
- Urea: Urea is a waste product not needed by the body. Every amount is as
. muih as possible removed by the kidney and excreted.

Question 2
(a) (i) Explain the role of the kidney in excretion. t3l
(ii) Explain the role of the kidneys in homeostasis. t3l
. \
(b) Describe the disadvantages of a kidney transplant. Isl
(c) Explain why there is limited excretion of nitrogenous wastes and salt in plants.
l3l
[Biology/Soe otuaTnoogl

Solution
(a) (i) Excretion is the removal of waste metabolic products from the body. The
role of the kidney in excretion is to remove urea, excess salts and excess
- water. Other unwanted materials including hormones are also excreted.
These materials are removed in form of urine. Urine ftows from the kidney to
the bladder through the ureter. From the bladder urine is forced out of the

# body through the urethra.

 (ii) Homeostasis is the process of maintaining the constant internal bodrt'o'oo'
L.i-
environment. The rolb of the kidney in homeostasis is threefold, regulating
acid-base balance, osmo-regulation and regulation of blood pressure.
"take note: T
- The kidney regulate water level in the body by controlling the re-absorptiun of water in the
Lli-

nephrons. When there is a rise in blood water, it is detected by the hypnthalamus which I

communicates directly with the posterior pituitary gland.Ihe gland secretes anti-diuretic
*1
hormone (ADH) which stimulate water re-absorption by the kidney resulting in urine

csncentration, The release of A0H is suppressed when there is less water in blood,
I
-E
- The kidneys control blood pressure by expelling surplus sudium from the bndy. (Blond -&]
prESSurB rises with increasing amount of the salts). However, if bloud prESSUre is low due to
-el
low vnlume, the kidney releases rennin into the blrlod. Rennin is a trigger for angiotensin,

which is used to narrrw the blood vessels. Narrowing blood vessels increases blood E
prESSUrE. At the same that angiotensin is causing blood vessels tn constrict; it is alsrr

stimulating the adrenal cortex to produce aldosterone. This hormone prurnpts the kidneys to
B
keep an excBSS of sodium and water, which results in raising blood pressure levels.
B
- thp kidney controls the acid-base level in blnod by excreting more acid in the urine.Ihis is

achieved by removing nitrogenous wastes from the blood in the renal tubules while H
conserving proteins and water,

(b) The following are disadvantages (side effects) of kidney transplant:

B
Kidney transplantation is a major surgical procedure that has risks both during
and after the surgery. The risks of the surgery include infection, bleeding, and
ffi
" damage to the surrounding organs. After kidney transplantation, you will be
required to take medications and have frequent monitoring to minimize the
F
chance of organ rejection; this must continue ones entire lifetime. The kr
medication can have significant and bothersome side effects.
(c) Plants like other living organisms excrete waste products lncluding
nitrogenous wastes and salts. However the excretion of these products in
k
L,
' - plants is limited because the amino acids and other nitrogen compgunds from

the breakdown of proteins are used up by the plant to synthesize new proteins P
ffi,+t
required for growth and development. ffi
fl
ffi
r_ Similarly the mineral salts taken up by plants are used up in plant processes

I- such as the building of amino acids, for example sulphate ions taken up by
plants are immediately used in synthesis of amino acids. Thus there is little
avaitable for excretion.

CONCISE INFORMATION
{.:
Disadvantages of kidney transplant
I . Pain and discomfort of surgery. [t is common to experience pain and discomfort ,
immediate fol lowing the procedure.
. 2. Risk of rejection. 1005 guarantee that a transplanted kidney will take place and that
the body will accept it is not there.
3. Frequent medical need. After receiving a transplant, a person needs to rnake frequent
visits to check in with the physician. Anti-rejection drug may also cause problems that
may require the patient to be hospitalised.
4. Weakened immune system. The body rnay lose the ability to fight off certain
infections, some of which may be life+hreatening.
5. Conditions caused by prescription drugs. Some patients may experience visural
cataracts, arthritis, and in some cases even cancer (e.g. skin cancer) due to drugs that
are prescribed in the wake of transplantation.

Advantages
A successfnl kidney transplant can improve one's quality of life and reduce ones ris[< of
dying frorn kidney disease. In addition, people who undergo kidney transplantation do not
require'hours of daily dialysis treatment.

Question4
Figure 7.2 shows the circulation through a kidney machine of the blood of a person
suffering from kidney failure.

&rterr,,

Itidrre,i ni"rchine

Tlriri ri:rll*tl.
[:i I
;]:i ti {: ttJJ}e

Fig7.2
I'
t',r'aste f lrrid' c,rrt
 -1
Eiotost 2
(a)
' (i) Place an X on the diagram where the blood enters the kidney machine.
(ii) What structures in a normal kidney is represented by the thin wall plastic
1t1
,1
tubes? t1l
(b) Explain why glucose must be present in the fluid surrounding the thin walled
_t
plastic tubes in the kidney machine. 1t1 -1
(c) Name another substance other than water which is removed from the blood

(d)
as it flows through the kidney machine. t1l
_1
i) Suggest a suitable temperature for the fluid entering the kidney machine. 1ti -1
ii) Give reason for your answer. t1I
(e) Explain why people using kidney machines are told to linrit the amount of
proteins in their diet whereas they can have normal intake of carbohydrates.l+1
-I
IBiology SA9A l2l 220041
_'r
(a) (i)
Solutions
I
-I
1..i,:lrr+i. rri;,:: =

Tliiti'.,.ill+.:l
t...."..
1-rl,i=tii tr[:.-

I
r"j;::t+ llr,ti,:l ,rr.tt E[,:+il

ii) Renal tubule.

(b) Glucose must be present in the fluid to overcome concentration gradient
between the fluid and blood supply thereby stopping glucose from diffusing
. out of blood.
(c) Urea.
I

1
(d)1) 37'c
,ri ii) The temperature of the fluid needs to be close to the normal temperature of
l
the body to prevent agglutina-tion of blood.
 ,q

(e) Urea, the harmful product removed by the kidney/dialysis machine is a by-
product of protein deamination, The machine does little in the control of
glucose leveis, the products of carbohydrate digestion. Therefore reduction in
intake of proteins will reduce the amount of urea in the body and less work will
be left for the machine.

Quesfion 5
(a) Explain the effect of insulin on a named target organ
(b) Name three metabolic wastes produced by the human body.
For each named metabolic waste:
(i) State which part of human body removes it from the blood.
(ii) Describe its effect on the health of an organism if the waste material is
Ieft in the blood circulation.
iB iolo gyi 5090 I 2t QB 120051

(a) lnsulin produced bythe beta cells of the isletof langerhans has its major
effects on the liver. lnsulin reduces blood sugar'level by converting the blood
sugar (glucose) into a storage form, glycogen. Glycogen is stored in the liver
for use qhen the blood sugar level goes down.
(b)
(i)
- Urea is a metabolic waste rernoved by the kidney and skin.
- Carbon dioxide is a metabolic waste removed by the lungs
- Excess salt is waste product removed by the kidney and the skin,
(ii) :

Urea: urea is harmful to the body. This is because it disrupts normal

cellular function and alters,the pH'in the blood. When it goes to the brain
it disturbs the brain and can ciuse confusion '

Carbon dioxide increases the acidity of blood due to increased carbonic

acid. lncreased acidity (increase in pH) would kill an individual due to

Salts: excess salt in the body makes the body holds on to water. This
causes the extra water stored in the body to raise blood pressure. The
more salt the more the blood pressure: The higher the blood pressure,
the greater the strain on body organs such as the heart, arteries, kidneys
W
and brain.'This can lead to heart attacks, strokes, dementia ,nO fiffi''
disease.

'/ Ilxcretion: This is the removal of toxic rletabolic waste prodircts from the bodies of
living organisms. Tlre tablc belorv sholvs cxcretory produrcts and tlic organs that
--
excretc them:

Ilxcrctory Product Source of thc product Iixcrctory organ

-
Urea Deamination in thc liver l(idneys ar.rcl Skin
Carbon dioxide Cel ILrlar respiratiorr Lun -
Il i le oisrnent Destruction ol'old red blood cells Liver

Ljrirrary systcrn
This is a systcm of organs that produrccs ancl cxcrctcs urinc 1r'onr thc bocly.'l'hc nu.ior
organs of the urinary system are the kidneys, which filter substances fronr the blood
and prodlrce urine. Kidnels are conlposed of furrctional r"rnits called ncphrons. "fhe
lbllowing shows thc structure of the urinary system.
ri * l'r"1 i,l1.r J

,1.:,1 t ..1

I "iihi*,,,
r.tt *t+ t
F:e ri,il rrrt: r";

r. rli t li r: l;,1r,;.l,:l* r
F:.: t',.,r1 ;E iti

The process of urine f,ormation in the kidneys involves four stages nam€{y; ultra-
fi ltration, selective reabsorption, osnloregulation and secretion.
Kidney failure and medication.
Chronic infections, longstanding diabetes, untreated prolonged blood pressure and
damage done by-poisoning, accidents or drug abq-ge,can cause kidney failure. Kidney
failure can be treated by either kidney transplant or use of a dialysis machine.
,/ The dialysis machine.
ITeatures of u dialysis macltine.
- The tubule is long and coiled in order to increase the surface area,for diffirsion.
- Tlre tubule is selectively pernreable, alfowing only small molecules such as
glucose, urea, salts and water to pass through.

* - -
'fh.e concentration of dialysis fluid (salts and glucose in water) is.equalto the
n@mal coneentration of btood.
- Courrter cument of dla[ysi+ftuidand blood helps make diffusion faster by .

mairtaini ng a copstant diffusion. grad ibnt.

l
' .r,"
 Blologt 2

HT'MEOSTA5I5
Question 1

(a) (i) Define the term homeostasis. t2l , ' 4 "

(ii) Describe the importance of homeostasis in the human body. t2l

(b) After playing football in the sun, a person may feelwarm, but his skin is co6l.
Explain how this is possible? 121

(c) After fasting (not eating) for 12 hours, a healthy adult and a diabetic adult
were fed with glucose.
How would the blood sugar level in a healthy adult and a diabetic adult
compare? 1a1
IBi olo gy/'S 09 OI 2t QS tzll7l

Solution
(a) (i) Homeostasis is the maintenance of the constant internal environment of the
body.
(ii) Homeostasis is important because it keeps the temperature of the body
under control with the right conditions for cells to live and function well. The
cells which depend on enzymes for chemical reactions to take place have to
beattherighttemperatureforthemtocarryouttheseproceSSeS
Homeostasis also ensures the correct pH is in place for metabolic reactions in
the body. lt balances the water level, ensuring the buffer systems in the body
have correct medium.
,(b) During the time of playing football, the tissue respiration in the body as well as
the heat from the sun warms the body. However, the evaporation of sweats
on the surface of the skin keeps the boely cool.
(c) After the healthy person is fed with glucose the body cells will utilise the
glucose in the process of respiration to provide the body with the needed
energy. Excess glucose will be con.verted to glycogen by insulin and stored in

the liver. This ensures that the correct blood sugar level is maintained.
However, with the diabetic person there is insufficiency of insulin or the body
, cells fail to respond to insulin. This will cause the glucose not used in
respiration to accumulate in the blood. Therefore there will be more glucose in
the diabetic's blood than in the healthy person's blood.
 iotos'2
euestion 2
(a) (i) Explain the meaning of the term homeostasis. lzj
(ii) Explain how plants excrete wastes. t3l
IBiology/5090/2/Q9/2006]

Solution
(a) (i) Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment of the
body of an organism.
(i) Excretion in plants is carried out in various ways discussed as follows:
The gaseous wastes, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour, are
removed through stomata of leaves and lenticels.
Planls also remove poisonous substances containing nitrogen. These are
refer:ied to as alkanoid. The alkanoid include Morphin from opium, Quinine
from cinchona and cocaine from cocoa.
Other wastes are removed as the bark of the tree fall off. These include I

Tanin in acacia and red magroove.

Some wastes are also stored in in floral parts of the plants and others in .

the latex tissue. When these fall off the wastes are removed.

Question 3
(a)
(i) What is meant by the term homeostasis? 1t1

(ii) Name two functions of the liver which contribute to homeostasis? 121

(b) The graph in figure 3 shows the effects of exercising and immersion in cold
water on human body temperature. i1l
L r,,r-i-+{"1*}..rf I i...i.,.t-t,.i,
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H (i) What was the body,temperature after 10 minutes exercise and 10 minutes
immersionjn cold water?
After 10 minutes of exercise. t1l.
After 10 minutes cit'c6ld bath. 1r1

(ii) How long did the temperature take to return to normal afier exercise and'after
the cold bath?
After exercise. t1l
After the cold bath. 1t1
 (iii) Explain what causes body temperature to rise during exercise. IiI
(c) Describe the effects of.overcooting on the skin. tzl
lBiology 5090 t 21 220011
Solutions
(a) 1
(i) Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment.
( ii) :

1, Metabolism of carbohydrates.

* Take note

Ihe liver plays a role in carbohydrate metabolism. The liver csnverts glucose to glycogen and in case
there is a shortage of glucose, glycogen is converted back to glucose; hence maintaining the blood
sugar levels.

2. Heat Production
* Take note: Heat production by the activities of the liver helps maintain the bndy temperature.

(b)
ti
il .r i) 37.50"c (after exercise.)
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Ni lili'

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ii) 30 minutes after exercise.
i
i 15 inutes after immersion in cold water.
I

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lrll c) Overcooling causes the constriction of superficial arterioles, and opening of shunt
i,t
irl
tl
I
vessels in the skin. The hair erector muscles also contract pulling the hair upright.
lr

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This response produces goose pimples on the skin.
iiit

I
Question 4
l,li
j,: (a) What is meant by the term homeostasis? [21

i:., 1'n1 Wnat role is played by the following structures of the skin in controlling the
temperature of the body during overcooiing:
I
,l

'
i

]
(i) Sensory nerve? t1l
(ii) Erector muscle? 1t1

,I
lt
(ili) Blood vessels? 1t1

I
(iv) Sweat gland? t1l ,

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].1.
(c) Explain the role of the lungs in homeostasis 121
ri
ii
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 (a) Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment.
(b)
(i) Sensory nerve - detects the cool temperatures and sends information to
the brain for responses.
-
(ii) Erector muscle - erector muscles contract, pulling hair upright whictt traps '

a layer of insulating air. This prevents heat loss by conduction and

convection.
(iii) Blood vessels - blood vessels constrict to reduce the amount of blood
reaching the skin surface hence reducing heat losi by conduction through
the surface of the skin.
"
(iv) Sweat glands - sweat glands become less active, this minimises loss of
heat which occurs through sweating.
(c) The lungs play a role in baiancing tiighvet of oxygen and carbon dioxide. The
two gases are exchanged at the surfpceof{he lungs where carbon dioxide is
removed from blood oxygen is takenqin

* Take note

Ihere are two rnain things that are kept in balance by the lung\Ihelevels o{ oxygen and carbon
dioxide and'the'acid base balance in the body,The main drive to remove [02 is through its effects on

blood pH, As [[z increases, it reacts with water to fsrm H.and bicarbinate ions, [ne E0nsequenrE
of this is that an inirease in acid in thE blnnd also triglers an incpease ip.hreathing. This.is r5ho,pt
term regulation because acid base leveis are balancrid hy kidneysgSd intestinalryrtrr .

Quesfion 5
How does the body respond to changes in concentratiqn of the following.in the
blood?
(i) Carbon dioxide t3I
(il) Glucose t3I

IB iol o gy/5 0 9 0 I 2 t Q1 0 t 20 07 1
 Biolog 2
Solution
(i) When there is high concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood, breathing
rate increases. The increase in breathing activity ensures more carbon
dioxide is expired and more oxygen is inspired. Thus, the level of carbon
dioxide is reduced in blood through expiration.
( ii) When there is high concentration of gtucose in blood, the insulin secreted
from the islet of langaerhans of the lirler converts the excess glucose into
glycogen and stored by the liver for use when blood sugar levels are low.

SI]MMARY uF NOTES ON HOMEOSTASIS.

,/ Florleostasis.
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environmer"rt. It involves
regulation of body temperature, amounts of water in body fluid, blood sugar level and
excretion.

Iffnpqatule cA$Iel.
The table below summarizes temperature oontrol by the skin.
In cold temperatures In hot temperatures
Vasoconstriction. Vasodilation.
- This reduces the flow of blood to the -Increase in blood supply'to the
skin surface, hence reducing heat loss suryface of the skin, hence increasing
by conduction. heat loss.

Opening of short vessels. Closing of shorl vessels.

- Reduces the arnount of blood passing - Allows more blood to pass thror.rgh
through superficial vessels, hence superficial vessels, hence increasing
reducing heat loss. heat loss. hl

Erector muscles contract Erector muscles relax.

- This causes standing upright of liair - Causes the hair to lie on the skin
I'
wlrich trap a layer of insulating air. which overoornes insulation and
allows heat loss.
: Reduction in sweat gland activity Sweat glands more active
- Minimizes loss of heat which might - Water in sweat absorbs heat from
,
occur through sweating. the body' in order to evaporate,
thereby cooling the body,
Shiverind.\ No shivering.
ii
irr
- Contractlon of skeletal muscles
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il senera.tes fieat.

