CE0029

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 1

LESSON 6
SOIL COMPACTION
• Describe laboratory compaction test methods
• Describe field compaction
• Discuss some contractor’s specification requirements for
compaction
In the construction of highway embankments, earth dams, and many other
engineering structures, loose soils must be compacted to increase their unit
weights.

Compaction increases the strength characteristics of soils, which increase the

bearing capacity of foundations constructed over them. Compaction also
decreases the amount of undesirable settlement of structures and increases the
stability of slopes of embankments.
Smooth-wheel rollers, sheepsfoot
rollers, rubber-tired rollers, and
vibratory rollers are generally used
in the field for soil compaction.
Sheepsfoot roller
Smooth-wheel roller

Rubber-tired roller Vibratory roller

Compaction, in general, is the densification of soil by removal of air, which requires
mechanical energy. The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in terms of its
dry unit weight.
The dry unit weight after compaction
first increases as the moisture content
increases. Note that at a moisture
content 𝑤 = 0, the moist unit weight
𝛾 is equal to the dry unit weight
𝛾𝑑 , or

𝛾 = 𝛾𝑑 𝑤=0 = 𝛾1
When the moisture content is
gradually increased and the same
compactive effort is used for
compaction, the weight of the soil
solids in a unit volume gradually
increases. For example, at 𝑤 = 𝑤1 ,

𝛾 = 𝛾2

However, the dry unit weight at this

moisture content is given by
𝛾𝑑 𝑤=𝑤1 = 𝛾𝑑 𝑤=0 + ∆𝛾𝑑
Beyond a certain moisture content
𝑤 = 𝑤2 , any increase in the moisture
content tends to reduce the dry unit
weight.

The moisture content at which the

maximum dry unit weight is attained is
generally referred to as the optimum
moisture content.
The laboratory test generally used to obtain the maximum dry unit weight of
compaction and the optimum moisture content is called the Proctor
compaction test.
In the Proctor test, the soil is compacted
in a mold that has a volume of 944 cm3.
The diameter of the mold is 101.6 mm.

The soil is mixed with varying amounts of

water and then compacted in three equal
layers by a hammer that delivers 25
blows to each layer.

The hammer has a mass of 2.5 kg and

has a drop of 305 mm.
Mold Hammer
For each test, the moist unit weight of
compaction, 𝛾, can be calculated as

𝑊
𝛾=
𝑉𝑚
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑊 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑑
𝑉𝑚 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑑 (944 𝑐𝑚3 )

Mold Hammer
With the known moisture content
determined from laboratory, the dry unit
weight can be calculated as
𝛾
𝛾𝑑 =
𝑤 %
1+
100

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑤 % = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡

Mold Hammer
 compaction energy
per unit volume

The procedure for the standard Proctor

test is elaborated in ASTM Test
Designation D-698 (ASTM, 2007) and
AASHTO Test Designation T-99
(AASHTO, 1982).
The values of 𝛾𝑑 can be plotted against
the corresponding moisture contents to
obtain the maximum dry unit weight and
the optimum moisture content for the soil.

Compaction curve for a silty-clay soil

The laboratory test results of a standard Proctor test are given in the following table:
Weight of moist soil Moisture content,
Volume of Mold (ft3)
in mold (lb) w(%)
1
3.78 10
30
1
4.01 12
30
1
4.14 14
30
1
4.12 16
30
1
4.01 18
30
1
3.90 20
30
Determine the maximum dry unit weight of compaction and the optimum moisture
content.
Solution: Weight of
Volume of moist soil Moisture
𝜸 𝒍𝒃/𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝜸𝒅 𝒍𝒃/𝒇𝒕𝟑
Mold 𝒇𝒕𝟑 in mold content, w %
𝑊 𝒍𝒃
𝛾
𝛾𝑑 = = 𝑉 1
1+𝑤 1+𝑤 30
3.78 10 113.4 103.09

1
4.01 12 120.3 107.41
30
1
4.14 14 124.2 108.95
30
1
4.12 16 123.6 106.55
30
1
4.01 18 120.3 101.95
30
1
3.90 20 117 97.5
30
Solution:
When 𝛾𝑑 is plotted against 𝑤 and the
best fit curve is drawn, we can see that
the maximum dry unit weight 𝜸𝒅(𝒎𝒂𝒙) =
𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒍𝒃/𝒇𝒕𝟑 and the optimum moisture
content is 𝟏𝟒. 𝟒%.
The compaction energy per unit volume used for the standard Proctor test can
be given as

2.5 𝑥 9.81
(25)(3) 1000 𝑘𝑁 (0.305 𝑚) 𝑘𝑁 − 𝑚 𝒌𝑵 − 𝒎
𝐸= = 594 ≈ 𝟔𝟎𝟎
944 𝑥 10−6 𝑚3 𝑚3 𝒎𝟑
The following are observations regarding compaction effort:

As the compaction effort is increased, the maximum dry unit weight of

1 compaction is also increased.

