SOIL

CONSOLIDATION/COMPRESSIBILITY
Compressibility of Soil

The increase in stress caused by foundation and other

loads compresses a soil layer. Possible causes are:
1. deformation of soil particles
2. relocations of soil particles
3. expulsion of air or water from the void spaces

Categories of soil settlement

1. Immediate settlement – due to elastic deformation of dry, moist, and

saturated soil without change in moisture content .
2. Primary consolidation settlement – due to volume change in saturated
cohesive soils due to expulsion of water that occupied the void spaces
3. Secondary consolidation settlement – due to plastic adjustment of soil
fabrics. It is an additional form of compression that occurs at constant
effective stress.
 ONE DIMENSIONAL PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
Basic settlement formula

ΔH
Voids eHS
e’HS Voids

H=HS(1+e)
H’=HS(1+e’)
Solids HS Solids

Original state Compressed state

Let e =e0 =void ratio before the vertical load is applied

Where:

H = thickness of stratum
e0 =void ratio before the vertical load is applied
e’ =void ratio after the vertical load is applied
A. Primary Consolidation Settlement

1. Normally Consolidated Clays

Normally consolidated clays are those whose present effective overburden
pressure is the maximum pressure that the soil was subjected to in the past.
The maximum effective past pressure is called the preconsolidation
pressure.

ΔH= primary consolidation settlement

Cc = compression index
Cc = 0.009 (LL – 10)
eo = in situ void ratio
H = thickness of clay layer
Δp = average increase of effective stress on clay layer
po = average effective stress at the mid-height of clay layer
2. Over Consolidated Clays
Over consolidated clays are those whose present effective overburden
pressure is less than that which the soil experienced in the past.

1. when Po + ΔP < Pc

2. when Po + ΔP > Pc

Where:
Pc = preconsolidation pressure
Cs = swell index (ranges from 1/5 to 1/10 of Cc)
 Compression Index
Skempton
remolded clay
Undisturbed clay

Rendon - Herreo

Nishida
all clays
Swell Index
Swell index is usually smaller than the compression index and in most cases

Nagaray and Murty

B. Secondary Consolidation Settlement
C. Immediate Settlement
Immediate or elastic settlement of foundation occur directly after
the application of the load without change in moisture content. This
depends on the flexibility of the foundation and the type of material
which it is resting.

Immediate settlement of foundation resting on elastic material of

finite thickness
 Table 1: Influence Factors for Foundation

Table 2: Values of Poisson’s Ratio

Table 3:Values of Modulus of Elasticity

Total settlement of foundations

The total settlement of foundation is the sum of the primary, secondary and
Immediate settlement thus:
Overconsolidation ratio

Calculation of consolidation settlement under a foundation

Time rate of consolidation
The time required to achieve a certain degree of consolidation is evaluated
as a function of the shortest drainage path within the compressible zone ,
coefficient of consolidation and a dimensionless time factor.
Table 4 : Variation of Tv with U
Degree of consolidation at a distance z at any time

Average Degree of consolidation for entire depth at any time

 Coefficient of consolidation

Coeffecient of Volume compressibility

Problem

The soil profile shown in figure is to carry a surcharge of 60 kPa applied at the
ground surface. The result of laboratory consolidation test conducted on a
specimen taken from the middle of the clay layer is also shown. Calculate the
settlement in the field caused by primary consolidation due to surcharge.

Figure:

60 kPa

Clay
6m
 Laboratory consolidation Test results
1.12

1.10
Void ratio e’

1.08

1.06

1.04

1.02

1.00
10 20 40 60 80 100
Pressure, kPa
Solution:
Given : e=1.1, Δp=60 kPa, H = 6m, γsat=18.2 kN/m3

Pressure at mid-height of clay layer

How to determine e’( void ratio after the surcharge load is applied)
a) compute Po+ΔP
b) Project vertically (Po + ΔP) on the laboratory result graph
c) Project horizontally e’ on the laboratory result graph
 Laboratory consolidation Test results
1.12

1.10
Void ratio e’

1.08

1.06
e’=1.047
1.04

1.02

1.00
10 20 40 60 80 100
Pressure, kPa
85.17 kPa
Settlement due to primary consolidation
Problem

A soil profile is shown below. A uniformly distributed load Δp=50 kPa is applied at
the ground surface. Assume Cs = 1/5Cc. Determine the settlement of clay caused
by primary consolidation if: a) the clay is normally consolidated b) the preconsolidation
pressure pc is 210 kPa c) the preconsolidation pressure pc = 150 kPa.

