DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 306 559 CS 009 660

AUTHOR Heiman, Marcia, Ed.; Slomianko, Joshua, Ed.

TITLE Thinking Skills Instruction: Concepts and Techniques.
Building Students' Thinking Skills Series.
INSTITUTION National Education Association, Washington, D.C.
REPORT NO ISBN-0-8106-0201-6
PUB DATE 87
NOTE 313p.
AVAILABLE FROM NEA Professional Library, P.O. Box 509, West Haven,
CT (Stock No. 0201-6, $15.95).
PUB TYPE Books (010) -- Guides - Classroom Use - Guides (For
Teachers) (052)

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DESCRIPTORS Creative Thinking; *Critical Thinking; Curriculum
Development; Decision Making; Elementary Secondary
Education; Learning Strategies; *Problem Solving;
Teaching Methods
IDENTIFIERS Higher Order Skills; Thinking across the Curriculum;
*Thinking Skills

ABSTRACT
This book is a collection of essays on thinking
skills instruction and includes the following chapters and their
authors: "Encounter with Thinking" (H. Anderson); "Thinking Skills:
Neither an Add-on nor a Quick Fix" (A. Costa); "Teaching for
Thinking, of Thinking, and about Thinking" (J. McTighe); "Thinking
and Curriculum: Critical Crossroads for Educational Change" (B.
Presseisen); "Critical Thinking and the Curriculum" (R. Ennis);
"Conversation with David N. Perkins"; "Critical Thinking Attitudes
and the Transfer Question" (A. Swartl); "Thinking across the
Discillines: Methods and Strategi- to Promote Higher-Order Thinking
in Every Classroom" (D. Halpern); "Practice Is Not Enough" (B.
Beyer); "Learning to Learn: Improving ITL:king Skills across the
Curriculum" (M. Heiman); "A Strategy fol. Developing Dialectical
Thinking Skills" (J. Rudinow and R. Paul); "Strategies for Active
Involvement in Problem Solving" (J. Karmos andA. Karmos);
"Restructuring What We Teach to Teach for Critical Thinking" (R.
Swartz); "Developing Metacognition in Composition with Peer Response
Groups" (L. Meeks); "Basics in Bloom" (N. Hoelzel); "Teaching
Thinking to Teach Literature while Teaching Literature to Teach
Thinking" (N. Yeager); "Using Thinking Skills in Modified ESL" (P.
Jaynes); "The Direct Teaching of Analysis" (R. Charlton);
"Conversation with Arthur Whimbey"; "Teaching Precise Processing
through Writing Instruction" (K. Didsbury); "Thinking about Learning:
An Anarchistic Approach to Teaching Problem Solving" (J. Lochhead);
"Holistic Thinking Skills Instruction: An Interdisciplinary Approach
to Improving Intellectual Performance" (W. Sadler, Jr.); "Cognitive
Modifiability in Adolescence: Cognitive Structure and Effects of
Intervention" (R. Feuerstein and others); "Using Vocabulary Study to
Generate Thinking" (E. Roberts); "Teaching Critical Thinking: Are We
Making Critical Mistakes? Possible Solutions" (R. Sternberg); "The
Direct Teaching of Thinking as a Skill" (E. de Bono); "Developing
Students' Thinking Skills through Multiple Perspectives" (R. Rubin);
"Developing Thinking Skills in Music Rehearsal Class" (D. Reahm);
"Developing Higher-Order Thinking Skills in Home Economics: A Lesson
Plan" (N. Watts); "Using Literature to Develop Critical Thinking
Skills" (M. Tymoczko); "Questioning in a Writing Program to Develop
Thinking" (P. Flemming); "Simulation and Thinking" (R. Levitsky);
"The Pre-Contact Time American Indian: A Study in the Meaning and
Development of Culture--A Teaching Unit" (J. Feeser); "Think Metric"
(D. Gallo); and "The Art of Socratic Reasoning" (E. Skorpen). (MS)
 Thinking Skills
Instruction:
Concepts and
Techniques
Marcia Heiman
Joshua Slomianko
Editors

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS

MATERIAL IN MICROFICHE ONLY
.
Othce
$ )FPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
and Improvement
Lducat.orat Research

HAS BEEN GRANTED BY EDUCATtONALCENTER (ERIC)

has been reproduced as
u
C In.- dccment
i\S/1 \ reee,vedI rem the pereen c otganIzahon
ongmahng d
have been made to improve
O Mince changes
teerceuCteDh (Wahl),
Stated INS deco.
TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES Pe nts et wew co' epononS off.c.at
meal do not neeessatdy represent
INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)" OEM poshon or policy

nea
A National Education Association Publication
Thinking Skills
Instruction:
Concepts and
Techniques
Thinking Skills
Instruction:
Concepts and
Techniques
Marcia Heiman
Joshua Slomianko
Editors

neatiwre
National Education Association
Washington. D.C.
Copyright © 1987
National Education Association of the United States

Note
The opinions expressed in this publication should not be construed as represent-
ing the policy or position of the National Education Association. Materials pub-
lished as par. of the Building Students' Thinking Skills series are intended to be
discussion documents for teachers who are concerned with specialized interests
of the profession.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Thinking skills instruction.
(Building students' thinking skills)
1. Thought and thinking. 2. Reasoning. 3. Thought
and thinkingStudy and teaching. I. Heiman, Marcia.
II. Slomianko, Joshua. III. Series.
LB1590.3.T47 1987 370.15'24 86-3322
ISBN 0-8106-0229-6
ISBN 0-8106-0201-6 (pbk.)
CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION
by Marcia Heiman and Joshua Slomianko 9

ENCOUNTER WITH THINKING

by Harold S. Anderson 11

THINKING SKILLS: NEITHER AN ADD-ON NOR A QUICK FIX

by Arthur L. Costa 16

TEACHING FOR THINKING, OF THINKING,

AND ABOUT THINKING
by James J. McTighe 24

THINKING AND CURRICULUM: CRITICAL CROSSROADS

FOR EDUCATIONAL CHANGE
by Barbara Z. Presseisen 31

CRITICAL THINKING AND THE CURRICULUM

by Robert H. Ennis 40

CONVERSATION WITH DAVID N. PERKINS 49

CRITICAL THINKING ATTITUDES AND

THE TRANSFER QUESTION
by Alma M. Swartz 58

THINKING ACROSS THE DISCIPLINES: METHODS AND

STRATEGIES TO PROMOTE HIGHER-ORDER THINKING
IN EVERY CLASSROOM
by Diane F. Halpern 69

PRACTICE IS NOT ENOUGH

by Barry K. Beyer 77

LEARNING TO LEARN: IMPROVING THINKING

SKILLS ACROSS THE CURRICULUM
by Marcia Heiman 87

A STRATEGY FOR DEVELOPING

DIALECTICAL THINKING SKILLS
by Joel Rudinow and Richard Paul 92
 STRATEGIES FOR ACTIVE INVOLVEMENT
IN PROBLEM SOLVING
by Joseph S. Karmos and Ann H. Karmos 99
RESTRUCTURING WHAT WE TEACH
TO TEACH i'OR CRITICAL THINKING
by Robert J. Swartz 111

DEVELOPING METACOGNITION IN COMPOSITION

WITH PEER RESPONSE GROUPS
by Lynn Langer Meeks 119
BASICS IN BLOOM
by Norma J. Hoelzel 128
TEACHING THINKING TO TEACH LITERATURE
WHILE TEACHING LITERATURE TO TEACH THINKING
by Natalee C. Yeager 134

USING THINKING SKILLS IN MODIFIED ESL

by Patsy A. Jaynes 145

THE DIRECT TEACHING OF ANALYSIS

by Ronald E. Charlton 152

CONVERSATION WITH ARTHUR WHIMBEY 160

TEACHING PRECISE PROCESSING
THROUGH WRITING INSTRUCTION
by Kendall Didsbury 167

THINKING ABOUT LEARNING:

AN ANARCHISTIC APPROACH TO
TEACHING PROBLEM SOLVING
by Jack Lochhead 174

HOLISTIC THINKING SKILLS INSTRUCTION:

AN INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO IMPROVING
INTELLECTUAL PERFORMANCE
by William A. Sadler, Jr. 183

COGNITIVE MODIFIABILITY IN ADOLESCENCE: COGNITIVE

STRUCTURE AND THE EFFECTS OF INTERVENTION
by Reuven Feuerstein, Ronald Miller, Mildred B. Hoffman,
Ya'acov Rand, Yael Mintzker, and Mogens Reimer Jensen 189
USING VOCABULARY STUDY TO GENERATE THINKING
by Ernestine W. Roberts 202

TEACHING CRITICAL THINKING:

ARE WE MAKING CRITICAL MISTAKES?
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
by Robert J. Sternberg 208

THE DIRECT TEACHING OF THINKING AS A SKILL

by Edward de Bono 217

DEVELOPING STUDENTS' THINKING SKILLS

THROUGH MULTIPLE PERSPECTIVES
by Ronald Lee Rubin 230

DEVELOPING THINKING SKILLS

IN MUSIC REHEARSAL CLASS
by Douglas E. Reahm 236

DEVELOPING HIGHER-ORDER THINKING SKILLS

IN HOME ECONOMICS: A LESSON PLAN
by Nancy A. Watts 241

USING LITERATURE TO DEVELOP

CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS
by Maria Tymoczko 246

QUESTIONING IN A WRITING PROGRAM

TO DEVELOP THINKING
by Paula K. Flemming 255

SIMULATION AND THINKING

by Ronald Levitsky 262

TITE PRE-CONTACT TIME AMERICAN INDIAN:

A STUDY IN THE MEANING AND DEVELOPMENT
OF CULTUREA TEACHING UNIT
by John M. Feeser 272

THINK METRIC
by Delores Gallo 284

THE ART OF SOCRATIC REASONING

by Erling Skorpen 304
The Editors
Marcia Heiman is Director, Learning to Learn Program, Boston College, Chest-
nut Hill, Massachusetts.
Joshua Slomianko is Co-Director, Learning Skills Consultants, Cambridge
Massachusetts.

9
INTRODUCTION
by Marcia Heiman and Joshua Slomianko, Editors

Harold Anderson begins this anthology with an inventive and whimsi-

cal talc of what happens when thinking instruction is introduced into a
schoolhow do teachers react when thinking is suddenly part of the ex-
plicit curriculum? What problems arise, and how are they resolved?
Next, chapters by Arthur L. Costa, James J. Mc Tighe, and Barbara Z.
Presseisen explore some of the issues raised by integrating thinking skills
into the classroom. All three feel that thinking skills instruction has ar-
rived at a time when it is badly neededwhen facts are instantly obso-
lescent, and we need to teach children the how, not just the what, of
things. Presseisen suggests that the thinking skills movement makes new
demands on teachers, and wonders if teachers and administrators will
have the "courage to respond positively."
Robert H. Ennis, David N. Perkins, and Alma M. Swartz discuss dif-
ferent aspects of the transfer question. Ennis maintains that there are
thinking skills that transfer across disciplines, although much research is
needed to understand and facilitate this process; Perkins argues that
thinking skills are best taught within specific domains, since transfer is
problematic; Swartz suggests that good critical thinking attitudes are
necessary preconditions for the transfer of thinking skills.
Then, a cross-section of chapters presents a variety of approaches to in-
tegrating thinking skills into content classrooms. Diane F. Halpern de-
fines some of the conditions and practices needed for teaching thinking
skills in content areas. Barry K. Beyer provides two models for introduc-
ing thinking skills in the classroom, both of which emphasize modeling
and student awareness of their own thinking processes. Marcia Heiman
describes a program that has been effective in improving students' aca-
demic performance in courses across the curriculum. Joel Rudinow and
Richard Paul discuss the importance of reflective self-criticism in devel-
oping mature critical thinking in students, and Joseph S. Karmos and
Ann H. Karmos suggest ways to help students become more active prob-
lem solvers. Robert J. Swartz illustrates how curricular material can be re-
shaped to allow for classroom teaching of critical thinking skills. Finally,
Lynn Langer Meeks discusses using peer response groups to improve ele-
mentary school students' writing.
Several selections illustrate classroom applications of Bloom's taxon

10
 omy of thinking skills. Norma J. Hoelzel uses the taxonomy to develop
students' question-generating skills; Natalee C. Yeager uses it to teach
literature; Patsy A. Jaynes uses it to teach basic skills in a modified
English as a Second Language classroom; and Ronald E. Charlton shows
how the taxonomy can be combined with Beyer's teaching framework to
improve the analytic skills of students in a variety of areas.
Arthur Whimbey's work is examined Whimbey discusses the na-
ture of thinking and how students can improve their thinking with struc-
tured practice, especially by working together in pairs. Kendall Didsbury
discusses using Whimbey's work to improve students' writing; and Jack
Lochhead applies paired-problem-solving methods in science instruction.
Then, William A. Sadler, Jr., who shares Whimbey's view of intelligence
as a series of identifiable behaviors, describes a holistic approach to im-
proving thinking skills.
This is followed by chapters from theorists and practitioners who be-
lieve that thinking skills are best taught outside subject-matter areas.
Reuven Feuerstein and colleagues argue that effective intervention
requires content-free exercises incorporated into a structured mediated
learning experience. Ernestine W. Roberts suggests that vocabulary
developmentmuch of which transcends specific academic disciplines
can be used to facilitate students' higher-order thinking. Maintaining
that conventional thinking skills programs do not teach the skills needed
in later life, Robert J. Sternberg suggests a content-free thinking skills
program that has no "right" answers, and that improves students' real-
life decision-making skills. Edward de Bono shares Sternberg's criticism
of most thinking skills programs. His CoRT system, also content-free,
concentrates on improving divergent and creative thinking. Like de Bono
and Sternberg, Ronald Lee Rubin teaches thinking skills that foster di-
vergent thinking and promote improved decision making. Unlike others
in this group, however, Rubin incorporates such instruction into content-
area teaching.
The last group of chapters deals with the application of thinking skills
in a variety of content areas. Douglas E. Reahm shows how thinking
skills can be incorporated into a music rehearsal class, while Nancy A.
Watts illustrates their use in a home economics class. Maria Tymoczko,
Paula K. Flemming, and Ronald Levitsky suggest ways to integrate
thinking skills instruction into the study of literature, composition, and
history, respectively. John M. Feeser provides an entire instructional unit
that incorporates thinking skills into the study of American Indian histo-
ry. And Delores Gallo provides a unit on teaching the metric system that
illustrates how both critical and creative thinking can be incorporated
into subject-matter instruction. The last chapter, by Erling Skorpen, il-
lustrates the use of thinking skills in philosophy. Using one of Socrates'
dialogues as his text, Skorpen describes the process of instruction in ana-
lytical reasoning.
10
ENCOUNTER WITH THINKING
by Harold S. Anderson

Harold S. Anderson's story of the arrival of thinking skills instruction in a

mythical (but typical) school u amusing and instructive. We follow bit main char-
acter through reluctantly attended Task Force meetings on the new thinking skills
curriculum (where be plans to sabotage the idea before it takes hold), watch him
wade through stacks of material on thinking skills, and attend a much-awaited
PTA meeting with bin. (which he anticipates as the final blow to the new pro-
gram). Slowly, we see Anderson's e.haracter become involved in the idea of teach-
ing students to thinkagainst his better judgment, be finds himself and hit stu-
dents increasingly exeited by the possibilities of the new program.
The author is Professor of Education and Head, Division of Human Services,
College of Great Falls, Montana.

To tell the truth, I didn't think much of the idea when Ames an-
nounced it. Every principal in the system sells the party line. But Ames
outdoes the others, bucking for favor with central administration.
We teach a fairly standard curriculum here and our kids learn to think
in all the different subjects. Most of our pupils score average or better on
national tests. Of course, the tests mostly measure recall of factual
knowledge and basic skills, perhaps a few principles.
Principal Ames didn't sell our teachers easily on the new thinking em-
phasis. With all the paper shuffling arid record keeping they have to do
now, they don't get enough time to teach all the basics. Most of us carry
home an armload of papers to grade and lesson plans to complete.
I wasn't convinced that "thinking at higher levels," as he called it
was really fair. Kids feel responsible for knowing the facts in their sub-
jects, such as social studies and science, and they can make sense of mas-
tering thr rules in arithmetic, and spelling, and punctuation. But these
other thinking things seem like mental gymnastics, almost magic, inside
secrets that are not quite fair for marking and grading.
My hand went up to object at just the wrong time (I know better than
to volunteer for more thankless committee work) and I got put on the
Teaching Thinking Task Force. I cringed at the prospect of hours and
hours wasted in endless arguing. By the time the staff meeting finished,
I had jotted down a paragraph, the gist of my memo to decline
membership.

11
 During the week before the fast meeting, two other members men-
tioned how pleased they were that I was on the Task Force. They would
rely on me to bring the group to early closure so we wouldn't waste our
time for the whole school year. I forgot to finish my memo. We met at
the worst time, on Friday afternoon.
Shelley Weeks had no agenda for the meeting. The discussion drifted
in all directions. If Ames hadn't showed up, I would have offered a mo-
tion to adjourn. To get off dead center, I suggested we all agree to do
some research, individually, before our next meeting. Each teacher
should try to bring in one or two journal articles or other items about
thinking. Principal Ames offered to spring for duplication of copies for
everyone. We should all think about how much it will cost, however, if
we all pick long articles.
Purely wishful thinkingthat no would find any articles and with
nothing to work on, we could dismiss and go home. But I wasn't pre-
pared for the volume of stuff they found. Twice in that last week the
copier in the principal's office went down from overuse and on Thursday
we ran out of paper.
As I looked at the piles of material they had brought, I hoped no one
else remembered who had suggested this. We could all hope that every-
one had found the same articles. They hadn't.
Each member explained briefly each item and handed copies around.
They must have all looked in different places; only two people had
found two things alike. ,I groaned silently. Enough here to discuss every
week until Christmas.
I left the meeting carrying a lot more than I had brought in. But not
before I had exacted a promise from Shelley to postpone any more meet-
ings for at least three weeks to give us time to look through all this stuff.
I couldn't believe the excitement at the next meeting. Normally sensi-
ble, stable, sober teachers grew wide-eyed with exhuberance for teaching
their kids to think in some new wild way. Flory, who teaches a fourth
grade down the hall from me, started it. She said, "I'd like to try that
comprehension exercise, reversing the hands on the clock. My old wall
clock has hands." Can you imagine Elsie sitting beside her with sad eyes
because her newer model flashed lighted digits?
Before long, Elsie jumped in with her own project for science class.
She would challenge her kids to compare two things that were alike in
some way, such as "rock and ice" or "bicycle and boat" to expand their
comprehension.
With all the digressions and disruptions holding up the discussion, it
took two more meetings to finish all the articles. Before the third meet-
ing was over, someone suggested each of us find a good book on think-
ing and review it for discussion.