As the compaction effort is increased, the optimum moisture content is

2
decreased to some extent.
The standard Proctor test was modified to represent better field conditions.
This revised version is referred to as the modified Proctor test. For conducting
the modified Proctor test, the same volume of mold is used. However, the soil
is compacted in five layers by a hammer that has a mass of 4.54 kg. The drop
of the hammer is 457 mm. The number of hammer blows for each layer is kept
at 25 as in the case of the standard Proctor test.
The compaction energy for this type of compaction test can be calculated as
𝑘𝑁−𝑚
2700 .
𝑚3

Because it increases the compactive effort, the modified Proctor test results in
an increase in the maximum dry unit weight of the soil. The increase in the
maximum dry unit weight is accompanied by a decrease in the optimum
moisture content.
In most specifications for earthwork, the contractor is instructed to achieve a
compacted field dry unit weight of 90 to 95% of the maximum dry unit weight
determined in the laboratory by either the standard or modified Proctor test.
This is a specification for relative compaction, which can be expressed as

𝛾𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝑅(%) = 𝑥100
𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑙𝑎𝑏)
For the compaction of granular soils, specifications sometimes are written in
terms of the required relative density 𝐷𝑟 or the required relative compaction.

𝑅0
𝑅=
1 − 𝐷𝑟 1 − 𝑅0

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛)
𝑅0 =
𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥)
The maximum and minimum dry unit weights of a sand were determined in the
laboratory to be 18.31 kN/m3 and 15.25 kN/m3, respectively.

a) What is the relative compaction in the field if the relative

density is 64%?
b) What is the dry unit weight in the field?
c) What is the moist unit weight in the field if its moisture content
is 28%?
The maximum and minimum dry unit weights of a sand
were determined in the laboratory to be 18.31 kN/m3 and
15.25 kN/m3, respectively. b) 𝛾𝑑(𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑)
𝑅=
𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑙𝑎𝑏)
a) What is the relative compaction in the
𝛾𝑑(𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑)
field if the relative density is 64%? 0.933 =
18.31
b) What is the dry unit weight in the field?
c) What is the moist unit weight in the field
𝛾𝑑(𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑) = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟎𝟖 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑
if its moisture content is 28%?

Solution:
𝑅0
a) 𝑅= c) 𝛾
1 − 𝐷𝑟 (1 − 𝑅0 ) 𝛾𝑑 =
1+𝑤
𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) 15.25
𝑅0 = = = 0.8329 𝛾
𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥) 18.31 17.08 =
1 + 0.28
0.8329
𝑅= = 0.933 = 𝟗𝟑. 𝟑% 𝛾 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟖𝟔 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑
1 − 0.64(1 − 0.8329)
The standard procedures for determining field unit weight of compaction
include

1 Sand cone method

2 Rubber balloon method

3 Nuclear method
 Sand cone method

The sand cone device consists of a glass or plastic

jar with a metal cone attached to it. The jar is filled
with uniform dry Ottawa sand.
 Sand cone method

In the field, a small hole is excavated in the area where the soil has been
compacted. After excavation, the cone with the sand-filled jar attached to it
is inverted and placed over the hole. Sand is allowed to flow out of the jar to
fill the hole and the cone.
𝑊1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑎𝑟, 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑎𝑟
𝑊2 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒

𝑊3 = 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

𝑊2
=
𝑤(%) 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
1+
100
𝑊4 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑎𝑟, 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑎𝑟
𝑊5 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑊1 − 𝑊4
 Sand cone method

To determine the volume of the excavated hole:

𝑊5 − 𝑊𝑐
𝑉=
𝛾𝑑(𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑)
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: determined
𝑊𝑐 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 from the
𝛾𝑑(𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑) = 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑤𝑎 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 calibration in
the lab

To determine the dry unit weight of compaction:

𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑊3
𝛾𝑑 = =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑉
Sand cone method

Before Use After Use

= - -

Mass of sand Mass of jar + Mass of sand Mass of jar +

used to fill the cone + sand used to fill the cone + sand
hole (Before Use) cone (After Use)
 Rubber balloon method

The procedure for the rubber balloon method is similar to that for the sand
cone method; a test hole is made and the moist weight of soil is removed
from the hole and its moisture content are determined.

However, the volume of the hole is determined by introducing into it a rubber

balloon filled with water from a calibrated vessel, from which the volume can
be read directly.
 Nuclear method

Nuclear density meters are often used for determining the compacted
dry unit weight of soil. It uses a radioactive isotope source. The
instrument measures the weight of wet soil per unit volume and the
weight of water present in a unit volume of soil.

Nuclear density meter

The following are the results of a field unit-weight determination test performed by means of
the sand cone method:

• Calibrated dry density of Ottawa sand = 1570 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

• Calibrated mass of Ottawa sand to fill the cone = 0.545 𝑘𝑔
• Mass of jar + cone + sand (before use) = 7.59 𝑘𝑔
• Mass of jar + cone + sand (after use) = 4.78 𝑘𝑔
• Mass of moist soil from hole = 3.007 𝑘𝑔
• Moisture content of moist soil = 10.2%

Determine the dry unit weight of compaction in the field.