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 Biolog )
Blood sur&r iegulation.
The pancreas plays a vital role irr the regulation
of blood glucose levels. Islets of
langerhans of the pancreas sectete insulin (from
B cells) and glucagon (from a cells)
which regulate the gh-rcose levels.
- When blood sugar levels are too high insulin is secreted
which convsrts the sugar to
glycogen and is stored in the Iiver and nruscles.
- When blood sugar levels are too low glucagon is secreted which converts.'e-'
glyoogen to.
gl,cose.
Water regu Iation (Oslnoregu Iation)
osmoregulation is the ability of an organism to regulate
its water potential. The organ
involved in osmoregurlation in mammals is the kidney.
Control of reabsorption.
ADH (anti diuretic hormone)'is released from the pituitary gland
uncJer the nervous
direction of the hypothalar-nus, which monitors the osmotic
potential of the blood by
osmoregulators.
- Lack of water.
If the blood becomes more concentrated, ADH will be secreted
into the blood
stream' ADI-I will catlse more water to be absorbed by
the nephrons resulting in the
production of concentrated urine rvith reduced volume.
- Too much water.
If the water potential of the body rises, the ADH secretion is inhibited.
Less water is
absorbed by the nephrons resrrlting in the procluction of very
dilute urine in great
volume.
 Bialog2

CHFIPTER g
I

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:
i

l' HE5PON5Es IN PLANT5 .r f

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I

l
I
?U€srron't
(a) Using the auxin theory, explain the effects of light coming from one direction
_t
on the growth of shoots. t6l
(b) Describe the term taxic responses with named examples. t6l
_t
IBiolo g Y/5 09 0 I 2 I Q7 1201 21

Sotution
(a) The auxin theory explains the effects of auxins on the growth of part of a plant
towards stimuli. Auxins are plant hormones produced at the tip of plant
coleoptiles, and promotes growth by triggering the elongation of cells in the
growth regions of the plant. When a plant shoot is exposed to unidirectional
light, the auxins moves away from light and get concentrated on the dark side
of the shoot. Since auxins promote growth in shoots, the darker side of the
lr plant will grow faster than the illuminated side. The unequal growth of the
1l

ll r

li
fllr shoot results in the shoot growing towards the light.
liir/
ti
,li
(b) Taxis (tactic) response is the movement of a cell or organism towaids
;rl,l
(positive taxis) or away:(negative taxis) from the stimulus source. Flagellate
ll I

tl protozoans.of the genus Euglena move towards a light source, example of

ilil
il
ltlirl positive phototaxis. Negative phototaxis is exemplified by cockroaches which
iili
lr
,ti meve away from the light source.
ri 'j
i *Takeihote:
ll :LI
ili
,i'il Many types of taxis have b.een identified and named using prefixes to specify the stimulus that
i

elicits the response. These include:

:

iilrr Aerotaxis: stimulated by oxygen

,t

ltri Anemotaxis: stimulated by wind

tlr
rrl,l Barotaxis: stmulated by pressure
ll,
l

tl' Ihemotaxis: stimulated by chemicals

ir,

Hydroxis: stimulated by moisture

), '

BtE
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1,
rl,,
li,r
il
u
i
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 Biolop 2
'Question 2
.; Why are tropic responses important to flowering plants? tsl
[Biology/5090/2/Q 1 0b/2006]

Solution
Tropic responses are important to flower plants in that; the positive response of
tshoots towards light ensures that the leaves of the seedling are exposed to sinlight
in order for photosynthesis to take place. The positive response of radicals towards
,gravity ensures that roots grow downward in the soil, penetrates and obtains water

and minerals dissolved in it from the underground water needed for the healthy
growth of the plant.

Quesfion 3
(a) What is meant by the term hormone? 121

(b) Describe the function of auxins in plants. 14)

(c) Relate the effects of auxins in geotropism. tol

' IBiology ilogotztzzo11J

Solutions
(a) Hormones are chemical substances secreted by an endocrine gland or nerue
which are carried by blood to regulate the function of a specific tissue or
. "nlls
organ.

N.B, See notes on the endocrine system.

(b) Auxins regulate aspects of plant growth and development. They affect the
growth of the stem tip, leaves and roots by stimulating certain cells to
elongate and by inhibiting the growth of other cells. Auxins control tropism by
promoting growtlr in shoots and inhibiting growth in roots, depending on their
distribution in tissues.
* N.B. See notes nn auxins.

(c) Geotropism is the response of plants to gravity. Auxins inhibit growth in

radicals (roots). When a plant is horizontal, the force of gravity causes auxins
- to move the underside of the roots. The increased auxins inhibits the
elongation of cells on the underside, thus cells on the upper side elonEate
more and the roots bend downwards."
 Bialogt 2 -rl
Question 4 _1 L-
(a) Explain the meaning of the following terms; -rl
i) Positive geotropism. 121 .iL
ii) Phototropism. 121 -ti
It
(b) Distinguish between a tropic response and a taxic response. t4l -' l-
,t
lBiology 5090121220101 itri-
lL-
Solutions
(a) i) Positive geotropism is the growing of a radical (root) towards gravity, LL
ii) Phototropism is the response of a shoot to light. f
t- r-
-t-
t

* Take note

Phototropism ran be positive nr negative depending on the respunsE to light. lf the shoot ,- ih-
lr

responds by growing towards light, it is positively phototrnpic. l-r-

r-[
(b) Tropic responses occur in plants and involve the movement of parts of plants i'^ L-
[:
towards or away from stimuli (light or gravity). On the contrary, taxic [.-
II
responses occur in animals (invertebrates) and involves the animal moving L- t-
away or towards the stimulus (light, water, e.t.c)
I1't
L-"
-

* N.B. See notes nn the types of responses. k- L.-

i{
!'
:-
Quesfion 5 I'L
:,
t-
Why are tropic responses important to flowering plants? isl
IBiology/50 90 tzl Q1 0 b/2006]

Solution
Tropic responses are important to flower plants in that; the positive response of
_

shoots towards light ensures that the leaves of ttre seedling are exposed to sunlight
in order for photosynthesis to take place. The positive response of radicals towards
gravity ensures that roots grow downward in the soil, penetrates and obtains water
and minerals dissolved in it from the underground water needed for the healthy
growth of the plant.
ll
1i

I'
 p .eoNelslrNl*I1vr nfurN rA ux rN s-. R Ir s poN $ s ss tr-r[ EN no-eN hlli.s ysffi
',/ Auxirrs.
Auxins are plant hornrones that alfect the gro*,th arrcl clevel<-rpmerrt clf all plarrt parts.

./ ,{uxins ancl 'i-ropisms.

'l'rr:pisrtts alc
lrlant rcspor'rscs 1o oitcrrral stinrrrli that cause a changc in thc directir.rrr
1hc plnnts; gt'o$/th" such as lrerrclirrg. "[rvo types of tropism arel { I

I . lll:tlqlruf$fl: this is thc rcsporrse ol'a plarrt by growing tcrwards light. (Positii,c
.phototrolrism.)
2. Grcotropilln: this is the rcsponse of parl.s of a plant to gravity.

l'lre lole auxins ilt phototropisni..

oi'-

t Whcn a plarrt shoot is c.rposcci to dif}'use light (light fror-n direi:tiorrs). thc airxins are
I
I
cvctilv distribrrtecl all rourrcl tlre shoot tip. causing the shoot tilt to str;rightelr up.
i

I-lor,r,ever u,lten a plant shoot is cxposed to unidirectional Iight. the aux.ins become
I

llorc colrcetrtrated on the darl<cr siclcl Since aurins prornote grc\\,th in sirocts. glovrti
;
:
is fastcr ott tltc clarkel side than on tlrc iilunrinaterd side. Consequentll,the shoot gro'',r ,F"
a -,':n-
ll towards light:
i
rri !i rltt-llrsr hgirt t

['i tt,.t:-: i I,-:.1,i.

,I
.-..t-
''! r.i'

i r.t :n r t'r :: r.l t i ii * rn l I,,, r:l i :.- tri l i r,l te,:l

i: ,3r,ll:irlt:J r.tttii,:,r nr fr9',.,,t[-r
fi I nr.t rr {l tlr *..''; *l *-r. p, ti I e
') ! .

i . .,"'r g1r+,. "'tlr 1,71r.;sp,l5 l i ii[1f

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.t, [i .

":1.; ri--
r.lii .:li re:r ti.i rr.il liglit i
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t.
,: ,:, I +,:, ti I e
1:,

,.- ,it',ra'},* irq.l:titt:: t,ri tli*: ,J.rrl..+t si,:l* I

i:';rr.rrirriil. tr.;:r;: r rl:,irl gr q,l,.,tlr '>ri ttf *
I

' ,' j
. . : .. , '"'

Tlre rolc of auxirrs irr geotropisrn. .t I

(jeotrol-risrtr is tlte respoltse r:i'plar,ts to gravit1,. Ari,'iins inhibit gi'orvth of'celis in

,.,.1;.-,, 1.. /,-.-.-+.-'1 1;/l-^.- .-!-..-r :.- 1-.. | ;r ;-
 biolog 2-
move to the underside of the stem: The increased auxins inhibit the elongatio";i;;
cells. Thus the cells on the upper side elongate rnore and the roots tunr. downwards.

rl'
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:: li,i;, t r* s 1t'r rr il :: p o s i ti'r,,* I i, t,:. I i illi t,

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grirVitr,,

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lffi ;t I ti}'t r.l I ;3 rJ :r. i t'l t't

uTr'.i.'.'tli,:.ti r.tti,:l=r,:i,:l:.

lffil t t1:,
1:' =t
:: i,:l+ uTt O'.'.' :: i ; -': t+ t tli.rti
J urr,Jtr'!iil*

Types ofresponses.
A response is an action or process tlrat occurs in an organism due to presence of a
stimulus.
Tropic response: response of a plaflt or part of a plent towards or away from stimulus.
The table below shows examptes of tropic responses;
TROPISM STIMULUS POSITIVELY NEGATIVELY
GeotroBisrn Cravity roots shsots
Phototrooism Lieht shoots Roots
Hydrotropism Water roots
Chemotropisnr- chemicals poften tube

Taxic response: a resBolrse of an invertebrate animaf to stirnulus. Invertebrates that

respond by rnoving towards water (e.g. woob lice) are said to be positively
lrydrotaxic. Cockroaches move away from light; they are therefore negatively
phototaxic

_t
t'
I
 IESPONSE IN MAN

Question''l
i"
(a) Explain how a named spinal reflex action is coordinated in a human being. ttl
IB iol ogy/5 0 9 0 I 2 I Q1 0 a t20061

Solution
(a) A reflex action is a rapid, automatic response to a stimulus which is not under
the voluntary control of the brain.
A spinal reflex is one where the reflex arc passes through the spinal rather
than the brain, example of which is the withdrawal reflex associated with
pricking the finger. When a finger is pricked the pain stimulus is conducted by
the sensory fibre in form of impulses to the spinal cord via the dorsal root. ln
the spinal cord, the incoming sensory fibre makes a synapse with retay
neurone and the relay neurone makes a synapse with the motor fibres. The
motor fibres conduct the impulses via the ventral root to muscie tissue for
response. The muscles contract moving the finger away from the pricking
oQjecJ.

Question 2
Fig. 10.1 shows the structgre which occupies the position in Centrum.
. ,.,, ,

Fig 10,1

(i) What name is given to the structure whose cross-section is shown in fig.
1 0.1 elrl
(ii) Identify the cell labelled T. t1I

(iii) State the function of the cell labelled U.

(iv) Which two characteristics of part V makes it suitable for its function? JzJ

IBi o o gy/5 09
I 0I2I Q4b I 20081
trr '
/', jJicttog.t')
Solution
(i) Reflex arc
(ii) Relay neurone
ll,
(iii) Cell labelled U (sensory fibre) conducts impulses to the central nervous
system (spinal cord and brain),
(iv)

1. Cytoplasm of synoptic knob contains numerous mitochondria which

ensure enough energy is produced for its function.
2. Synapses contain'on their vesicles a chemical catled a neurotransmitter
which is responsible for the transmission of the ner\re impulse across
the synapse,

Questron 3
outrine the path taken bv an -,8[,ffiJilffiL:,:gffiii"* "* t4l

,]
Sotution ,,-L
.

A sensory in:rpulse from the seRse organ is taken to the spinal cord in a fibre via the
dorsal root, ln ths central region of the spinaF cord, the sensory fibre passes the
impulse across a synapse to a rnotor neurone whichconducts the impulse down the
fibre via the ventral, to the'musch cells for response. The pathway is summarised in
figure 10.2.
]J
t,:,t ir+l :1:,ir l'r:r.rr,:,n:j
_t
ti rr.tj.. I: jil:,r
t.. i l..ii =1.,.:
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r:-,
;-:'-i.
't. ;!.
-.r!i
rf ./
,t r-[
J rL.A..----.,' l)'r':,t,-,1 I r:r.ll,:,l r '..lii.t,. tt'r,itt:t
I
i

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.' t:r r|rr.i11,r::i --,I r it |:, |.ri l'j l

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I

I Fig 10

iluesfron 4
2
-I
(a) touching a hot
(i)
obrject brings about a reflex.response.
Why is sucn a response important to the body? t3l
-I
. (ii) , Explain how a nerve impulse pa$ses from one neurone to another. [s] *r
(b) A possible risk of danger to the body can bring about the release of the
hormone adrenaline. How does this hormone prepare the body to deal with
Cangef? Jo1
_t
[Biology 5090 t?t Z?0C4i _t
 Biotos 2
sorutions
(a)
(i) The response is important to the body because it prevents much damage
from being done to the body as it comes into contact with the hot object.

* TaRe note

lleflex actions are preventive functions,e,g, the reflex removes the hand from a dangerous hot obiect
and the reflex action of the iris prntects the retina from bright light.

ii) Nerve impulses pass -from one neurone to another at a synapse (a branch at
the end of one fibre in close contact with the cell body or dendrites of another
neurone.) When an impulse arrives at the synapse, it releases a tiny amount
of chemical substance which sets off an impulse in the next neurone.
* Take note

Nerve impulses pass frnm one neurnne to annther at a synapse. A'synapse is a link between one

neurone and another.

(b) Adrenaline prepares the body to deal with danger by; {

I
I

- Boosting the change of glycogen to glucose thereby increasing the levels of I

glucose in the blood to be used for respiration.

I
- lncreasing the breathing rate so that blood containing glucose and oxygen
can be carried to the muscles.
- I
Constricting the blood vessels of the gut and dilating the blood vessels of the
muscles. i
H

- Dilating the pupil in the eye for increased alertness.

- lncreasing the sensitivity of the nervous system for faster response to stimuli
il

il

il

I
Nofe; AII the above stated activities prepare the body to either flee from danger
or confront it. I

Question 5
(a) What are the differences between the nervous system and hormonal system? f,i'
(b) Explain the effects of thyroxine in early childhood of a person when it is
(iI Produce in excess 1s1

(ii) Produced below normal required blood level. t3I

(c) Explain how auxins affect the growth of a shoot in a plant. 121

' [Biology/5090/2/Q8/2008]
 W
I
':' Biolog" )
sorution
LT
(a) Both the nervous and hormonal (endocrine) systems in the body are
rli communication systems that work parallel with each other. They both bring :
t:I
about change in the effector organs when a neceptor has been activated. The
differences between the two systemsare as follows:
1. The endocrine system works by hormones (in the blood stream via mass
:

i:'
flow) while the nervous system works by nervous (electrical) impulses.
2. Nervous communication is transmitted fast while hormones are transmitted
fi:
t;i,
j- -I
.

more slowly.
3. The effects of the endocrine system are wide spread in the body white the
nervous system has a localised effect.
4. The chemical resp.onse lasts for a longer tirne than the n"rorrtresponse.
(b) (i) The main effect of thyroxin is to control the basal metabolic rate (BMR).
This is the rate at which oxygen and food are used to release energy and is
directly related to tissue respiration. Producing thyroxin in excess increases
the BMR and heart rate as well as body temperature. Excess production of
the hormone in early childhood may cause loss of weight and extreme
irritability. Extrenre overproduction of thyroxin (thyrotoxicosis) may lead to
heart failure.
(iii) Thyroxin hormones are also essential for physical and mental
development. lf thyroxin is procluced below the normal required level
during early childhood it may cause mental retardation and physical
and sexual abnormalities, a condition referied to asrcrenitism.

*take note:
- Ihyroxin is the marn hsrmone secreierJ intn the blnndstream by the thyrnirl glands. lt is
' r0nverted to an active fnrm called triiodnthyrnnine hy 0r'gans such as the liver and kirineys.
Thyrnid hormone plays vital rolus in regulating thu bndy's metaboiic rate heart and digestive
r
.
-]

-
funrtinns, muscle cnntrnl, br"ain rlevninpment and maintenance nf bones.
Thyrnxin difficiency in latrr lrfe gives rise iu a cnnditiun knnwn as myxuedema and the

symptnms are a reduction iun metabrllic raie acrompanied by decreased rxygsn

ronsumplinn, ventilation, heart rate and bndy tempnrature, Mental activity and mnvement
r
I ' become slower and weight increases due tn the furmation and sturage of a semi-fluid

muterial,
(c) Auxins affect the growth of the stem tip, leaves and roots by stinrulating
certain cells to elongate and by inhibiting the growth of other cells. Auxins

lrt
control tropism by promoting growth in shoots and inhibiting growth in roots,
i",
r^^^^z.rina nn fheir clistribUtiOn in tissues.
 h
I

i
I
I Biolog, l
I
Question 6

(a) Complete the table 10,1 by filling in the blank spaces,

i
HORMONE SOURCE ACTION
I
i:
Ovary Begins rebuilding the
I
i) lining of the uterus,
Thyroxine Thyroid gland
ii)

Adrenaline
i ii)

(b) What happens to the hormones after their action in target organs? Jz1

(c) State two ways in which hormones and nerve impulses differ in controlling
body processes. 121
lB i olo gy 5090/21 220091

Solutions
(a)

HORMONE SOURCE ACTION

Oestrogen Ovary Begins rebuilding the lining of the
i) uterus.
Thyroxine Thyroid gland Stimulates the metabolic rate of
ii) cells.
Adrenaline Adrenaline lncreases the speed and force of
the heart beat to prepare the body
iii) to deal with danger.

(b) After their actions on target organs, hormones are changed (destroyed) by the
liver into inactir.re compounds and are excreted by the kidneys.
(c) Differences between hormonal and nervous systems;
(i) Responses of the body to hormones are much slower than responses to
nerve impulses.
(ii) Hormones often af[ect many organ systems at once, while effects by
nervous system are specific and precise.

n
Take note
Many hnrmones aflect long term changes such as gr0wth and prEgnancy. Nerve impulses nften
rausE a rESp0nsB in a very limited area of the bndy, such as an EyE blink or a finger movement.
 l
Biologt,2
Question 7
(a) Explain the following terms using specific examples of drugs.
I

(i) A stimulant. t3l -.

E
(ii) A depressant. t3I
(b)

(i) Why is it not easy to give up smoking? t3I

(ii) Explain how cigarette smoke can cause coronary heart disease. t3l

[Biology 5090 lzt 220021

Solutions
\
(a)
(i) A stimulant is any drug that excites the central nervous system,
increases alertness and alleviates fatigue. Examples of stimulants are
caffeine and cocaine.
(ii) A depressant is any drug that reduces the activity of the central nervous
system. Examples of depressants are alcohol and heroin.

* Take note

Stimulants work hy mimicking ttre fight or flight respunss in which the hormone adrenaline is
released during str.essfulsituations to increase heart rate and increase blnnd fhwto the muscles.