Figure: Δp=50 kPa

3m sand
γdry=16 kN/m3

6m sand
γsat=18.5 kN/m3

clay
8m γsat=19 kN/m3
eo=0.95
LL =50
sand
Solution:
a) Normally consolidated Clay

Initial effective stress at mid-height of clay layer

b) 0ver consolidated Clay pc=210 kPa
po+Δp < pc

c) 0ver consolidated Clay pc=150 kPa

po+Δp > pc
Problem

A 2 m clay layer (G=2.72, e =0.92,Cc=1/3) is overlain with 3 m thick sand

(G=2.62, e=0.5,ω=0). The water table is 1.5 m below the ground(sand) surface.
If a 3m thick landfill (γ=17.3 kN/m3) is placed over the existing ground surface,
compute the consolidation settlement of the clay layer.

Figure:

Landfill
3m
γ=17.3 kN/m3

sand
1.5 m e=0.5
G=2.62
1.5 m

Clay
2m e=0.92
G=2.72
 Solution
Unit weight of soil
Sand above water table

Sand below water table (submerged)

Clay (submerged)
Initial effective stress at mid-height of clay layer

Average increase of effective stress on clay layer(due to landfill)

Problem

A normally consolidated clay 3 m thick has the following properties:

Initial void ratio e0 = 0.8

Compression index Cc = 0.25
Average effective pressure po= 125 kPa
Expected pressure increase Δp=45 kPa
Secondary Compression index Ca = 0.02
Time for completion of primary settlement=1.5 years

What is the total settlement of the clay layer five years after the completion
of the primary settlement ?
Solution:
Primary consolidation settlement
Secondary consolidation settlement

Solve for Δe using primary consolidation settlement equations

Total consolidation settlement
Problem

A rigid column footing 1.2 m in diameter is constructed on unsaturated clay layer.

The load on the footing is 170 kN. If E = 6900 kPa and μ=0.20, compute its
immediate settlement.

Solution

Determine If using Table 1

Immediate settlement
Problem

It is desired to calculate the consolidation settlement 0f a 3 m thick clay layer shown

in figure that would result from the load carried by the footing measuring 3 m by 1.5 m.
Assume the clay to be normally consolidated and the load of footings result to an
increase of pressure of 23.2 kPa, 12.22 kPa, and 6.1 kPa at the top, midheight and
bottom of the clay layer. Assume that the pressure increase varies parabolically
And use Simpson’s rule to calculate the average pressure increase.

Determine the following:

a) Overburden pressure at the base of the footing
b) Average pressure increase in the clay layer
c) Initial effective stress at the midheight of the clay layer
d) Primary consolidation settlement of the clay layer
 1500 kN
Figure: Solution
a) Overburden Pressure at the footing base
the pressure at the base of the footing due
1.5 m to height of soil above the base of the footing
Footing size 3 m x 1.5 m
3.0 m Dry Sand
γdry=14.8 kN/m3

Sand
1.5 m
γsat=18.5 kN/m3
clay b) Average increase in pressure in the clay
3.0 m γsat=19 kN/m3 layer
LL = 50
eo=1.0
c) initial effective pressure at midheight of clay layer

d) Primary consolidation settlement of clay layer

Problem
A surcharge of 120 kPa is applied on the ground surface on the soil profile
shown in figure.
a) How high will the water rise in the piezometer tube immediately after the
application of the load ?
b) What is the degree of consolidation at point D when h = 6m ?
c) Find h when the degree of consolidation at D is 80%