12
13
 Well, you guessed it. At the next meeting, everyone named a book,
author and title, to be reviewed. Most were recent editions but some
were old, from the 20s and 30s. They ranged from huge tomes to modest
paperbacks. I volunteered to order one recently announced by NEA,
Critical Thinking Skills by Marcia Heiman and Joshua Slomianko. I
didn't mention that I had picked it for size, under 50 pages. It turned
out to have a lot packed into a small space.
Enthusiasm for teaching of thinking spread from task force members
to other teachers. What could I do?
It came to me one morning driving to school. The parents should be
informed, before we take this any further. As concerned as our conserva-
tive parents are for mastering the basics, they'll put the kibosh on this
idea before it slides the whole school curriculum off into a swamp.
When I moved the suggestion, all members of the task force, innocent,
and distracted by their enthusiasm, voted for it. Ames, visiting again
that meeting, said he would arrange it with the PTA president.
Just wait until the parents hear " :t we're going to grade their kids on
how well they can build plasm. ...sw bridges and how quickly they can
get the fox and the goose and the bucket of corn across the river. They'll
have such a collective fit that Ames will have to scratch the whole
project.
Not only were teachers frittering away their own teaching time, but
they began to intrude on my time. Fred needed help hauling eight
quarts of water back from the barrel, given two buckets that held seven
quarts and five quarts. He couldn't just admit in front of his kids that he
was stuck by the puzzle. Wilma couldn't figure out how to move the
coins on he: balance to detect the counterfeit coin. I burned a few cords
of mental stove wood on that one, too, before I worked out the best se-
quence for her.
I got to thinking about teachers' thinking. Where do teachers learn to
think? Certainly not in their study of college subjects. Successful college
study calls for mastery of factual knowledge and faithful recall on de-
mand. Neither in their general studies, nor in their major and minor,
nor in the professional sequence do they practice thinking, beyond per-
haps knowledge and comprehension levels. Not in selection, or training,
or certification is there any assurance that teachers can think in the ways
of Bloom's taxonomy of the cognitive domain details.
Ames reported to the Task Force that the agenda was jammed and the
discussion of thinking at the PTA (which would expose the whole
scheme to parents) had been postponed to a future meeting. I firmed
my resolve to risk the wrath of my colleagues. But I lost the opportunity
to throw their own deficiencies in thinking ability at them when we tan-
gled with the term critical thinking. Everyone wanted to define it differ-

13
1
 entiy. And each teacher had some source to cite in defense of his/her
definition. Not limited to criticism, certainly. It covered analysis and
synthesis, too. And evaluation. And problem solving. Even creating. A
marvelously flexible, all-purpose term, apparently. We ran out of time
without ever getting dose to an agreed definition.
With Thinking on the agenda of the PTA meeting three weeks away,
Shelley asked the Task Force to convene again on Friday afternoon, the
13th. I'm not superstitious but things went badly from the beginning. I
wanted to present the picture upfront and honest. We had looked at the
possibility of teaching thinking and found it not feasible. I even volun-
teered to make the presentation for the Task Force. Ames, ever present,
pointed out that Shelley should make the presentation as is customary
and proper for a chairperson.
Our school is not widely known for PTA attendance. Typically, more
seats remain empty than ate filled. Having to carry in folding chairs for
the overflow crowd furnished some hope. If, among a lot of irate folks,
there are just a few bold souls to speak their minds, they might set this
thinking thing to rest.
Task Force members sat together in the front row. As Shelley intro-
duced us, we had to stand up and turn around. I thought I would see
more serious, frowning faces in that whole audience. Still, they may just
be expressing friendliness to their children's hard-work; .ig teachers.
Shelley recounted the deliberations of the Task Force, maintaining a
neutral stance with care. She could have stopped short of the possibility
for practicing thinking and planning to proceed with it next year but she
threw that in, too.
When questions and comments were invited, I couldn't believe my
ears. A young woman claimed that her two children had shown more en-
thusiasm for school than ever before. An older man explained that he
lives with his son and daughter-in-law and his grandson. He enjoyed
coping with the thinking challenges the boy brought home from school.
He had gained not only more admiration for his grandson but also new
zest for life. Another mother of two reported that their dinner table con-
versation sparkled when her children shared thinking experiences. The
comments continued, all warmly colored by approval.
Shelley Weeks, anticipating a snag somewhere ahead, raised the issue
of grading students on their thinking abilities. The responses from par-
ents and patrons surprised me. It's as fair to grade on all kinds of think-
ing as on just recall. Better to grade on students' use of information than
on the size of their storage; encyclopedias contain facts for the
thumbing.
As we partook of cookies :tid caffeine following the meeting, I avoid-
ed clusters with teachers. I joined my friend, Tom, who was talking with

15 14
two women. He's a single parent of a girl in my class. He had found
some neat thinking challenges in several of his magazines. He'd be will-
ing to send me photocopies if I wanted to use them. When I asked
which magazines, he grinned and looked at the wall and said he
couldn't remember. Another parent, Mavis Summers, offered me a
booklet of thinking exercises produced by Reader's Digest. I thanked
them, trying to make my expression of appreciation sound genuine.
Other friends and parents have been sending me thinking things, too.
In the two months since the PTA meeting, the faculty has been working
every Friday afternoon. We let the kids go a little early for extra time.
We have a consultant coming in to furnish advice. But most of the work
is done by our teachers. They take turns presenting thinking tasks that
fit the different categories in Bloom's taxonomy. I don't let on to the
other teachers, but I get a kick out of some of the puzzles and games. I
can sort out the solution to a lot of them, in fact, faster than most of the
others.
Two weeks from Friday will be my turn. Actually I get a short section
of the previous meeting to get them started. I'm going to challenge
them to build a better candy bar. The category is creative thinking, but
they'll get involved in other kinds of thinking, too. The name and form
and advertising material will demand creativity, of course. But choosing
the ingredients will require judgment (they'll pick stuff they like to chew
on) as well as analysis, in discerning the cost, and synthesis in deciding
the price per unit.
I invented a sample for them, called the Partitioned Pinnacle Piliata
(Three-P, for short). You fill a sugar cone with marshmallow creme one
dollop at a time, push smoked almonds into the creme, and then seal off
that section with melted chocolate. When you've filled three compart-
ments like that, the cone is full and you coat the outside all over with
chocolate and stand it on its wide end. Some folks find they suffer a
strange inhibition biting into the point, but almost everyone with a
sweet-tooth for candy enjoys the Three -P. I'll bet my students will love
it. Which reminds me, I'll have to check with all the parents to see if
their kids can eat sweets, but I can do that next fall.

15

1r
THINKING SKILLS:
NEITHER AN ADD-ON NOR A QUICK FIX
By Arthur L. Costa

Arthur L. Costa discusses the emergence of thinking skills instruction in the

classroom. He notes that many edzcators have come to view thinking skills as per-
haps the most basic of the basic skillsthey are skills that facilitate the acquisition
of all other learning. Schools have moved away from the concept of intelligence as
fixed and invariant; instead, they focus on thinking skills that range across the cur-
riculum and into the non-academic worldencompassing "what human beings do
when they behave intelligently." Thinking skills instruction is not viewed as an
add-on, but rather as an integral part of all learningin the physics laboratory as
well as in driver training. Further, there it a recognition that students need time to
acquire these new skillsboth learner and the curriculum must be informed by
"reflective, rational, and reasoned decision making."
The author it Professor of Education, California State University, Sacramento.

The educational reform movement of the 80's is stressing the develop-

gent of students' thinking abilities in preparing them for the informa-
tion age of the future. In the tradition of past reform movements, many
educators were quick to jump on bandwagons making politically expedi-
ent 'and financially parsimonious decisions. Recent experiences with
many school districts' efforts to install THINKING as a goal of educa-
tion, however, have turned my head around.
Happily, what is being witnessed is a dedication to incorporate the
EDUCATION OF THE INTELLECT neither as an add-on nor a quick
fix. Rather, cognitive curriculum is serving as the basis for reconsider-
ation of our theoretical foundations, a realistic view of what is basic for
all learners, and a thoughtful dedication to long-range planning and de-
velopment. What follows are some joyful observations of these new di-
rections and an invitation to compare them with your own progress.

WHAT'S BASIC
Recent research, while not yet sufficient to confirm, tends to indicate
that when thinking skills become an integral part of the curriculum and
instructional practice, test scores in academic areas increase (Whimbey,
1985). It seems that the ability to perform certain cognitive processes is
basic to success in school subjects. Hierarchical thinking, for example,

16
when taught prior to or along with the skill of outlining produces better
results than if taught without that cognitive prerequisite. When reading
is taught as a strategy of thinking, students seem to increase their com-
prehension (Andre, 1979). When teachers take the time to teach com-
parative behavior, for exam..,1e, students are better able to contrast the
differing points of view of the North and the South during the Civil War
using a consistent set of attributes (Beyer, 1985).
As a result, many educators are forming a new understanding of what
is a basic skill. We are realizing that there is a prerequisite to the "ba-
sics"the ability to think.

THINKING IS FOR ALL STUDENTS

For many years we thought that thinking skills programs were intend-
ed to challenge the intellectually gifted. Indeed, some thought that any
child whose I.Q. fell below a certain static score was forever doomed to
remedial or compensatory drill and practice.
Gaining wide acceptance, four fundamental and refreshing concepts
underly modern cognitive curriculum and instructional practices. They
are the Theory of Cognitive Modifiability (Feuerstein, 1980), the Theory
of Multiple Intelligences (Gardner, 1983), the faith that Intelligence Can
Be Taught (Whimbey, 1985), and Sternberg's thesis that traditional I.Q.
scores have very little to do with success in dealing with the problems en-
countered in daily life (Hammer, 1985; McKean, 1985).
These theoretical concepts equip us with the realization that ALL hu-
man beings are both retarded in certain problem solving skills and gifted
in others (Link, as quoted in Makler, 1980). They provide us the faith
that ALL human beings can continue to develop their intelligent behav-
ior throughout a lifetime. Indeed, much research with hydrocephalic,
Down's Syndrome, senile, and brain-damaged persons demonstrates that
over time and with proper intervention, they can continue to make
amazing growth in problem solving abilities. Until recently, we would
have given them up as hopeless.
Furthermore, and perhaps most reassuring, we are demonstrating that
increasing the effectiveness of instruction produces a corresponding in-
crease in learning. Teachers CAN grow intelligence.

LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT IN LOCO PARENTIS

We are increasingly aware of the close connection and interaction be-
tween language and thought processes. Vygotsky and Piaget taught us
this long ago. Perhaps we never realized it so fully, however, until it was
made apparent through recent sociological upheavals.
 We know that most cognitive structures are built in the child's mind
within the first few years of lifelong before they come to schooland
that these schema are the result of (along with other nutritional, genetic,
and environmental factors) interactions with significant adults in the
child's environment.
With the transition of the traditional family in our culture, with an
increasing number of "latchkey kids," with an increasing number of
children giving birth to children, and with a dramatic increase in passive
television watching, there has been a corresponding decrease in the
amount of verbal interaction between parents and children in the home.
Indeed, some students come to school parentally deprived.
Correlations have been found between the complexity of language
used in the home, the mental development of the child, and the fam-
ily's affluence or educational level. Sternberg and Caruso (1985) report
increasing complexity of language and questioning tendencies in families
at higher socioeconomic levels.
Realizing that thinking is basic, and that children's early language
(and therefore cognitive) development may be lacking, we are witnessing
a new direction for dassroom instruction: INCREASING VERBAL IN-
TERACTION. Teaching and learning are invigorated with increased op-
portunities for dialogue: developing listening skills, cooperative learning,
pair problem solving, thought-provoking inquiry discussions, dialogical
reasoning, collaborative planning, and brainstorming. Teachers are find-
ing renewed power as they stimulate students' thought processes by us-
ing challenging questions and probing. They search for increases in di-
versity and creativity of students' responses as they provide a safe,
nonjudgmental dassroom environment in which students can risk verbal-
izing innovative ideas (Costa, 1985).

EXPANDING DEFINITIONS: FROM THINKING SKILLS TO

INTELLIGENT BEHAVIOR
As schools begin the process of infusing "thinking skills" into their
curriculum and instructional practices, they often start with the task of
defining what it meansjust what are thinking skills? This search seems
to begin with a rather narrow list of cognitive skillsclassifying, infer-
ring, categorizing, hypothesizing, etc. Soon, however, some perplexing
questions arise: How are these skills applied in a wide variety of subject
areas and problem-solving situations? How are they transferred from sit-
uations in which they were learned to life situations outside the school?
Should creativity, social skills, and ethical /moral reasoning be included
in the definition? Resolving these concerns seems to cause an expansion
of the concept of thinking from narrow definitions and lists of discrete

18

19
skills to a more generalized, all-encompassing set of descriptors of what
human beings do when they behave intelligently (Glatthom and Baron,
1985).
From research on what "good thinkers" do when they solve problems,
the definition of thinking skills is being enlarged to include such generic
behaviors as persistence, flexibility, striving for precision and accuracy,
reducing impulsivity, considering others' points of view, supporting con-
clusions with evidence, risk taking, metacognition, and empathy.

PERVASIVENOT AN ADD-ON
Refocusing on this larger picture seems to encourage the acceptance
and applicability of teaching thinking to a wider range of teachers' inter-
ests, subject matter, grade levels, and learning activities.
All teachers can agree that such cognitive skills as following directions,
striving for precision, checking for accuracy, perseverance, listening to
others' points of view, and creativity are basic to their discipline. OR-
GANIZATIONAL SKILLS are as basic to the auto shop as they are to the
physics laboratory. PLANNING AHEAD is as much a requirement in
the home economics curriculum as it is in written composition. BEING
ALERT TO CUES is a survival skill applicable in driver training and in
preparation for marriage and family life.
As a result of this wider acceptance, thinking skills are NOT being
viewed as mere additions to an already overcrowded, time-squeezed, ce-
meterial compendium of scopes and sequences. Rather, teachers are find-
ing comfort, agreement, and rededication in some common goalsthat
process is as important as product; that thoughtful and reflective teach-
ing (rather than coverage) is acceptable once again; and that students'
PRODUCTION of knowledge is as important as their REPRODUCTION
of knowledge.

GIVE IT TIME
Unlike many other educational innovations and experiments, educa-
tional planners are viewing the infusion of thinking skills as a three- to-
five-year process. They are realizing that such a change cannot be a quick
fix. Rather, it requires altering instructional strategies, communicating
with community and parents, reevaluating class schedules, reorganizing
curriculum materials and evaluation techniques, and rededicating the ba-
sic value system and norms of entire faculties.
They are realizing, that the process of change must be consistent with
the product of that change. If teachers are expected to teach reflective-
ness, rationality, and reason to students, then the processes of curriculum
development and educational improvement must also involve reflective,
rational, and reasoned decision making (Bellanca, 1985).
Taking precious classroom time to teach thinking is gaining accep-
tance. We've known that the amount of time on task affects student
learning. This relationship is as true for academic achievement as it is for
acquiring thinking skills. When thinking becomes a goal of instruction,
teachers and tdministrators place greater value on allocating classroom
time for learning activities intended to stimulate, practice, and discuss
cognitive processes.

SCHOOLS AS INTELLECTUALLY STIMULATING PLACES

Perhaps it is a happy combination of applying school effectiveness re-
search, improving the professionalism of education, and the emphasis on
cognitive education. John Good lad's (1983) generalized description of
schools in our country as being intellectually depressing places is giving
way to the stimulation of teachers' intellectual processes. It is hypothe-
sized that teachers will not teach for thinking unless they are in an intel-
lectually stimulating environment themselves.
As a result, teachers are feeling a great sense of efficacygaining more
control of and becoming involved in those school and district level deci-
sions that affect them most. This trend is in sharp contrast to the recent
view of the teacher's role as being accountable for implementing deci-
sions being mandated from "above."
Teachers' thinking, decision making, and problem solving are beraz
enhanced because they are viewing the act of teaching as a creative, ex-
perimental, problem-solving, decision-making process rather than a reci-
pe to follow. (Indeed, teaching by the number is equally as creative as
painting by the number.) Renewed interest is being exhibited in devel-
oping the teacher's repertoire of teaching strategics (Joyce, 1985) rather
than in training a narrow range of instructional behaviors. Teachers are
jointly planning lessons, teaching strategies, and curriculum, and then
are opening their classroom doors and inviting their colleagues and su-
pervisors to observe their interaction, to gain feedback about the think-
ing skills students display, and to search for ways of enhancing cognition.
It is with renewed excitement, therefore, that participation in the edu-
cational profession is intellectually growth-producing for ALL its constit-
uents (Sprinthall and Theis-Sprinthall, 1983).

EVALUATIONA PARADIGM SHIFT

Usually when we think of gathering evidence of pupil achievement,
we think of testsnorm referenced, paper and pencil, multiple choice.

20

2
Several states (California, Vermont, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Con-
necticut) arc revising test items to include critical thinking in their assess-
ment programs (Kr' ieedler, 1985; Baron and Kallick, 1985).
With the need to asses? growth in thinking skills, we are finding, how-
ever, that .nme of ocr traditional assessment techn;ques are inadequate.
One reason is that performance on a test is overt; but thinking is a covert
process and thus .got directly observable and measurable in our tradition-
al behavioristic ways (Winoan, 1985).
Another reason is that tt-As usually seek to determine how many an-
swers a student knows. Rather, we are witnessing a refocus of assessment
practices on how the student behaves when the answer is NOT known
how they behave in cveryday, problem-solving situations. Thus, the fo-
cus on learning OF objectives is being ter/laced by learning FROM objec-
tives (Andre, 1979).
We ace finding renewed interest in longitudinal growth stucEeschild
study teams, collecting anecdotal records and portfolios of students' work
which may reflect cognitive development over time. Teachers are becom-
ing alert to the clues, found in everyday classroom problem solving,
which indicate growth in intelligent behaviors (Baron and Kallick, 1985).

NOT JUST EDUCATORSPARENTS AND INDUSTRY, TOO

Free enterprise, entrepreneurship, innovation, problem solving, cre-
ativityindustrial leaders are telling educators about their needs for the
Twenty-first Century. The information age is well upon us. The work
force of the furare needs skills in collaborative problem solving, being
alert to problems as they arise, handling massive amounts of informa-
tion, and finding innovative ways to deliver a product more quickly, effi-
ciently, and economically (Education Commission of the States, 1982).
By some estimates it is predicted that workers of the future will be
changing jobs five to six times during their careers. Flexibility, continu-
ing to learn how to learn, and dealing with ambiguity and change seem
to be the paramount survival skills of the future.
Because of this need, industry is realizing education as the lifeblood of
their future. New alliances and partnerships are being formed among
schools, communities, and businesses in an effort to learn from each oth-
er about the need for and development of intelligent and creative Lehav-
ior (Dagcfordc, 1985).

MODELING
With the understanding that imitation is the most basic form of learn-
ing, teachers, parents, and administrators are realizing the importance of
their display of desirablc intelligent behaviors in the presence of chil-

21

4: 4.,
 dren. Thus, in the day-to-day events and when problems arise in schools,
and classrooms, and homes, students must sec adults employing the
same types of behaviors that the new curriculum demands.
Without this consistency, there is likely to be a credibility gap. As Em-
erson is often quoted, "What you do speaks so loudly they can't hear
what you say."
From the cumulative effects of these efforts we are finding that all the
members of the educational enterpriseteachers, administrators, trustees,
parents, and studentsarc profiting. All are becoming more rational,
thoughtful, and creative in the process. Indeed, thinking about thinking
is producing more thinking.

REFERENCES
Andre, T. "Does Answering Higher-Level Questions While Reading Facilitate
Productive Learning?" Review of Educational Research 49, no. 2 (Spring 1979):
280-318.
Baron, J., and Kallick, B. "What Are We Looking For and How Can We Find
It?" In Developing Minds: A Resource Book for Teaching Thinking, edited by
A. Costa. Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Devel-
opment, 1985.
Bellanca, J. "A Call for Staff Development." In Developing Minds: A Resource
Book for Teaching Thinking, edited by A. Costa. Alexandria, Va.: Association
for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1985.
Beyer, B. "Critical Thinking: What Is It?" Social Education 40 (April 1985):
271-76.
Costa, A. "Teacher Behaviors That Enhance Thinking." In Developing Minds:
A Resource Book for Teaching Thinking, edited by A. Costa. Alexandria, Va.:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1985.
Dageforde, L. "Partnerships in Industry and Education." Presentation at the
Project IMPACT Leadership Training, Orange County Superintendent of
Schools Office, Costa Mesa, California, August 27, 1985.
Education Commission of the States. Denver, 19S2.
Ennis, R. "Critical Thinking: A Definition." In Developing Minds: A Resource
Book for Teaching Thinking, edited by A. Costa. Alexandria, Va.: Association
for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1985.
Feuerstein, R. Instrumental Enrichment. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1980.
Gardner, H. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York:
Basic Books, 1983.
Glatthom, A., and Baron, J. "The Good Thinker. In Developing Minds: A Re-
source Book for Teaching Thinking, edited by A. Costa. Alexandria, Va.: Asso-
ciation for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1985.
Goodlad, J. A Place Called School: Prospects for the Future. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1983.

23 22
Hammer, S. "Stalking Intelligence." Science Digest 93 (lune 6, 1985): 30-38.
Joyce, B. "Models for Teaching Thinking." Educational Leadership 42, no. 8
(May 1985): 4-9.
Kneed ler, P. "California Assesses Critical Thinking." In Developing Mina, A
Resource Book for Teaching Thinking, edited by A. Costa. Alexandria, Va.: 7z-
sociation for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1985.
Molder, S. "Instrumental Enrichment: A Conversation with Francis Link." Edu-
cational Leadership (April 1980).
McKean, K. "The Assault on IQ." Discover 6, no. 10 (October 1985): 25-41.
Sprinthall, N., and Theis - Sprinthall, L. "The Teacher as an Adult Learner: A
Cognitive Development View." In Staff Development, edited by G. Griffin.
Eighty-second Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983.
Sternberg, R., and Caruso, D. "Practical Modes of Knowing." In Learning and
Teaching the Ways of Knowing, cditcd by E. Eisner. Eighty-fourth Yearbook of
the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1985.
Whimbey, A. "The Consequences of Teaching Thinking." In Developing
Minds: A Resource Book for Teaching Thinking, cditcd by A. Costa. Alexan-
dria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1985.
Whimbey, A. and Whimbey, L. Intelligence Can Be Taught. New York: Ban-
tam Books, 1976.
Winocur, S.L. "Developing Lesson Plans with Cognitive Objectives." In Devel-
oping Minds: A Resource Book for Teaching Thinking, cditcd by A. Costa. Al-
exandria, Va.: Association for Supervision And Curriculum Development, 1985.

23
r ,,
 AnIMMII

'TEACHING FOR THINKING,

OF THIN-KING, AND ABOUT THINKING
by James J. McTighc

James J. McTishe maintains that teaching for thinking has long been part of
many teachers' goals. Teachers ask questions that elicit different levels of thinking,
from definitional through evaluative; they promote interpretive reading and cis:r-
eunion, debate, and simulations as part of the teaching for thinking process.
However, these techniques may not be enough to ensure the "systematic develop-
ment and improvement of student thinking." A more direct approach involves the
explicit teaching of thinking. Mcrighe notes that a third approach to thinking de-
velopment is teaching about thinkingthat is, helping students think aloud,
thereby becoming their own thinking strategies. Thic approach makes students
more systematic and reflective in their learning, it is especially helpful to students
whose thinking habits are impulsive and chaotic, who pay little attention to details
and jail to check the common sense of their answers.
This chapter is adapted from School 33 (June 1985): 1-6; Maryland State De-
partment of Education, Baltimore.
The author is an Education Specialist with the Thinking Improvement Program
of the Maryland State Department of Education, Baltimore.