(b)
i) tt is not easy to give up smoking because most smokers become addicted
to the nicotine contained in tobacco products. After smoking, nicrrtine
contained in cigarettes finds its way into the lungs. Then it is absorbed into
the blood stream and travels with the blood to the brain where it locks onto
certain impulse reception areas. Depamine, a chemicaLthat makes the
smoker feel euphoria, is released into the brain, making smokers
dependant on this good feeling. Therefore, this makes the smoker find it
difficult to stop smoking and in wanting to experience this repeatedly, this
leads to dependence, a sign of addiction.
': r ii) Cigarette smoke contains a stimulant called nicotine which tends to
promote the accumulation of cholesterol in the blood. This results in
constriction of arteries and reduction in blood flow.
I

Question I
(a) Explain the harmful effects caused by;
i) lntake of heroin. 1+1

ii) Excessive intake of alcohol. g+1

(b) Describe the withdrawal symptoms of heroin. [+]

, [Biotogy 5090/2 tzll}sl

Solutions
(a)

i) Harmfut effects of heroin can be short term or long term. Short term effects
include feeling a surge of euphoria, mental functioning becomes clouded
due to depression of cNS, slow and srurred speech among others. The
long term effects may include collapsing of veins, infection of the hearts
lining and valves and liver disease. Fulmonary complications, including
various types of pneumonia may result from the poor health conditions of
the abuser, as well as from heroin's depressing effects on respiration. a:

ii) Harmful effects caused by excessive intake of alcohol can also be

classified as short term and long term effects. Short term effects of alcohol
include staggering, slurred speech, reduction in activeness of the CNS
resulting in slowed down reactions to stimuli and poor judgement among
oif,"ir. Long term effects of excessive alcohol intake include permanent
damage to internal organs such as the liver, brain and kidneys. Stomach
ulcers as well as uncontrolled shaking also result.

" Take note

Short term effects are those that are experienced immediately after taking the drug and do

not last for a long time, while long term effects are effects that nne experiences after using
the drug excessively for a long time.

r) Heroin wit[rdrawal effects are physical and psychological conditions that follow
, the individual's last dose of the drug. These include depression, anxiety, strong
drug cravings, chills, sweating, sleepiessness, nausea and in the most extreme
cases, suicidal thoughts and hallucinations.
 Biolog 2
tilr Quesfion 9
li Fig. 10.3 shows a section through the human eye. tu
' i

, ilt
lLi

rili
-l
Aqueous
hunrour
!t;

Fig 10.3
(a) (i) Name the structures labelled A and B. l2J
(ii) State the function of A and B. 121

(b) Describe the changes that would take place to structure B when a.De s,r,
moves from a dark room to a bright lit room. 1t1

(c) State three differences between the aqueous humour and Vitreous ht rn:ur.
t3I
IBiology/509 0t2l Q5 120051

Solution
(a)
(i) Structure A: cornea
Structure B: iris
( ii)

retina
- The iris controls the size of the pupil
(b) When a person moves from a dark room to a bright lit room the circular
muscles of the iris (structure E) will contract.
(c)
The Aqueous humour is located in the anterior cavity of the eye (between
the cornea, lens and iris) while the.vitreous h.umour is located in the
posterior cavity of the eye (behind the lens and fills most of the eye.
., :J
- Vitreous humour is a semi-solid liquid and the aqueous humour is a watery
't,

-
liquid that is easily absorbed.
The difference in function is that aqueous humoun maintains the shape'of
l
the cornea and feeds it with nutrients while vitreous humour maintains the
l
l
 Biolog 2
?uesfion 9
:ig. 10.4 shows a diagrammatic section of the eye.

lL
IL
F
Jt,

lL
l

Fig 10.4
(a) With reference to partsA, B and C, describe how liglrt from ane4rby object is

rL i
{
finally focused on the retina. ts1

(b) Explain how the following are adapted to perform their functions.
t:

(i) lris of the eye

FL i4j
f.

i. (ii) Middle ear of the human ear [3]

FL
f.
I'
l
IB i olo gy/5 0 9 0 t 2t QB I 20 07 ]

F
I'.
r'
li Solution
I

(a) When light entering the eye is from a nearby object, the lens needs to be thicker
i
:
in order to refract the light on the retina. To achieve this, the ciliary muscles (A)
FL will contract. The suspensory ligaments (B) will relax (become slaked). The

tL relaxing of suspensory ligaments will shorten the lens (C) making it thicker and
shorter. Consequently, the light rays will be more refracted and focussed on the
retina.
t (b)

rL l) The iris functions in controlling the amount of light entering the eye
dilating in dim light or contracting in bright light. To achieve this it has a
by either

Fr coloured ring of antagonistic circular and radial muscles that contract and
relax.

tI ll)The middle ear functions in.transmitting the sound waves (vibrations) to the
inner ear (cochlea). lt therefore contains three oscicles (malleus, incus and
stapes) which couple vibration of eardrum into waves in the fluid and
membranes of the inner ear. l

tL
LI*
i-r:
-,
t Biologl)
Questian '11

(a) )-
i) What significant change occurs in a hurnan eye structure when heishe moves

ii) A pupil is comfortably seated at the bacl< of the classroonr reading a book.
Then, the teacher suddenly,asks the pupil to go and label a part on the chart Lr-
in front of the classroom, What changes occur in this pupils eyes irr order to
focus on the chart? t3l
(b) Compare and contrast plant and animal hormones. t6l

lBiology 5090t2tz2Aa1

Solutions
(a)

I
i) When a person moves to a dark room, the radial muscles contract while the
I
circular muscles relax. As a result, the pupil will diiate ailowing as much light
as is available to enter the eyes for image formation of the retina.

illr
Ti ii) When an eye's pupil is near the object, the eye will adjust itself in the following
ti
tl
lt
tri
ways; the ciliary muscles contract while the suspensory ligaments relax. As a
tl
il
result, the lens shortens and becomes thicker. A thicker lens williefract more
I
I

I
light in order to focus on the retina. To focus on a further object the opposite
I of the mentioned actions above takes place.
I

li
I

I
(b) Both plant and animal hormones have a site of production and sites t:f
I

effection. They both have a control effect of events such as growth, defence
I

and metabolism. ln both plants and animals, hormones are produced in small
quantities in response to stimulation. Plant and animal hormones, however,
" differ in many aspects; plant hormones are produced throughout the plant
whereas animal hormones are produced in specialised glands. The targets for
plant hormones are local near cells and tissues, whereas animal hormones
have got distant targets. Animal hormones have specific effects, while effects
of plant hormones vary depending on interaction with other hormones. Plant
hormone regulation is decentralised whereas animal hormone regulation is
' done by the central nervous system.
 }' C oN e Is E IN.IIO RM QtrI (AC C-oM M-9 DAT IOLI-J
,/ ^TI
Accornrrrociation is the reflex mechanisrn by which light rays from an obiect a
bror-rght to focurs on the retina. It involves two processes; reflex adjustrnent of
size arrd refraction of iight rays.

i)
Ci I iary muscles contract.
Suspensory ligarnents relax (becorne slalced) making the lens slrort. arid th
I-ight rays are rrore refracted, thereby focurssing the image on tlte rotina,.

Accorlmodation of a distant ob-iect.

:,, Ciliary muscles relax.
Suspensory ligarlents corrtract mal<ing the lens Iong and thin.
Light rays are less refracted, thereby focussing the image on the retina.

iii) Control of light intensity (bright light).

Circr-rlar muscles of the iris diaphragm contract.
Radial nruscles relax. -
Tlie pupil becornes smaller.
Lcss light enters the eve, preventing damage to the retina.

iv) Control of light intensitv (clim ligltl.

Circular rrruscles of the iris diaphragm relax.
Radial muscles contraet.
The pupil dilates to allow as much light as possible to enter the eye for ir

r,
fbrmation.

rl'
L--

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f'

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l

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 li 'tsiolo91' I

CHFIE,,TE;RTT
-l
il
I Ef,trWTH ANEI EIEVELAPMENT
I

I
I

I
!
-i
i
I
x
I

;tion
r) ^
1 J
I
I
i) Define the term growth. 1t1
H
ii) Describe the process of giowth in plants from a seed to a seedling. I5I
r) Outline the life cycle of a housefly. tol
[Biology 509012t2,201 1l

Solutions
r)
i) Growth is the permanent and irreversible increase in size of an organism as
a result of an increase in the total number of cells.
The growth of a seedling from a seed embryo referred to as germination.
Once in the soil, a seed will absorb water and begin to swell up. When
conditions are favourable for germination, the radical will start growing and
burst through the seed coat. As the radical grows down the soil, lateral roots
grow out from the side to help it anchor firmly in the seed. Root hair cells
also grow from the main and lateral roots to facilitate water absorptio.n.
-
Followed by the growth of the radical is the growth of the embryo stem
(hypocotyl) just above the radical. The hypocotyl elongates and arches
upwards through the soil pulling the cotyledons up above the soil, it
straightens and the leaves of the plumule open outward while the shoot
continues growing in open air.

b) Housefly undergoes complete metamorphosis during its cycle. This type of

growth and development involves the eggs hatching into larvae, larvae
changing into pupae and eventually into adults. ln house flies the female adult
lays eggs in rotting material after mating. The eggs hatch into larvae 8 - 24
hours after being laid. Larva feed on the rotting material by sucking the
nutrients and move using pads on the lower side of their bodies. After 4 -5
days. larvae develop into immobile pupae which do not feed. Numerous
metabolisms occur inside the pupa and the adult takes shape within the pupa
case. 3 - 4 days later, the adult fly breaks out of the pupa case. lt takes 14
days to reach sexual maturity and the cycle starts all over again.
 lliolog, 2
Question 2
FiE. 11 .1 shows ilre adult stage of an organism.

Fig. 11.1 ''',*.

i)
(a) '''
(i) To which phyrum and crass do_g;
!li

organism'fnf,io 1 1 .1 beronE?
lFe
(ii) State two visible features ttrat'eirJuted you to iodtiry and
classify the
organism in Fig. 11.1 -

(b) The life cycle of the organism in Fig. 11.1 is

shown in fig. 1 1.2.
---4 e(JgS *..-_

/\/'\
i\
-, PuPa
v

ri
\,,
\/ \-*--
iarva

/
Fig 11.2 adult *-"
The organism in Fig.2.1 is responsible for spreading a micro-organism
called
Plasmodiurm.
At what stage in the rife cycre of the organism would: ',

l (i) The use of chemical control method be most effectiile?

(ii)
The use of biological control method be most effective?
Jri
111

l (c) What advantages does the biological control nrethod

have over the chemical
control method for the elimination of the organism shown in
Fig. 2.1 ? izj

l (d) ln what part of the brood does the prasmodium live?

IBiorogy/S09 0 t2t ezt2OOS]

111

f: (a)
(i) Phylum: Arthropoda
Solution

Class: insect

l
{

l
i

(b)
(ii) Feature 1; three paired body (head, thorax and abdomen).
Feature 2: three pairs of legs

r_ I
(i) Adutt stage
/:t\ r].,^.-
 Biotost' 2
Take note:chemical and biolngical cnntrui are defined as follows:
-I
[[remical:the use of chemicals t0 kill pests or i0 inhibit thair feeding, mating, ur essential
l
lr
:II, behaviour.

Eiological: the use of beneficial predators to control pest,

-L

l
- Biological control is most effective at pupa stage because unlike adult mosquitoes with
effective mobility the pupa can easily be captured by predators,
I
(c) Biological control method has no damaging effect to the environment which is
the case with chemical control. ln most cases, biological control agents are .I
pest-specific and greatly prefer to feed on target organism, leaving non-pest
organisms undisturbed. However, many chemicat pesticides damage
il
organisms other than the pests they are meant to control.
(d) ln blood plasma
il
il
I

CONCISE INFORMATION (GROWTFI & DEVELOPMENT IN INSECTS.)

a

'/During growth and development of insects, a process called metamorphosis occurs.

Vletarnorphosis is the change of form or structure of the insect during the course of its
life cycle. 'fwo types of metamorphosis are recognised.
E

E
*e
I
i) Incomplete metanrorphosis. LI
il
fhis is the growth and development where the eggs laid by an adult hatch into F
small organisms called nymphs, which crudely resemble the adult, and i.n time
gl'ows into an adult. This type of metamorphosis does not have a pulpa stage-and
therefore has three stages;
Egg+Nymph ---+Adult rl
l.

il
Cockroaches are an example of insects that undergo iricomplete nretamorphosis. a

ii) Complete metamorphosis.

This is growtlr and development involving the eggs hatching into srlall worm like i
i
organisirrs called larvae, which in time un<Jergo the pr.rpa stage and then change
into an adult. It involves four stages;
Egg+Nyrnph Pupa-> Adult
J
l-louse flies and mosquitoes are examples of insects that undergo cornplete
metanrorphosis.
il
F,:I
r

F:I
il
F

il
F

LJ
IF
. lliolog,l
esfion 3
11.3 shows a longitudinal section through a bean seed,
i

I
rrii,;r :1:,', l*

Fig 11.3
:

(a) ldentify the parts labelled I and J. Jz1

(b) Describe the role of the micropyle and structure J.

- Micropyle; t1l
- Structure J; 11l

;) Fig 11.4 shows the position of the plumule after exposure of a seedling to
one-sided light for five days.

Li;.rl'rt 'r :'tti ,-,lin .;i,tl*

Fig 11.,i

Explain the t)1

t-l

What is the

art I is the testa.

)art J is the cotyledon.

micropyle is an opening on thc seed where water enters from.

c nofc
icropylc is a small npcnirrrt in thu nrvrring r i lhc rrvulr ul ir plant thrnugh urhirh the prllen
lirssIs pfl!r to fertilizi:lion. Afte r ir tuhr is Irrrmrd, thc mirrupylc remains as a snrall hule in
-
,esta.
re J (cotyledon) plays a role in storing food and enzymes.
 t' llioiog )
t
llti 41
lti t)
(c)
i'l'
t,:l
i
irii i) One sided light causes auxins to move to the darker side of the plumule 't
i

where they cause eiongation of the cells.

,

i;l
Iili,
I
ii) It ensures thatthe leaves of the seedling are exposed to sunlight in order
:

i d; for photosynthesis to take place,

t,
i,rri
-l
r

I
L]

Question 4
Fig 11.5(a) and Fig. 11.5(b) show the germination of broad bean and sunflower
respectively. \ il
.,'
i:\lc:ur.l i;v:r,: r'i
' 5r-rnflo'"r,'ilr'

't'
,/
,/ ,.,...\ \
_/
\. \1

.! i t
ti '.

Ir / -- :: I i,.
| \.\ .ii
_,,."..;:.1 \

-..- '-i ;'

\
....,j : -.
' 'i; j;i i i i: i
-.

{,' .1.,j i i'l

\., .,,\/ i
I
\t. r"il ':.,,... il.
l

ti tl
jj
it
it
ii
ir
li il
ll
ii ;

Fig. 11 5(a) Fis. 11 5(b)

(a)
(i) What type of germination is indicated by Fig. 11.5(a) and Fig. 1 1.5(b)?
(ii) Give reasons for your answer irr (a) (i) above. lzl
(b) Explain the function of water in the first two clays of seed gernrination 121

The,following questions, (c) (i) and (c) (ii), relate to eell divisiorr in the
ge'iminating seedlings shown in Fig. 11.5(a) and Fig. 11,5(b).
(c) Frg. 11.6 shows a cell taken from region X undergoing cell division.

Fig 11.6
(i) What stage of cell division is shown in Fig, 11.6? t1I
(ii) How many chromosomes would a gamete formed from the cell in
11.6 have? 1t1

IBiology/509 0 tzl Q4 t20051

Solution
ultal I lihtz 4u4 a\,aF .- --'tM
 l,ir.tlopt,)

Fib, 11.s(a) -,.- Epigeat

Fig. 1 1.5(b) --- Hypogeat
(ii) Fig. 4.1 shows epigeal germination because
the cotyledon is pushed
above the ground lvhich is typicar of epigear germination
Fig. 4.2 shows hypogeal germination because the cotyledon 4^
remains
underground.

Water is imbibed by the seed in order to soften the testa so that

it can split
to release the plumule and radical.
water is also required by seed in order for activation of its enzymes
and
for metabolic reactions to take place.
To help hydrolyse the complex nutrients in a seecl.

(i) Anaphase I of meiosis

(ii) Four chromosomes
"Take note: {
il
During anaphase I the spindle fibres pull homulog0us chromosrmes,
centromere first,
tlwards oppnsite poles of thr spindle. This separates the chromnsomcs into
twn haplnirl
seis, nne set afeaeh und uf thu spindle,

FOIT

,T*::t'i il
I lr.1I1';r.1I.-
F,: ::li,:1,.
f,
[',.]r,: r :,1:.', l,_
ifl
t-.-.11..,, .1,_,1.1
l{

;ril

tions o{'parts oItlrc ccll.

j#
'llgsElllgd-gq4!} protccts thc sccd against plrysical damagc zrncl irrlectiorr. rLfl

'luintrlc: dcvclops irtto shoot aftcr I'crtiliztrtiot't arrrJ carrics I-ertilization.

iclc: dcvclo;rs into rclots afler gernrination and absorbs r.vatcr ancl rnirrcml
salts. fi
Iedclit: storcs fbocl ancl cltzvlncs.

rinatiorr.
ratiorr is the proccss Lry rvhich scccllirgs clcvclop rto,r
seccl crrrbry6s.'r.lrcrc arc
of gcrmination
is thc typc o1'gc',rinatiorr rvhcrc rhc cotylcclon is pushcd
 cotl'lcclons ancl corncs or.rt ol'thc grouncl rryith a hool<cd shapc in ordcrto protcct
'l'lris
thc dclicatc s[root. typc of gcrmirration occurs in clicots.
,[, ii) Ilypoqcal gcrrlirratiorr: tlris is tlrc typc ol'gcrnrination rvhcrc tlrc cotvlcclons
t1

rcmain irr unclcrgrouncl cluc to clorrgation ol'thc cpicotyls.'l'his Lypc ol'

,l' gcrrtrination occLlrs in ttronocots.
li
I
,/ Corrclitions ucccssary {br gcrnrination : '

'l'hc conclitiorrs ncccssary lbr gernrirration arc: !..l

- \\/atcr \
- Optimunr tcnrpcraturc (5"c - 30oc) *i

- 0xygcn
rll
 I

/lhiogr',

MEAI.TN AN[3 EII5EA5E5

Qucsfion'l 1

(a) Explairr the term inrmunity tc diseases Jzi

(b) Distinguish i:etween active immunity and passive immunity, giving one
example of each case. [5]
(c) Discuss hour irnmunity to disease is redr_rceci. [s]
IB ioiogy s09A I 2t220 1 1]

Solutions
(a) lmmunity is the body's ability to re"sist diseases.
(b) Active immunity is generalised by the production of antibodies by the body
when it is exposed to antigens. A.n example of active immunity is the fighting
of infections in the body by urhite cells. Vaccination is also an example of
Artificial active immunity. On the other hand, passive immunity is imrnunity
obtajned from external sources. lt is immunity from disease acquired by the
transfer of antibodies from one person to another, for example, through
injection or between a mother and her foetus through the placenta.
(c) lmrnunity is the ability of the body to resist diseases. The immune system
contains cellsand proteins thatfunction to fight against infections. These
include white blood cells and antibodies. However, a number of factors can
reduce the immunity of the body e.g. malnutrition leaves the immune system
weak due to lack of cerlain vitamins and minerals which boost the function of
the cells of the immunesystern. HIV reduces the immune system by affecting
the T cells, hence; making the body unable to fight pathogens. lntake of
drugs, immuno-depresant drugs, also weakens the immune system thereby
reducing the immunity to diseases. Other disturbances in the body such as
stress have similar effects.
 ! l,)iologt, 2

' CON(llSli tNl'Q I)ES OIr lMMLiNll'1'Y.)