Solution:
Mass of sand used to fill the hole and cone = 7.59 𝑘𝑔 − 4.78 𝑘𝑔 = 2.81 𝑘𝑔

Mass of sand used to fill the hole = 2.81 𝑘𝑔 − 0.545 𝑘𝑔 = 2.265 𝑘𝑔

2.265 𝑘𝑔 2.265 𝑘𝑔
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑉 = = 3
= 1.44 𝑥 10−3 𝑚3
𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑤𝑎 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 1570 𝑘𝑔/𝑚

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 3.007

𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 = = −3 = 2,084.32 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 1.44 𝑥 10

(2084.32)(9.81)
𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 = = 20.45 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3
1000
𝛾 20.45
𝛾𝑑 = = = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟓𝟓 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑
𝑤(%) 10.2
1 + 100 1 + 100
The grain-size distribution of the backfill material is The smaller the value of SN, the more
an important factor that controls the rate of desirable the backfill material. Following
densification. Brown (1977) has defined a quantity is a backfill rating system proposed by
called the suitability number for rating backfill as Brown:

Range of SN Rating as backfill

3 1 1
𝑆𝑁 = 1.7 2 + 2 + 2 0 – 10 Excellent
𝐷50 𝐷20 𝐷10
10 – 20 Good

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 20 – 30 Fair
𝐷50 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 50% 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 30 – 50 Poor
𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝐷20 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 20% 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 >50 Unstable
𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝐷10 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 10% 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
Following are the details for the backfill material used in a vibroflotation project:
• 𝐷10 = 0.36 𝑚𝑚
• 𝐷20 = 0.52 𝑚𝑚
• 𝐷50 = 1.42 𝑚𝑚

Determine the suitability number SN. What would be its rating as a backfill material?

Solution:

3 1 1 3 1 1
𝑆𝑁 = 1.7 2 + 2 + 2 = 1.7 + + = 𝟔. 𝟏𝟏
𝐷50 𝐷20 𝐷10 1.422 0.522 0.362

Rating: Excellent
 Cost
m3 Borrow pit Void ratio
A proposed embankment fill requires 8000 of compacted soil. The void $/𝒎𝟑
ratio of the compacted fill is specified as 0.7. Four borrow pits are
available as described in the following table, which lists the respective A 0.84 12
void ratios of the soil and the cost per cubic meter for moving the soil to B 0.78 10
the proposed construction site. Make the necessary calculations to select
C 0.96 7
the pit from which the soil should be bought to minimize the cost. Assume
𝐺𝑠 to be the same at all pits. D 1.3 9

Solution:
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉𝑣 + 𝑉𝑠
8000 = 𝑒𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑠
8000 = (0.7)𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑠

𝑉𝑠 = 4,705.88 𝑚3
 Borrow pit Void ratio Cost $/𝒎𝟑

A 0.84 12

B 0.78 10
Solution:
Borrow Pit A: Borrow Pit C: C 0.96 7

𝑉𝑣 𝑉𝑇 − 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑣 𝑉𝑇 − 𝑉𝑠 D 1.3 9
𝑒= = 𝑒= =
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑇 − 4705.88 𝑉𝑇 − 4705.88
0.84 = 0.96 =
4705.88 4705.88
𝑉𝑇 = 8658.82 𝑉𝑇 = 9223.53
$12 $7
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 8658.82𝑚3 = $ 103,905.88 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 9223.53𝑚3 = $ 64,564.71
𝑚3 𝑚3
Borrow Pit B: Borrow Pit D: ∴ 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝐵𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑃𝑖𝑡 𝐶

𝑉𝑣 𝑉𝑇 − 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑣 𝑉𝑇 − 𝑉𝑠
𝑒= = 𝑒= =
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑇 − 4705.88 𝑉𝑇 − 4705.88
0.78 = 1.3 =
4705.88 4705.88
𝑉𝑇 = 8376.47 𝑉𝑇 = 10823.53
$10 $9
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 8376.47 𝑚3 = $ 83,764.71 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 10823.53 𝑚3 = $ 97,411.76
𝑚3 𝑚3
Borrow Pit A

Borrow Pit B

Embankment

Borrow Pit C

Borrow Pit D
Das, Braja M., and Khaled Sobhan. (2014). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. Cengage Learning.

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Smooth-wheel-roller_fig1_335219148

https://gharpedia.com/blog/soil-compaction-with-sheepsfoot-roller/

https://www.wirtgen-group.com/en-ro/applications/earthworks/soil-compaction/

https://durhamgeo.com/product/sand-cone-apparatus/

http://www.utest.com.tr/en/23174/RoadReader-Nuclear-Density-Gauges

https://www.rbauction.com/vibratory-roller?cid=13135657558

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tqHNK67IgG4&t=1s