Helping students become more effective thinkers is an ancient educa-

tional goal that today is receiving renewed attention. Socrates questioned
the youth of Athens and engaged in elaborate dialogue with them "to
bring forth from within" the reasoning and ideas that only needed
prompting to develop and clarify. John Dewey saw the development of
"reflective thinking" in students as a major goal of education. For years
many of the best teachers have emphasized students' thinking along
with the development of the skills and knowledge of the disciplines.
An explicit focus on thinking as an educational goal has received vary-
ing degrees of national attention during the last several decades. The
1957 launch of Sputnik prompted, in particular, an urgent call to up-
grade education. Out of the resulting curriculum reform movement of
the 1960s came classroom materials that stressed concept development,
reasoning, and problem solving. Discovery and inquiry teaching methods
were encouraged.
While many teachers continue to value and utilize these approaches,
several recent educational movements have emphasized other priorities.
The most recent movement, often referred to as "back to basics," was

ic,., j
,-- 24
prompted by the serious concern that students were not mastering the
most fundamental skills. Much attention has been devoted to correcting
this problem, and these intensive efforts arc now being rewarded by con-
sistently improving student performance in basic skills as measured by
standardized achievement and competency skills tests.
While these tests affirm gains in basic skill development, they also
point to areas needing attention. Specifically, students arc having diffi-
culty on those tasks that require the thoughtful application of basic skills
and factual knowledge. The National Commission on Excellence in Edu-
cation expressed its concern that "many 17-year-olds do not possess the
higher order intellectual skills we should expect from them. Nearly 40
percent cannot draw inferences from written material; only one-fifth can
write a persuasive essay; and only one-third can solve a mathematics
problem requiring several steps."
Similarly, the National Assessment of Reading and Literature, after
testing students nationwide; found that "students seem satisfied with
their interpretations of what they have read and seem genuinely
puzzled at requests to explain or defend their points of view. Few stu-
dents could provide more than superficial responses to such tasks, and
even the better responses showcd little evidence of well-developed prob-
lem-solving strategies or critical thinking
Such findings point to the need to strike a better balance between ba-
sic skills and thinking skills. A balanced approach dots not view the
goals of basic skills development and thinking skills development as in-
compatible, one prospering at the expense of the other. Rather, it ac-
knowledges that thinking is fundamental to the acquisition of knowl-
edge, concepts, and skill; required br all school subjects and, further,
that skills and knowledge are incomplete without the capability for
thoughtful application.

FOR THINKING
In what ways might we develop and improve stud Ins' thinking abili-
ties? Three distinct yet onmplementary approaches have been recognized
as effective: teaching for thinking, teaching of thinking, and teaching
about thinking.
Teaching for thinking includes those teaching .Arategics, student activ-
ities, and curriculum materials that engage students in thinking. This
approach provides students with opportunities to practice and "exercise"
their thinking. The most natural way teachers invite thought is by asking
questions.
As every teacher knows, different types of questions encourage differ-

25

r
cnt types or levels of thinking. Some questions call for basic recall of in-
formation previously given: Who are the current United States senators
from your state? What is the chemical symbol for mercury? When was
the National Anthem written? Other questions call for interpretation:
What do you think is the editorial writer's stand on gun control? Or
comparison: How arc the two songs about "old friends" alike and differ-
ent? Or judgment: Should the number of hours in the school day be ex-
tended? Or hypothesizing: What might happen if gasoline prices dou-
bled in the next six months? Or analogical reasoning: How is an
exothermic reaction like an argument?
In addition to the question itself, other techniques influence the qual-
ity of thinking that goes into the answer. For example, employing the
technique of "wait time" (waiting several seconds after asking a ques-
tion) is likely to encourage more careful thinking by more students. The
thinking originally evoked by a good question can also be maintained
and extended by such followup questions as, Tell me more...
Why? ...Do you agree ?.. Can you elaborate?...Can you explain or de-
fend your idea? . . . What do you think about what Susan has just said?
Calling on students randomly, and not always choosing the hand-rais-
ers, also helps to involve a greater number of students in the thinking
process. The teacher interested in improving students' thinking should
seek to elicit more thought from more students through such question-
ing and response strategies.
A number of researchers have described what seems to be a common
pattern of interaction in many classrooms. The pattern consists of a
teacher question, followed by a student response, followed by teacher
elaboration. The teacher does most of the talking while student involve-
ment is minimal. Teacher: interested in modifying this pattern to in-
crease student participation have successfully employed a variety of class-
room grouping structures. By utilizing cooperative problem-solving
teams, peer response groups, and "think-pair-share" periods, the degree
of student participation and interaction can be markedly increased.
In addition to questioning and grouping techniques, other teaching
AT thinking activities are especially effective in engaging students in
thought. Interpretive reading and discussion, writing, laboratory experi-
ments, problem solving, debates, simulations, design activitiesthese
and related methods have been used for years by teachers who value
thinking in their classrooms.
Are these methods sufficient to ensure the systematic development
and improvement of student thinking? Increasingly, experts are ques-
tioning whether teaching for thinking, by itself, is sufficient. Thinking,
they contend, cannot be assumed to develop automatically as a result of

26

27
activities of the kind previously mentioned. These activities provide op-
portunities to practice thinking (just as spending time in the water pro-
vides an opportunity to increase one's swimming ability). But they do
not teach thinking A more direct approach, which complements those
previously mentioned techniques, seems to be required.

OF THINKING
Advocates for the explicit teaching of thinking maintain that thinking
involves sets of skills and processes that can be identified and systemati-
cally developed. This approach utilizes a direct teaching strategy whereby
a specific thinking skill, such as comparing, becomes the content of a
lesson.
Consider a social studies class in which the teacher wants the students
to explore the similarities and differences between the American Revolu-
tion and the Civil War.
The teacher defines the skill: to compare is to examine two or more
ideas, or objects of study, tc see their relationship; in particular, to
determine ways in which the ideas or objects are similar and different.
The class then discusses when comparing is used: when you want to
see how two or more things relate in terms of their similarities and
differences.
The steps of comparing are then developed as follows:
1. Present the objects (ideas) to be compared.
2. Have the students observe and describe them one at a time.
3. Compare the objects and make a list of their similarities.
4. Repeat the process, making a list of differences.
5. Identify the criteria used in making the comparisons.
6. Summarize the significant similarities and differences.
The teacher would then have the students apply the skill to a new ex-
ample and provide feedback on their performance.
Notice that this lesson focuses on the thinking skill and not the sub-
ject matter. It has been found that thinking skills taught in this direct
manner are more readily understood when the objects or ideas that are
used in the teaching example are familiar to the students. Content-rele-
vant material may be used if students have an adequate knowledge base.
As an alternative, teachers may capitalize on the common experiences of
students in designing thinking skill "focus" lessons. In the lesson on
comparing, for example, two different brands of automobiles could be
used as the objects of comparison. Once the students demonstrate an un-
derstanding of the skill of comparing, the skill can be applied, as intend-
ed, to the American Revolution and the Civil War. Once learned, the

27

u
skill can be applied to other social studies topics, and in other subject ar-
eas, throughout the year.
According to this approach, the most efficient and effective means of
developing any skill, including thinking, is through direct teaching. Di-
rect teaching of thinking promotes explicit understanding by not assum-
ing that thinking automatically improves as a by-product of other activi-
ties. This method has been used to teach and develop fundamental
thinking skills, such as classifying, comparing, hypothesizing, judging,
paraphrasing, sequencing, and summarizing. It may also be applied to
more complex mental processes, such as critical thinking and problem
solving. For example, the component skills involved in critical thinking,
such as detecting bias, can be explicitly identified, directly taught, and
then applied as appropriate to the content area.
Direct instruction in thinking skills can also follow a more inductive
approach. An inductive thinking skill lesson would be sequenced as
follows:
Step 1. Students introduce and operationally define the identified
thinking skill.
Step 2. Students use the thinking skill.
Step 3. Students reflect on the thinking process involved in using
the skill.
Step 4. Students apply the thinking skill to new material within
the content area.
Step 5. Students review the steps or procedures involved in using
the thinking skill.
Step 6. Students discuss how the thinking skill may be transferred
to new situations (in other subjects as well as outside of
school).
Strategies for generating new ideas such as brainstorming and synectics
are also effectively developed through direct instruction.
To assist in the direct teaching of thinking, an increasing number of
teachers are discovering the power of graphic organizers. A graphic orga-
nizer provides a visual representation which assists students in organizing
and integrating information. These organizers also provide a holistic, vi-
sual portrayal of elements of the thinking process. In the case of compar-
ison, for example, a teacher might use a Venn diagram to depict the ar-
eas of commonality and difference. Other examples of graphic organizers
include story maps, matrices, sequence chains, criteria grids, and deci-
sion-making flow charts. The commonly used technique of webbing il-
lustrates the use of a graphic organizer to generate thought and to elabo-
rate on and relate ideas. As one student remarked, graphic ort,anizers
`give shape to thought."

28
ABOUT THINKING
A third approach to thinking development has generated considerable
interest recently. Referred to as teaching about thinking, this approach
focuses on helping students become more aware of their own thinking
processes. Research has shown that effective learners and thinkers moni-
tor their own learning and thinking. They are aware of what they know,
what they don't know, and what they need to know in order to solve a
problem or comprehend a difficult concept. Many of these capable rea-
soners engage in "self-talk" during which, they ask questions ("What is
the main idea here?"), maintain concentration ("You're daydreaming.
Go back and re-read that last paragraph."), try new problem-solving
strategies ( "Maybe if I draw a picture . . . ."), and check performance
("What is the next step?"). Poor thinkers are less likely to engage in this
inner dialogue, are generally unable to describe their learning and rea-
soning strategies, and hesitate to "shift gears" when a particular strategy
is not working.
Teaching about thinking includes several strategies for improving these
"metacognitive" abilities. One of these strategies is known as the "think
aloud" technique, in which students are asked to describe their reason-
ing process when tackling a problem, writing an essay, or struggling to
grasp a new concept.
One effective application of the "think aloud" technique has been in
paired problem solving. One member of the pair serves as the listener
and is responsible for listening to and recording the strategies used by
the problem solver, who leads aloud. Roles are reversed for the next
problem. The problem-solving process is then discussed in pairs and/or
as a class. In cases where students have difficulty thinking aloud, the
teacher call model the technique and provide a "window to the mind"
by sharing his or her reasoning verbally with the class.
While "think aloud" techniques stress immediate verbalization, an-
other method asks students to examine their reasoning after the fact.
This "process reflection" can take the form of a discussion among an en-
tire class or a small group such as a writing response group, or it can be
done individually through "thought tracing" in a journal.
Activities such as thinking aloud, process reflection, and journal writ-
ing serve as vehicles for illuminating the invisible process of thinking.

EXPLORING COGNITIVE HABITS

Teaching about thinking also explores the cognitive habits an atti-
tudes of students. Considerable research has been conducted to deter-
mine how the habits and attitudes of effective thinkers differ from those

29
 of less capable reasoners. The results from studies of preschool children
through graduate students are remarkably consistent. For example, the
poorer thinkers often exhibit a high degree of impulsivity. This impul-
sive behavior may be seen in those mary children who enthusiastically
raise their hands to answer a questie before it is completed. ("Who can
tell me . . . ?"hands already waving!) In older students impulsive ten-
dencies may be manifested by a failure to attend to details, a tendency
to rush through directions, and an interest in obtaining "the answer"
quickly.
A characteristic related to impulsivity has been termed "one shot"
thinking. Poor problem solvers of all ages are indined to make superfi-
cial, sporadic attempts at a solution. Often the attempt is little more
than a guess. Carelessness abounds and accuracy suffers.
Effective problem solvers, in contrast, view problems as challenges and
are persistent in seeking solutions. If a particular strategy is unsaccessful,
they take a different approach. Other attitudes and habits of effective
thinking are well known: open-mindedness, flexibility, ability to defer
im.--sediate judgment, attention to detail. Teaching about thinking gives
conscious attention to qualities, such as these, which we seek to cultivate
in our students.
Success in improving students' thinking skills will require long-term
commitment and a continuing emphasis on those proven teaching meth-
ods and activities that engage students in thinking, that explicitly focus
on specific thinking skills, and that help students become more aware of
their own thought processes.
Instruction in thinking skills will have lasting benefitsstudents better
able to acquire new information, to examine complex issues critically,
and to solve new problems. In a world of rapid change and increasing
complexity, it is difficult to imagine skills that are more fundamental.
Like the ability to fish in the Chinese proverb, the ability to think lasts a
lifetime.
Give me a firh and I'll eat today.
Teach me to .iirh and I'll eat for a lifetime.

30

1114.....--.-
31
THINICING AND CURRICULUM:
CRITICAL CROSSROADS
FOR EDUCATIONAL CHANGE
by Barbara Z. Presseisen

Barbara Z. Presseisen finds new opportunities in the thinking skills movement.

The idea that some essential cognitive processes. . . underlie good thinking" and
that these processes can be acquired through guided practice has sparked a "redefi-
nition of what it means to be an educated person facing the 21st century." Pressei-
sen suggests that a curriculum emphasizing thinking skills makes new demands on
teachers: they must examine the skills involved in thinking in their subject areas,
work collaboratively with others to identify practices that will reinforce these''skills,
and take time to study and understand the new thinking skills programs. Further,
a focus on thinking skills changes the role of the teacher from "fount of all wis-
dom" to "mediator, questioner, critic, inspirer, enabler, coach."
The author is Director, National Networking, Research for Better Schools, Inc.,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

American education is at an unusual point in its development. It is

under criticism fcr being mediocre and inefficient while, at the same
time, there are claims that educators have never been so knowledgeable
about how to improve schooling or how to provide academic motivation
for young minds. Much focuses on the desire to have students achieve,
which frequently is characterized as scoring high on the Scholastic Apti-
tude Test (SAT) or the National Assessment of Educational Progress
(NAEP).

THE CHALLENGE TO CLARIFY PURPOSE

For teachers and administrators in the schools, the real question is
"Achieve what?" There is a problem of confused goals and a need to
clarify purpose in schooling. Such issues not only touch on teaching and
testing, but also center on program and learning, teacher preparation
and continued develop vent, long-range planning, and resource alloca-
tion. At the heart is the redefinition of what it means to be an educated
person facing the 21st century, the measure of the citizen in a high tech
world and a global economy. The danger is that many educators may not

31
realize that a critical opportunity is at their doorstep and they may miss
the chance to debate the great issues of the day.
What mission should direct American schooling? Current arguments
about excellence and equity fill the reform literature (1). Obviously, the
greatest democracy in the world must accomplish both, but that is no
simple task. "The challenge," says one of the recent reports (2), "is not
simply to better educate our elite, but to raise both the floor and ceiling
of achievement in America." Underlying each of the objectives of excel-
lence and equity is the assumption that the country's youngstersall of
themneed to become accomplished thinkers. That is the major chal-
lenge of current schooling. It is rooted in a new appreciation that just
having information is not sufficient; one must be able to do something
with it. Even more importantly, the learner must be in control of his or
her learning and be able to adjust his or her thinking as changing condi-
tions require it (3). These circumstances generate the focus of this article:
thinking and curriculum. In the interplay between these two aspects of
schooling lie the most critical relationships of education today.
A formidable new movement is emerging in American education. Ac-
tually, it is not new; it has a long history associated with the various
fields allied to cognitive research. The current phase is known as thinking
skills development and much literatureboth theoretical and practical
is being generated in its name (4). Like the period of the early 1960s
which preceded it, the thinking skills movement today holds much
promise for informing and improving classroom instruction. To improve
that instruction requires an understanding of thinking skills and an ex-
amination of what they mean to he curriculum of the school.

THE CURRENT MOVEMENT FOCUSED ON THINKING

There is no academic discipline called "Thinking skills." The move-
ment draws from a number of research areas based in human develop-
ment: cognitive and developmental psychology (5), cognitive science (6),
educational practice (7), and child development (8). One of the most no-
table characteristics of the current movement is its changing view of hu-
man intelligence and the nature of the school's program in terms of that
view.
The dassic orientation of intelligence as an immutable, quantifiable,
and genetically determined quality has been challenged by current re-
search and theory (9). The possibility that various capabilities can be de-
veloped or modified in youngsters and that instruction and school organ
ization can significantly influence student performance are viable posi-
tions developed in recent literature (10). Some theorists contend that
thinking and intelligence can actually be taught (11) and that how we

32
,3 0,
teach is as powerful asor perhaps even more powerful thanwhat we
teach. Other researchers maintain it is most significant that particular
bodies of knowledge or courses of study be examined in terms of their
relationship to cognitive processes (12). This is especially so in the so-
called higher order processes of critical thinking, decision making, prob-
lem solving, and creative thinking.
There is in the thinking skills position an understanding that there are
some essential cognitive processes, both basic and complex, that underlie
good thinking, that these processes can be learned and taughtin fact,
good coaching does just thatand that being aware of how one masters
these processes is the key to good learning. Metacognition, the conscious-
ness of how one learns and how one works with difficult problems, in-
cluding failure, is one of the hallmarks of the current concern for cogni-
tive improvement compared to the era of the 1960s (13). The
development of aspects of metacognition such as intuitive and heuristic
capabilities for problem solving is central to the movement of the 80s.
The spatial-visual abilities of video technology and microprocessor-based
information systems have also influenced an instructional base that incor-
porates interactive student responses into the classroom (14).

A CURRICULUM FOR THINKING

What does the thinking skills movement mean to the traditional cur-
riculum, the school's planned program and the core of common learn-
ing? Lochhead suggests education is no longer "a process of passing facts
from those who had them to those who didn't, and pedagogy . . . the
art or science of packaging these facts" (15). A curriculum that is respon-
sive to an information-rich world must concentrate on how knowledge is
created and disseminated, how experts perform their capabilities, and
how new problcms are addressed and resolved. Such a curriculum reveals
a new functionalism as the major overriding concern of teaching and
learning in the current era. Educators are encouraged to use the findings
of more than thirty years of cognitive research and turn them into reali-
ties in the classroom that lead to greater productivity and creativity. The
curriculum of the industrial economy, geared to pre- existing jobs and the
use of static knowledge and known information, says Mulkeen, is out-
moded (16).
A curriculum focused on thinking skills then requites that the cogni-
tive processes imbedded in a body of learning be explicated and made
obvious. That does not mean one throws out the disciplines of language,
history, science, the arts, or mathematics. It does say that teachers ought
to cart- mine what it means to think in a particular area and be concerned
with what is requited to develop the skills of an accomplished scholar. It

33
 also suggests one needs to look for the metacognitivc skills often hidden
in the learning of a particular content and teach those explicitly to stu-
dents. There is, then, an assumption that the persons responsible for de-
livering classroom instruction ought to (1) know their own subject area at
some depth and (2) work collaboratively with their colleagues to deter-
mine what the content of instruction should be and what kinds of activi-
ties are most appropriate for learning by the student population who will
use the curriculum. This does not suggest that all curriculum efforts are
individual and idiosyncratic. School personnel would be well advised to
examine existing published programs in thinking skills like Philosophy
for Children developed by Matthew Lipman and Instrumental Enrich-
ment developed by Reuven Feucrstein (17), or particular thinking skill
programs developed by school districts such as Baltimore, Maryland, and
Shoreham-Wading River, New York (18). These exemplary efforts may
help identify the processes associated with good thinking and the variety
of activities that can be developed to teach thinking skills throughout the
curriculum. But educators should be alert to the primary need which is
to identify the appropriate thinking skills intervention for the population
they teach. These needs should be determined by regular curriculum as-
sessment procedures and ongoing diagnosis of student achievement (19).
A curriculum focused on thinking skills also requires that the instruc-
tional strategy inherent in the curriculum emphasize the model of learn-
ing that most encourages the development of intellectual autonomy on
the part of the student. The student as the constructor of his or her own
learning is the cornerstone of many thinking skills approaches and re-
flects the Piagetian roots of the current thinking skills movement (20).
Obviously, the role of the teacher in the classroom dramatically shifts
with this conceptualization. The teacher as mediator, questioner, critic,
inspirer, enabler, coach, but not fount of all wisdom, dominates. The
teacher as a model of thoughtful processing, as the gadfly of knowledge
in particular contents, may then become valued in the school communi-
ty. Ideally, thinking ought to be valued in that community, too, not just
as a standard to be measured by higher test results, but as a reality to be
realized in the performance of all students educated by that curriculum.
Such an education is much more than the sum of a school's testing;
hopefully, it is the foundation for the learning society envisioned by the
current reform reports and the nation's educational leaders (21).