-I
ACTIVTi
Antibodies receivad
I'ASSIWi
Attlibodias received I
J
Naturul Nalural activc c.g. Iighting Natural passivc liorrr
i rr l'ccti on, rc.f ecti ng mothcr via placcnta or
transplant. mill<.

il
-
)L'iia;;f- zr,iir"iit r;iir;a *;ai;;,r[;: ,\rtr I rctal passlvc rrt.;ccttott
(in jcction ol' antigcns)
iol'itrrtibodics.
t____
'/ [actols tha'r l'(:clLrcc inrnrrnity to cJiscascs,
- Malrrutril.iorr
- Vintscs c.g. I llV
- Othcr cliscascs c.g. clotvn s),ttdronrc
- Drugj
- Mutatiott c.t.c:

)uestion 2
\d/

i) Explain the factors u,rhich reduce immunity to pathogens. tal

.

ii) Exptain why immunisation against diseases such as measles and

tuberculosis (TB) is most important in children under the age of five. i3I

(b) Describe the method of transmission of schistosomiasis (bilharzia). How can

bgrypventeci arrcJ controlled? t6l

[Biolo gy sag} lzt 2201 0)

Solutions
(a)
lmmunity is the body's ability to resist disease. lmmunity can be reduced
by a number of factors HIV reduces the immune system by affecting the T
cells, hence; rnaking the body unable to fight off pathogens. Deficiency in
vitamins A, C, E and rninerals srich as zinc and iron which are vitai forthe
I
efficient functioning of antiboclies also reduces immunity. Defects or

i$
mutation in cells (white bloocl cells) and proteins results in weak inrrnune
systems in new born babies, therefore reducing their ability to fight off
d iseases.
I

i
I

[.
 lJirrlo,!{r, ;r

Ft ii) Measles and tuberculosis (TB) are infectious diseases. Due to weak or
underdeveloped immune system$ in their systems, children are highly

lL susceptible to these diseases. lt is therefore important to immunise

children under the age of five to make them immune to the cJiseases

lL wjthout them contracting the disease first, Without immunization a child

must first contract the disease in order to develop a ievel of immdnity.

lL (b) Schistosonriasis (bilharzia) is a disease caused by infestation of the humarr

body by flukes of the genus schistosoma. Schistosoma parasites are

tL transnritted into lrumans when free iiving cercariae penetrate the skin in
water. Cercariae are produced by fresh water snails, which are intermediate
fr-ee

tL hosts of the parasiie. Snails beconre infected with the parasites when eggs

lL produced by the adult \i/oi'ms reach the water by contamination with faeces or
urine from infected hrrmarrs. In grder to control and prevent the clisease, :

rL lrealthcare facilities are required as well as improvenrent of sanitation.

Medication against bilharzias can be used. Waterways can as well be treated
J,

tL to kill worms and snails. Fresh waier perceived to harbour snails should be
avoided. (avoid swimming, standing or taking baths in untreated water.)

rL Quesfion 3
(a) Exf'lain the following ternls;
FL (i) Pathogen. 1s1

tL (ii) Vector. 1s1

(b) Describe ways in which pathogens of the following diseases can enter the

F body;

lL ii) Gonorrhea, t3l

[Bj ology 5090 I 2t 220021

lL Sblutions

tL (a)

t\
(i) A pathogen is anything that causes a disease. They include bacteria,

viruses and fungi.

(ii) A vector is any organism that transmits parasites from one host to another.

tL A biological vector is one that carries parasites inside its body systems

tL and the parasite undergoes part of its life cycle inside the vector.
 iologv 2
(b)
(i) The pathogen that causes malaria is the parasite plasrnodium.
Plasmodium is transmitted frorn person to person by the bites of infected
mosquitoes of the genus anopheles. lnfected mosquitoes inject malaria
parasites via bites.
I
(ii) Gonorrhoea is a.disease caused by a bacteria Neisseria gonorrhoea. lt is
transmitted from one person to another through sexual intercourse with t
t'
i-.i.
an infected person.

Question 4
(a) Discuss the causative agent, signs and symptoms of cholera. 101

(b) Explain why incidences of cholera are more common during the rainy season
I
I

i than in the dry season. t3l

I

IBiology 509012t2.12004)

Solr-rtion
(a) Cholera is caused by a bacterium called Vibrio cholerae. The main source of
infection is water contaminated by faeces from an individual infected with
vibrios. Symptoms and signs of cholera are diarrhoea and the loss'of-water I

and salts in the stool. ln severe cholera, the patlent develops excessive
--t
diarrhoea with characteristics of whitish 'rice water' stool, vomiting, thirst, J
I

muscle cramps and sometimes circulatory collapse.

_l
(b) lncidences of cholera are more common during the rainy season than in the
dry season because cholera is a watdrborne disease. The main source of _l
. infection is water contaminated by faeces from sufferers of the disease or a

'carrier'. During the rain season, the bacterium of cholera easily spread
-J
resulting in increased incidences of the disease.
_l
-J
,}
-J
-J
!
 Biolog.

IF
Causatiye {gegt: thi organislrr wtrioh callses il',. air.ur..
Vector: an organisrr tllat carrics a pathogen from one pcrson to another.
"1 '
o,,y,rptonlr.
'

Carrier: a person wlro has lreen infectcd but sholvs no signs

Signs: visible cxpressiotts of the cliseasc r,vhich can be founcl by examinirrg tLre patient

Syrlplems: arr indication of the disease rvhich is not c{etectable by exarlirrhtidn aircl 1

can only Lrc rcported by the pilticl'lt.

lL Prevention: inearsllres taken to prevent a persolt f}orn gctting a clisease c.g. vaccination

i Signs urncl i Mcthods of

Caustrtivc

F
Discase T'reatmcnt and
agent isymptoms ltransmission metlrods of
control

u_ Bilharzia
(sch istoso nr iasis)
Sclristosonra l,\naenria,
lS.nransoni 1 lircdncss, blood
S.hacnratobiruu & i irr rrrinc arrd in
Exposure to
cercaria larvae in
\,vatef
Sanitary disposa-l of
urinc and faeces:
boiling ancl treatnrent
S japonictrru)
| laeccs"(Eggs of of rvater rvith drugs
schistosoma bcfore trse.
havc hool<s that
daurage i:loocl
vcsscls of
blaclclcr ancl -qut)
AIDS A virus callcd I-oss of rveight, Sexual intcrcoursc i\vcid Lrnprotccted
human skin canccr, rvith an infectecl sex, being faithful tt.r
immunodcficicncy tiredness, person. contact one sexual partner,
virus (HIV) opportunistic with infectcd avoid sharing
, infections such blood, urothcr to piercing and cutting
as ptreumonia. child transnrission. utensils, screening of
tuberculosis and blood before
diarrhoeal transfusion. No
diseases. available cure
Malaria A protozoon IIeadachc. fever, Bite from female Treatment with anti-
called anaemia, pain in Anopheles malarial drugs,
plasmodium rnuscles and rnosquito controlling or ltilling
joints shivering rnosquitoes,
and sweating preventing mosquito
bites.
Cholera A bacteriunr Vomiting, Taking Sanitary disposal of
abdominal contaminated food faeccs, boiling or
cholera pains, diarrhoca and water, contact chlorination of
a (rico rvater like with infected drinking watcr,
stool), person. waruring and
dehydration. covering food.
I
E Quarantine of
patients, treatment
I
with antibiotics and
: replacement of salts
f arrd watcr using oral
rehydration salt
I
t OR
I
n
 alrrFuPTElit l3
lttrltl,t,ltlllt J

Question 1

Ffgure 13.1 shows a vertebrum of a mammal.

, Fig 13.1

'(a)
'(i) ldentify the part marked S. ttl
,
(ii) In which region of the vertebral column is this vertebrum found? ttl
(ilr) Give a reason for your answer in a(ii) above. t1l
[Biology 50901 2t 2,2008]

Solutions
(a)

'- (i) Part S is the Centrum.

. {iD Region; cervical region.

: (ili) It has a pair of canal through the neural arch.

*
/V.B See characteristic features on the tabte that fottows.
F coNcrsn rNronvnroN ryEnrnnBnl cor,uvN.)
,/ 'l"hc vertebralcolunrn is the rlairr axis of the bocly. It c<lnsists of a series of bones
callccl vcrtebrac. Thc table below shows thc differcnt parts of thc vertcbrae and their
Iocatiorrs.

Namc of vcrtcbrac Location Foaturos Numbcr'

Cervical verlelrra Nccl< regiott I:lavc a pair of
canals n

- ,"::--;"'. -
'ft.
(vertebratcrial
i L'i.t' 1',,,:'-J ll
t
--'i--r= -::-.----':. carrals) through thcir
::'t l-i-'-'
/ -l ncural arches.
-;''-----'--,-=.'l_lt
'=L.r-- l-J

-fhoracic
vcrtcbra Chest region Large Centrum,
large neural canal,
long neural spine
and short
transvcrsc proccss.
t2

LLrmbar vcrtcbra Abdomirral regiorr Largc thick

Centrum, a neural
canal and neural
spirre which project
forward.
Long transveisb
proccss.

Sacral vertebra I-lip region Large Centrurn,

narrow neural canal,
.{r{T}'-tL--., a transverse process

ti; t';,
' ''d
1'\
In (l t:r' .,li'
r; .-, ...'i
I;I and rcduccd ncural
spinc. The
"-,
i i. *,J I i.1
'r r./ i transverse process of
,,g|..-i ''rlLJ
''--J- ^ i-.ii
-;--''' thc first sacral
\-/ vertebra is wing like.
Caudal "l'ail No neural canal,
nettral arch, neural
4
spine or transverse
processes.
T'akc note loJ' the bold statements.
i
l
lf'li
II
ll
I

i
Quesfion 3
Fig 13.2 shows the muscles in a straightened leg.
Biolog,2
I
111'
_l
_l
3
H
l

I
I
I
I

i
Fi1.13.2

(i) ln order to straighten the leg, what happens to muscles X and Y?

i'
I

I
(ii) Which of these muscles is a flexor or exte,nsor muscle? 121

l, Q4b I 20061
IB i olo g y/5 09 0 t 2l

Solution

(i) Muscle X relaxes

Muscle Y contracts
(ii) Reflexor muscle: muscleyX
!-
Extensor muscle: muscle Y
'
_t
4
Question
(a) Describe ,the structure of a synovialjoint and explain the functions of its parts. 101
I
(b) Differentiate the following;
(i) Tendon and ligament. 1si
(ii) Ball socket joint and hinge joint. 1s1
l
IBiolo gy 5a90 I 2t 220021
Solutions
l
(a) A synovialjoint is a movable joint having a cavity between two bones. The
cavity is filled with synovial fluid produced by the synovial membrane. The
--[
synovial membrane lines the cavity and the two bones are held together by
,
ligaments. The cartilage at the end of articulating bones prevents wearing of
, *bones due to friction, Synovial fluid lubricates the joint during movement.
Occurring at the ends of skeletal muscles is a tendon which joins muscles to
bones,
 13iolog
(b)
- (i) A ligament is a tough band of slightly connective tissues, lt holds togethe
L- bones and cartilage at joints and provides flexibility for movement, On th

I oiher hand a tendon is a strong cord that is flexible but does not stretch,'
Tendons join muscle to bone or to another muscle, and delivers pulling
fbrce of a muscle to a bone, which makes body motion possible.
1;,

(i i) Ball and socket joint is a joint with a rounded head end (ball) fitting into
another bone with a depression (socket), and atlows movement in three
planes e.g. hip joint. Whereas in a hinge joint, movement is allowecl in
only one plane, usuallythiough an angle of 180", e.g knee and elbow
joints.

CONC ISI] IN IIOR]\4 A]'ION (JOL,NIIJ

'/ int is a rcgioir oi'
u\ .io urr ion betu,cen bones or cartilagc in a skeleton. Belorv arc t)/pcs
ol'.joints
- J:fb]_q-Uligllts,.joints rvherc the lrones arc tightlSr held together by short arrd toLrgh
fibres.'l'hey do not pern,it lrovcment and are therefore immovable joints e.g. bones
of thc sl<ull. '' *

- Cartilaginor-rs.ioints: bones are held together by cartilagc. Permit slight movemetrts

and are saicl to. be slightly movable e .g. joirrts of the spiric'
- Synovial.ioints: maclc ol'cavitics conforming synovial flLrid, Thcy permit nrovemer
in onc or morc planos, therclbre, thcy arc said to be movablc joints. Typcs.of
synovialjoints arc;
i) Ilall and soclicrt.ioints; .ioint rvith a rouncled heacl ctrd (ball) fitting into anothcr
bope witft a depression (socl<et). ancl allows r.novelretrt in three planes c.g. hip
arrd shor-rldcr joints.
ii) Ilingc joint; allorv movellerrt ir-r only orre plane, rrsually throLrgh arr allgle of
. I80'. The are fourrrd in elboi,t,s, knces and fingers

y##*ion ot'thc rvhole organism fi'orl place to placc.'fhis is ruac,

is the nrovcmcnt
- pctssib le with the aid of a frame caliccl a s l<e lctotr.
'l"ltree types of sl<eletorr cxist as

shown below-
i) I-lydrostatic sl<eleton: madc of watery flurids fbund irrside thc body.
ii) Exoslceletor-r: locatecl otrtside tile urLtsclcs of the body.
iii) Endoskeleton: intertral' skeletorr, typical of vertebrates.
 Biologt 2
rr -l'lrc
rnanrnralian sl<eleton can bc divided into two main paHs i
}
i) 'fhc axial skelcton: skull, spine, ribs and stcrnum.
ii) 'l'he apcndicr.rlar skeleton: pcctoral girdle, pelvic girdle, forelimbs and hindlirnbs.

Vetebralcolurnn (spine): consists of a series of bones called vertcbrae (referto table

abovc)
-I
11:r.ll':il fit"'l l1
-I
I
rirur,.il ::1:,irie

tltr.rral f:.1t'i il

il
tl ril'i:-:ir*I ti€ l.rf,i,,1
;r:i;:*5
il
ilg,lr
I
Functions of parts of the vertebra.
- Neural spinej provides surfacc attachnrent of muscle ligaments.
- NgLBI_Arch: protocts the spinal cord.
- Neirral canal: passage for the spinal cord.
- Transverse process: provides surfaces for attachment of rnuscles and ligarncnts. Elil

- Centrum: bin'ds to intervertebral discs and forms a cartilaginours joirrt with the nxt
vcftcbra.
F
Pectoral and pelvic girdle.
- l'ectoral girdle (shoulder blade): provides attachment to points and support ths arms.
F,- I
{ t'l':rrl,:!i,:l l)rr.,,: t:::i

-I
I
- Pelyic eirdle (hip girdle): provides attachment to points and support the legs.
-I
-r
-t
--l
r' n - ii. lir.rlil,: .;,r,:lr --l
i'':
Mursclcs
_I
Tissues of the body with the ability to contract when stin:rulated by nerves.'Ihere are
thrcc typcs of nruscles; smootlr musclcs. sl<eletal muscles and cardiac muscles.
Antagonistic bchaviour oIskclctal musclcs. I
 Ltialagl, 2
Skeletal nlusclcs occLlr in pairs lcnolvrr as antagonistic rnuscles i,c, pair of t11us0lcs
which procluce rnovement in opposite dircctions at the.sarne'tinrc. l'hc rnusclc that
caLtses bcncling of'thc joint yhcrr it,contracts is called.,lhc flexor musclc whitc 1hc onc
that causes extensioir'o1'tlrc joint wltcrr it contracts ig 0al'lpcl thc cxtcnsirr tlusclc.
' 'Below arc exterisor ancl flcxor musclcs of the arrn ancl lcg.

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 Biologr2
L-L-1
EHFTPTER 14
PLANT f,trHBi//UtrTTON - --a

>--a

Quesfion 7 '\
(a) Explain how asexual reproduction differs from sexual reproduction. t4I 4--.1

(b) Describe the events which take place in a flower following fertilization and
leading to the fqrmation of fruit. -.,
\
\ . [Biology sOgOlzlZzOAZl
.-.i---l

Solutions
(a) Sexual reproduction is the fusion of two garnetes to form a zygote which a_

-;r.--I
develops into a new organism. Asexual reproduction is reproduction by a
'8,
iii
t

simple organism without the production of gametes. lt results in genetically iI-.-r

:

identical offspring. However, sexual reproduction is the fusion of male and f

F'
female gametes to form a zygote which develops into a new organism. Sexual tt
Er--r
I

reproduction leads to gamete variation. |- ''i

r
k
* N.B: See comDarisuns of asexual and sexual reproductions in the table helow
t-- 1

\
(b,) Fertilization is the fusion of the male gamete with the female gamete to form a ;

zygote. During fertilization, the male cell and the female egg meet and their L.

nuclei fuse, forming azygote. The zygote begins to divide mitotically to form
i.
t-
an embryo. After the embryo has been formed the ovules. develop into seeds \'
and the outer wall of the ovules form seed coats. At the same time the ovary r-
i

also becomes much larger, devetoping into fruit which cohtains the seeds. I

t-
t

t
t
Question 2
I- I

(a) What are the advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction in
t-
' flowering ptants? tsl L-
I

(b) Explain how asexual reproduction in fungi, such as a rhizopus takes place. 1s1
t.
I
(c) Describe the sequence of events which takes place in a flower from t-
I

'pollination to fertilization. I4I f

I

l.
I

[Biology 5090 t2t220091

\l

l_l;
 I

L I
i
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I

(a)
Solutions
Unlifie in asexual reproduction where there is no chance of an evolution

J- I
j
t
i
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l
i
I taking place, in sexual reproduction there is a large chance of evolution
tal<,ing placc'. Thus the species would be able to adapt to new environmental
I

-L conditions. New species can be born too. Asexual reproduction results in

species genetically identical to its parent whereas in sexual reproductibn,;

-L new variety arises by virtue r:f mixing of gametes. The advantage of this is
that the parent's disease would not be received by the offspring. The new
-_L variety would also be able to survive changes in the environment which
parents could not meet, due to having both their strong traiis.
_L (b) Asexual reproductiorr in a rhizopus takes place by spore formation. Spores
are formed and dispersed and eventu'ally germinate under favourable
conclitions This reproduction process involves grorving of rhizopus to form
sporangia (reproductive part) and inycelium (vegetative part). Myceliums
gt'otrr onto and into the substrate anrJ rhizoids arise from it to penetrate the

subsirate. Sporangia are berne on the vertical hyphae, sporangiosphere,

and spores. The spores in the sporangia are under division and may beconre
f haploid or diploid. The sporangia grow in size and break to release thc
spores which germinate when they settle on correct land mediunr and
s':itabie temperature, giving rise to new rhizopus.
(c) (Refer to question 1(b) on reproduction forthe answer.)
I

CONCISI"i INI;OITMN'I'ION (.SIIXTJAI, & N SIIXTJNJ, ITNI'ITODIJC'I ION.\

,/ Itcllroductiorr is thc proccss Lry which living c,rganisms procltrcc ol'l.sprirrg. 'l'rvo typcs
o l' rcproc{ttctiott arc:

i) .Scxtral rc1-rrgcluctiorr: thc {irsion of malc ancl fcmalc gamctcs to lornl a zvgotc
rvhich dcvclops into a trcrv orgalris:ttr.
ii) ASpffUd_fql'rrocJuctiorr: clcvcloprrrcnt r..l'it rrcw orgatrisur fi'otn a sirnplc organism
rvitltottt prtlclttcl"iort tl l' gattrctcs.
-[ liiology.l
'l'hc tablc bclou, conrparcs scxual ancl rrscxuul rcproclrrction.
-:--..--.-
stixtjAl Rlit t(0 I)IJ c't'ION ,,tSEX[JAL
RIII'IIODT]CTION
-l
hrl

lLl'
I
t,lsually involvcs tr.vo Darcnts.
Carrrctcs nrc prochrcccl and ll'rtilizatiilrr talics
Orrc parr:rrt only.
No glrrrctcs ilrc producccl. J
Dcpcrrds orr nrciosis.
Ol'liprirrg ilro not iclcntic:rlto parcrtts 0 l'fspri ng ic'lcrrticnl to
*l
parcnts.
Lcss rapicl irrcrcusc in nuiltrcrs Olicn rcsulls in rapici
production ot' larec nuntbcrs
*l
Occurs irr rlrnost all plant ancl anirnal spccics.
,,tql_lltttlg_ ____.
Conrlnonll' gccrlrs ilr platrts.
sinrplc urtirlels ancl
ll
i
icroorgartisnrs.
nr
Abscnt irr rnorc cornplcx
arrirllts. -
fl
ili;
ti
i\clvantagcs o f scxrral rcprocluction. EI
lir - I)roviclcs l'ariations.rvithin spccic.s (cvoluticln). hclping it to .sun,ivc cliatrgcs itt
crr v irolrrrrcntal conclitiolrs.