120 kPa

6m Sand
4.6 m

3.6 m Clay
D
a) Height that water rise in the piezometer tube immediately after the
application of the load

b. Degree of consolidation at point D when h = 6m

b. h when the degree of consolidation at point D is 80%

Problem

Under a given surcharge, a 5m thick clay layer has a consolidation settlement of

Of 305 mm. Cv=0.003 cm2/sec.
a) What is the average degree of consolidation for the clay layer when the
settlement is 75 mm ?
b) How long will it take for 50% consolidation to occur if the layer is drained at
the top only ?
c) How long will it take for 50% consolidation to occur if the layer is drained at
the both ends ?
Solution:
a) average degree of consolidation for the clay layer when the
settlement is 75 mm ?

b) Time for 50% consolidation to occur if the layer is drained at

the top only

. Cv=0.003 cm2/sec
 b) Time for 50% consolidation to occur if the layer is drained at both ends

Problem:

A 3.2 m thick layer of saturated clay under a surcharge loading underwent 90%
Primary consolidation in 80 days with two way drainage.
a) Determine the coefficient of consolidation for the pressure range
b) For a 10-cm thick specimen of the said clay, how long will it take to undergo
90% consolidation in the laboratory for the same pressure range ?
Solution:

t=80 days
t=80x24x3600 =6912000 sec

b) Time to undergo 90% consolidation in the laboratory

Problem

Under normal loading condition, a 3.6 m thick clay (normally consolidated) has
po=190 kPa and e0=1.22 The hydraulic conductivity of the clay for the loading range
is 6.1 x10-5 m/day. A surcharge of 190 kPa reduces its void ratio to 0.98.
a) What is the coefficient of volume compressibility of clay ?
b) What is the coeffecient of consolidation of the clay ?
c) How long will it take for this clay layer to reach 60% consolidation if it is
drained on one side only

Solution:
a) Coeffecient of volume of compressibility of clay
b) coeffecient of consolidation of clay

c) Time for 60% consolidation of clay

Problem

The following data were obtained from a laboratory consolidation test on a 30 mm

thick clay specimen drained on both sides.
Pressure (kPa) Void ratio
60 0. 87
150 0.72
time for 60% consolidation = 3.2 minutes
a) Determine the coeffecient of volume compressibility in m2/kN
b) Determine the hydraulic conductivity for the loading range
Solution:
a) Coeffecient of volume of compressibility of clay
b) hydraulic conductivity for the loading range
Thank You...
Shear Strength of Soil

The shear strength of soil maybe attributed to three basic components.

1. Frictional resistance to sliding between soil particles
2. Cohesion and adhesion between particles.
3. Interlocking and bridging of solid particles to resist deformation.

A material fail because of the critical combination of normal and

shearing stress. Thus a failure plane can be expressed a function of normal
and shearing stress thus,

Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria

Shearing stress τ

Z Mohr Failure envelope

Y Note: if A passes through (0,0)

A X then c=0
c Mohr- Coulomb
Failure criteria
0,0 Normal stress σ
Mohr Failure envelope and Mohr- Coulomb Failure Criteria

Failure Plane

Applied stress on soil

Shearing stress τ

c
0,0 Normal stress σ

MOHR CIRCLE
Direct Shear test
Direct shear test is the simplest shear test. The test equipment consist of a metal
Sheet box in which the soil sample is placed. The size of the sample is usually
50 mm by 50 mm or 100 mm x 100 mm across and 25 mm high. The box is split
horizontally into halves. A normal force is applied from the top of the shear box.
shear force is applied by moving half of the box relative to each other to cause
failure in the soil sample.

Normal Force
Porous stone

Loading plate
Shear Force
Soil Specimen

Porous stone
Soil Specimen

Direct Shear Test Arrangement

Problem

Direct shear test were performed on a dry, sandy soil. The specimen is 50 mm in
diameter and 25 mm in height. Test results are as follows

Test No. Normal force, N Shear force,V

1 243 124
2 268 137
3 352 179
4 412 210

Determine the cohesion and angle of internal friction.