AN OPPORTUNITY FOR CHANGE

The historic juncture of thinking and curriculum in this period of edu-
cational reform can be played out in various ways. Let's explore the pos-
sibilities. The thinking skills movement can be treated as a fad, an

34

35
ephemeral idea that's momentarily interesting, which generates a great
number of journal articles, and then withers away when the next band-
wagon idea comes along and captures educators' attention. Thinking
skits could also be received as a new subject matter. Some schools or
school districts could actually allocate instructional time for its instruc-
tion and seek special materials for these special classes. American schools
have an extensive history of purchasing instant, "plug-in" programs, of-
ten imposed upon the classroom teacher by administrative decree.
Unfortunately, research shows both these approaches arc long-range
curricular failures (22). "Teacher-proof" programs of the 1960 vintage
arc not an ideal model for introducing thinking skills to American edu-
cators. The already heavily burdened school program does not need addi-
tional courses; indeed, anything that could streamline the program is
probably desirable.
In order to build a sound thinking skills program, there is need for
teacher involvement as well as teacher act.eptance in planning the pro-
gram. Matched to support from administrative leaders in a systemwide
cffort, these are the ingredients of a curricular change that is expected to
last.
Perhaps the most convincing argument for chinking skills development
is that there must be professional commitment to teaching. There is a
great deal of discussion today about teachers being valued and consid-
ered professional. Thinking skills are important to that characterization.
If the central purpose of schooling is to help students think and learn
better, and the primary agents of that instruction or mediation arc teach-
ers, thinking is the important raison d'are of a teacher's competence.
Thinking skills is a rare topic of discussion that cuts across all subject
matters of the school's curriculum and reaches to the university commu-
nity as well. How students learn to think in a particular subject area or
what are the most appropriate ways to present a specific lesson are no less
problems of a primary teacher than of a college professor. Curriculum is
the link between the processes of cognition and the larger instructional
design which drives schooling (see Figure 1). To see this relationship is to
be able to address the needs of educational change today in American
education. To ignore this relationship, in Cornbleth's words, is to con-
tinue with curriculum not as active inquiry but as "passive acceptance of
tradition, authority, or 'common sense' " (23).
There are some critical steps to be taken if the possibilities of the cur-
rent historical juncture are to be realized. If we want to enable students
to be critical thinkers and capable of higher order cognitive skills, we
must make it possible for teachers to act as professionals in the determi-
nation and instruction of those skills. We cannot expect that teachers
must serve as heroes or heroines to introduce thinking skills into their

35
 SCHOOLINGALL EXPERIENCES

i
Instructional Design for 1

1
1- Selection of Appropriate 1

i Curricular Content 1

I
1

Teaching for Thinking 1

1
I I

i
Meaningful Interactions 1

J
Associated with Education

Figure 1: Educational Relationships in the School

Source: Thinking Skills Throughout the Curriculum. A Conceptual Design by Barbara
Z. Presseisen (Philadelphia: Research for Better Schools, 1985), 14.

classrooms. Corbett and D'Amico suggest four major conditions that are
necessary to support such a program of change:
Make local resources available.
Provide a grace period at the onset of effort.
Encourage implementation and reward accomplishment.
Incorporate the change into regular procedures (24).
Teachers need time to study the current thinking skills programs and
the related literature. They need time to talk among themselves about
what this movement means to their own subject areas and to the larger
curricular concerns of their district. They probably will want to try some
of the existing materials or talk with educators who have had direct expe-
rience with published programs. Some effort should be made to relate
this examination to the needs of a school's current population and the
data that exist about the achievement of that population, particularly as
related to the development of thinking. Obviously, teachers and admin-
istrators in a district need to communicate with the policy makers of the
district, too.
It is important to recognize that thinking skills developmentno less
than curriculum developmentis not a quick-fix repair job in schooling.
Improvement takes time and patience, as well as funding, and innova-
tiVC projects that are worthwhile need to be supported, particularly in
their initial phase. At the same time, implementation needs to be en-

36

37
 couraged not by making thinking skills an add-on to the curriculum, but
by nuking it a bona fide part of the regul5': school program. This means
that course work and regular subject matter across the school's program
must be involved in such an implementation and all teaching personnel
need to be encouraged to take the effort seriously. Results of the imple-
mentation ought to be shared with these persons on a regular schedule.
I In the current thinking skills movement a possibility has been offered
to redirect the course of American education. Particularly in the area of
curriculum, a new focus for schooling has been proposed amidst a hectic
reform period. Will America's educators have the courage to respond
positively? Can they afford not to? These are questions worthy of serious
thinking.

REFERENCES
1. Barbara Z. Presseisen, Unlearned Lessons: Current and Part Reforms for
School Improvement (Philadelphia and London: 1 ?almer Press, Taylor and
Francis Group, 1985).
2. Task Force on Education for Economic Growth, Action for Excellence: A
Comkehensire Plan to Improve Our Nation's Schools (Washington, D.C.:
Education Commission of the States, 1983), 7.
3. Barbara Z. Prcsseiscn, "Thinking Skills: Meanings, Models, and Materials,"
in Developing Minds: A Resource Book for Teaching Thinking, ed. Arthur
L. Costa (Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development, 1985).
4. See, for example, Judith W. Segal, Susan F. Chipman, and Robert Glaser,
cds., Thinking and Learning Skills, vols. 1 and 2 (Hillsdale, NJ.: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, 1985); Educational Leadership, September and Novem-
ber 1984, and May 1985; George R. 'Caplan, Items for an Agenda: Educa-
tional Research and the Reports on Excellence (Washington, D.C.: Ameri-
can Educational Research Association, 1985).
5. See, for example, Robert J. Sternberg, "Intelligence as Thinking and Learn-
ing Skills," Educational Leadership (October 1981): 18-20; Harry Beilin,
"The Psychology of Mathematics Learning," Education and Urban Society
(August 1985): 377-85; Jerome Bruner, "Models of the Learner," Educa-
tional Researcher (June /July 1985): 5-8.
6. See, for example, Lauren B. Resnick, "Introduction: Changing Conceptions
of Intelligence," in The Nature of Intelligence, edited by Lauren B. Resnick
(New York: 1976), 1-10; Alan H. Schoenfeld, "Teaching Problem Solving
Skills," Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, The American Mathematical Monthly
(December 1980): 794-805.
7. See, for example, Barry K. Beyer, "Improving Thinking SkillsDefining
the Problem." Phi Delta Kippur (March 1984): 486-90; Barry K. Beyer,
"Teaching Thinking Skills: How the Principal Can Know They Are Being
 Taught," NASSP Bulletin (January 1985): 70-83; Arthur L. Costa,
ating the Metacognitive," Educational Leadership (November "Medi-
1984): 57-62.
8. See, for example, Jean Piagct, "Piaget's Theory," in Carmichael's
of Child Psychology, vol. 1, ed. Paul H. Musses (New York: Manual
John Wiley,
1970), 703-32; John R. Berructa-Clement and others, Changed Lives: The
Effects of the Perry Preschool Program on Youths Through Age
19 (Ypsi-
lanti, Mich.: The High/Scope Press, 1984).
9. See, for example, Robert J. Sternberg, "The Nature of Mental
Abilities,"
American Psychologist (March 1979): 214-30; Robert J. Stemberg,
"Testing
Intelligence Without I.Q. Tests," Phi Delta Kappan (June 1984): 691-98;
Howard Gardner, Frames of Mind (New York: Basic Books, 1983); Kevin
McKean, "Intelligence: New Ways to Measure the Wisdom of
Man," Dis-
cover (October 1985): 25-41.
10. See, for example, Reuven Feuersten, Mogens Reimer Jenson,
Mildred B.
Hoffman, and Yaacov Rand, "Irr,trumental Enrichment, An
Intervention
Program for Structural Cognitive Modifiability: Theory and
Practice," in
Segal, Chipman, and Glaset, Thinking and Learning Skills,
vol. 1, 43-82;
Tack Lochhcad, "Introduction to Section 1New Horizons in Educational
Development," in Review of Research in Education, vol. 12, ed. Edmund
W. Gordon (Washington, D.C.: American Educational Research
Associa-
tion, 1985), 3-9; Stewart C. Purkey and Susan Degen, "Beyond Effective
Schools to Good Schools: Some First Steps," R & D Perspectives
Ore.: Center for Educational Policy and Management, 1985), (Eugene,
1-8.
11. Sec, for example, Arthur Whimbey and Linda Shaw Whimbey,
Can Be Taught (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1975); Schoenfeld, Intelligence
Problem Solving Skills." "Teaching
12. See, for example, Catherine Cornbleth, "Critical Thinking and
Cognitive
Process," in Review of Research in Social Studies Education
1976-1983, ed.
William B. Stanley and others (Boulder, Colo,: ERIC Clearinghouse
for So-
cial Studies/Social Science Education, Bulletin 75, 1985),
11-63; James G.
Greeno, "Forms for Understanding Mathematical Problem Solving,"
in
Learning and Motivation in the Classroom, ed. Scott G. Paris, Gary M. 01-
son, and Harold W. Stevenson (Hillsdale, NJ.: Lawrence Erlbaum,
83-111. 1983),
13. Sec, for example, Ann L. Brown, "Knowing When, Where,
Remember: A Problem of Metacognition," in Advances in and How to
Instructional
Psychology, vol. 1, ed. Robert Glasser, (Hillsdale, NJ.: Lawrence
Erlbaum,
1978), 77-165; Ann L. Brown, Teaching Students to Think as They Read:
Implications for Curriculum Reform (Washington, D.C.: American
tional Research Association, 1984); Arthur L. Costa, "Mediating Educa-
the Meta-
cognitive," Educational Leadership (November 1984): 57-62.
14. John Seely Brown, "Idea AmplifiersNew Kinds of Electronic
Learning
Environments," Educational Horizons (Spring 1985): 108-12.

38
39
15. Lochhead, "Introduction to Section 1," 3-4.
16. Thomas A. Mulkeen, "Introduction," Education and Urban Society (Au-
gust 1985): 371-76.
17. See, for example, Matthew Lipman, Ann Margaret Sharp, and Frcdcrick S.
Oscanyan, Philosophy in the Classroom (Philadelphia: Temple University
Press, 1980); Reuven Fcucrstcin, , nrirumental Enrichment (Baltimore: Un
versity Park Press, 1980).
18. The Baltimore City Schools Thinking Skills Project is in its third year of de-
velopment under Dr. Robin B. Hobbs. The ShorehamWading River Cen-
tral Schools have developed a program known as the Cognitive Levels
Matching Project. Dr. Martin G. Brooks and Jacqueline Gtennon are co-di-
rectors of the project.
19. For a discussion of thinking skills program development in the context of
regular curriculum planning and assessment, see Barbara Z. Prcssciscn,
Thinking Skills Throughout the Curriculum: A Conceptual Design (Phila-
delphia: Research for Better Schools, 1985).
20. These roots arc discussed in Connie Kamii, "Autonomy: Thc Aim of Edu-
cation Envisioned by Piaget," Fbi Delta Kappan (February 1984): 410-15.
Also see Jerome Bruner, "Models of the Learner" for a further discussion of
Piagct's constructivism.
21. Thc phrase "learning society" appears in the National Commission on Ex-
cellence in Education, A Nation at IVsk: The Imperative for Educational Re-
form (Washington, D.C.: Goverrunent Printing Office, 1983), 36. It is, in
spirit, a notion related to John Dewey's concept of lifelong learn:ng and
Thomas Jefferson's view of an enlightened electorate.
22. See, for example, Marvin Lazerson, Judith Block McLaughlin, and Bruce
McPherson, "New Curriculum, Old Issues," Teachers College Record
(Winter /984): 299-319; Michael W. Kirst and Gail R. Meister, "Turbu-
lence in American Secondary Schools: What Reforms last?" Curriculum In-
quiry (Summer 1985).
23. Combleth, "Critical Thinking and Cognitive Process," 13.
24. H. Dickson Corbett and Joseph J. D'Amico, No More Heroes: Creating Sys-
tems to Support Change (Philadelphia: Research for Better Schools, 1985).

39 , .

4t
 CRITICAL THINKING
AND THE CURRICULUM
by Robert H. Ennis

Robert H. Ennis finds fault with the idea that thinking it subject-speafic, and
therefore must be taught within academic disciplines. He argues that thence
general principles of thinking that bridge disciplines, and gives several examples of
principles that appear to apply to all areas of activity. He suggests practices that
can increase the transfer of these skills; they include using many different
ples; being receptive to students' questions; asking students to clarify theirexam-
state-
ments, focus their thoughts, and supply reasons for their ideal; and helping stu-
dents be aware of and think about their thinking processes. Ennis concedes that
this advice is vague, but notes that sufficient research has not yet been done
on the
transfer question to arrive . definitive solutions to the problem.
This chapter is reprinted with permission from National Forum: The Phi
Phi Journal, rot. 65, no. 1 (Winter 1985): 28-31. Kappa
The author it Professor of Philosophy of Education at the University of Illinois
and Director of the Illinois Critical Thinking Project.

Suddenly, it seems, critical t liking is truly popular. Perhaps starting

with the 1980 recommendation by the Rockefeller Commission
on the
Humanities that the U.S. Office of Education include critical thinking in
its definition of the basic skills, concrete interest has rapidly
expanded.
Prior to this, critical thinking often appeared on lists of goals of educa-
tion, but not much was done about it. In 1961, for example, the
Educa-
tional Policies Commission held that the central purpose of American
education was the development of the ability to think, but public and
professional interest moved in other directions.
Since 1980, however, much has happened. As of the fall of 1983, all
students in the California State University System are required to study
critical thinking in order to graduate. The Community College
Human-
ities Association in 1983-84 had critical thinking as the topic of the
presession workshops that preceded its annual meetings in Hartford, St.
Louis, and San Francisco. Programs leading to the master's degree
in the
teaching of critical thinking have been set up at Sonoma State
University
and at the University of Massachusetts in Boston. The
College Board
(sponsor of the Scholastic Aptitude Testthe SAT) through its Project

40
EQuality has identified reasoning (defined roughly as I would define
critical thinking) as one of the six basic skills needed for college (1983).
A task force of the Education Commission of the States did a similar
thing (1983). The states of California and Connecticut are incorporating
critical thinking in their statewide testing programs for 1984-85. Sales of
the leading critical thinking tests, the Cornell critical thinking tests and
the Watson-Glaser test, have increased greatly in the past year. And
those of us who are working in the field are now deluged by requests for
help in establishing and appraising curricula and instruction aimed at
critical thinking.
Though grated by, this real interest, I am concerned by the large
number of problems facing teachers, school systems, colleges, and uni-
versities trying to do something about critical thinking instruction. There
is much that we do not know about the capabilities for critical thinking
of students of various sorts at various levels. Teaching materials and tests
need to be developed. Teachers need to be retrained. And there is dis-
agreement about what critical thinking is and how it can be induded in
the curriculum. One controversial question about indusion of critical
thinking courses in the curriculum is, Should critical thinking be taught
as a separate course, or be induded in the instruction in existing courses,
or both? A topic that always arises in discussing this last question is the
subject specificity of critical thinking, my first topic because it is current,
crucial, and inadequately conceptualized in discussions I have seen, and
because it is a good starting point for discussion and investigation of oth-
er critical thinking problems.
DISCIPLINE SPECIFICITY VS. TOPIC SPECIFICITY
One immediate tangle arises from different interpretations attached to
the term "subject." Sometimes "subject" is meant to refer to a disci-
pline, a standard body of subject matter in accord with which schools,
colleges, and universities are often organized. Sometimes the word "sub-
ject" means the topic under consideration in a given context, the latter
being a much broader interpretation, because it can refer to the topics of
the disciplines as well as to whatever the topic might be in a context.
When I served on a jury recently, we were faced with the question of
whether the defendant lied about whether the deceased threatened her
life before she stabbed him. Deciding whether a defendant has lied
about such things was not part of one of the standard disciplines in ac-
cord with which my education was organized. Yet such decisions and the
evidence sifting on which they are based are a very important kind of ac-
tivity for all of us, and judging whether others have lied is a subject

41
about which we all have acquired considerable knowledge. It is an im-
portant subject calling for critical thinking But it is not part of one of
the standard disciplines that I studied in my general education.
Another example is the case of the airline traveler that Robert Glaser
drew from the National Academy of Science's Outlook for Science and
Technology: The Next Five Years: "At the security gate, the airline pas-
senger presented his briefcase. It contained metallic objects. His depar-
ture was delayed." Glaser, a specificity advocate, observes, "To under-
stand this commonplace incident, an individual must have a good deal
of prior knowledge of air terminals." Knowledge of air terminals is sub-
ject knowledge in the broad sense of the term "subject," but not in the
more restricted sense used to refer to the standard disciplines.
These two examples give you the idea. Perry Weddle in his delightful
way mentions many more:
This week the Typical Educated Person had to find a new mechanic, listen
to the broker, advise a friend's child on her career, choose a newspaper, de-
cide whether to fight an undemocratic, harsh, but fair administrative decision,
trouble-shoot a malfunctioning vacuum cleaner, and turn down a thoughtful
and appreciated invitation to spend the weekend at Mendocino. The Typical
Educated Person argued politics, music, psychology, sports, and religion. Aca-
demic fields cover only a fraction of such stuff. And no student could cover but
a tiny fraction of the needed fields.
The important point is that not all subjects are disciplines, especially
disciplines that a given student could study. Even if it is agreed in the
broad sense of "subject" that critical thinking is subject-specific, it does
not follow that it is discipline-specific in a way that requires that critical
thinking instruction be lodged in instruction in the disciplines.
So one common argument to support the lodging of critical thinking
instruction within the disciplines does not work. Condensed, the argu-
ment goes as follows: 'Thinking is always thinking about something.
Thus, critical thinking is subject-specific. So critical thinking instruction
must take place only within subject matter areas, the disciplines." This
argument fails because it exploits the ambiguity of the word "subject"
(the first occurrence of the word "subject" is broad in meaning; the
third occurrence of the word has a narrow meaning, referring to the par-
ticular subjectsi.e., psychology, sociology, history, etc.taken by a
student). The argument contains the fallacy of equivocation.
Viewed in stark form like this, the argument looks too implausible for
anyone to offer. Yet I often find embellished and extended forms of it
in discussions of the topic.
I am not here saying that critical thinking iratruction should not be
part of the subject matter instruction that a student receives. I am only
challenging one of the arguments alleged to show that such instruction

42
43
should take place only as part of instruction in other subject areas. That
conclusion does not follow from the fact that when we think, we must
think about something.
A caveat: If we look far enough, then we might well find some course
in some school, college, or university for each area of background knowl-
edge in each act of critical thinking. That is, we might, for example,
find somewhere a course in airport management, the subject matter of
which includes the facts and principles that enable the traveler to under-
stand the delay. And we might find a course in a law school or in a phi-
losophy department that teaches the principles for a juror to use in figur-
ing out whether a defendant lied about being threatened (though I do
not know of any such course). But I am confident that cognitive psychol-
ogists like Robert Glaser would not advocate a course in airport manage-
ment in order that the traveler understand the situation (one merely
needs to read the newspapers), and juror Ennis never took a course
teaching the principles for a juror to use in figuring out whether a defen-
dant lied about being threatened. Furthermore, it would be absurd to
advocate that we all take a course in everything about which we want or
need to think critically.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CRITICAL THINKING
Although I am firmly convinced that a thorough knowledge of the
subject about which one is thinking is essential for critical thinking, I
also am convinced that there are general principles that bridge subjects,
that have application to many subjects. Here are several examples of such
principles drawn from a large number embodied in the conception of
critical thinking I have refined over the years:
1. A person's having a conflict of interest is a ground for regarding
that person's claim with greater suspicion than would otherwise be
appropriate.
2. It is a mistake to misdescribe a person's position, and then attack
the position as if it actually were the person's position (the "straw-
person" fallacy).
3. Given an "if-then" statement, denial of the consequent implies
the denial of the antecedent.
4. The ability of a hypothesis to explain or help explain the facts
lends support to the hypothesis, if the hypothesis is not otherwise
disqualified.
The conflict-of-interest principle, though vague and requiring judg-
ment in application, applies in all areas of activity with which I am fa-
miliar, including, for example, jury trials, certification of airplanes, ap-
praisals of the state of the economy, recommendations of graduate stu-
dents, interpretations of IQ studies, and, yes, even the hawking of mate-
rials for the teaching and testing of critical thinking.
Likewise, and obviously, the straw-person principle applies every-
where. It applies to politics, to medical research, and to appraisals of
conceptions of critical thinking. You name the topit: the principle ap-
plies. But, of course, knowledge of the subject (including what the origi-
nal person said) is needed to apply it.
Here are three examples of the application of the third principle, the
one about denial of the consequent:
If John is in school, then Mary is in school. But since Mary is not in school, we
can conclude that John is not in school.
If Shakespeare intended lago to be a melodramatic villain, then Emilia, lago's
wife, would have at least suspected him to be a villain. But she did not suspect
him to be a villain. So Shakespeare did not intend lago to be a melodramatic
villain.
If a body in motion needs a continual impetus to keep it going, then this ball
when thrown straight up in an automobile moving at constant velocity will
move to the back of the automobile. I did throw it up that way, but the ball did
not move to the back of the automobile. It came right back down in my lap. So
it is false that a body in motion needs a continual impetus to keep it going.
Although it takes background knowledge to understand the signifi-
cance of these arguments, the denial-of-the-consequent principle has
wide application. It appears to be less subject-dependent than the fourth
principle, the support-by-explanatory-power principle.
The fourth principle's wide application is evident from the following
three examples: first, from a standard discipline, history. The hypothesis
that Napoleon died of arsenic poisoning rather than cancer gets support
from its ability to explain his nausea, chills, weakness, and increasing
corpulence during his last few months. It also explains the traces of ar-
senic found in his hairmore support.
Second, from another standard discipline, English literature: the hy-
pothesis that Emilia in Shakespeare's Othello did not suspect Iago to be
a villain explains why she expressed surprise when Othello told her,
"Thy husband knew it all."
Third, from my jury experience but no discipline that I have studied:
the hypothesis that she loved him and was very jealous explains why the
defendant stabbed the victim.
These four principles show that there are elements of critical thinking
that are general and that bridge subjects. The conditions under which
transfer, or subject bridging, occurs are my next topic. But it is impor-
tant to remember that there are important features of critical thinking
that are subject general, so to speak, just as their application is, I be-
lieve, at least in part subject specific.