- Clrclttcs trorc clivcrsit,v anctthcrc*ltrrc. rlil.ltrcrrt t1'pcs ol'rcsistalrcc to discascs.

- Nclv spccics urc [xlrr:.

) i slrcl varr tu gcs rl l' scx ua

'
I I rcprtrcirrction.
- 'l'rvo parctrts lutvc to bc involvscl in thc proccss.'l'hus
tlrc pr:otrlcnr oi;lrayirrg to
lincl a llatc iuul:rproducing galrcLc cclls..
- No gurrnrrtcc that tlri: I'crtilization rvill ltc succcsslirl.
- 'l:ltltcs a long tiurc lts thcrc
i.s no quli'lurtcc tltat oll.sprirrg rviil bc born.
- Only tral l' oI thc llopul:.rtiorr ( lL.rrlrl,cs) urc al.rlc ol' gcsttlion.

Acivantagcs ol' ascxual rcprocluction.

_l
- 0nly itnc parcnt is lrccclccl.
- 'l'hcrc is a srrarurtcc lliat o{l.sprinrr n,ill bc burn. _l
- It takc.s a vcry short pcriocl ancl gcnctic ntatorial rrcccl riot bc proclucccl.
No l!'rtiIization rcquircc1.
Oli.spring havc iclcntical traits n,ith llarcnts.
J
I )i suclr an tartcs o I' rcplrliluct i o;:
asc.r uu I .
_t
- No cltarrcc ol'cvolittiorr tuliing placc.
- Ol'l.spriltg ilrs iclcnticul to thcir parcnts so discascs arxl bliil qiialitics urc also
1'xrssccl clorvn clirccl,ly fiultr plrcrrts to ollspr.irr*.
-I
-
I
'
Sottrc tncthocis ol'itscxrtal rcglrocluction pxrriucc ofl.spring that lrrc closr: togctlrcr.
and con'tpotc ltlr lirocl arrcl splrcc. _l
I
-I
I

HhIotJ.,rI\6 "rHE ExFIrntNEr.tgT r tNJ", - Biolosv 2 -I

t Quesfion 3
Fig 14,1 below shows part of Rhizopus.

lllrr:utliLr:r

H
Fig r+.r i
T

d
(a) What type of reproduction is shown in fig. 14.1'? 11)
{
I
(b) l.i

(i) Briefly explain how this organism obtains its food. 1:i
(ii) If the substrate in fig.14.1 is nshima name the substance secreted by
Rhizopus to digest it. Jt1

(c) ln the ecosystenr, what role do micro-organisms play? 1+1

IBiologyl509 0I 2l Q212006]
I
Solution
(a) Asbxual reproduction by spore formation
(b)

(i) Rhizopus is heterotrophic; they obtain their organic materiai from external
sources. Rhizopus fungi have extracellular digestion by secreting
enzymes into environment arid absorbing the nutrients produced. Fungi
store their food as glycogen which is used when needed.
(ii) They secrete the enzyme amylase *nshima is a carbohydrate which is
digested by amylases.
(c) Microorganisms are decomposers in the ecosystem. Decomposer fungi and
most bacteria are saprophytic and have an important role in an ecosystem as
decomposers, breaking down dead or waste organic matter and releasing
inorganic molecules. These molecu[es are taken up by green plants which are
in turn consuntecl by animals, and the products of these plants and animals
are eventually again broken down by decomposers.
 Queslion rI
Fig 14.2 shows a bee on a longitudinal section of a flower.
I
_t
_t
_t
_t
i

Fig 14.2

lii
tt.
(a)
(i) On Fig. 14.2,label X, Y
(ii) What is the function
andZ.
of structure Y? ttl
t3l
il
lji:l (b) Hov,t does the plant benefit from being visited by the bee? Jr1
LI
.1
[Biol o g i.4 s AgU 2t QZ t 2007 1
I
i

;1i Soiution
(a)
Fr
H
(i) X - petals U
- Anthers
'
Y
lliii
if
ll'I
Z - Stigma
(ii) The anther (Y) produces the pollen grains, the male
il
llll
mti
tit
Url

il,
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the flower
(b) The bee may bring the pollen on its body that it rnay have r
ill_l
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 Biologv
Quesfion 5
Fig 1a.3 shows some fruits from dicot plarrts.

4
hooks ort nrritan
s'j,cK:o i,Jr

iit;:",i;la9 rii s:ili

lrtd:::ilrlri,:

r,:m*lrrB of sr::]aig

Fig 14.3
(a) (i) State the type of ciispersai each fruit undergoes. lz)
(ii) Give a reason for your answer in (a) (i) above for each fruit. l2l
(b) (i) Which fruit disperses seeds over a shorter distance? 1r;
(ii) Which dispersal will involve seeds and not the fruit? t1l
(c) Give three differences between Fruit Q and a tomato. ;sJ ,

IB i ol o g y/5 0 9 0 I 2 I Q3 t 20 I 21

Solution
(a)
(i) Fruit P - self dispersal
Fruit Q - animal dispersal ',

(ii) Fruit P, has a hard pericarp whiclr burst open due to internal pressure and
seeds get dispersed.
. Fruit Q: the hooks allow the fruit to stick to fur of animals and carried to
other places where they germinate.
(b) (i) Fruit P
(ii) Self dispersal
(c) - Fruit Q has hooks on pericarp while the pericarp of tomato is smooth.
- Fruit Q has two seeds clustered together while tomato has numerous seedr
 Hi,
Biolog,- 2
HI;
I
I
Quesffon 6
TE]r l,
Figure 14.4 shows the parts of a wind pollinated flower.
[
ii t,

Ilrl
ir
l,
1,,
,li,

Fig 14.4

(a) Name the parts shown by letters in the diagram. t3l

(b) Which two structuralfeatures in the diagram confirm its adaptation for wind
pollination? 121

(c) Explain how the two features you mentioned in (b) assist the meehanism of
wind pollination. 121

(d) Which feature prominent in fig 1 is not necessary on an insect pollinated

flower? 1t1

IBiology s090t2t220011
Solutions
(a)

- Structure A is the anther.

- Structure B is the filament.
- Structure C is the stigma.

(b)
(i) feathery stigrna to trap wind-blown pcllen
"
(ii) Stamen hanging outside the flower.
* N.B.' Se e notes on chararteristics of wind pnllinatud fluwers.

(c) - Feathery stigma helps to trap wind-blown pollen

- Outside hanging stamen makes it easy for pollen
wind. ,

(d) The large anther.

n Take note: ln
insect pnllinated flowers, the anther is usually vr

,l.L-;r..^ r--:-r:-- :--- -r - -ll:- -r.- -I Il-...- .--

chatucturistins -.I uf insect pollinated flnwers.

KNtr'I.UIN ci'THE EXFTIT\INEI"5'

 Biologt I
F , coNqtsE tNrror{MATroN (p_oLLTNATIN
'/ Pollination ig the transfer of pollen grairrs from the anthers to the stigma. Two typcs of
poll inatiorr ir{olurde;
i) Self-po-ili]:etiqn: the trarrsfer of pollen grains from arr anther to the stigrna of a
florver on the same plant
, ii) Cross, pollinationl the transfer of pollerr grains from an anthcr of oncflower to the
stigrna of another flower on different plarrts of the sarne species,

The tables below show difl'ererrces in features betr.veen self-pollirrated flowers and
cross pollinated flowcrs; artcl between insect pollinated flowers and r,vind pollinated
flowcrs.

SEI,F I'OLI,INATED III,OWE,ITS CROS S POI,I,INA'I'ED I'I,OWERS

Stanrens are slrort. Stamens are lorrs
Arrthers and stigrna maturc at the salxe Arither and stigrna r-rsually ntalure at
time. different times.
Most flowers face upwards. Most flowers faoe downr.vards.
Pollen grains are not inhibited liorn Pollen grairrs are inhibited Ii'orrr
'owirrg through the stiqma and stvle. 'owins thror-rsh the stiqrna and stvle .
Some prodr:ce chemicals wlrich lrinder l)o not producc chemicerls.
cross pollirration.

INSIiCT POI,I,INATIII) CROSS POLLINATED

t,
FI,OWE1TS. FLOWERS.
I-rrgc and strongly' sccrited Small and not scented
Ilrightly coloured petals. Dull in appearance.
\cctgicq pl9s9U1: Nectaries absent.
SnralI lilrn anthers. Large loose anthers
Stignras are slrort lobbed and irrsidc F-eathery styles and stigmas hang
florvcrs. or-rtside tlre flower.
I'rodr." litGpollen- Prodr-rce large quantities of pollen ffi
tt
Stamcns are sitr:ated rvithirr the flower Stamens har,g oirtside thc flowcr. ii
il
n'fir
Il[fo tl tsiologtt 2
tii
;l
'" ffiHffiPT"ffire ffiffi
WUMAru ffitrPffitrETUtrTI$N

Question 4
Some married couples fail to have children due to the female's failure to produce
ova. ln such cases, female fertility drugs containing a hormone are taken.

(a)

(i) Name a hormone that stimulates production of ova. t1l

F:

(ii) Suggest why this treatm.ent can result in the birth of many babieb at once. l2l
(b) Females possess an endocrine gland that secretes the hormone you have
tratred.in (a) above.
(i) l.lanre the endocrine gland. it1
(iii) Where in the female body is the gland situated? Jt1

(c) State two methods of contraception used in Zambia. yz1

[Biology Sasu2lz2Affi1

Solution
(a)

(i) Follicle stimulating hormone.

(ii) The treatment can cause the ovary to release multiple ripe eggs, each of
which can get fertilized by a sperrir to produce a viable embryo.
(b)
(i) Pituitary gland.

* Take note
Ihu pituitary gland is attached tn the base rIthe brain. lt pruduces many hnrmnnes, including FSH and

LH. FSH and Lll induce rvulatinn (maturatinn and release nf nvum frnm the ovary.)

(c)

1. Use of condoms, ' -J

2.- Oral contraceptives

.J

J
 t.: '! -
Question 2
(a) Explain why the blood vessels of the mother and those of the unborn child are
not directly con nected,
(b) Describe ways in which mother to ehild HIV transmission occurs.
IB i o o g y/ti
I 09 0/2/Q6/2 005]

Solution ' t r

(a) The blood vessels of the mother and those of the unborn child are not directly
connected for reasons among which is, to avoid mother's blood pressure
damage the clelicate vessels of the embryo. The tissue of the unborn child are
not yet strong enough to supporl thi: amouni of pressure that arteries of the
mother'handles as they conduct bio,'d to tissues in the body. Lack of
connection also allows selection of substances that pass into the embryo's
blood. lt also prevents some harmful substances in the mother's blood from
reaching the embryo. Another reason for preventing mixing of the blood is that
nrother and the unborn child may be of different ABO blood groups and their
blood may not be compatible.
(b) An HIV infected pregnant woman cijrr pass on the virus to her child through
various ways discussed below. The ','irus can be passed on to the unborn
child through the placenta. HIV is small enough to pass through the placenta
an swim into.the blood stream of the unborn child.
The child may also catch the infection at birth when the blood of the baby
comes into contact with the blood of the mother. Another way.by which a child
can be infected with HIV from the mother is through breast milk during
suckling.
*Take note:

The chances of the infectinn transmission from the mother t0 Ehild are rurrently estimated to

be 25 - 5[%
 (i) Two ways in which the ever,ts of meiosis cause each ovum to be
genetically different from one another. l2l
(ii) How the placenta is adapted to provide a developing foetus with its
ul-
nutrients. [2]

(iii) How cigarette smoking in a pregnant woman may damage the unborn' I

.L
baby. l2l
't
tBiology/509 O l2t Q6 t2OO7l
I

.I
d-L
.
r
Solution ' r;:. .

I
(a)

(i) The events of meiosis cause each ovum (gamete) to be genetically

different frsm each other. This is done by meiosis in two ways as
I
follows:
1 lndependent assortment of chromosomes: this refers to the fact that

l;
the bivalent line up independently therefore the chromosomes in each
ll
[:]
ft-
bivalent separate (assort) independently of those in the other
I
bivalents during anaphase l. This will lead to new combinations of
bivalents consequently there will be variation in the resultant
gametes.

I
*see illustration: (red book p 789)
2.

r
Crossing over: as a result of chiasmata, crossing over of segments of
chromatids occurs between homologous chromosomes during
prophase I, leading to the formation of new combinations of gens on
the chromosomes of the gametes.

-r
r
*see illustration (red book fig
23.11 p7S4)

(ii) The placenta functions as a medium of exchange of nutrients and wastes

,rl -
between the unborn child and the mother. The aclaptlve features for its
function are; it consist of vein that carry oxygen.ated blood back to the
foetus from the placenta, and artery that carry deoxvgenated blood and
other waste from the foetus to p,lacenta, '
r
-E
'

_[
 The placenta consists of the chcrion which produces projections (chronic
villi) which increase their surface area for exchange of substances by
diffusion and active transport. The numerous mitochondria in these cells
provide the energy for active transport.

(iii) Cigarette smoke contains tar, irritants, carbon monoxide and nicoiind which
are harmful. Of these, carbon monoxide and nicotine enters the mother's
blood if she stnokes and may cri)ss the placenta into the foetus' blood
stream. They have a reduction elrect on birth weight, the condition
described as intra-uterine growth retardation (IUGR). IUGR can be a

cause of premature birth.

Nicotine causes vasoconstriction and therefore reduces blood flow through the
placenta. This may affect develoiiment of the blood vessels in the umbilical
cord and placenta This would restrict blood flow to the foetus and oxygen and
nutrients would be less available. possibl! causing IUGR.

Carbon monoxide reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of Haemoglobin. This

may have some effects on the foetus.

*take note:
Average birth weight is 3,4[kg. Smnking 3[1 cigarettes a day reduces birth weight by as much
l
as l0%.