Solution: Graph the test results using Mohr-Coulomb Failure criteria

cross sectional area of specimen
Test Normal stress,kPa Shear stress, kPa
1

4
 120
Test 4 106.9
100 Test 3
91.2
Shear stress,kPa
80
Test 2
Test 1 69.8
60 63.1

40
63.1
20
123.8
0 50 100123.8 150 200 250
179.3
136.5 209.8

Normal stress,kPa

Angle of internal friction:

Cohesion
Since the graph passes through (o,o)
Problem

A direct shear test is performed in a specimen of dry sand. The shear box is
circular in cross section with a diameter of 50 mm. Then normal force imposed
on the specimen is 250 N when the shear force is 150N. Determine the angle
of internal friction of this sand.
Solution:

cross sectional area of specimen

 For dry sand c=0 (cohesionless)

Problem

A 6 m thick soil has a water table 4 m below the ground surface. The soil
above the water table has degree of saturation of 45%, void ratio of the
soil is 0.4 and the solids have a specific gravity of 2.7. Test shows that
The soil have angle of internal friction of 320 and cohesion of 14.6 kPa.
What is the potential shear a strength on a horizontal plane at a depth of
2 m below the ground surface ?
Figure
eo=0.4 c=14.6 kPa
4m S =45% ø=320
Gs=2.7

2m
 Solution:

Normal stress is equal to effective stress 2 m from the ground surface

Moist unit weight of soil 4 m below

eo=0.4 c=14.6 kPa 2m the ground surface
4m S =45% ø=320
Gs=2.7

2m

Potential shear strength

 (b)

a) Schematic Diagram of Triaxial Test Apparatus

b) State of stress on an incremental element in the soil sample
 TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST (
SINGLE TEST)

Plane of
Failure
Mohr’s
Strength
R
envelope
O
C
Deviator
stress

SINGLE TEST ON
COHESIONLESS SOIL
 TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST (
SINGLE TEST)

Plane of
Failure

Mohr’s
Strength R
envelope
c
O
C
Deviator
stress

SINGLE TEST ON
COHESIVE SOIL
Problem
In a triaxial test for a soil sample , when the principal stress are 270 kPa and 40
kPa, the soil fails along a plane making an angle of 680 with the horizontal.
What is the cohesion of the soil in kPa.

Solution:
Deviator stress: 270-40 = 230

R=1/2(230)=115
B

R=115
D
c
A E 115 C
230
40
270 AE=AC-40-115
AE=159.87-40-115 =4.869

c=5.04 kPa
Problem

In a triaxial test, a specimen of saturated sand was consolidated under a

chamber confining pressure of 80 kPa. The axial stress on the specimen was
then increased by allowing the drainage of the specimen. The specimen fails at
120 kPa. What is the consolidated undrained friction angle ?

Solution: Deviator stress 120-80=40

R= ½(40) =20

undrained friction angle

80+20=100

R=20

20
80 40

120
 Problem
A cohesionless soil sample is subjected to a triaxial test. The critical state
friction angle of the soil is 280 and the normal effective stress at failure is 200 kPa.
Determine the following :
a) Critical state shear stress Critical state shear stress
b) Deviator stress
Solution:

Deviator stress
A

O 280
200 200 B
A

R
R=120.44 kPa
O C
UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST (UNIAXIAL)

R
 Problem

A consolidated undrained compression test was conducted on a saturated clay soil

by isotropically consolidating the soil using a cell pressure of 150 kPa and then
incrementally applying the load on the plunger while keeping the cell pressure
constant. Failure was observed when the stress exerted by the plunger is 160 kPa
and the pore water pressure was recorded to be 54 kPa. Determine the following:
a) Undrained friction angle
b) Undrained shear strength of clay
c) Drained friction angle
Solution:
a) Undrained friction angle

Deviator stress = 310-150=160

R=80 R= 160/2 =80

150 160
310
b) Undrained shear strength of clay
c) Drained Friction angle
Deviator stress = 256-96=160

R’= 160/2 =80

Drained condition

Undrained condition

R’

96
150
256

310
 Problem
A sample of moist sand was subjected to a series of triaxial test. The soil fail
under the following stresses:
Cell Pressure, Plunger stress,
Sample 1 16 kPa 36 kPa
Sample 2 27 kPa 58 kPa
What is the angle of internal friction of the soil ?
Solution

R2
R1
16

36
27
58