44
45
 My etamples could be used to argue for the subject-specificity point
that background knowledge of the subject is necessary for the reasonable
application of a principle. For example, if you do not know about love
and jealousy and how they move people, and if you do not know the
particulars of that situation, then you are not in a good position to judge
whether the hypothesis about the defendant's love and jealousy explains
why she stabbed the victim. But I shall not argue here the need for back-
ground knowledge of this sort. It is not a controversial point among peo-
ple who work in the area of critical thinking, although it is sometimes
neglected.
TRANSFER
One matter that is controversial is the extent to which students transfer
their knowledge of a general principle from one subject area to another.
A vague general dictum of educational psychology is that transfer does
not occur un!ess you teach for it. This time-honored principle is similar
to the vague modem dictum that thinking is domain specific.
Vagueness arises in part from unclarity about whether two applications
of a principle are actually in the same domain or whether a new applica-
tion would accually be a case of transfer. The problem lies in the lack of
criteria for deciding whether any two given topics are in the same do-
main. For example, are the hypotheses about Napoleon and the defen-
dant in the same domain? One might think not, yet they are both about
someone's doing something that could be illegal. By what criteria do we
judge them to be in different domains?
Vagueness also arises from lack of criteria for deciding whether we
have actually taught for transfer or not. In domain-specificity language,
we might also ask, How many applications of a general principle in how
many domains are required before we can be reasonably well assured of
transfer? There are no clear criteria for deciding either of these questions.
Another uncertainty arises from the fact that some of the principles of
critical thinking are more easily generalized (less domain specific) than
others. From my teaching experience, I fmd much less domain specificity
for the first three principles I mentioned than for the fourth. That is, I
fmd students applying the conflict-of-interest, straw-person, and denial-
of-the-consequent principles to new subjects more readily than the sup-
port-by.explanatory-power principle. In short, I have found that the first
three principles seem to transfer more readily than the fourth.
These three kinds of vagueness (absence of a way of telling whether
two topics are in the same or different domains, lack of a clear criterion
for telling whether we have taught for transfer or domain bridging, and
the variability among critical thinking principles in their transferability)

45
make research about the domain specificity and transferability of critical
thinking instruction difficult indeed. They tempt me to retreat to the in-
sights garnered from years of teaching critical thinking. Vague though it
may be, here is one compilation of these insights: use many examples of
many different sorts; go slowly; be receptive to questions and to stu-
dents' original thoughts; press for clarity; arrange for students to engage
each other in discussion and challenge; arrange for them to assume pro-
gressively greater control over and responsibility for their learning; en-
courage students to be aware of what they are doing and review what
they have done; ask for a focus (often a thesis) and for reasons in any dis-
cussion, and encourage students to do likewise. I trust that if these prin-
ciples are followed in a number of areas, transfer to new areas will occur.
But it is clear that transfer can occur and that we can go beyond do-
main specificity. Although I had never been on a jury before, I found
myself exercising a wide variety of critical thinking skills in that court-
room situation.
Another way to look at the learning-transfer question is to think about
the transferability and domain specificity of arithmetic and writing.
Somehow it happens that we apply the principles of percentages, for ex-
ample, to a wide variety of subjects: inflation, population increase, auto-
mobile finance contracts, aircraft fuel consumption, and income tax, for
example. I did not study the application of the principles of computing
percentages to these areas; yet I have transferred my grasp of these prin-
ciples to them. Similarly, I did not write about critical thinking in my
English classes; yet I am now managing to write complete sentences and .
to organize my thoughts in paragraphs in this essay. The principles of
writing sentences and paragraphs and computing and comparing per-
centages are clearly not limited to the domains in which they were
taught to me. Is there reason to think that it is different for critical
thinking?
INCLUDING CRITICAL THINKING IN A CURRICULUM
It is relatively easy to add a critical thinking course to the curriculum
in a college or university. It is very difficult to do so at the senior high
school level. Middle schools and junior high schools tend to be more
flexible, but there is not much flexibility where requirements are con-
cerned. By and large there are no separate courses in critical thinking at
the elementary level, though there are programs.
These are four practical facts that are important in making decisions
about the inclusion of critical thinking in the curriculum at the four lev-
els mentioned. Another fact is that students are understandably intoler-
ant of being exposed to the same thing over and over again, and doing

46
so is a waste of resources. Furthermore, it is difficult for teachers to reach
an adhered -to agreement among themselves about the total content of
an area like critical thinking. It is also difficult to reach an agreement on
the question of which subject matter areas should be counted on to have
taught something which can be considered as a prerequisite in other sub-
ject matter areas, if the division of responsibility is not simple.
If it wcrc not for the lower reading level, the relative immaturity, and
the shorter attention span of elementary students, the elementary schools
would be the best place to teach critical thinking, because one teacher
generally has control over most of the subject matter and other experi-
ences of the students for a whole year. A principle that is introduced in
one subject or activity could then be applied in others under the guid-
ance of the same person. Repeated application in a variety of situations
would provide the ability and disposition_ to_extend the learning-to new
situations. Furthermore, barring problems resulting from students trans-
ferring from one school to anothermobility among schools is admitted-
ly a problemcoordination from one grade to the next could be easier
because of possible interaction among elementary teachers.
It would not be politically feasible to introduce an extra course in
"critical thinking" at the secondary level unless it wcrc adopted by one
department as part of its course requirements. Perhaps the English or the
social studies department could offer instruction in "critical thinking" in
required courses. A half-year course in "critical thinking" in one of
these two departments (in the sixth or seventh grade and also in the
ninth or tenth grade) could well provide summary and reinforcement of
preceding work and a satisfactory introduction to further basic principles.
Alternatively the same thing could be accomplished with two or three
units at each grade level in the English or social studies sequence. Teach-
ers of other courses in the secondary school could then depend on stu-
dents' having developed these skills (just as physics and chemistry teach-
ers now depend on an elementary algebra course to have conveyed some
of the basic principles of algebra).
It would be inefficient to leave it up to each teacher in every course to
introduce some principles of critical thinking: for example, that denial of
the consequent in an argument is a valid form of reasoning. Teachers
would find that some of their students know it well (though perhaps by
a variety of names) and that others do not know it at all. So it would be
good to have one central place where basic, generalizable ideas are re-
viewed and introduced. Of course, we cannot expect complete transfer-
able learning (i.e., the ability to apply principles learned in one subject
area to an entirely different subject matter) to occur from this one central
course.

47
 If and when critical thinking histruction becomes prevalent and suc-
cessful in the elementary and secondary schools, then the need (for the
sake of efficiency) for a separate course at the college level to introduce
the principles of critical thinking will diminish; but the need for the
practice of critical thinking within the other courses will not diminish,
since critical thinking about the subject is an integral part of the proper
study of most subjects.
In sum, showing that critical thinking requires some subject (or do-
main) does not make it necessary that it be taught only within one of the
standard subject matter areas. However, the current practical situation in
mondary schools (especially senior high schools) seems to call for the
lodging of basic critical thinking instruction within the existing subject
matter areas. (English or social studies departments could take on the re-
sponsibility for the review and introduction of the basic ideas of critical
thinking.)
But the same practical considerations do not hold at the college level.
At that levelat least until the secondary schools take care of ita sepa-
rate critical thinking course in some department (often the philosophy
department) is practically feasible (but articulation with other courses in
the university is often lacking and requires attention). This all assumes
that subject-matter-specific, critical thinking instruction should take
place in all elementary, secondary, and college subject matter areas.
The question of whether critical thinking skills transfer from one do-
main to another is vague enough to make useful research on the topic
quite difficult. How do we tell whether two topics are in the same do-
main or subject? How many instances of teaching a principle in different
domains are needed for learning transfer to occur, and how do we count
them? And which critical thinking principles are we talking about? They
seem to differ in their ease of transferability. Yet it seems that critical-
thinking instruction does transfer to new situationslike serving on a
juryand it seems that similar principles from English and mathematics
also transfer to new situations.
We do not have sample curricula in action in existing schools to test
these suggestions about subject specificity and curriculum. Nor do we
have trained teachers and quality teaching materials for implementing
the sample curricula. Thcse are jobs that need to be done soon. I hope
that the current tidal wave of interest in critical thinking lasts long
enough for the necessary research and development to take place.
The current emphasis in critical thinking is one educational trend that
we need to preserve. Let us hope that fickle public interest provoked by
the early errors of enthusiastic people and by the ignorance of instant ex-
perts and charlatans does not destroy this trend.

48

C-i
CONVERSATION WITH
DAVID N. PERKINS

David N. Perkins talk about the nature of creative thinkirlwhat it is and is

not, and bow best to develop it. He begins by suggesting ie.t errors about the na-
ture of thinking. First, be suggests that solutions to problems do not come by wait-
ing for inspiration thinking is an active process, and successful problem solving
requires actively working on a problem. Second, be feels that perhaps too much
emphasis has been placed on problem solving; time must first be invested in prob-
lem finding: searching for problems of interest, rather than automatically working
toward the technical solution of a problem posed. Perkins suggests a variety of ac-
tivities that be sees as integral to active problem saki"' !. He critiques creative
thinking courses that emphasize fluencymaking lists c new ideas without sub-
jecting the ideas to a sense of standards. He maintains Alt "there's no such thing
as creating in general," and feels that courses that artempr to teach general skills
of creativity may not be useful.
In this chapter the initials JLS identify the name of the publication where it ap-
peared originally: The Journal of Learning Skills, Fall 1983. Reprinted with
permission.
David N. Perkins is Co-Director of Project Zero at Harvard University, Cam-
bridge, Massachusetts.

JLS: Throughout your book The Mind's Best Work, you challenge some
common assumptions about thinking. Could you give us an example or
two which you think arc critizally importantkey errors people make
about the nature of thinking?
PERKINS: Well, I think one of the most important errors is the notion
that you fill your mind with relevant information and then wait, and
eventually the solution to a problem presents itself. Certainly my own
view is that thinking is an active process: You make the most progress
when you spend the most amount of time pushing around pieces of the
problem in ways and striving to resolve the problem. This is
not to say that never a good idea to set a problem aside. It may very
well be a good idea at certain junctures. But basically you make progress
by working on a problm, not by sitting back and waiting.
Another common error is this: In popular parlance, and I think in t.ie
field of psychology a/F.,, there's a great stress cn problem solving. Well,
indeed problem solving is a ye!), useful skill. But it can be argued that
just as useful a tkill is problem finding. One of the most notable charac-
teristics of a skilled and cr-ative scientist, for example, is that he or she
selects very good problems to work au. Th.: problems arc creasy, impor-
tant, they lead to further developments. h general it seems to be the
case people in their thinking do not invest enou h time in problem
finding that is to say, exploring the possible proble. 's they might ad-
49
dress, and choosing, with some care and thought, a problem to address.
There's even some empirical evidence from the visual arts that the artists
who produce the most creative products are those who spend the most
time on problem-finding kinds of activities that is, on searching for the
sort of work they want to do at the moment, rather than quickly jump-
ing into a particular kind of work and investing their efforts in its techni-
cal execution. So another important thing to keep in mind: reallocate
some time to problem fmding.
JLS: You've said that it's impoAnt to work actively at a problem, not
simply sit and wait for its solution. What kind of activities does one en-
gage in when working actively at solving a problem?
PERKINS: My list of activities is not unique. I take it that the following
kinds of activities arc. routine and relevant: You try to remember related
problems, problems that you've addressed before that may bear on the
problem at hand. You perhaps try to put your information in different
combinations, different arrangementsperhaps you make lists or dia-
grams. You may try alternative modes of representationverbal versus
visual, let's say, pictorial, thee-dimensional even. You may make analo-
gies: connect the subject at hand to something similar to it or sometimes
to something quite remote fkom it. You may try to project yourself into
the situationin a physics problem, for example, imagining that you're
the proton moving through the cyclotron. You may try to list lots of
ideas; you may go through cycles of idea-generating and criticism, so
that you produce and then sift. All of these kinds of processes, and no
doubt a dozen others, are very common in any kind of generative
thinking.
JLS: In your book you said that there are perhaps some problems with
creative thinking courses. That students may be "trapped by their hy-
lotheses" or these courses may promote long searches which, if they're
riot guided by standards and clear objectives, keep a problem open with-
out reaching critical solutions. Would you comment on that and what
you think about creative thinking courses in general?
PERKINS: One thing has to be said at the outset about creative thinking
courses: they come in many kinds, and it's hard to generalize. Now there
was a periodroughly speaking, the '60swhere there was a leitmotif
that was common to most of the instruction in creative thinking. That
leitmotif was that creative thinking was a matter of ideational fluency
cranking out lots and lots of ideas, and then of course being in a position
to pick the best one, and solving the problem. Now my impression is
that the stock in trade of instruction in creative thinking has broadened
somewhat since then. On the question of ideational fluency, in particu-

50
5
12r, there are at least two problems with it. One is th..7. following: Re-
search shows that those who make long lists of ideas are hz,t necessarily
very good at picking out the best ones, and in fact may end up with no
better a selection than the person who has tried from the outset just to
list the three or four ideas that feel strongest. So one may simply be in-
vesting time to no purpose in making a very long list.
I'd like to qualify that, though. I'd like to point out that it depends
on one's standards in what one is seeking. It really makes sense to make
quite a long list, idea after idea, if it's quite clear in your mind that you
haven't yet achieved something of the potential that you want. In other
words, many times the process of invention is driven by a sharp sense of
the standards one is trying to meet, and searches get long because the
process is so driven.
JLS: Like a composer revising what he's written because he has an idea in
mind and he's not quite gotten it yet.
PERKINS: That's a good analogy.
The second reason for caution in evaluating earlier creative thinking
courses is that measures of ideational fluency originally were thought to
reflect real-world creativity. If you scored high on an ideational fluency
test, presumably you were creative in your writing, or your mathematics,
or whatever your discipline was. And therefore, the logic went, perhaps
if we can improve people's ideational fluency, we can improve their per-
formance in real-world creative situations. Since then some more research
has been done, and it turns out in fact that performance on ideational
fluency tests does not correlate well with ratings of real-world creativity
based on things like assessments by peers on one's contribution to a
field, or listings of important publicationsmost any .sort of measures
you might want. This question has been looked at from various perspec-
tives by various researchers, and by and large the consistent finding is
that measures of ideational fluency do not reflect real-world creativity
well. Consequently, the whole conceptual underpinning of instruction
designed to improve ideational fluency comes under challenge.
JLS: Do you feel that there's a tendency to teach creativity out of con-
text? Can you teach creativity in the abstract, or do you need a disci-
pline, a concrete field in which to practice this behavior?
PERKINS: Let me give you some ideas of that based on knowledge and
some based on conjecture. First, as a philosophical point, you have 1:-.; be
being creative about something. There's no such thing as creating in
general. Okay. Different kinds of instruction highlight one or another
discipline in whidi one is doing the creating. Some instruction highlights
everyday problemshow to get along with your brother-in-law. Some

51
instruction highlights business problemshow to resolve a labor dispute.
Some highlight artistic pursuitshow to produce a provocative, inven-
tive poem. In fact, if you look at the range of programs designed to do
this sort of thing, you will find they all have favorite domains of creativ-
ity. Those programs that pretend to teach general skills of creativity al-
most always give problems from a limited domain. It is simply not the
case that the problems they give range widely over the universe of cre-
ative problems. For example, it's often the case that a book designed to
provoke creative activity might use puzzle problems of various sorts
where you have to fit a diagram together to achieve a certain constraint.
Now there's no particular reason to believe that this sample Gf the range
of all possible creative problems is particularly representative. Granted,
then, any program has made a selection, often a rather narrow selection,
of the kinds of problems it will deal with. A question arises: If you get
good at being inventive in this context, will your inventiveness be im-
proved in other contexts? In general, the lesson of a number of studies in
contemporary cognitive psychology is transfer is hard to come by
harder than you would think. Quite commonly, if you train a person
and get them performing pretty well in one domain, they don't carry
across these skills to another domain. That's one caution. My own feel-
ing, therefore, is if you're interested in performance in a particular do-
main, teach in that domain. Don't teach something else and hope it will
transfer. Teach directly to the task.
Nonetheless, it's possible that there may be transfer from one of these
problem domains to others. Furthermore, transfer is a sticky thing. It
seems that you have much better luck getting transfer if you deliberately
provoke itif you teach the person to transfershow people how to ap-
ply things like new methods for solving puzzle problems to solving a set
of real-world tasks. By and large, there have not been very many studies
where teaching to transfer has been an explicit part of it. It's not clear
how much transfer one might get if one taught for it explicitly. So my
position at the moment is: One, teach to the task you're interested in,
since we can'! count on transfer. Two, let's experiment with teaching ex-
plicitly to transfer to sec how much we can get.
JLS: Would you comment on the notion that concrete application is
more likely to result in creative thought than practice in abstract concept
making?
PERKINS: Contemporary psychology shows clearly that skill in any do-
main is highly dependent on a vast reservoir of experience. Take for e'-
ample chess. Studies of master-level chess have demonstrated that the
chess master relics on a kind of vocabulary of configurations of the order
of 50,000. Using this vocabulary quite automatically and spontaneously,

52
53
the chess master encodes the layout of the board. This is the mechanism
by which he can memorize a board at a glance. Presumably this is also
the mechanism by which he can search out various possible lines of at-
tack and defense more efficiently than can the novice. He has these
"chunks" to think with, whereas the novice can only think on a piece-
by-piece level.
There is evidence that similar kinds of chunking occi. s in almost any
domain of skilled performance. Solving problems in physics or in mathe-
matics, one develops a repertoire of paradigms and patterns of thinking
and organizes one's problem solving in terms of those paradigms and
patterns.
Now it's quite likely that there's no substitute for lots of experience in
accumulating this repertoire which enables highly skilled performance.
But there is another side to the story. That's the side of being generally
organized and systematic about what one is doing. The novice not only
does not have a very large repertoire, but many novices are also very dis-
organized in the way they go about trying to tackle a problem. A good
example of this kind of perspective is that of Alan Schoenfeld, who's
done work on mathematical problem solving. Schoenfeld distinguishes
on the one hand managerial strategies for keeping track of what one is
doing, and on the other hand a particular heuristic, like mathematical
induction. Roughly speaking, one might call the heuristics he's referring
to the repertoire of chunks, but there is this other thing, this managerial
strategy. Even when the student is a novice, and has not accumulated a
very large repertoire, it seems reasonable to encourage the stude'l to be
systematic, organized. In much more specific terms, it's reasonable to ask
him to do things like the following: One, ask himself, "Am I making
progress on the problem?" or "Can I think of another approach?" "Do
I have a plan that I'm in the process of executing? If not, can I make my
behavior planful?"
In conclusion, I'd say that there's no substitute for experience in the
domain, but neither is it true that students right from the first have the
kind of good management that also promotes effective problem solving.
AS: You talk about thinking aloud experiments in terms of research
throughout the book. You speak primarily of research done with ex-
pertspeople who are successful in their disciplines. Could you tell us
something about thinking aloud not as an experiment, but as an instruc-
tional technique, as Art Whimbey and Jack Lochhead are doing*, to

'Arthur Whimbey ro.dJack Lochhead are members of the Editonal Advisory Board of the Journal of
Learning Skills. We lave published arudes on their work, Cogrutive Process Instruction wing pair
probhrn sclving, in two issues of JLS: Winter, 1982 and Summer, 1983.

53
help students become better and more systematic problem solvers by
thinking aloud, externalizing their thoughts. People doing this kind of
work feel that to externalize thought is to improve its functioning. What
do you think about that?
PERKINS: On the whole, I view this kind of work very favorably, and
take a somewhat Vygotskian view of it. That is, private thinking is in sig-
nificant part an internalization of more public verbal and other interac-
tions. By making important patterns of thinking public, by forcing them
to occur in publicdialogue between two pair problem solvers, for ex-
ampleor simply by having a person verbalize his thoughtsthat be-
gins to teach the person something about possible patterns of thinking.
This kind of practice encourages the person to view patterns of thinking
so made explicit as objects that he can adopt or not adopt, choose
among, revise, and so on.
JLS: Along these same lines, Jack Lochhead has said, "Novice students,
particularly poor ones, do not need to be taught methods which they can
only follow in a mindless fashion. Rather they need to be taught to think
about whatever problem solving method they happen to choose" (JLS
Vol. 1 (2), 5). Would you comment on this?
PERKINS: Well, Jack is encouraging a kind of critical awareness of what
one is about that I can't help but applaud.
JLS: How does this work relate to your own in this area?
PERKINS: I would say that my approach is very much in line with Jack's
approach, and, in fact, with similar approacfas which are widespread in
the field. The idea of making explicit the thinking process at work is al-
most universal in this kind of instruction. As to just what you do exactly
and what kinds of problems you pose, that varies from person to person
and from population to population. One of the characteristics ofJack's
work, for instance, is that he's working with remedial math instruction.
He's working with people who are demonstrably below par in their
mathematical competence. That means that you have to strike a slow
pace, do things in an orderly, step-by-step, and not very brisk way to
make progress. If you're dealing with a group of gifted students, or even
a group of ordinary students, you may be able to pose problems of a
scope and subtlety that would be entirely unreasonable for the students
Jack is dealing with.
JLS: In The Mind's Best Work, you talk about a number of heuristics,
for example, SQ3R. Would you tell us your central criticism of heuristics
as they've been used so far, and how you think they might be best
adopted by students?