Question 4
(a) Describe the special dietary needs of a pregnant woman. t6l
(b) Discuss artificial methods of birlh control. 16l

IBi ology/5 09 Ot 2l Qg tz| 1 2\

Solution
(a) A pregnant woman requires a special diet in order to support the process of
carrying and supporting the unborn child. The diet needed include food rich in
calcium, iron, and carbohydrate proteins. Proteins are needed for growth and
'repair of tissues for the baby and the mother. Carbohydrates provide energy
needed to support work involved in carrying the foetus. lron is needed for the
formation of new hrlood cells of the foetus, and calcium is needed for the
growth of bones and teeth of the foetus.
ffi
f'
t,
(b) Artificial birth control refers to any product, procedure or practice that uses
artificial or unnatural means to prev'ent pregnancy. Following are artificial
ruill
ii!
methods of birth control:
A condom: this is a device made of fine rubber. lt is used to cover the penis
male condom) or vagina (female condom) during sexual intercourse in order
to prevent the sperm from entering the vagina.
lntra Uterine Device (lUD): this is a birth control device made of soft plastic. lt
has copper wound on its lower part and the end carries two threads. lt is
placed in the uterus and prevents pregnancy for 3-5 years'
Contraceptive pills: these are birth control pills which contain hormones and
prevent a woman from getting pregnant if used regularly. One pill has to be
taken every night before going to bed.
Vaccination injection for birth control). vaccines are available in the name of
t

lr
ll
t,;
DMPA. They work in the same way as the pills do. The vaccine is effective for
three ,Tronths and has to be applied four times a year.
Surgical operations: these can be do ne on both male and female body as
follows:
1. Vasectomy: the duct carrying sperms from the testes to the ,r"ihr" is cut
and tied thereafter no sperms reach the urethra during intercoufse. lt does
not adversely affect erection in the man. "a
2. Tubectomy: the fallopian tubes are tied an d cut. Eggs continue to be
released but they are prevented from reaching the uterus.
_l-
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Q( NCt s I : r N r{)l_t Ma_l*i_QN ( I t I t, !t 0 ulilJl.yL]lQlwlo"fir s,l

IIOITMONI,] (;I,ANI) t,'tjNC't't()N
Oxl,tocin I)ostcrior pitu itar,r',rland [)roclrrction rr I' nr i lk li'onr
nlamnlilr)' glarrd.
(lontractiorr ol' utcrus drrrirrg
['rirth.
r ;lric[ ;ii*;[ili,3 ,trircr:i..,i 1ritr"i,r.,i1,, gk*,j In nralc. stirrrulatcs
Itonttorrc (l;SIl) spcrrrratoguresis, t

Irr l'L'nrnlcs i.rcts togetlrcr rvitlr

L[-l to car-rsc _ql!li]lltrl _____j
I -utein izirre h0rrtt0nc Alrtcrior' 1"ril.Lriiarr glancl Irr rrralc" stirrrLrlatcs Lcstostcronc I

sccrctiorr
In l'entalcs sccrclion Lrl'
ocstrogcn arrd progcstcnlnc firr
r.rvulation arrd nraintcrtnncc ol' I

glarrd i- Stirnulatcs rnill< prodr,rctiorr and

scct'cttrltt.
i
l-_-__ Ovan' corpLrs Iiutcnr
It)cstroqcrr i- ljcrnalc secouc{arv scx I
t, d

-i*,i.',', c't,,pii, ii,.,

a ,r,- --1- ;iili.rilil!,rg!,srsu
--[ c,.'.;*l*. - i,,lf-r,frii,,,-,1'
r{

I
I
ovuluticlrr.
i- l-ilic ocstr()sc11. tlricl<.crrs lining

cstostcronc s l- Malc sccondan scxual

I
I

_l I'caturcs. _l
I

,/ 'l'rvins
rrrd Multiplc birtlrs.
'l'u'irrs
rral' rcsult throLrglr ortc ol'thc lirlior,ving two ways:
i) Lratcfffq!_1)yjfft Whcrr tvvo cggs ai'c l'crtilizcd. bv trvo spcnlls to producc lrvo

fiL
errtrrl,os whiclr clcvcIop irrto [ra['lics. I;rarcrrrit.l twins dil'l'cr s,crlcticall] artcl Irar
I

cithcr bc ol'thc sanrc or oppositc scx.-['lris is so lrccar.rsc thc spcrm carrics cither X
ol'\'clrrorlosornc arrcl anv ol'thcsc cirrt l'crtilizc arr cgg. X chrtrtltlsonrc prtldllccs i.l
i:rrl rrhilc Y cltt'r,ttt()s(rnlc 1'lt'ttclltccs lt l'ro).
iit Idcntical t\l:U!! lhr:sc arc trvo inCiviclLrals arising lhrttr a sirrglc l'crtilizcd cgg.

fIr
during urr cilrlv stagc oi'ccll ciir,'ision artei lirrnt tn'o scparultc ctrtbrrtts. Idcntical
tuins lllrVc ilr,: sanlc gcncs arrcl urc (!f'tltc sar11c scx- bccilirsc ttttl-r ()nc-spct'ttt (X or
\') lcrtiliscs tlrc cgg.
Multiplc births. N,lultiplc birtlrs bc.r,orrd t\\,o pcr prcgnancy arc ll'atcrnal.'l'his nrav
()ccur u,lrcrr ir woman. cithcr rraturallv or bv honlonal rceulation. has mrrltiplc
cgg$ ri1'rcn irr tlrc ovnr') lclding tti rnLrlti;rlc cgg rclcasc. each of which gcts
lL'r'tilizccl l-r1, l r,r.'',.,., to proclucc a via[-,lc crrt"tr'1,o.

lL ,

tr-
 lliol,,,q
!' ('trtttraccpLiort atrcl []irtlt control.
('ontr:ilccptiorr is thc pSrcctrtagc of cor:i:cptiorr hr,prcvcnlirrg thc [ir.siorr ol'rnale arrd
lr:rrralc ganrctcs. []irtlt ctrtttt'tll ittclttclcs ,,rntraccptitlri lrrcl urrr othcr nrcirsrrrc il.rlicrr
altcr ILrti.lizatiort dcsigrrcd t() prcvcnt trirth. l'hc tahlc lrclorr surnruuriscs nrcth('ds ()l'
birtlt conl.rol.

,/ Naturai rllethods ol'birth control,

Mli't'ilot) AC'r'toN I.-AtrI,TIITE r\l)\''r\N'l'.,\GliS I)ISAI)V.\N'I'A(;IiS

Itn't'I
, \bstincrrcc ,\l,oid l:l'lL'etir c Ilcstricts cnloti()n rl
scxual 0,t/o r-lcvclrlprttcrlt in a
iutcrcoursc. rc lationslr ip.

li
l(lrr thrl rni:thocl ,{l'rrid
scxual
intcrcourse
\*attrral ancl
accclptccl br
rc lig ioLrs
t ligh lailLrrc ratc.
cvcn lr ig,hcr ir lrcrr
pcriods irrc irrcr:tr lirr
3
il
,l

i uround tirrrc soc icl.ics. [{erlLrircs good

Il
ol'or rrluticlrr ?.00to lirron lcclgc ol-thc
llr
ili (tolal boci.r ltttd rccirrcl
8,.
t ab.stinurcc
f or 7 cla,i,s).
kccpine.
llccltrircs a pcriocl ol' iL
il
:
atrst irrcncc.
lctli'lcnrtLrrc Notr: r'isc irr (larr inc re asc S inr ilar to lbor c.
nrcthrld tclrPCr'ilturc rcliabilit-r. ol'
n1 trvLrlati0n
artri avoicl
scx r-ral
irrtcrcor-rrsc
Ljp to 200,6
I{h1.'thnr rncthocl
iI
at thcsc
tinrcs.
('rl itus Iligh lirilurc ralc.
I)clr is I i\cccpred by
in tc rru llt iorr u ithciran lt ircligious I)cnis mav lcal< sonrc
(u ithclrarral li()nt vasilta -a.0'la i soc icrics. spcnr bclbre
tnctltocl) bclorc i
i
e'iac Lr lation.
c ilc Lrlat io rr.

_I
-I
-I
_I
_I
.I
 #sryfqg;q

Biologr 2

u ,/ Artificial mcthods o1'birth conlrol.

tI MIITIIOD ACTION IIAII,URE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGI]S

ti Condonr A thin strong

rubber sheath
RATE
Llffective, easy to
use, clreap, protects
May tear or slip
after climax.
off

t! rvorn on thc
penis that
prevents spefn1
cntcring the
3*t0%
aga.inst STDs. May dirninish,
spontancorrsly,

1l vugina.
Diaplrragrii/cap I Soft lubber cap
the
I that covers
[. l,abl. Jr-.fu * -TP,!b h, **tll
protection against
I
-'tt

I ancl i:rscltion (urirst lrc

rE

1l I cntrance ro tlrc
I Lrtcrus and
I plevents sperm
3*15%
S fDs. I inscrted by zr doctor).
I Occasionall'v cause:
labclonrirral pairrs,

L} Oral
reaching

Contains tlie Very reliable. MLrst be lal,ren

contraceptive fcmalc scx No interl'erence regLrlarly'.
13 pill liormone
oestrogen and
rvith iovc rlaking. Shofi term side effbcts
may inclucle nausea,
l

1
j

'lrl
rl

fluid retention and ,l

progesterone.
r..3 I)revcnts
1V',a
rveight gain.
1

clevelopment o1' Long tertn efl'ects not

ru eggs ancl
ovuizrtion
inhibiting
b),
understoocl.

secretion ol'
FSI.I.
lnj e ctablc Inj ectiorr every Cor-rvcnie ttt and Occasi"onal nrenstt'itit i

contraceptivc 3 nronths of a highly cffcctivc. blccrling ntA\/ caLlsc

(clepo pror,et'a) lrorrlorre that is calrccl.

1%
siowly cle.ared
ancl prevents
ovulation.
Vasectontl, Cirt ctich vans Lcss than Very reliable, no Vcry clifficLrlt to
male cleferens. 1% side effects, reverse.
Tying of Cut both Vcry reliablc Even rnore diff-icLrlt to
Lcss than
oviducts oviclucts reverse than vasectottl;'
1%
fernale)
ilf'

ili
[]'
Biolog'2
;:

EH|F|PTER IE
I
EENETItrs

Question 1

Figure 16.1 shows the chromosomes of three cells from one organism,

/t ,, .-""
l/ts tl t, \

{[\, n (\r,U' / 'f-i.=ll

fi tti+ttil:,r it,=
\ tt-/

/':\
i-+ll rri+rril:r *i+--li;. qi\'l i-.rl I rt'r*tttl:,riti;
Y:_y
Fig 16.1

(a) Which cells, B or C could have been developed from cell A by;
(i) Mitosis. 1t1

(ii) Meiosis. t1l

(b)
i) Name two places in the body where mitosis occurs. 121

ii) Name two places, one in the animal body and the other in a plant body,
where meiosis occurs. [2]
i-l
(c) Describe the importance of meiosis in living organisms.
[Biorogy sogoizlz2oo4]
121 ,

l-r
Solutions
_t
(a)
i) - cell C.
Mitosis
_r
ii) Meiosis - cell B.
n
Take note:
_t
A daughter cell developed by mitosis has identical snts of chrumr:somes to the parent cell
"
wlrile a daughter cell developed by meiosis has half number of chromosomes ol the original
_t
parent's nucleus.
i _l
I
I
 liittlo
(b)

(i)
1, Blood tissues
2. Bones
^ laKe rTore.'

Mitnsis r:ccrrrs in all snmatin uxcnpt thu ilnmntns. In thn contrnry mrinsis lrrurs in thr

namntcs only.

ii)

1. Testes
2. Ovary
(c) Meiosis ensures that the zygote has two sets of chromosomes (the diploid
condition.)
Meiosis pro',rides opportunities for new combinations of genes to occur in th
gametes. Tlris leads to genetic"variation.

Question 2
Fig 16.2(a) and figure 16.2(b) shows two mples of variation in humans.

+-.
la

.lr
rii

ri
.
rF

,U

.U

.'. i , I EL: ii,i.r r:.I t:i ,;,;. i;: :i.1 :1 :; T,i

L. Fis. 16.2(a) Fig. 16.2(b)

(a) Name the type of variation shovun in fig 5.1.1 and fig 5.1.2, and give one exan'l
l__"
for each type of variation. i4l

L (b) Whatgeneticfactorscontrol thetypeof variationsinfig5.l.l andfig5.1.2?12,

(c) Give two environmental factors that might influence the type of variation shorrr

l- fig 5.1.2. tz1

(d) Using a genetic diagram, explain co-dominance in the inheritance of blood

L groups in human beings. I5l

 ff#, Clearly indicate the following:
lliologr
Y:j 2
'j i
Symbols
!

Parents: phenotype,
ii,,llii Genotype and Gametes
Offspring (Fl) Genotype
,'
and phenotype
[Biology sosAruZ2oA3]

':

(b)

i)
il) controlled by a single pair
of aileles or a small number
(c) of genes.

t Nutrients.
ii) l'emperaiure.
(d)

Synrbols: l^ ald lrr

Parents: phenotype _
Group A and Group
B

Genotype
- l^ l^
Gametes: l^
li,

Offspring (Fl ):

Genorype fl: ti ,1-ll1li

1,\ r/r ,i?

Phenotype * CIa1iLAE
'l-akc "*^A-&
note
ril inhunilancr of
li _t
irn A[][ hluud
ihrru uru i'our pl AEI systrm,
I luyrr";vcr,, thu irilr -J
-I
-l
r
'
{-QNC l$lLlNll}Lr-M-A:UQNOIIIUA'llQ}L)
/' 'l'hc tcrtit vitr:iatiorr rcl'crs to obscrvatrlc cli{]'crcirrcs rr.,itlrin spccics.
a
'l'ypcs o l' r,nriution.
i)
(l<)J]tjglltlLrlvariatit)rr: t5,pc ol'vnriatiorr irr wlrich inclivicluals cio rrot [:clorrg to
sltarplv clistinct classcs but sltor,r,t rviclc r0ngc ol'clraractcr cxprcssion [rctu,,cclr
tr,i,o litttits. It is Lrsually corrtrollcci by su,crnl pairs ol',allclcs.
ii) Dtfcc,tUtlligls varijrliotll typc ol'var:iatiorr in rvhich irrdividunls shorv clcar cut
clil'll'rcncc's arltot'lg thcrrrsclvcs. 'l'hc1, arc urrclcr thc control ol'a singlc pair ol'
allclcs or sirra ll nunrbcr o I' !,.crrus.
./ lract.ors that irrclLrcc t,ariation.
I i r 1y_1 r' 913111p_ BU]_l O 9.IA1q
'l'hcsc irtcludc ttutricnts. \\/atcr. tcnrpcraturc anrl Iight intcnsitS,.

!grs!t-g-&rc-!qrs,
'l'hcsc includc gcltcs
{gcrrctic rnakcup). cross o\,,cr urd rnutatirxr.-

Question 3
A couple who both have the sickle-cell trait had a child with sickle-cell.
(i) Explain using a fully-labelled genetic diagram how sickle-cell r,vould be

inherited by the child. (use the letters H and h for the alieles) JsJ

' (ii) What is the chance of the child being sickle-celled? t1),
IB i o I og yi 5 0 9 0 I 2 I QGb/ 2007 ]

Solution
(i)
i",ll'r i'til

h h(Sickle ccll child)

(i i) Yo or 25o/o chance

Questron 4
ln an experiment to demonstrate the inheritance of coat colour in cattle, a roan bull
was repeatedly crossed with a roan cow and produced roan, white and red calves.
a. Whiclr coat colour is as a result of co-dominance? 1t1
b. Determine the genotype of the three coat colours, given that CIt is thegene for
red colour and Cw is the gene for,,vhite colour. I3l
c. Show using a genetic diagram the possible offspring which could be produced
when a red bull was crossed with a roatr co\r/. 14,).

[Biology 5AgU2lZ2O11)
ffI
n Solution
fl
I a. Roan.
lr
* IV.8; Suu nntes on ro-dumiuon[[.
ilrl
)
b. Genotypes - CR Cw - Roan.
crt crt - Red.
cw cw - white.
I

. ,'"
"1.

r-,--.::l:,1ll.ti:r --tt _-[: ..

..-! ..-
r, r

Ft-:.:l [:;,:';rt r
F;+,:l

) r:oNc:tsr:l tNrrot{Mn'['roN ((]O-DoMINANCT.)

,/ Co-dorlirrarrcc is *conclition rvlrcrc both gcncs tlt'un lliorlorpliic Pair producc thcir
clll'cts irr an incliviclual (i.c. ncithcr allclc is clonrinanr to thc otlrcr). Such allclcs arc
.saicl to bc co-clonrinaltl..

Qt,'estion 5
a. Haenrophilia is an exampte of a sex-lin,L;ed inherited disease arising from b blood
Cisor:der.

i) What is a sex linked characteristic? t1l

ii) Explain why males are more likely to suffer fronr sex
females. l2l
t-
U. Colour blindness is another sex linked disease. Using a
the clrances of having a colour btind chiid from a couple
rnale parent and acarrier fernale parerii. (using the symbo
[Biology 509A l2lZ20AgT

Solutions
cl . i) A sex linked characteristie is a trait associated with
chromosome e.g. X or Y chromosomes in fi1ofl:
ii), U,nlike in females, n'tales do not have a normal sec
the Y chromosome to mask effects r:f the recessiv(
chromosome; hence, they are likely ic suffer fron
*
r',/.8. SuLl nutus un liux linkirqi:.

n (1f lnitiqlirtn l'"lr

 \
u tol0l
b, F;rr* tr t:;
..., [:, . [: r.[i,,,1

ri
{i;rrrr*t*:: .i
lj

{l}i;ispririg

No chance of having a colour blind child. However; two children will be"cairieri.

F coNctsp txr.oRun.rtoN (scx t_tNt<Rcp.l

'/ Sex chromosol'nes, in addition to carrying genes that control sexual traits, carry gctlc
tl'rat detemritre other traits. These genes are called sex linked genes. Most of the sex
linked genes are found on the X chromosome and onlKa few, if any are lirrked to thc
Y chronrosome. Exantples of sex Iinked traits includc haeribphilia, rcd-grcur colour
blindness in humans and red eye colour in fruit f'lies.

Question 6
(a) Explain what is meant by the following terms?
(i) Gene t1l
(ii) Mutation Lz1
(iii) Meiosis I2l
(b) Distinguish between continuous and discontinuous variation. t2l
(c) Explain how environmental factors may cause variations among organisms o
the same species. tsl
[Biology/5090/2/Q 9/2008]
Solution
(a) (i) gene: the basic unit of inheritance for a given characteristic
(ii) Mutation: a change of DNA sequence within a gene or chromosome ol
an organism resulting in the creation of a new character of trait not found
in the parental type
(iii) Meiosis: a form of cell division that produces cells in sexually
rgproducing organisms by which the nucleus divides into four nuclei each
/.
containing half the chromosome number leading to the production of four
haploid gametes
- (b) Continuous variation is a type of variation in which individuals do not
belong to sharp distinct classes but show a wide range of character
expression between two ilmits, whereas-in discontinuous variation there is

a ciear cr.lt differences among individuals.

 Biolog' )
(c) Environmental factors such as climate, diet, accidents, culture and lifestyle

j
can cause variation among organisms of the same species. For instance,
W
l$r
a person might inherit a trait to be tall, but poor diet during childhood will I
lr cause poor growth. Similarly, a plant in the shade of a big tree will grow
l.r

ilil'
taller as it tries to reach rnore light. This will cause it to be different from
plants of its species in terms of height.
ldentical twins are a good example of the interaction between inheritance
and environment; as such twins are genetically the same. Differences in

their experiences as well as environment may cause them to have l

different personality, stature aptitudes, etc.

rcstion 7
ure 16,3 shows the inheritance of haemophilia in a family.
I(EY

Ill I t,l il., li ,=rri.:,1ilii I r i:

{ 4..

i L.J J ttlriil+ l''i..tti,:,1:liiliii

Ill I t'J',.' ,,'r il rri il*

1,.._--.i t.t+r,,i,il i+rri.il *

g 16.3 'I

Taking the allele for haemophilia to be Xh what is the genotype of offspring 3 and
7? lz)
Offspring 4 married a person with similar genotype to offspring 7.
i) Dr:dw a genetic diagram to show the genotypes and the phenotypes of the

offspring. tsl
ii) ,What is the probability of them having a normal child? ttl
iii) What is the probability of them having a child who is a carrier? 1t1
l

[Biology 5090t2lzzYaj
ii
i

Solutions J
i

I
_t
Cffspring 3: Xh Xh I

Offspring 7: Xr1 Y
I
I
I

,]
_l
I
I

i _l
t
 Biolog' )
* Take note

Haemophilia is a sex linked disease associated with the X chromosnme, For a female tn be

haemophiliu, it has to be a recessive condition, utherwise, the dominant Xrl will mask the disease. For a

male to be normal the X chromosome needs to be normalXrlsince there is n0 Eorrespnnding gene on

the Y chromESomE tn mask the disease in case of the X chromosome being affected.

b. $ff::prini13 i:iff::Pring17

:,.,"i,'' ., i:Hf

..H ,-
'1.i,:rri+t::: l ,.| l

ii+n,jt1i[:i+ : ;*;H1,;lt l'

].: "f ,,,lHil :i "t
Fliet"r,:]trilj,i tl tl,it'll'iir] nral= r'ri'r'nr;rl n'i;,i*
tr rillt lirtni.::lrlirlie.: ftrti:rlt lie,:nr,i1.,lrili;ri

i) Probability of having a normal child is 1/2.

ii) Probability of having a child who is a carrier is 1lz.