54
PERKINS: There are a number of dculties that get in the way of the
effective use of heuristics, Perhaps one of the most important is the qual-
ity of the heuristics themselves. The fact of the matter is that very few
the heuristics that are commonly taught have been subject to rigorous
testing. Furthermore, there is a problem with the track record of those
that have been tested. It turns our that some that seem very plausible
when tested turn out not to be very helpful. For example, as I men-
tioned earlier, it turns out that it isn't necessarily a good idea to generate
as long a list of alternatives as you can when trying to solve a simple sort
of problem, such as coming up with a title for a story. Likewise there's
an extensive body of research on brainstormingitself a particular ap-
proach to generating many ideasand the research is quite equivocal as
to whether or not brainstorming yields a better product. As a generaliza-
tion, we simply have to be cautious about our intuitions as to the help-
fulness of a heuristic. Heuristics that plausibly might help do not neces-
sarily help. Eventually we can hope that psychologistz will get around to
doing the necessary research on which heuristics are the most powerful.
It also should be said that some heuristics seem so blatantly helpful
that there's no great need to do heuristics on them. For example, the
heuristic advice, "Understand the problem before you try to do it," is
virtually unquestionable, and certainly many students do not take the
trouble to determine whether they understand the problem before tack-
ling it.
Another problem with heuristics is that they overshoot. Often they
specify so full and detailed an approach to the problem that it seems not
worth the effort. Like SQ3R. Now this depends also on one's context. If
one is preparing for an exam in the forces behind the American Revolu-
tion and the events leading up to it, one might be well advised to use
SQ3R to the letter. On the other hand, if one is trying to take in the gist
of what happened, SQ3R seems to be too meticulous to bother with.
Usually these kinds of hedges do not come with the presentatic.n of a
heuristic. Rather the student is told to "Do this." Fortunately, most
people are sensible about heuristics. They hear them, try them a bit, and
quickly start to revise and revamp them to each individual's personal
needs. However, the problem is that the student doesn't always have the
sense of which the most important parts of the heuristic are, and may
not do such a hot job at editing it.
By far the larger problem with heuristics, however, is that students for-
get them. After a few exercises in class and some adaptation, out of the
instructional context the student simply does not turn his mind in that
direction again.
JLS: Like outlining.

55
vv
 PERKINS: Perhaps like outlining. Although that is probably a good case
of a bad heuristic. The contemporary view of psychologists of writing
seems to be that outlining is not very helpful, at least outlining as con-
ventionally taught. So that particular heuristic may be well forgotten.
JLS: Well, the problem with many heuristics is that they are similar to
outlining in the sense that they are not integral to people's thinking.
Once the student stops doing the trick, he stops doing it totallyunlike
learning to generate questions, for example, most heuristics do not be-
come part of the student's thinking.
PERKINS: That makes sense to me.
JLS: A major problem with the educational system is that students are
taught facts; they are not taught how to go about finding solutions to
problems, generating problems, finding out what questions the field
asks. On the other hand the business of discovery and invention is very
different from this. The scientist explores, raises, and tests hypotheses,
rejects them, generates new hypotheses. In schools, we don't teach this
process, so we don't teach much about any given field. Rather, we teach
the summary that a scientist has come up with-10 neat steps. Since we
don't teach disciplines, it's hard for students to conceive of questions
which are relevant to the disciplines they are studying. In fact, the way
material is presented, it's very diffiCult for students to do anything other
than memorize things. In light of this problem, do you think there are
ways we ought to revise educationnot only what is presented, but how
it is presented?
PERKINS: I'm enthusiastic about that position. Furthermore, I claim
that it's not even that difficult to engage students in much more mean-
ingful inquiry than is ordinarily the case. Let me give you some exam-
ples. Take history, for example. Typically, instruction in history, as you
put it, is a delivery of the facts. It's a "here's what happened" ap-
proach. There's very little attention to how we know what happened,
what the process of historical inquiry is like. Now it might be said that
history is relatively inaccessible; it all happened back there before 1900;
what can the students reasonably do to pursue historical inquiry and get
a feel for it? But why limit history to what happened before 1900? Or
even before 1980? Suppose the task is to construct a history of the town
meeting that happened three weeks ago. There are witnesses that can be
interviewed; there are newspaper accounts, radio accounts, perhaps, min-
utes, possibly videotapes, audio tapes that can be looked at. That is,
there's raw data. From the standpoint of learning the inquiry process of
history, it's quite irrelevant that this particular town meeting was a very
minor event, in a very minor place, important to hardly anybody else in

56
the world. This context of the town meeting three weeks ago captures
nearly all the dilemmas that the historian must face in trying to figure
out when analyzing events that took place forty years agoor even four
hundred years ago.
Another example: It's thought that something like hypothetical de-
ductive reasoning is completely outside the ken of a seven-year-old. Let
me give you a problem that's entirely within the ken of a seven-year-old,
that asks the child to generate an explanation for something. Here it is: I
stand there and tell myself, "Lift one leg without moving any other part
of my body." If I do that, I tip over. But here's a paradox: when people
walk, they're standing on one leg at a time. Problem: Explain how it is
that people can walk without falling over, even though they walk with
just one foot at a time.
Well, the explanation of course is that you shift your balance as you
walk from one side to the other. This is not inaccessible; it's easily dem-
onstrated. For example, if you watch someone moving towards you, as he
walks you can see the weight shift. Now there's no reason that the expla-
nation for this phenomenon has to be in complex terms, citing Newton's
laws. The child, observing the weight shift, can talk about it in his own
terms. There are dozens of other very accessible phenomena that can be
the occasions for explanation.
One would also like the student to be able to draw inferences from the
explanation and check them to see if they occurred. Here's a problem
from biology which calls for deductive reasoning. A sessile animal is an
animal in the sea that is attached, anchored to something. For example,
a coral is a sessile animal. Question: Why are sessile animals in the sea,
but never on the laud? This is a question you can answer not by looking
in a textbook, but by reasoning about itby thinking what the sea is
like anri what the land is what rini-er, a --zit:: liftsr/lc adaptive:
in the sea and not adaptive on the land. A reasonably alert high school
student can come up with this explanation: In the sea, food is borne by
the current. It's a reasonable design to sit there anchored to a spot and
snap up food as it goes by. Air is a much less buoyant medium, and
there are far fewer living things in it. Consequently, it's not feasible to
sit in one place for the duration of a lifetime without moving at all and
let your food be brought to you.
These examples can be taken as support for the notion that it's just
not that hard to pose substantive problems, and even substantive occa-
sions of problem finding, to youngsters, even to relatively young chil-
dren. There is no real excuse for education to proceed along its fact-
based path. It seems to me that education is in the business of
"truth-mongering," and would do far better to go into the business of
building minds.

57
CRITICAL THINKING ATTITUDES AND
THE TRANSFER QUESTION
by Alma M. Swartz

As Alma M. Swartz suggests, the transfer of thinking skills across the curriculum
and to everyday decision making is an important concern in the field of thinking
skills improvement. Summarizing the views of a number of theorists on the ques-
tion of thinking skills transfer, Swartz maintains that the emphasis on techrriques
to facilitate transfer is misplaced. Further, Swartz notes the importance of evaluat-
ing the presence of critical thinking attitudes in students. She offers an interview
technique and an attitude inventory as instruments for this kind of evaluation, and
suggests ways for teachers to interpret the instruments' findings.
The author is school psychologist for the Westford, Massachusetts, school
system.

We _lave a good deal of evidence to support the concern that what

children learn in school does not carry over into their everyday decisioii
making Some of the questions that have arisen out of this concern are as
follows: Have critical thinking skills been taught in our schools? How do
we know this? If they have been taught, why do they not seem to trans-
fer to everyday reasoning? If we teach critical thinking in science, are
these skills the same as or different from critical thinking in other areas?
Flow can we ensi2.!e the generalization of critical thinking taught, for ex-
ample, in history to other areas and to everyday decision making? Must
we teach for transfer? If so, how?
Researchers investigating critical and creative thinking processes have
different opinions about questions of transfer. McPeck (5) argues that we
think about something when we think critically. He feels that different
skills are used, depending on the focus of thought. For example, McPeck
suggests that there is no reason to believe that the thinking skills used in
mathematics will transfer to other fields or to daily activities. Beyer (1)
also doubts that thinking skills transfer across disciplines or tasks. Perkins
(6). while agreeing that thinking skills do not transfer easily, proposes a
model for resolving the problem of transfer. He postulates two kinds of
transfer which he calls "high road" and "low road," and suggests that
high road transfer requires a more conscious effort, while low road occurs
more automatically. Low road transfer, however, cannot be counted on
to transfer skills to any great degree, because these skills are not used in a

58
53
variety of areas. Perkins suggests that students practice in many areas to
expand the possibilities for the application of thinking skills (low road
transfer); further, he abises instructing students in the more deliberate
acquisition of the general principles which underlie the critical thinking
skills (high road transfer). In a similar vein, Swartz (7) suggests the need
for integrating thinking skill instruction into the mainstream curriculum.
He stresses the need to apply this instruction across the curriculum, so
that students have a wide repertoire of thinking skills when they encoun-
ter an everyday problem or a problem in another area of study. Swartz
maintains that thinking skills should be modelled by teachers in the
classroom through practice, and that students should be asked to abstract
thinking principles from real life situations. In contrast to many other
theorists, Ennis (4) feels that critical thinking skills do transfer to other
areas of learning. He is "convinced that there are general principles that
bridge subjects," and suggests that teachers can provide numerous op-
portunities for students to develop and use critical thinking skills in the
classroom.
The models and advice for teachers suggested by these theorists un-
doubtedly do advance the acquisition of thinking skills. Nevertheless,
successful transfer demands more than exercising .pinking skills in differ-
ent settings: A precondition to the successful transfer of critical and cre-
ative thinking skills may be the development of critical thinking atti-
tudes: for example, the tendency to be open-minded, to build on the
ideas of others, etc. That is, if these critical thinking attitudes are not in-
tact, instruction in thinking skills may not lead to the transfer of think-
ing skills to other life situations. When these attitudes (or dispositions)
are present, transfer of specific skills may be facilitatej, when absent,
transfer is likely to be frustrated.

TRANSFER AND CRITICAL ATTITUDES

Searching our experiences with and understanding of children based
on available research about their growth and development, we discover
that children do think critically, if not in the classroom, then in the
backyard while discovering how to build a fort (unencumbered by the
need to prove to the teacher that they already know how to build a fort).
If critical thinking is, as defined by Ennis, "reasonable, reflective think-
ing that is focused on deciding what to believe or do" (3), then children
do it, and it is as absurd to say that we must teach it as it is to say that
we must teach children to talk. Giip-n emotional stability, adequate par-
enting, adequate cognitive capacity, and interactive experiences, the
child will tend toward the acquisition of critical thinking skills. Critical

59 Cu
thinking is an innate, species-specific trait which is generative in much
the same way that language is generative; although we cannot specifically
teach either, we can help foster their development. .

The human tendency to critically assess the world and one's interac-
tions with the environment, being innate, proceeds from a biological im-
perative. Evidence for this biological aspect of critical thinking may be
seen in the attitudes and dispositions which underlie and impel critical
and creative thinking, and in the generative capacity of critical thinking.
The creative, spontaneous selection and combination of ideas with expe-
rience serves the development of the individual and ultimately the devel-
opment of the species. As educators, we must keep in mind the natural
human inclination to discover the environment and ourselves in it as well
as our tendency to invent new ideas. Only when something interferes
with cognition (neurological, emotional, societal, etc.) does the natural
inclination to critically assess the world fail to develop to capacity.
If we continue to decide what problems the child should work on in
any given moment, then we continue to decide out of our own experi-
ence, rather than the child's. This means that, as educators, we should
stop thinking of critical thinking as something that must be taught, and
begin thinking of it as something that must be facilitated. In order to fa-
cilitate such thinking, teachers should take care to ensure that good criti-
cal thinking attitudes are developed, for here is the means whereby the
critical thinking skills, once internalized, will transfer.
Consider two four-year-old children negotiating a game of playing
house. The girl suggests, "You be the daddy 'cuz you're a boy." The
boy says, "And I'll drive this car to go to work." She says, "But I need
the car seat to take the baby for shotsthis doll's the baby. You need to
get the cu seat. Where's the yellow car?" We may recall from our own
experiences with children how often this kind of problem solving takes
place, and how frequently the game itself never gets played; the best
part appears to be the planningthe problem solving itself being the
motivation, especially at this developmental age. In the above example,
we see two children engaged in reasonable, reflective thinking in order to
decide what to believe or do. They don't say, "You be the mommy and
I'll be the daddy," but give good reasoin for their decisions, so that play
will go smoothly.
We should also bear in mind the creative aspects of critical thought:
that is, the child's ability to intuitively combine disparate ideas in a
spontaneous way to solve a problem or critically assess a novel situation.
These solutions may not always be novel to adults, or even to other chil-
dren. However, the fact that this particular child has invented for him/
herself a new way of looking at the world is, in and of itself, a creative
act. The first time a child successfully negotiates a flight of stairs, no one

60
has taught him or her the law of physics, nor has anyone when he or she
builds a tower of blocks. The child encounters, evaluates, and effectively
judges.
Probably all of the experts in the field of critical thinking believe that
attitudes or dispositions are important in teaching critical thinking skills.
However, the focus has primarily been on the acquisition of discrete
skills. When attitudes or dispositions are mentioned, modelling by the
teacher is suggested as a way to help children acquire these by assimila-
tion. Encouraging the dispositions as they arise is also a frequent sugges-
tion. 'While this is good advice, it is not enough. Teachers need to be
well versed in the critical thinking attitudes and dispositions, and need
to know how to encourage children to develop these before they can be-
gin to integrate critical thinking skills into the curriculum and hope for
successful transfer.
Costa points out that children often do not use metacognition. "They
seldom question themselves about their own learning strategies or evalu-
ate the efficiency of their own performance. Some children have virtually
no idea of what they are doing when they perform a task, and are often
unable to explain their strategics for solving problems" (2). These chil-
dren are apparently not using well-developed critical thinking disposi-
tions, probably because teaching methodology has focused on content
rather than thinking. Costa feels that children's use of metacognition is
most likely to increase when "strategics of problem solving are ... gen-
erated '17 the students" (2). He maintains that "when students experi-
ence the need for problem-solving strategies, induce their own, discuss
them, and practice them to the degree that elev become spontaneous
and unconscious, their metacognition seems to improve" (2). I would
suggest that Costa is describing the actualization of critical thinking dis-
positions here.
Responding to the neglect of critical thinking attitudes in the field of
critical thinking, Ennis (4) has added a list of dispositions to his taxon-
omy of critical thinking skills. These are as follows:
1. Seek a clear statement of the thesis or question.
2. Seek reasons.
3. Try to be well informed.
4. Use credible sources and mention them.
5. Take into account the total situation.
6. Try to remain relevant to the main point.
7. Keep in mind the original and/or basic concern.
8. Look for alternatives.

61
 9. Be open-minded.
a. Consider seriously points of view other than one's own ("dia-
legical thinking").
b. Reason from pomises with which one disagreeswithout let-
ting the disagreement interfere with one's reasoning ("suppo-
sitional thinking").
c. Withhold judgment when the evidence and reasons ale
insufficient.
10. Take a position (and change a position) when the evidence and
reasons are sufficient to do so.
11. Seek as much precision as the subject permits.
12. Deal in an orderly manner with the parts of a complex whole.
13. Be sensitive to the feelings, level of knowledge, and degree of so-
phistication of others.
It is certainly reasonable to suggest that certain critical thinking abili-
ties will not, in and of themselves, transfer to other domainsfor exam-
ple, the skills involved in understanding and utilizing tables and graphs,
designing experiments, or dassifying specific data. However, a necessary
condition for the transfer of these abilities may be the student's predis-
position to their use as the need arises. We can open up the possibility of
the transfer of even specific skills (such as understanding tables and
graphs) if the student has developed the tendency to be open to adapt-
ing ideas to novel situations. The problem in asking teachers to work to-
ward transfer by enrichment, modelling, and bridging alone is that it
takes the responsibility away from the student. As Costa points out, chil-
dren learn best when they take responsibility.

EVALUATING CRITICAL ATTITUDES

Not only do we need to focus more on the importance of the attitudes
and dispositions which foster critical thought; we also need to develop
methods for evaluating their presence in students. School districts will
not want to incorporate the teaching of critical thinking attitudes with-
out some means whereby the acquisition of these may be measured.
Those of us who have been concerned about evaluation methods have
come to understand the limitations of pencil and paper tests as a means
of evaluating students. Multiple choice tests, we know, are not complete-
ly accurate, even when carefully designed.
The use of the interview technique for gathering data may be useful
in uncovering critical thinking dispositions. In a recent twenty-minute

62

63
interview with an adult, all of the dispositions emerged (although as in-
terviewer I was not intentionally looking for these, but was attempting to
discover something about his thinking in general).
The specific directions in this interview were to read a typical letter to
the editor and report any thoughts which came to mind. Inquiring into
someone's thinking places the person in a threatening situation, since
the interviewer is in a position of control and authority. Therefore, the
interview was deliberately open-ended; no leading questions were asked;
further discussion was encouraged with smiles, nods, and other nonver-
bal expressions of interest whenever possible. (Allowing the subject to
choose what he wishes to convey gives him a feeling of control, and he is
able to take more responsibility for giving a good account of his
thoughts.) Analysis of the protocol provided for the -..s.:stence of the criti-
cal thinking dispositions:
Disposition #1. (clear statement) "I had a whole bunch of ques-
tions but I didn't conclude anything . ... it's not that I don't
agree with that; I don't quite understand what es saying there
.. by the end of the letter I was mystified bcz.avt some things I
couldn't quite . ... that was part of the whole raocess, trying to
understand what she was saying ... ."
Disposition #2. (seek reasons) "I think there are legitimate reasons
for rejecting it, as I said ....
If those laws have beneficial conse-
quences .. .. it depends on what the law is ....
she may well be
right, maybe there is something wrong with the restraint, but I'm
not even sure that the reasons she gives, even if correct, support
her conclusion, because it may well be th?.t carnage due to lack of
seatbelts is such a severe problem ...."
Disposition #3. (well-informed) "I never knew that. I don't know
whether she's right, but it made me wonder whether she's right
and want to find out . ... She'd have to give me some facts about
the risks ...."
Disposition #4. (credible sources) "The fact that it was a letter to
the editor, okay, in and of itself, makes me read it with caution
.... I've found very few letters to the editor that I've found con-
vincing ... ."
Disposition #5. (total situation) "Well, she says, 'My car ...'
I had a whole bunch of questions .... she makes a comment at
the end that .. . . Let's sec she says .... I also wondered what was
behind the letterwhether she was affronted by the government
putting restraints on her or whether she was genuinely worried
about her safety in wearing seatbelts ...."

63 64
 Disposition #6. (relevant to point) The examples above support
this.
Disposition #7. (keep original concern in mind) The examples
above support this.
Disposition #8. (seex alternatives) "I suppose some people would
break those laws, but if those laws have beneficial .... seems to
me that, even if there's a chance of shorter .. .. she may well be
right . ... it may well be that, on the other hand...."
Disposition #9. (open-minded) ". . you know, my feeling was
that I ought to hear the rest of what she has to say before I make a
judgment . ... until I fully understood what she was saying and I
guess I feel it's not a good argument ...."
Disposition #10. (take, change a position) "That represents a cer-
tain point of view that I don't share .... she'd have to give me
some facts about the risks of injury .... I think there are legiti-
mate reasons ...."
Disposition #11. (seek precision) "I think it is justified for the gov-
ernment to do things that will force people, even in a free society
.... present a danger to themselves ....for example, warning la-
bels on bottles . .." (Examples above also support this.)
Disposition #12. (order parts to whole) A general tendency,
throughout the interview, to refer back to the letter, rereading and
focusing on a given paragraph, relating this to the general topic.
Disposition #13. (sensitive to knowledge, etc., of others) "I con-
cluded that she had a concern which was similar to a concert, my
doctor had .... It's not that I don't agree, I don't quite under-
stand what she's saying .... I never knew that .... made me won-
der (see Disposition #8).
Most of the dispositions surfaced during the first half of the interview.
With better planning for this specific purpose, an interview could be
conducted which is shorter and more precise in its goals. One would not
necessarily need to interview all school-aged children to discover if they
have developed any of dispositions. The interview could be used
for those children who might not communicate these as openly as do
other children.
Those who find the interview method time-consuming, or who do not
feel qualified to judge the data gleaned from an interview, will seek oth
er evaluation tools. One such tool might be an inventory of critical and
creative thinking dispositions or attitudes which could be filled out by
teachers and parents as a general guideline to be used in addition to in-

6J
terviews. The inventory in Figure 1, based on Ennis's list of dispositions
in conjunction with some creative thinking dispositions, may serve this
purpose.
This inventory may be adapted in a variety of ways by the creative
teacher. It can be scored, then scrutinized for the kinds of patterns which
emerge. For example, does the child who receives a lower score jump to
conclusions? If so, can this be related to a general impulsivity, or is it a
need to competeto be the first to have a good answer? Teachers may
want to discover how serious is their concern about a particular child. If
this child's inventory shows very few "Never" responses, the concern is
not as great as for the child whose protocol is filled with these. Teachers
may also wish to use the inventory to assess how well their teaching strat-
egies are affecting the children. The inventory may be given to children
to evaluate themselves or each other. Some teachers may find it useful as
a general teaching tool, or as a reminder for the students.
A general word of caution for persons wishing to use this inventory
should be added here. First, anyone using an instrument to inquire into
a student's thinking habits must be trained both in interview technique
and critical thinking. Second, every precaution must be taken to ensure
that the data is not misused or misinterpreted. It should be made clear
to those seeking to evaluate children that these devices are best suited for
the affirmation of certain critical thinking attitudes. One cannot assume
that these are not present simply because they do not emerge in a partic-
ular interviewall kinds of intrusions can and do interfere which would
render the results invalid or questionable. These concerns aside, a short
interview with children who, for example, do not participate in group
discussions may reveal that they have nevertheless developed good critical
and creative thinking attitudes.