Question I
Fig 16.4 shows the inheritance of the eye colour within a family.

Ercurn eyecl renab @

Brown eyed rnale 7m
BIue eyed female \/
Blue eyed male t:
Fig 16.4

(a)
(i) suggest whtch eye colour is dominant in fig 5.1 1t1
(ii) Give reasons for your answer [1]

(b) What are the eye colours of the following persons?

Person 1 .

Person 11

_ Person 16
(c)
(i) ln what three persons in fig 16.4 are homozygous for eye colour?
(ii) Which three persons in fig 16.4, F2 generation, are heterozygous for eye
colour? 1s1
 tsiolog,,2

t :
'
i) lf person 17 is homozygo.us for eye colour, what would be the chance of a
child born to 16 and 17 being brown eyed? ttl
,
(ii) lf person 14 is heterozygous for eye colour, what would the chance of a
{
child born to 16 and 17 being brown eyed?
(iii) lf person 14 is heterozygous for eye colour, what would the chance of a

child born to 13 and 14 being brown eyed? 1t1

IBiology/5 09 0 t 2t Q5 t 20041

Solution
(a) (i) brown eyed
(ii) because it suppresses the blue colour when both are present
(b) Person 1: brown
Person 11: brown
Person '16: blue
(c) (i) person: 13
Person: 16
Person: 17
i
t *take note: the possible genotype for
tI 7 and B and their offspring are shown below:
a

Genertvpe: Bl>

G elrcrlr:

I
o'"r?Yoo .,t c! Bb
ff 14 15
Bt?
1$
-1
jr
13 is homozygous dominant while 16 is homozygous recessive. 17 can be a
repeat of 13 by 25% chances.

\a
d) o 50%
*see dia(7ram below
7ii
bt:) DU
lr
(n)
-l,.-:--{
'--- I
I

i-:ib bL:
1 "',ii: li$()1 '$C)olr

(ii) ,10Q% chance

HflflllJtl\lrE,rrJc eva* ril rph..i

 *see diagram bellow:

ql

$enotype:
Pherrotype Browrr Brcwn Brotrrr Brovln

Quesfion 9
ln guinea pigs, the gene for rough hair is dominant to that for smooth hair. Using
your own symbols to represent the genes.
(a)

ru (i) Explain why a guinea pig with rough hair may be homozygous or
heterozygous for this charactbr. t2l
(ii) State the genotype for a pure breeding smooth haired guinea pig. til
(b) Using a genetic diagrarn, explain why a male guinea pig with rough hair is

crossed with a female guinea pig with rough hair may produce guinea piglet,
with another smooth hair. t4)
(c) What is the probability of their having a piglet with smooth hair? ;t1
. IBiology/5090ruA520061

Sotution
Key
R - rough hair
r. - smooth hair

(a) (i) - guinea pig with Rough hair may be homozygous if the genotype constitute c
RR alleles.
- Guinea pig with Rough hair rnay be heterozygous if it its genotype constitut
of Rr allele at a given locus. ' :

(ii) rr genotype

(a) (i)
 Biologt 2

- Ifl
.B I
Rr Rr
ffi
l,i
ffit

rr
Smo6tfr-hairec
pigtet
, (ii) There irs 25Yo (A) of produce guinea pigret with smooth hair.

witon 10
(alWhat is mutation?
:
i
\,.. , .: ,,d
ii lb) Albinism is reiessive to normal skin colour. UsinE the symbols M and n for the
i,,
lrl .
lii two.alteles.
lij
[r
ll (i) show how one norrnal couple migrht have an ahino child.
1' (D
'i
what is the probability ol their,having an albino child?
-.'

ia) Mutation is a change of DNA sequence within a gene or chromosome of an

. organism resulting in the creation of a new character of trait not found in the
parental type
'b)
(i) When the two parents are carriers of the albinism gen, there is a chance of
them having an albino child, shown as follows:
Key
M - domi,nant normal gene
n. - recessive sick gene
Parent genotype: Mn X [/lrr

Gamete:

MM Mn Mn nn

' Eince albinism is a recessive condition. The nn child will be albino

(ii) -% or 25% chance
'1
I

\ I
l{Ntr'lulNtri,THE FYEITi\InIEE'Er E rL'-?il
 .,
Question 11
't (a) The table below shows the blood groups in human beings.

A E AB o
-
(t) Which two blood groups exist in two different forms? p1 4

(il) Which blood group can be donated to any person? t1l

(ilr) Which blood group can receive any other group of blood? trl
IBiolo gy/509 0 l2l Q2120 1 21

Solution
(a)

(i) Blood group A and blood group B

(ii) Blood group O
*Take note:

- Blood gr0up 0 is universal dunor because it has no antigens that can be attacked by

antibodies in the reciepient's blood.

(iii) Bloocj group AB

. -'antigens
Blood gr0up AB is the.universal reciLpienthecause it has nn sntibodiesto attack
in the donor's blood.

coNC E rN F-oRMAl'r ON (PATTERN O F iN H ERTTANC E. )

r s
,/ trnheritance is the transmission of genetically controlled traits trom parent to offspring.
A pattern ol'inheritance describes horv alleles work together to procluce traits.

,/ Cenetic tenrrs.
- Gene: basic unit of inheritance for a given trait.
._.----"-'AIiele6:'oiib of two or more alternative forms of genes, occLrpy'ing the sanre
' position as paired chromosornes and controlling the sarne inherited characteristic.
- Homoz)rgours: diploid condition in which the alleles at a given position are
identical.
- Heterozysous: diploid condition in which the alleles at a given position arc
different.
Genotype: the genetic constitution of an organism, with respect to alleles.
- Phenotype: observable visible characteristics of an organisrn resulting fi'orl the
interaction betr,veen its genetic make up and environnrent.
- Recessive: the allele which produces an effect in an organism onlywhen it's
matching allele is identical
 Biolog 2
- Dorninant: the allele which prodlrces an effect in an organism evcn in the presence
of an alternative allele
- Co-dominant: thc alleles that each has eqr.ral ef{'Cct in making the traits they
control appear irr ol'fspring.
- Inconrplete dominance: a condition where the cffects of the recessive allele is not
completely nrasked by the dominant allele. It results in blending traits.
- Fl generation: the generation produced by crossing homozygous parental stocks.
- F2 eeneration: the generation produced by ciossing two Fl generations.

Monohybrid cross.
T.his is a cross involving two contrasting allcles in detenrrining er trait. The alleles
for
a trait are always represented by a letter in genetic diagrams, capital
and small letters
for dominant and recessive genes respectively. The following is an example for height
inheritance i n humans.

T:rtl 1:rrr*rit ::['ri:,r't l:*r;rrt

F,rr*tit::: TT ;-i tt
4i;rtri+t*i;.:' TT tt

i.e]t*r"itinri.t.f t Tt.Tt it
Fhrrr+t,;p*: i.ill t.rll t,rll t"ill

i_l
I
 fi{'ri

q
fl+,

EHFIPTER 17
L[ EtrtrLTIEY

l_i Question 1
The table below shows some components found in an ecosystem.

lr 1 niver
Component A Compound B
100 impalas
Compound C
50 hares
Li 70 trees 100 impalas
l

250 hectares of grass 200 zebras I

il-t 17 rocks 4 lions

50 hares
ffi 100 impalas 1{
200 zebras
LIL 4 lions

I= {j 'I I

a. Which of the above component corresponds to

Ll_ i) A population. 1t1

t,
,ll

{i

ii) A coynmunity. i1l

ln1
,il
,i
Ll_ 'b. i) Which of the above components contains abiotic factors? t1l rli

ii) From the cornponents named in b(i), give one example of an abiotic factor,
J- iii) Constiucta food chain using organisms in componentA in figure4.1, ii1
ii
'.1

,l

I [Biology 5A90 l2lz201

$olutions
01
i

I
:

'i

d. i) Component B. l

n
Take note: rl

iilt
JL ln binlngy, the term pnpulaiion refers tn a single spenies. lt can be defined as a grnup rf ,ii

$ interhrueding nrganisms in a sperific reginn.

ii) Component C.
I
llll

I
i

I
i frrr* nate: Iomnrunity cnnsists nf a gr:up lf species living tngether,
b. i) Cbmponent A. r,il
.il
;{
,J
1
i

J-
[ - .,,
o
Take note Abintic facturs are nnn-livjnl parts nf the envirnnment and include water,

temperature, air, light and mineral particles,

ll
id
t,i

,'l';
i
.:

,,;i j
 Biolog,, )
ii) Rock
iii) Grass eaten bv,
lmpalas . "utnn
bY
, LioRS.
_l
" Take note:
A food chain shows a hierarchy nf differer+t living things, each of which feeds on one the une
-I
before,
-l
> CONCISE INFORMATION (ITNVIRONN4ENI' & ITS COMPONEN'|S.)
,/ Environmcnt ir-r eoological terms nleans the surrotttrdings of an orgatiism. lt comprises _l
o[' two colrpol'lcltts as follou's;
i) Biojfq_fagqs: the Iiving collporlcrrt of the environmcrtt irrcludittg living *I
organisnrs such as plants, anirnals, l'ungi, bactcria and other Iiving organisms.
ii) Abiotic factors: the non-livirrg corlponent ol'thc cnvirontlent irrcluding lvater,
lemperatut'c, air, light and mineral particlcs.
*t
?uestion 2
r. What do you understand by the following terms;
3
i) Habitat. 111 EI
ii) Connmunity. ttl
iii) Niche. 1t1 lt
b. i) Give one example
ii)
of a food chain. 1e1
Explain how energy flows through the food chain in b(i) above.
c. Explain the factors which linrit the population growth of a specific organism. l2l
,1s1.
I
[Biology 509al2l Z200Bj
LI
Solutions
r. i) Habitat is the place where the organism lives; has shelter and reproduces. r_l
ii) A community is a group of interacting species in a specific regiQrr (habitat).
iii) Niche is the specific role a given organism plays in an ecosystem. il
b. i) Grass eaten bv Caterpillar eaten bvo Bird
ii) Grass converts light energy into chemical energy by the process of photo
il
synthesis. This energy is stored in form of starch in grass. Grass is eaten by
the caterpillar and the energy is transferred into the body of the caterpillar in
LI
forrn of carbohydrate. The body of the caterpillar uses the energy in
__t
nretabolism, When the bird feeds on the caterpillar, about 1O% of the energy

, , iS obtained from the caterpillar and is used in the bird's metabolism, Only 10%
']
of bnergy from grass is passed to the bird. Tfiis is because most of it is lost
through respiration, egestion and excretion by the caterpillar.
_t
}{T\I.-II I III\IIT mrxrq]Ivl Il:^l^-., a
_t
 Biolog )
c, Factors atfecting population growth of organisms include water, temperature, light
and nutrients. Plants are producers of energy for all other.organisms and they
require water, temperature and light to manufacture food, which other organisms
depend on. Therefore, if these factors are limited, the population growth of
organisms witl be limited too.
4I '
Quesfion3
The fig 17.1 below is an example of an ecosystem.

i t-.i,.,
at
-i:.i *rtr
.....-.g,
'' Yu, ,/' \llrr
t'..a;:ii';"
.a^v. r-._i1.,ji
$9,
31,!'

''''!i"*v
,t, .-. ,,.-. \f \A{ \il iI .,=-, .=*-{*'
-"'^-_-* llert=;raies
i
rI'
" .-.----t'-'t -" .-L-.3'lY--.--.--
,/'.. ;_-_ "
l':Cloles,/

Fig 17.1
(a) (i) What ecosystem is shown in fig 1 7.1? tz)
(ii) What part is played by the plants in the ecosystem in fig 1 7.1? lz)
(b) Explain how light intensity can affect the distribution of plants in the
ecosystem in fig 17 .1. lzl
(c) What role are the tadpoles playing in the ecosystem in fig. 17.1? 121

(d) Which two factor control the population growth rate of the fish in fig 17.1? tzl
I Bi ol o g y/5 0 9t0t 2 I Q4 t2OO7]

Sslution
(a) (i) a pond
(ii) Plants are producers in the ecosystem.
(b) Light affects the growth and the distribution of"p[ants.'Proper light intensity will iffi

ensures plants photosynthesis maximalfy, grows-FnQ sprea,.d in the ffi

eco,system. Very high light intensity and'very.low light intensity can damage
ifl
the plants.
(c) Tadpoles are consumers. They are available as food that provides energy to tfi

- vertebrate and birds.

iiliii
(cl) (i) The plants: availability of piants ensures there is food to provide energy for jilLr
i

survival and growth of fish:

I'
,iili
}iii
(iii Water: plants insnire through water. Without water there wili be no
iffili
al**,
 Biologt /

l t. P coNctse- mpoRulrtoN (scosvsreHa')

,/ An ccosystenr is a specific part of the broader environnrent iri which living things and
norr-living tlripgs interact, exchanging and utilizing substanccs of life in a cycling
nlanncr.
j

'/ Key ternrs of an ecosYstem.

Environnrent: everything'in the surrounding of arr organism that cor"rld pobsibly
infltrerice it. __l
I{abitat: the placc whcrc thc organism lives as shelter and reproduccs' .I
Population: total number of organisns of a species in a particurlar lrabitat. _l
Community: a group of interacting orgarrisrns or species irr a particurlar place (habitaQ
Nicrhe: funotion of a particular species irr arr ecological comnrr"rnity.
,/ Factors al'fecting conrmunitics. __I
Factors atl'ecti ng comrnuln ities incl udc;
- Biotic factors: factors involving a"ctivatiori of living orgatrisms; competition, _t
predation and parasites.
- Abiotic factors: factors which do not involve living organisrns; rainfall,
tenrperaturc, arnount of oxygen e't.c 3
- Human factors: include activities lvhich alter the ecosystem; farrning. forestry,

a/ llncrgy
building and all activities which add pollutants to the atnrosphere and watcr.
t-low.
tt
tt
'['hc zuri is usually the r-rltimate source of energy in the ecosystem. l'hrough the
process of'photosynthesis, g!g1r corrveft energy frorn the sun to chemical energy i4
the lbnn ol'carbohydrates ar-fd other carbon compounds. This energy is then
transf'crred through the ecosystem that involves eating and being eaten, referred to as
chain;
tlrc I'ood r,veb. 'I'lie figure below illustrates an eriergy flow "
LI
Sun
-+
ooIsLllTler
produ
cc r _.+ pri mary consumer----> secondary consLr
:
rner--> tertiary
I
i'r
. (plants or algae) .',

Because of their capacity to produce fcrod for other living organisurs in an ecosystern 1r i

plants are called producers.

,/ Food chain
Food chain is a food relatiorrship amorlg organisnrs. It shor,vs a hierarchy of different
Lt I

living things, each f-eeds on the one 'oelow. '

I

lll.rl'l
tii ttl i_r
it"t..l:riII.it j:r
lilir',t.

I?ood-chains can rarely go beyond third level. This is lrecause only l0% of the energy _[
present in one trophic level is passed on to tlre next.90Yo of the energy is
lgst thror,rgh
respiration, egestion and excretion. By the time a fbod chain.reaches the-fourth
trophic level, there is very little energy available for any higher trophic level.
_t
Irrterlirrked food chains form a food u,eb.
M!\t(flulNtrt ,I.H.E ExFq[i\thIEr{G' mil\IiiTM Riolorrv ?
f
 Biolo
euestion 4
Figure 17 .2(a) and figure 17.2(b) show pyramids of food relatively among organisn
in a forest and a lake.

,i),.r.,1 S
irttl tu r*:i
.Fr.rhT:; i-.r,rc,;,clilat
I ti s *,:, ts Fi sh
t'
Alg.r*
irit"*:t l"rl.+

Fis 17.2(a) Fis 17.2(b)

a. i) Identify the organism found in trophic level labelled A irr figure 17.2(a). 1t1
ii) Whatwould !rDppn if the population of insects in fig 17.2(a) reduced? 121

b. i) What is the ultimate source of energy for both pyramids? t1l

ii) Explain the differences in energy between trophic levels as you go up the
pyramids. L2j
c. Traces of DDT applied on a nearby farm where washed by rain into the lake and
were taken up by the algae in fig 1 7.Z(ff Why was there more DDT in the fourtl*t
trophic level of tig 17.2(b) than those in the first trophic level? 121

[B iology 5090 t2t 220091

Solution
a. i) Plants.
* Take note: The first trophic level c.onsists nf the producers which are plant materials.

ii) Reduction of insect's population would result in increase in plant poputation

and decrease in frogs and owl population.
b.. i) The sun.
* Take note: The sun is usually the ultimate EnErgy source in ecosystems.

ii) As you go up the pyramid, there is reduction in energy levels. This is becaus
energy is lost in each trophic level in metabolism and only 1O% of the energv
is passed to the next level.
c. The metabolism of DDT and excretion is much slower than that of nutrients thal
arq passed from the first trophic level to the next levels. Because of this, most of
the DDT taken in is as gross production is still in the net production that remains
and aecumulates at the fourth trophic level.
 Biolog,2
Y esfion 5
ii
ure 17.3 below shows a pyramid of biomass.

Fig 17.3
(a)

(i) ldentify trophic levels B and C. 12)

(rt) State the names given to organisms that feed at trophic levels B and C.
(lll)Explain wny level C is smaller than the other levels. 121 1

'b) Describe the flow of energy in the pyramid.

i I3l
t
I

[Bi olo gy/5 0 9 0 t 2l Q4 I 20

I
: 1 21

Solution
la) (i) B - primary consumers
C - secondary ionsumers
(ii) B - herbivores

- carnivores
(iii)
C
Because only about 10% of carbon mass is passed on from one trophic :l
level to the next, level C receives very small amount of carbon, hence,
"-
it is smaller than A and B. _l
Plants (autotrophic organisms) are the producers of energy in the pyramid.
@ _t
They convert energy from the sun into energy containing compounds. This
energy is then transferred to the primary consumer after the consumers have
eaten the plants. The primary consumer can also be eaten by secondary
_l
consumers (carnivores), obtaining aboul l0% of the energy which primary
_l
consumers obtained from producers. The other energy is lost through
respiration, egestion and excretion.
__l
L.

iv )
 Question 6
Figure 17.4 shows the results of the study on the finding pattern in i

.:rt*:r l:,++tl* Tig*r {isli

T;,:11: - l:';

Fig 17.4

a. i) Explain what happens to the other organisms at the same trophic level in the
food web when most of the kapenta is harvested from the pond? 1+1

ii)
How do the animals in this foob web use the energy they receive? Isl
b. why do organisms become fewer as you go up each irophic level?
t3l
[BiotogySO1OI}|ZZOO3],,
Solutions ,

d. i) Tadpoles are at the same trophigjevet witn tapenta. The harvesting of most
kapenta wouid^result iri the decrease in population of -tadpoles. This is
because organisms feedirrg on kapenta will have tadpdies as the only source
t, ' of food, hence, creating .orpiilt1on. The competition for tadpoles will also

t, affect the growth of water beetles.and tiger fish:truhich feed on tadpoles.

ii) The energy is used in various'processes of the body including respiraiion,
growth and reproduction among others. tir

L-
irii
iii I

b. Energv is lost as you go up each tiophlc \eve\. Processes

\ha\ rciluCe \he energy
' i

L. transferred between trophic levels include respiration, growth and reproduction,

defecation and non-predatory deaths. Therefore, less energy remains to support
l

the higher trophic levels resulting in reduced populations.