CONCLUSION
It is disturbing to think that the way we have organized our schools
and trained our school teachers has often had the effect of stifling chil-
dren's natural inclination to inquire. However, it is heartening to know
that in the true spirit of critical thinking we acknowledge this inconsis-
tency and wznt to remedy it; at the present time those in positions of
power and educational leadership consider the situation in dire need of
remediation. Those of us who work closely with children, teachers and
researchers in the critical thinking field, know that an enormous effort
must be undertaken. Broad changes will have to be madeultimately by
the teacher.
It is clear that authoritarian methods of teaching run counter to instill-

65
 INVENTORY OF CRITICAL AND CREATIVE THINKING
DISPOSITIONS AND ATTITUDES

This inventory is intended for use as a general guide in discoverinj which

critical and creative thinking attitudes may be present in middle and high school
students. It will not identify definitely whether skills are not present: the absence
of evidence for an attitude or disposition may simply mean that it is not manifest
el this time.
Please respond to all items. In those instances where you are not certain,
circle the number that most often applies, or the number that best describes the
student.
SCALE: 1. Never 2. Sometimes 3. Frequently 4. Always

HOW OFTEN DOES THE STUDENT:

1. Listen to another person's point of view or ideas 1 2 3 4

2. Suspend judgment or resist jumping to a
conclusion 1 2 3 4
3. Reason from a perspective other than his/her own 1 2 3 4
4. Remain generally objective/open-minded 1 2 3 4
5. Take a position, given sufficient evidence/reasons 1 2 3 4
6. Look for alternatives 1 2 3 4
7. Seek a clear understanding of the
question/problem 1 2 3 4
8. Ask clarifying questions 1 2 3 4
9. Look ft:a reasons/information 1 2 3 4
10. Make good use of resources 1 2 3 4
11. Make use of credible sources 1 2 3 4
12. Remain relevant to the point/topic 1 2 3 4
13. Take into account the total situation 1 2 3 4
14. Change his/her position, given evidence/reasons 1 2 3 4
15. Persist, seek precision 1 2 3 4
16. Accept criticism, incorForate ideas of others 1 2 3 4
17. Self-evaluate his/her own ideas 1 2 3 4
18. Fit parts of a problem together in an orderly way 1 2 3 4
19. Resist closure ("play" with ideas) 1 2 3 4
20. Take risks (even if his/her idea may be "silly") 1 2 3 4
21. Put together disparate ideas 1 2 3 4
22. Discover relationships, patterns 1 2 3 4
23. Build on someone else's ideas 1 2 3 4
24. Give good feedback to others 1 2 3 4
25. Remain sensitive to the feelings, knowledge,
expertise of others 1 2 3 4

© 1985 Alma M. Swartz

Figure 1

66
6`"
ing critical thinking skills and 'attitudes in children. We must, however,
make a distinction between authoritarian teaching and the teacher as au-
thority, not only over the subject area, but also in the classroom. In this
regard, it must be acknowledged that children need the guidance of
these professionals in correcting misapplications of the rules of thinking
(errors in transfer, perhaps), just as parents guide the child's language
acquisitions, correcting t-he misapplication of rules which the child has
internalized and automatically geacralized. Of course, merely making
corrections is not enough. Nor does teaching for critical thinking simply
entail adding on another list of skills to the basic curriculum. If children
are to become responsible, reflective adults in an increasingly complex
world, teachers must understand the nature and importance of critical
and creative thinking. Further, they must be willing to integrate this un-
derstanding lato all aspects of teaching. Finally, administrators must
strongly support teachers' understanding and promotion of critical chink-
ing skills and attitudes.
In this overly compartmentalized world, it is not useful to separate the
child's cognition from his/her affect, or creltivity. The child is both a
thinking and feeling person who brings to tne classroom partially devel-
oped dispositions (attitudes, traits), partially developed habits of
thought, and a backlog of experiences. In paying more attention to the
role of critical thinking attitudes, we will create a more integrated, more
natural, and more reasonable approach to facilitating critical thinking in
children. Through the development of critical thinking attitudes, we
may hope for the successful transfer of thinking skills, not only to prob-
lems in subjects other than the ones in which they were taught, but also
to the more complex problems of the world in which these children x.ill
need to solve problems as adults.

REFERENCES
1. Beyer, Barry K. "Improving Thinking SkillsDefining the Problem." Phi
Delta Kappan (March 1984).
2. Costa, Arthur L. "Mediating the Metacognitive." Educational Leadership
(November 1984).
3. Ennis, Robert H. "Critical Thinking and the Curriculum." National Forum;
The Phi Kappa Phi Journal (Winter 1985): 28-31.
4. Ennis, Robert H. "Goal:, for a Critical-Thinking/Reasoning Curriculum." I!
linois Critical Thinking Project. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois, June 21,
1985.
5. McPeck, John E. Critical Thinking and Education. New York: St. Martin's
Press, 1981.
6. Perkins, David N. "Thinking Frames. An Integrative Perspective on Teach-

67

6,3
 ing Cognitive Skills." Paper presented at the Practitioner's Conference on
Teaching for Critical and Creative Thinking, University of Massachusetts,
Boston, July 1985. (Forthcoming in Teaching Thinking Skills: Theory and
Practice, edited by J. Baron and R. Sternberg. New York: W. H. Freeman.
7. Swartz, Robert J. "Critical Thinking Programs and the Problem of Trans-
fer." Paper presented at the Harvard Thinking Skills Conference, 1984. In
press.

68
63
THINKING ACROSS THE DISCIPLINES:
METHODS AND STRATEGTP,S
TO PROMOTE HIGHER-ORDER
THINKING IN EVERY CLASSROOM
By Diane F. Halpern

Diane F. Halpern's chapter discusses three important aspects of integrating

thinking skills instruction into content classrooms. developing higher -order think-
ing attitudes in students, implementing activities designed to encourage higher-or-
der thought, and using eXd1715 and honstwori assignments that require and test f-r
thinking. Halpern suggests that students L'oe up to our expectationsif we encour-
age memorh ation, they will stay at that level; conversely, students can learn how
to use facts, to discriminate between relevant and irrelevant information, and to
make informed value judgments. To foster improved attitudes about higher-order
thinking, Halpern suggests teaching students to question facts; learn from errors;
monitor their own thinking processes; and teach each other.
The author is Associate Professor of Psychology and Asscciate Dean of Under-
graduate Programs, California State University, San Bernardino.

Most people would sooner die than think.

In fact, they do.
Bertrand Russell
Traditionally, instruction in how to think has been a neglected com-
ponent in American education. Students were more often taught what to
think than hou. to think. Education within most academic disciplines has
primarily E.:..en concerned with ptesenting students with the "facts" on a
variety of topicsthe "knowing that"while offering little on how to
utilize this information or how to discover facts on their ownthe
"knowing how." Domerique (cited in Parnes, None!. dna Biondini [6,
p. 52]) summarized this situation well when he said, "Some people
study all their life, and at their death they have learned everything ex-
cept to chink."
Students are expected to learn, remember, make decisions, analyze ar-
guments, and solve problems without ever being taught how. There has
been a tacit assumption that students already know how to think. Yet, as
most teachers know, this assumption is not warranted. In recent years

69
 there has been increased concern with enhancing the critical thinking
1 abilities of students in all areas of the curriculum. Although most people
agree on the need for higher-order thinking instruction, few educators
have been trained in the instructional methods and strategies needed to
attain this goal. The focus af this chapter is to provide some practical
suggestions and ideas that can be used in almost any classroom to en-
hance thinking. Three basic topics, each concerned with a different as-
pect of thinking will be addressed: (1) how to develop a thinking atti-
tude in students, (2) classroom activities designed to encourage
higher-order thought, and (3) examinations and homework assignments
that require and test the thinking skills we want students to acquire.

HOW TO DEVELOP A THINKING ATTITUDE

IN STUDENTS
One of the main indicators of a higher-order thinking attitude is the
desire and motivation to expand the effort needed to learn complex ma-
terial. Thinking well is hard work, and students find that they can often
rationalize sloppy thinking habits. Some students are not convinced that
higher-order thinking is worth the effort; others simply are not aware of
the fact that they will have to work hard at thinking. They do not under-
stand the relevance of much of their course work and cannot understand
why they should exert the effort to think critically about the material
that is being presented. In order to counteract these attitudes, begin
each class period with interesting relevant examples to motivate students
to consider the material being presented. Encourage students to ask
questions and to anticipate outcomes. Asking good questions is an im-
portant thinking skill in any academic context, and one that should be
fostered every day.
Too often, students learn with catechistical techniques. Most report
that they learned their foreign language vocabulary words through rote
memorization. Unfortunately, they probably also learned their history
facts, geometry proofs, and chemistry the same way. If you doubt the ac-
curacy of this statement, present a group of students with some informa-
tion to be learned and watch how they go about learning it. You will
find that many students will begin by listing the facts and then proceed
to repeat them over and over in the hope that somehow they will
"stick." This sort of learning is not conducive to the deeper level think-
ing we hope to promote because it does not create connected knowledge
structures or complex representations in memory.
Students need to know that there are better ways to learn and to en-
gage spontaneously in learning activities that will lead to more meaning-
ful storage and recall. All teachers can encourage a positive deeper-level

70
7 1.
thinking attitude by sending a clear message to students that knowing
the facts in a subject area is only the first step. They also need to know
how to apply them, when to question them, and how to relate them to
other topics. It is these subsequent steps, utilizing and synthesizing the
facts, that are the hallmark of critical thought. It is considerably more
difficult, for example, to explain the mutual effects that certain historical
events had on each other than it is to list the events in chronological or-
der, and because it is more difficult, students will make more mistakes
on this sort of task. You can teach them that these mistakes are opportu-
nities to learn and not failures. Encourage students to view difficult ma-
terial as a challenge and not a frustration. Help them develop the atti-
tude of a deeper-level thinker.
Teach students to monitor their own thinking processes. In cognitive
psychology, we call this "metacognition," or knowledge about what you
know. Knowing what you know, and more importantly, knowing what
you do not know is the most critical of the thinking skills. In order to
develop basic thinking skills, it is necessary for students to direct their at-
tention to the processes and products of their own thought. They need
to become consciously aware of the way they think and to develop the
habit of assessing the end products of their thought processesthe solu-
tion they have arrived at, the decision they have made, the inference
thcy believe to be true, or the judgment they have formulated. In short,
they need to be mindful of how and what they think.
Allow students the opportunity to teach each other. The effort in-
volved in teaching is similar to the effort required in learning. No matter
what subject matter you teach, there is no reason why you should be the
only teacher in the room. Leave class time before each exam to form
mixed-ability study groups (based on your iwn assessment of ability lev-
el) in which students review specific material. All teachers have probably
had the experience of never really understanding a topic until they have
taught it. The same is true for students.

CLASSROOM STRATEGIES AND ACTIVITIES DESIGNED TO

ENHANCE HIGHER-ORDER THOUGHT
Thinking instruction is predicated on two assumption:: (1) that there
arc clearly identifiable and definable thinking skill: that students can be
taught to recognize and apply appropriately, and (2) that if these skills
are recognized and applic:, students will be more effective thinkers. Be
clear about which thinking skills you want to emphasize in your classes.
A general list of skills that would be applicable in almost any class would
include understanding how cause is determined, recognizing and criticiz-
ing assumptions, analyzing means-goals relationships, assessing degrees
of likelihood and uncertainty, incorporating isolated data into a wider
framework, and using analogies to solve problems. The following short
list is a suggested guide to accomplishing these objectives:

1. Decide which thinking skills you want to emphasize in class.

One of the fast things to do if you want to encourage critical thinking
in your classroom is to decide which skills are important in your subject
area domain. For example, in history these would be some important
thinking skills: understanding cause-and-effect relationships among
events, the imports lce of time as an underlying dimension in everything
that happens in history, questioning the sources of information that
could also include propaganda and other attempts to persuade. Whatev-
er your field, pay attention to the controversies. Too often, in many
classes, students are given simple ans-ters to complex questions. There
can be no simple explanation to a question about the rise of the Nazi
party or the causes of mental illnnss or the efficacy of Reaganomics. En-
courage students to ask the impurtant questions in your field and to
think beyond the information presented. Have them relate what they
have learned in your class to something else they have learned previously.
2. identify comprehension pitfalls in your subject matter domain.
Once you have lived some goals or objectives, think about common
pitfalls, the kinds of problems that commonly occur in understanding
concepts in y"ur academic discipline. The pitfalls vary with the nature of
the subject matter. A common problem in mathematics and the sciences
occurs when students rely on formulas they do not understand. A stu-
dent may be able to substitute numbers for the algebraic symbols, then
work through the appropriate arithmetic and arrive at the correct answer
without ever understanding the principles involved or the meaning or
importance of the answer.
0 comprehension pitfall for students in the sciences and in mathe-
matics is reliance on a technical jargon. Too often, they believe that scat-
tering these terms in a discussion is evidence that they understand the
concepts, when in fact their understanding of the phenomena involved is
shallow and consists mainly of the ability to label events. Too often, stu-
dents are taught to memorize formulas with little understanding of when
and how to apply them.
Here is another example of a discipline-specific thinking problem.
One course that is required of many college students is statistics. Most
students have little trouble doing problems that are all the same type.
All texts put t-test problems in one chapter, chi-square in another, and
so on. The difficulty arises when students have to decide for themselves

72

73
what type of analysis to use since problems in real life do not come neat-
ly labeled with chapter references. Whatever academic area you teach, be
aware of the "comprehension glitches" within your discipline and fmd
ways to guide students around these pitfalls.
3. Require students to be active participants in the learning process.
Thinking is not a spectator sport. Very little, if any, learning ever oc-
curs in a passive manner. There are several ways you can keep students
actively involved in the learning process: pause frequently in your lecture
to ask probing questions, require them to consider the pros and cons of
each side of an issue, or demonstrate the phenomena you are describing.
There are numerous possible class activities that will help bring home
the point that you want students to remember and use. In a psychology
class, you could have Freud debate Maslow, in physical education your
students could measure the effects of different types and levels of exer-
cise on heart rate and blood pressure, in education they could comp are
fecall rates when they are allowed to take notes during a lecture and
when they are not. These sorts of exercises also make classes more enjoy-
able for both the students and the instructor. Remember that certain
demonstrations are possible on the computer that never were possible be-
fore. You can show students certain wave forms in physics that students
could only imagine before the computer age. Students can "see" how
binomial distributions approximate normal ones in less than a minute
with a suitable computer program. Take advantage of all of the new
technology available.
4. Make abstract concepts concrete and relevant.
Much of the material we fmd ourselves teaching is theoretical and, ad-
mittedly, somewhat dry. This is a fact of life and we should not make
high school and college classrooms look like Sesame Street. However,
even the most theoretical and basic research issues can be related to
something more concrete (and thus easier to understand and remember).
Whenever possible, ask students to apply an issue to a relevant everyday
occurrence and/or generate examples to show where it can be applied.
Another way of accomplishing the same result is to use an analogy
taking a totally new and unfamiliar concept and relating it to something
known and familiar. For example, if I tell you that the atom is like a
miniature solar system, and if you know a great deal about the solar sys-
tem, this analogy can help you integrate information about the atom.
Research in this area has shown positive comprehension effects with other
simple analogies such as "The lymph system is like a sponge in the way
it stores and moves liquids" or "The heart is like the filter system in a
swimming pool." Also encourage students to generate their own analo

73 7,1
gies to understand difficult material. This general thinking skill is partic-
ularly useful when the material is abstract and difficult.
5. Use think-aloud protocols to model your own thought processes.
Whenever you are working a problem on the board or just thinking in
class, try to -hinic out loud. Verbalize the information you are consider-
ing and the ...ceps you at.: mentally going through in solving a problem.
Students can learn the thinking process by observing how you, as an ex-
pert thinker, go about solving problems. Say out loud statements like,
"I need to decide which formula is appropriate when we have three
groups of subjects and interval level rueasurement," or, "I need to think
about the unknown in this equation," or, "I need to decide which
sources of information are most convincing or reliable." Thomas Good,
an authority on math education, has found that mathematics students
learn best when the teachers actively work with them and model out
loud the problem-solving process. It seems that when teachers think out
loud, they provide "a structure and a way of thinking about the material
... so [students] can better understand the relationships" (2, p. 7).
Be sure to use a simple, straightforward style to communicate difficult
ideas. Mark Twain said this best when he said, "Eschew surplusage."
Avoid technical terms and jargon when introdurin new topics. Add new
terms slowly with special care to provide good definitions. Be sure to use
the chalkboard. It will help slow yc x down and will provide visual sup-
port to your presentation.

EXAMINATIONS AND HOMEWORK

ASSIGNMENTS THAT REQUIRE AND TEST
HIGHER-ORDER THINKING Runs
Now that we have considered encouraging a higher-order thinking at-
titude in our students and strategies for incorporating deeper-level think-
ing activities into the classroom, how do we know if we have been suc-
cessful? If ycu began with an explicit list of thinking skills that are
important in your discipline, then designing test items that -ap these
skills should follow naturally. Let's consider the specifics of designing
measures of higher-order thinker; ability within specific disciplines.
Multiple-choice and fill-in-the-blank tests do have valid and appropri-
ate uses. While it may be possible to recognize or even recite a correct
answer without understanding very much about the concepts being test-
ed, multiple-choice and fill-in-the-blank test items allow us to test fog
detail and close re-ding in ways that essay questions do not. Even if this
were not true, they would still be a necessary evil whenever teachers find

74
themselves confronted with fifty students in a class, professional articles
half-written, a two-hour curriculum committee meeting, and a soccer
game to coach at four o'clock. They obviously meet some of our own
needs by reducing grading time considerably.
Essay questions, even of the short-answer variety, should also be in-
cluded as part of every assessment package. This is true in just about ev-
ery class including mathematics classes. An excellent technique is to re-
quite students to write about the rationale and procedures in math
courses. I firmly believe that unless a student can explain in words when,
why, and how to perform a math procedure, then he or she does not un-
derstand it. It is a simple matt..., to solve an equation and a much more
difficult one to make sense out of what one has done. Conversely, teach-
ers can require some diagramming or other abstract representation in
courses that are primarily language-based. An example in the health sci
ences would be a schematic model of the multiple influences that con-
tribute to or protect against heart disease. Ail education example would
be an abstract representation of the way stereotypes influence teacher ex-
pectancies. Verbal and sdier.itic descriptions can be used to supplement
each other in almost any course.
Do not accept superficial or skimpy answers. Be sure that students
know from the first day of class that you expect high-quality work and
that you will not be satisfied with less. Students live up to or down to
teachers' expectations of them. Ask complex questions that will require
thought. Of course they need to know the facts, but they also need to
know how to use the facts and when facts are irrelevant or not even facts.
Be sure that you give students opportunities to demonstrate these skills.
Describe a novel situation and ask them to apply something they haw.
learned in your class or ask them to generate novel situations in which
certain principles apply.
When assigning homework, include reading or study guides to help
students focus on the issues you believe are the most important. The
kinds of instruction that you include in your study guides will determine
wlat students do with the assigned readings. Be sure that you are pro-
viding them with ample opportunities to practice their thinking skills.
The guides should tell them to generalize certain principles, compare
two or more theories, synthesize several empirical findings, and define
key concepts. In short, they should serve as guides for students to think
critically about their homework assignments.
Add some humor to everythir.g. In statistics, a generally grim course,
have a "joke du jour." Start eve:y hour of class with a joke. Assign stu-
dents to bring in jokes on specified dates. Take the jokes seriously be-
cause they are an important part of the learning process. They ne d not

75
0
be wonderful jokes. Moaning about a bad joke can be as useful as laugh-
ing at a good one.
Encouraging students to think is the most important task we will ever
attempt as teachers. It is time to show the skeptics that they are wrong
and that improvement in the ability to think critically can be an out-
come of education.