Question 7 ::::i
(a) Explq.in,why green plants are considered as producer.
(b) Explain why only a small proportion of the
energy reaching the surface of the
darth is taken to the carnivores in food chains. j

u
I
IBiotogy/509 Ot}teT t2OOs) I

l,. I
I
 Biolos" 2
solution
(a) Because of their capacity to produce food for other living organisms in an
ecosystem, plants are capacity to produce food for other living organisms in
an ecosystem, plants are called producers. The production of food by green
plants is done by the process of photosynthesis. Through the process of
photosynthesis, plants convert energy from the sua to chemical energy in the''
l'l
form of carbohydrates and other carbon compounds. This energy is then
transferred through the ecosystem that involves eating.and.peing eaten. All
;'l
";
(b) There is great reduction in the amount of energy as you move from one
trophic level to the next trophic level. This explains why the carnivores receive
,-I
"
a very small proportion of the energy reaching the Surface of the earth from
the sun. Herbivores which feed on producers (plants) obtain a large amount of
3I
energy. However, the energy flow from the herbivores to carnivores is only
about 10%'of the total energy received by herbivores from plants. This is
rtl
because about g0% of the energy is lost through respiration, egestion and
excretion. -rl
Quesfion B

Figure 17.5 shows the circulation of carbon dioxide in nature.

,: ;r I.:,it lji,i,;i,,1* i rr

tl'r.: tir o\
\rf;'\
t\ tt,

m,'--, r., I
1,.,....-l
I it rr:.
I.'r .l
l-I
C

j{
.a4

17.5 |,*,ir]
I
[:ig ,.."
ll(

I
a. Nanre the processes represented by the arrows A and B. tzl
b. i) Name the gas produced as a result of process A. Iil

l
ii) . Descrlbe simple chemical test which you would use to identify the gns you
1
have named. 121
.,
c. ln addition to carbon dioxide,'another acidie g:as is released as a result dfurocess
C, ,' :r

1'
r_l
r1*h
 the other gas produced
process C. trlL:y

ii) What is the effect of the gas you have named in (c) above on human health
t1I

[B i ology 5090 I 21 2200 41

Solutions
al
a. Process A represents photosynthesis,
Process B represents respiration.
* Take note:

Photosynthesis and respiration are reversible of each other. [arbon dioxide is used in
photosynthesis to form glucose, while glucose is used in respiration and carbnn dioxide is a by.
p ro du ct.

b. i) Oxygen.
ii) When a glowing splint is put into a sample of oxygen, the splint will burst int,
flame, indicating that the Eas is"oxygen.
* Take note: [Jxygen is the nnly gas whith suppnrts burning.

c. i) Carbon monoxide.

t ii) Carbon monoxide affects the respiratory system when inhaled. lt has a high,
affinity (attraction) for haemoglobin than oxygen; hence it combines with

I j'
haemoglobin, reducing the oxygen transporl to the rest of the body,
Collapsing follows quickly after exposure to carbon monoxide iri humans anr
if the situation is not attended to, can lead to death.
{r
U * Take nate

The afiinity nf irnn (li) in haemnglohin fnr rarhnn mrnnxide is aboui 25[ times greater than its affin
fnr nxygen, Therefure, haemnginbin will cnnrbine with any rarbun monrxide available iii pr.eferenne i
L"rxygEn tn fnrm a relativeiy stahle rnmpnund called carbnxy-haemnglnbin. lf this happens, uxygen is
prevnnted frnrn cumhirrng wiih haemigirlir, aird ihereinre the transpnrt nf oxyge n rrirrrrl the bady
,r ii il r,-r.-l si' pnss ible.
fi

iir.resflom ,";'

(a) With the aici ,:f a Iabeiled diagram, descrihe the carbon cycle. t6l
I
(h) Discuss the eft-ects of defore.-:;iation on the canbon cycle. 16l

1u iolo gy/5 0 9 A Q I Q1 At 2A 1 21

I
 rra=ai6"r: ea 166 n 6 e riw e e n o rQr a n i s in s

and environment. This is described diagrammatically as

toliows. (see carbon

rt\r\u$nxsrxr\U\\\\\\\\N\\\NN
(b) Forests play a very important role in the carbon cycle. Carbon cycle is the flow
of carbon between organisms and the environrnent. Forests serve as major
carbon stores (sink) as carbon dioxide is taken up frorn the atrnosphere anci
used to produce fats, proteins and carbohydrates that constitute trees.
Deforestation disrupts the carbon cycle. ln the process of deforestation trees
are either burnt or cut which releases the carbon stored in trees as carbon r_.!

dioxide. This leads to high concentration of carbon dioxide in the atnrosphere.

Carbon dioxide is the major ccntributor to the greenhouse effect. As carbon
dioxides accrue, it produces a layer in the atmcsphere that traps radlation
from the sun. The radiation converts to that which causes global warrning
(greenhouse effeci).

roNCrsE TNFORN4ATIOIT- (CARBON Cyer_E.)

I Carbon e),cie si-tows the carbon flolv betvi,een orgai:isms and enyironrlent. The fi-{ure
below summarises llie f-low of cartron r-rsually in fc,rm of carbon ,Jioxicle.

t.if h,.:,r''i,li,:.n i ilr i ri

tlit t ir

i ':'11ihLr::ti,:ir1

ir E:it'ii d tt'i,itt+-r
il -.:+il

Photosynthesis is the main process wirich removes carbon dioxide fi"orl the
atrirosphere while respiration, ciecaying and cc,inbustion retain carbon dioxide to the
atnrosphere.
ir
Ir'
lir
' $olutfro'l
Bi';tost'J J

I,J

ii
(a) The carbon cycle refers to th'e movement (flcw) of carbon between organisms .I

llit and environment. This is c.lescribed diagrammatically as follows. (See carbon

li
cycle diagram under concise information) .,
(b) Forests play a very important role in the carbon cycle. Carbon cycle is the flow
of carbon between organisms and the environment. Forests serve as major
carbon stores (sink) as carbon dioxide is taken up frorn the atmosphere and
used to produce fats, proteins and carbohydrates that constitute trees. -l

Deforestation disrupts the carbon cycle. ln the process of deforestation trees

are either burnt or cut which releases the carbon stored in trees as carbon .J

dioxide. This leads to high concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

LI
Carbon dioxide is the major ccntributor to the greenhouse effect. As carbon I
I
,
dioxides accrue, it produces a layer in the atmospher.e that traps radiation
J
from the sun, The radiation converts to that which caiises globai warming i

(greenhouse effect).
-tI
1

IONCISE INFORN,IATIOII (CARBON CYC I-E.i

J
'1 Carbon c1,,'r;is t1',o*s the carbon flow betvlec'n orgailisms and environrnent. The figure I

L-
belor,v summarises tlie flow of carbon usr"raily in fornr of carbon ciioxide. i
I
jJ I

I
I

t-
l

:
1-t
11

!
I

i
JJ
I

a. - rl- I
L,',t.J r.l I i.:,r[-,,:tt', 1,;' 11i i ;r.11i,;l ;:
1
t-
it'r ,rrritlirl:i t

;J

]J
:

J
Photosynthesis is the main process wirich removes carbon crlioxide tron the
atrirosphere while respiration, decaying and coi.ntrustion retain carbon clioxide to the : -
atrnosphere. J

J
 _:\
Biolog'2 -
I Question 10
Figure 17.6 represents the nitrogen cycle,

rrltr,:,g+-ri in tl'r*
;ri r

t-
,

L- I'
l- a;'.
L 7,

+;rtli .rri,:1,:l+,.: :rr,,

t_ \

l_,
Fig 17.6 tr]
a. i) What is the percentage of nitrogen in the air? t1l

rj 'j
ii) Name the substance A and
iii) Name the processes represented by the letters P, Q and
B. lzj
R. t3l
L-; iv) Which process in living animals is represented by the letter S? trl
l b. i) Suggest why it is'essential to include a leguminous crop in crop rotation. 11l

t- ii) What are the three advantages of using organic manure as compared to the
one of chemical fertilizers? tsl
t- i
[Biology 5o9ol2lz2oo11
..-_,

Solutions
t-i a. i) 78%
ii) Substance A is dead organic matter.
L- Substance B is ammonia (NH:)

t- I
* Take note

When plants and animals die. their tissue proteins are decnmposed via aminn acids in ammnnia.
L-
[hemnsyntheiiu hacteria (Nitrosomunas and Niirnbacter) then oxidises ammnnia to nitrate

(nitrification)
L_i
iii) P represents nitrification.
L: Q represents dentrificaiion. :

R represents nitrogen fixation

I

iv) Defeeation /excretion.

:

: #r&-$tr, r*\ffl
F{r\sr"nl [ !!r$ffi l"]& sr\!!::f; 85ff u ffi sE IHTM
 lliolos' 2
" Ta!(e;tofe:
l\ri!n:''vrrti:s and,rxcreta are alsu decnmposed tr ammnnia. lJrea is cnntained in the excretory

prrrJuu I urinc.

b. i) Leguminous plants are essential because they lncrease the nitrate content of
rhe soii.

n
Take note:

Leguminous plants have nitrogen fixing bacteria in their nodules which make cnmpnunds of nitrogen
J

available [nr them,

ii) - Organic manure feeds and builds the soil, bui chemical fertilizers do
nothing to feed the soil. Thus long term use of it leaves the soil depleted
and devoid of life.
- Organic manure is easily made and thus is cheaper composed to chemical
fertilisers which are costly.
- Organic manures are broad spectrum, containing at least 20 nutrients. But
chemicalfertilisers are not broad spectrum, most supplying 3 - 5 nutrients
(basic three : NPK)

coNCrqE TNFORMATTON CNITROGEN CYCLE.)

./ Nitrogen makes up78%o of the atmosphere and is essential for the synthesis of amino
acids, nucleic acids and other nitrogenous products. Below is the nitrogen cycte.

nitr,,:'i:ierr in tlrr
,iir

l,',tt,.,s*r,\ ir"ti et1

I

tltie +rrtir;,ttl
ei c rt ti,:rn

,/ Processes which add nitrate to soil;

Nitrifrcation: the process where ammonia ions are oxidised iuto nitrate or nitrite ions
by nitrobacteria (nitrifying bacteria)
Nil[qgen fixation: process of building the gas nitrogen into compounds of ammonia;
i. Nd'+ 3Hz+3NHt
t,
l,ji,fnit is done by the help of enzymes nitrogenase possessed by the sarne bacteria. l
 Biolog,
L.igl]][rring: lightning has sufficient energy to breal< the molecule N2 which rapidly
bondswith frcs oxygcrl irr the atmosphere. They are dissolved in the rain and are
washed into the soil as weak acids where they fornr nitrates.

/ Processes which renlove nitrates from the soil

Dentr:ifisgtiglr: the process wherc nitrates are converted into nitrites or ammonia,
Dcnitrifying bacteria reverso the work of nitrifying bacteria and reduce the levpls pf
nitrates irr the soil by converting it to gaseours nitrogen.
Uptake of plarrts: plant roots absorb nitrates from the soil and combine them with
carbohydrate to rlake proteins.
Leaching: nitrates are very solubie. Therefore, as rain water passes through the soil, it
dissolves the nitrates and carries them away, in the runoff to deeper layers of the soil.

Question 11

(a) Describe the role played by fungi in the balance of nature. tal
(b) Describe two industrial processes in which fungi are used. L4l
IBiology/5C9 Ol2t QBtz}O4l
i {
1

Solution I
i
'i
1

(a) Fungi play vital roles in the cycling of elements in the ecosystem. The acts acl i
intermediaries between the dead and the living by breaking decaying, dying
and dead organic matter. The fungus breaks the complex forms of dead
matter into their basic constituents, which can then be utilizeC as food and
substances for living organisms, Without fungi to break down all the large
molecules of animals and plant bodies into their simpler constituents, this
material would remain locked up in their dead bodies in a form consumable by
living things, and eventually there would no longer be any basic nutrients
whatsoever for new organisms to consume.
(b) The two industrial processes in which yeast is used are as follow: The use of
fungi (yeast) to make alcohol and carbon dioxide. This fermentation process
breaks down sugars- Wine is composed of fermented grapes. ln baking the
carbon dioxide of fermentation produces the bubbles and causes bread to
rise, while the alcohol produced evaporates off while baking.

Anolher way in which fungi are used industrially in the food industry is in
cheese production. Various cheeses are inoculated with fungi (penicillin
roquefortii) to impart a strong and pungent flavour in the resultant cheeses. l.
I
I
 . d Bioiogt )

T Question 12
Y" (a) Explain the effects of the. following human activities on other organisms.
_. : .
(l) Flshrng t3l
ffi
(ii) Charcoal burning 1ei

{H (b) Describe the undesirable effects of the following types of pollution.

ir
(i) Raw sewage in water. t3l
(ii) Sulphur dioxide in air. tgl
IB i o lo g y/5 0 9 0 t2 t Q1 a t 20 1 0l

Solution
(a) (i) ln an ecosystem fish can be a prey as well as a predator. Fish is a predator
when it is feeding on other smaller organisms, and it is a prey when larger
organisms feed on it. ,
Fishing affects fish directly by reducing its population. Reduction in fish
population decreases predation of fish, thus, increasing the population of the
smaller organisms. Decrease in fish population causes the larger o'rganisms
that feed on fish to lack prey for their food. This will increase the pressure on
the organisms to look for alternative prey and some will eventually die,
redycing their population
,.:
rd
(ii) Charcoal burning has effects on habitats and organisms. The most direct
effect on organisms is destruction or displacement of organisms. When trees
H
are cut for charcoal burning the habitat for the organisms living in the affected ,.H
area is destroyed. As a result some organisms leave the area and others are
destroyed in the process. Another efiect of burning charcoal is the production l:.'

of carbon monoxide from incomplete burning of wood. Carbon monoxide from ;a

. charcoal burning can be lethal.

*carbon monoxide diffuses rapidly via blood vessel membranes. Once it's
iE
present in the bloodstream, CO binds to haemoglobin 200 times more rapidly ;+g
'-:tr
than oxygen. This forms carboxy-heamoglobin (COHb). COHb reduces the
, oxygen carrying capacity of the biood and impairs the release of oxygen from ...'

).{a
.r=
haemoglobin.
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I euestion ls
BiotogY 2

f (a) Explain the importance of

(i) Maintaining biq-diversity 1+1

I* (ii) Earth worms in the soil. t3I

[Biolo gy/50 9 0 t 2l Q7 al ZOOT !

l (i)
Solution
{.1

I-
Biodiversity refers to the genetic variations of life (including all organisms,
species, and populations) and all other complex assemblages of communities

f and ecosystems. lt also refers to the interrelatedness of gens, species, and

ecosystems and their interactions with the environment. -

l Biodiversity is important in various aspects discussed below:

- lt boosts the productivity of natural and agricultural systems. For example,

f insects, bats, birds, and othe; animals serve as pollinators. Parasites and
predators can act as natural pest controls. Various organisms are
responsible for recycling organic materials and maintaining the productivity
ilL of soils.
-1

rr - Genetic diversity is important in terms of evolution. lt ensures there is

variety of genes, the material needed for species and populations to adapt
' to changing conditions or for new species to evolve.
- Biodiversity breeds diversity. Having a diverse array of living organisms

fs allows other organisms to ta(e advantage of the resources provided. For

example, trees provide habitat and nutrients for birds, insects, other plants

r[ and animals, funEi, and microbes.

Biodiversity provides humans with important.services as.fdod, shelter and

lr, " health. Food species for man include those that are hunted, fished, and
gathered as well as those cultivated. Shelter and warmth are obtained
fromtimber and other forest products and fibres such as wool and cotton.
Tree anel other organisms such as fungi and bacteria find their use in
medicine provision.

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"Biolog.r.;
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> CONC ISE INFORMATION (BIODIVERSITY) - v\L
,l A
Biodiversity can be discussed at three levels as follows:

1. Genetic diversity: is all the different genes contained in all,in.dividural plarrts, animals,
fungi, and microorganisms. It occurs r,vithin and between populations of species, as
. well as between different species.
2. Species diversity: is all the differences within and between populations of spccies, as
well as between diffqrent species.
3. Ecosystern diversity: is all the different habitats. biotogical communities, and
ecological processes, as well as variation within individual ecosystems.

Impoftance of maintaining rich biodiversity

I

'Ihe table below, adapted from the Millennium Ecosystem ASSESSMENT outlines the
concept of ecosystem serv,ices and illustrates the importance of nraintaining rich biodiversity
and a healthy environment.

Ecosystem Services
Supportins Provisionin Resulatins Cultural
Nutrient cycling Food Climate Regulation Aesthetic
Prirnary Freshwater Flood regulation Spiritual
production .
Wood and fiber Disease I{egulation Educational
Soil Fuel Water Furification recreational
I
',-
What are the threats to biodiversity?
':,

Flurmarr activities lrave been responsible for species extinction and they have been threats to
biodiversity in various \ a-\/s:
i

I-labitat loss and destruction: human activity an<i population growth has led to loss of t
specics, populations, and ecosystems
- Alteratiotts in ecosysl.crr conrposition: the loss ordecline of a species can lead to a loss
I
of diversity
- The introduction of exotic (non-native) species:"tlris can disrupt entire ecosystems and -
.impact populations of native plants or animals. These invaders can adyersely aff'ect
native species by eating them, infecting thenr, cornpeting with thern, or nrating with
thern'
- The over-exploitation (over-hunting, over-fishing, or over-collecting) of a species or
population can lead to its dernise.
Human-generated pollution and contamination can affect all levels of biodiversity.
- Global climate change can alter environmental conditions. Species and popr;lations may
be lost if they are unable to adapt to lrew corrditions or relocate.

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