REFERENCES
1. Berger, Dale; Pezdek, Kathy; and Banks, William. Applicaticns of Cogni-
tive Psychology: Computing and Education. Hillsdale, NJ.: Lawrence Erl-
baum Associates. In press.
2. Cordes, C. "Search Goes on for 'Best' Ways to Learn Science." Ame,.can
Psychological Association Monitor (April 1983): 7-8.
3. Halpern, DiarI r. Thought and Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical
Thinking. Hillsdale, NJ.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1984.
4. Sex Differences in Cognitive Abilities. Hillsdale, NJ.: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, 1986.
5. Kahane, H. Logic and Contemporary Rhetoric: The Use of Reason in Every-
day Life. Belmont, NJ.: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1980.
6. Pames, S. J.; Noller, R. B.; and Biondiai, A. M. Guide to Creative Action:
Revised Edition of Creative Behavior Guidebook. New York: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 1977.

76
PRACTICE IS NOT ENOUGH*
by Barry K. Beyer

Barry K. Beyer maintains that the kind of thinking instruction that occurs in
most classrooms will not effectively develop students' thinking skills. Beyer notes
that in most classrooms, thinking instruction is a matter of teachers' instructing
students to "think"; giving students practice exercises from worksheets or text-
books that require them to think; journal writing; debate; and providing thought-
provoking assignments. While these activities are useful in helping students use
their reasoning skills, Beyer feels that "practice is not enough": students need to
learn how to think. Beyer suggests that thinking skills be explicitly introduced by
classmom teachers. He provides two models for introducing thinking skills into the
classroom, both of which provide fir modeling of the skill (either by the teacher or
by other students) and explaining the steps in using the skill.
The author it Professor of Education and American Studies, George Mason Uni-
versity, Fairfax, Virginia.

Most classroom teachers teach thinking. At least they believe they do.
Teachers almost daily do many different things to foster thinking in stu-
dents. Which of the following techniques are most used in your school
to teach thinking?
1. Asking questions, sometimes questions structured in a sequence
that seeks to move students from fact-giving to information-
processing to applications.
2. Having sradents fill out ditto worksheets of multiple-choice ques-
tions that require them to think.
3. Encouraging students to "Think!" when a question is asked, to
"Think again!" if the answer is slow in coming, and even to
"Think harder!"
4. Having students write out answers to the "Questions for Further
Thinking" that appear at the end of textbook chapters.
5. Engaging s-udents in inquiry or problem-solving processes of hy-
pothesizing in response to assigned problems and then checking
out the validity of their hypotheses through discussion, further
reading, and perhaps library research.

Copyright 0 1986 Barry K. Beyer.

17
 1

6. Having students write frequently, either journals or other types of

writing.
7. Organizing debates in which students argue the pros and cons of
subject - related problems or issues.
8. Giving students useful rules to follow, such as 'Work as quickly
as you can!" or "Use all the information given!"
9. Providing challenging assignments and questions.
10. Engaging students in continued student-to-student discussion,
questioning, and interaction.

These techniques seem to be the most commonly used methods for

teaching thinking in our classrooms today, as they have been in the past.
Yet in spite of our continued use of such techniques, the National As-
sessment of Educational Progress, not to mention business and govern-
mental commissions, reports that graduates of our schools seem less capa-
ble of engaging in skillful thinking than is desirable. Why? The major
reason is our reliance on these very methods. We have long assumed that
these methods teach thinking. They do not.
What these methods, singly or in any combination, do and often do
well is encourage, stimulate, and provide opportunities for students to
think. Indeed, most to them actually put students into situations where
they have to exercise or practice their thinking as best they can. Unfortu-
nately, if the goal is to improve student thinking, practice is not enough.
It takes more than practice to develop proficiency in thinking (1). This
is not to say that practice is not important in achieving this goal. It obvi-
ously is important. But other things are equally or more important. To
develop fully student proficiencies in thinking, classroom and school cli-
mates must support student and teacher thinking. Attitudes and disposi-
tions that support and drive skillful thinking must de developed and re-
inforced. There must be deliberate and thoughtful study of the subject
matter and knowledge bases that inform thinking. Finally, and perhaps
most importantly, helping students improve their thinking requires the
actual teaching of thinking.
Practice does not wastitute the whole of teaching. In fact, practice
alone is but a fraction of the instruction needed to develop proficiency in
thinking. Research suggests that practice becomes most useful in improv-
ing thinking only when it is combined with at least three other methods
(2). These include explicit introductions to the specific skills that consti-
tute thinking, instructive guidance as students practice executing these
skills, and teaching these skills to transfer. By incorporating these three
techniques into what is conventionally presented to enable students to
practice thinking, teachers can sharply enhance student proficiencies in
thinking. This chapter suggec:s some practical ways to accomplish this
task.

EXPLICIT INTRODUCTION OF THINKING SKILLS

Whenever students arc expected to learn a new thinking skill, the skill
should be introduced as explicitly as possible. This means that a teacher
should provide instruction in how to execute the skill, with a minimum
of interference from subject matter. Too often teachers assume students
can engage effectively in the skills they need to think. just as often,
teachers assume that simply by executing a skill to learn more about a
subject, students automatically learn the skill. However, neither of these
assumptions is supported by most teachers' experiences or by research
(3).
Research on skill learning and teaching suggests that in the initial
stage of thinking-skill learning, students need to overlearn the skill. This
requires, first, a direct focus on what psychologist R. E. Snow describes
as the "component processes and skills" involved in the thinking tasks
to be undertaken or learned, on the specific operations and rules that
constitute the overall task (4). When "how to do it" is embedded in
content, students naturally attend to the content 'and simply are not
aware of the skill they may be employing. Explicit focus on the compo-
nents of a skill in its introductory stage is essential to help students de-
velop the conscious awareness of how the skill works that is preliminary
to becoming proficient in its application (5).
Research also suggests three additional techniques useful in introduc-
ing any thinking skill (6). Modeling demonstrates the procedures and
principles involved in executing the skill and provides students with cues
that highlight these components as they are demonstrated (7). Student
articulation and discussion of these components are also helpful at this
point, especially in helping students to think through what constitutes a
skilled operation (8). Finally, student discussion o: what they do in their
heads as they execute the thinking ;Kill (metacognition) raises to a level
of consciousness how their thinking occurs; this is important in helping
students take informed control of their own thinking (9). These three
techniques characterize what reading researcher Ann Brown calls "in-
formed training" and "self-control training"as opposed to the "blind
training" typified by the techniques listed at the beginning of this chap-
ter 0.0). Researchers Walter Doyle and Barak Rosenshine refer to teach-
ing that includes these techniques as "direct instruction" (11).
Teachers can implement these techniques in several different ways to
introduce any thinking skill. For example, they can use the principles of
Piagetian-based developmental learning advocated by researchers such as

79
Irving Sigel (12) and Robbie Case (13). Or they can use more didactic,
directive teaching as described by Doyle and Rosenshine (14). These two
approaches are best conceived of as prototype strategies on either end of
a range of strategies useful in introducing thinking skills. Many variants
of these approaches n ,y be found wit:Ain this range.
A developmental strategy introducit g a new thinking skill might pro-
ceed through six steps:
1. The teacher introduces the skill by writing its label on the board,
having students name the skill aloud, getting synonyms from the
class or providing them him/herself, and seeking examples of
where students may have engaged in this operation before, in class-
work or outside school.
2. Students arc then asked to engage in the skill without any further
instructions. If, for example, the skill is to make an analogy, the
teacher and students find or devise a working definition of analo-
gy, identify appropriate synonyms, and give examples of analogies
encountered earlier in the course or in daily life. Then they make
some analogies of their own or on assigned topics.
3. Students next discuss the analogies they made or attempted to
make and reflect on and discuss these. In the course of the discus-
sion, difficulties may become evident: they may have skipped steps
in the procedure, or selected items that were too similar, or had
difficulties in mapping the inferred relationships.
4. The teacher clarifies and models those pans of the procedure that
students could not execute well, explaining the principles behind
the steps being demonstrated.
5. Students then return to the original task. They may repeat it by in-
corporating the teacher's explanation, or they may produce new
analogies following the original procedure with the teacher's
modifications.
6. Students conclude the lesson by reflecting again on how they en-
gaged in analogizing, to articulate the basic steps in the procedure
and important rules or principles to follow in employing this
thinking skill.
When a skill is judged too difficult for students and when the teacher
understands exactly how to execute it, a quite different strategy can be
used to introduce it. In launching this five-step directive strategy;
1. The teacher introduces the skill in the same manner used in the
previously described strategywriting the label on the board, de-
veloping synonyms and a definition for the skill, and helping stu-

80
 dents recall similar examples of where they may have performed
the skill or seen :omeone do it earlier.
2. The teacher then deseribes how an expert executes the skill, instead
of asking students to practice it. A teacher who chooses this strate-
gy to introduce making an analogy would at this point explain
step-by-step how the skill is executed, perhaps as outlined by re-
searchers Patricia Alexander or Robert Sternberg (15).
3. The teacher next demonstrates the skill with whatever contribu-
tions students _de to volunteer, highlighting important operation-
al cues as the demonstration proceeds.
4. After discussing reasons for executing the skill procedures and any
relevant knowledge, the teacher then has students apply what they
have seen, heard, and discussed to executing the skill themselves.
5. To conclude this introductory lesson the teacher guides students in
reflecting r 1. and discussing the extent to which they followed the
steps modeled for them, what they did mentally to execute the
skill, any modifications they thought they were making in the
modeled procedure, and what they learned about the skill.
These two introductory strategics share a number of common features.
Both require approximately a class period, anywhere from 30 to 45 nin-
utes depending on the complexity of the skill, the abilities of the stu-
dents and their previous experience with the skill, and the type of sub-
ject matter serving as the vehicle for applying the skill. Both strategies
provide for modeling the skill: the developmental strategy by students
who do it reasonably well in the two applications of the skill, and the
more expository strategy by the teacher. Both strategics explicate the
steps in the procedure by which the skill is executed by both students
and teacher. Both strategics involve students in thinking about and dis-
cussing what they do in their heads as they execute the skill.
Most importantly, the focus throughout each strategy is on the skill.
The introduction to each lesson clearly establishes learning the skill as
the lesson objective. It also helps students develop the mental set needed
to call up previous experience related to the new skill. Thereafter, each
strategy feces exclusively on the components of the skill. In spix of
temptations to engage in discussion of subject matter, especially where
students offer inferences of questionable validity, the teacher must, in
such an introductory lesson, put discussion of subject matter aside until
the next lesson and keep student attention on the attributes of the skill.
Concluding the lesson by reflecting on or reviewing how the skill works
and the rules that guide its explanation completes both strategies. This
ensures continuing, explicit attention to the skill throughout its
introduction.
One of these strategies or a variant can be used to introduce a think-

81
ing skill whenever a teacher senses that students cannot execute well a
thinking skill they need to complete a subject matter task or whenever
the teacher wants to introduce a skill new to the students (16). A teacher
who has command of these strategies can use them on the spot, switch-
ing to them whenever appropriate. Regardless of which particular strate-
gy is used, for best results it should include the features of a skill intro-
duction described here. Use of such a lesson contributes immeasurably to
student understanding of and increased proficiency in any thinking skill.

GUIDED PRACTICE
Of course no student should be expected to demonstrate. proficiency
in a particular thinking skill simply on the basis of one introJr:tory les-
son on it. Unlike the teaching of information, which can u 14 be pre-
sented in a single lesson, teaching a skill requires continued attention to
the skill over an extended period of time. Research suggests these follow-
up skill lessons should be frequent, require relatively small amounts of
timeusually interpreted to be approximately 20 minutesand be
spaced out intermittently over a period of time. Moreover, as Benjamin
Bloom and other experts have noted, these lessons should provide imme-
diate instructive feedback and correction for the students (17,.
To prtmote proficiency in a skill, lessons that follow an introduction
to a skill ought to offer not only practice in executing the skill but con-
tinued teacher and peer feedback and instruction in how to execute it.
Such instructive feedback can precede, follow, or be simultaneous with
application of the skill. Here is one strategy useful in providing such
guided practice:
1. The teacher reintroduces the skill to be used, exactly as in the in-
troductory lesson strategieswith its name, some synonyms, a def-
inition, and examples of its use.
2. The teacher, with student help, previews how to execute the skill
by reviewing what students already know about the steps to go
through and what rules or principle:: need to be followed.
3. The students apply the skill to the same type of data as used in
the introductory lesson, periodically checking what they are doing
against what they articulated earlier as they previewed the skill,
taking corrective steps as needed.
4. The students reflect on how they executed the skill, especially on
any obstacles they encountered and how they dealt with them,
and on any modifications they made in the skill.
These activities customarily take 20 minutes. Once the activities have

:2

83
been completed, students can niove to a discussion jf the subject matter
products generated by their application of the skill.
A number of guided practice lessons using strategies like those out-
lined here should follow any lesson introducing a thinking skill. Al-
though there are no specific guidelines presented in the rese-sch as to
how maiy, a teacher will know when to move into conventional student
selfdirected practice or use of the skill by observing when the students
reach a level of proficiency where a detailed introduction of the skill and
previewing and reviewing skill attributes are no longer necessary (18).

SELF-DIRECTED PRACTICE
Once a thinking skill has been explicitly introduced and students have
had sufficient guided practice to attain self-directed autonomy in apply-
ing the skill, self-directed practice in or exercise of the skill becomes ap-
propriate. It is at this point that the techniques !..s led at the beginning
of this chapter prove most useful. By engaging in activities initiated by
or built around these techniques, students have an opportunity to exer-
cise on their own the thinking skills they are learning. But without prior
explicit introduction and guided practice as described here, such tech-
niques will be more like testing than teaching.

TEACH1. IG TO TRANSFER
Contrary to common assumptions, thinking skills do not transfer auto-
matically to contexts or settings that differ from the context in which
they are initially developed. Thinking skills are very much tied to the
contexts in which they are initially experienced. Thus, in order to help
students generalize a thinking skillto be able to apply it or transfer it
to a variety of subjects, .,ettings, or contextsteachers must explicitly
show them how. Teachers must provide instruction in a thinking skill in
a variety of contexts after it has teen mastered in the initial context. Too
often the teaching of thinking ignores this important step (19).
Teachers can do several things to help students learn how to transfer a
newly learned thinking skill. First, teachers nho initiate instruction in a
new skill, after providing guided practice to the point where students can
apply the skill effectively on their own, can show them how to apply the
skill in different contexts. Teachers who wish students to apply a skill in
their subject area that was introduced in another subject can do the same
thing. This require use of almost the same kinds of strategies used to
conduct an introductory lesson in a skill. Indeed, using a previously
learned skill in a new context usually appears to students as if they are

83
 learning a new skill. To do this effectively, a teacher can do the
following:
1. Introduce the skill, as in the preceding strategies.
2. Review what students know about the skill.
3. Explain and demonstrate how the skill is executed in the context
to which it is to be transferred.
4. Have the st dents apply the skill in this new con, Tt, providing
corrective feedback as needed.
5. Have the students reflect on what they did in their heads as they
executed the skill.
This strategy differs from the directive introductory strategy only in its
second. step. Here students review what they already know about execut-
ing the skill before they try to apply it in the new context. Thus they
have to concentrate on only one new thingthe contextwhen they ap-
ply the skill.
Once a previously learned skill has been reintroduced in a new context
or setting, students must receive guided practice in applying the skill in
this context until they achieve the appropriate level of proficiency. As
they demonstrate this level of proficiency, guided practice must be
mixed between applications of the skill in the original context and in the
newer context to which it is being transferred. As students apply the
skill, with appropriate corrective feedback, to a variety of contexts, the
move toward generalizing the skill. Once this has been accomplished,
students can engage in self-directed application of the skill, initiated by
teacher questions, writing assignments, or other techniques commonly
used to foster practice in thinking. Teaching a thinking skill to transfer
actually duplicates the process of introducing a new skill from scratch to
initial mastery, as it moves frwn introducing it, through guided practice,
to autonomous application or self- directed practice.

MAKING PRACTICE PAY OFF

Developing student proficiencies in thinking requires considerably
more than simply making students think. It requires more than encour-
aging or exhorting, more than questioning and discussing, more than
stimulating and challenging. All of these techniques are useful in engag-
ing students in thinking, but they fail to show them hnw to think more
skillfully than they otherwise do.
For practice to pay off in improved student thinking, it show!. be
combined with explicit introductions to the ma;or skills that ainstitute
thinking, repeated guided practice in executing these skills, and the
teaching of these skills to transfer. By incorporating these three tech-

84
 niques into teaching strategies that include practice and al,plying them
to the teaching of thinking, teachers can accomplish what they have long
sought to accomplish, the fullest possible develoi.mtnt of our students'
abilities to think skillfully on their own.

REFERENCES
1 John Mc Peck, Critical Thinking and Education (New York: St. Martin's
Press, 1981), 78; Sydelle D. Seiger, "Reaching Beyond Thinking Skills to
Thinking Strategies for the Academically Gifted," Roeper Review 6, no. 4
(April 1984): 185-88.
2. Michael I. Posner and Steven W. Keele, "Skill Learning," . i Second Hand-
book of Research on Teaching, ed. Robert M. W. Travers (Chicago: Rand
McNally, 1973), 805-31: Barak V. Rosenshine, "Teaching Functions in In-
structional Programs," Elementary School Journal (March 1983): 335-53;
Jack Lochhead and John Clement, eds., Cognitive Process Instuction: Re-
search on Teaching Thinkinz, Skills (Philadelphia: Franklin Institute Press,
1979).
3. Hilda Taba, "Teaching of Thinking," Elementary English 42, no. 5 (May
1965): 534; Edward M. Glaser, An Experiment in the Development of Crit-
ical Thinking (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teacher College, Co-
lumbia University, 1941), 69; James P. Shaver, "Educational Research and
Instruction for Critical Thinking," Social Education 26, no. 1 (January
1962): 14, 16.
4. Quoted in Norman Frederiksen, "Implications of C.1/4.gnitive Theory for In-
struction in Problem Solving," Review of Educational Research 54, no. 3
(Fall 1984): 382; sec also McPeck, Critical Thinking, 18, and Robert T.
Sternberg, "How Can We Teach Intelligence?" Educational Leadership 42,
no.1 (September 1984): 47.
5. Catherine Combleth and Willard Korth, "If Remembering, Understand-
ing, and Reasoning Are Important ...," Social Education 45, no. 3 (April
1981): 278; McPeck, Critical Thinking, 18; Rosenshine, "Teaching
Functions."
6. Jane Stallings, "Effective Strategies for Teaching Basic Skills," in Develop-
ing Basic Skills Programs in Secondary Schools, ed. Daisy G. Wallace (Alex-
andria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development,
1983), 1-9; Ann Brown, Joseph C. Campione, and Jeanne D. Day, "Learn-
ing to Learn: On Training Students to Learn from Texts," Educational Re-
searcher 10 (February 1981): 14-21; Sternberg, "Hcw Can We Teach Intel-
ligence?" 38-50; Benjamin Bloom, Human Characteristics and School
Learning (New York: McGra :gill; 1976).
7. David W. Pratt, Curriculum Design and Development (New York: Har-
court Brace Jovanovich, 1980), 313; Posner Arid Keele, "Skill Learning";
Rosenshine, "Teaching Functions."
8. Rosenshine, "Teaching Functions."

85

.117111a
 9. Brown and others, "Learning to Learn"; Sternberg, "How Can We Teach
Intelligence?"; Elizabeth Bondy, "Thinking About Thinking," Childhood
Education (March /April 1984): 234-38; Arthur L. Costa, "Mediating the
Metacognitive," Educational Leadership 42, no. 3 (November 1984):
57-62.
10. Brown and others, "Learning to Learn," 15.
11. Walter Doyle, "Academic Work," Review of Educational Research 53, no.
2 (Summer 1983): 159-99; Barak V. Rosenshine, "Content, Time and Di-
rect Instruction," in Research on Teaching, cd. Penelope L. Peterson and
Herbert J. Walberg (Berkeley, Calif.: McCutchan, 1979), 28-56.
12 Irving Sigel, "A Constructivist Perspective for Teaching Thinking," Educa-
tional Leadership 42, no. 3 (November 1984): 18-22.
13. Robbie Case, "A Developmentally Based Theory and Technology of In-
struction," Revu,w of Educational Research 48, no. 3 (Summer 197k):
.139-63.
14. Doyle, "Academic Work"; Rosenshine, "Content, Time and Direct
Instruction."
15. For a description of the analogy-making process, see Patricia A. Alexander,
"Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in the Gifted," Roeper Review 6,
no. 4 (April 1984): 191-93; Sternberg, "How Can We Teach Intelligence?"
16. For additional similar strategies, see Barry K. Beyer, "Teaching Critical
Thinking: A Direct Approach," Social Education 49, no. 4 (April 1985):
297-303; Reuven Feuerstein, Instrumental Enrichment (Baltimore: Univer-
sity Park Press, 1980); Superintendent of Public Instruction, Development
of Problem- Solving Skills for Vocational and Educational Achievement: Stu-
dent U.' Abook (Olympia: Washington State Department of Public Instruc-
tion, 1976).
17. Bloom, Human Characteristics; Rosenshine, "Teaching Functions,"
340-41; Posner and Keck, "Skill Learning," 807, 813-14.
18. Posner and Kecle, "Skill Learning."
19. Brown and others, "Learning to Learn," 15; Bryce B. Hudgins, Learning
and Thinking (Itasca, lit.: F. E. Peacock Publishers, 1977), 142-72; Herbert
J. Klausmcier and J. Kent Davis, "Trap-ter of 'Learning," Encyclopedia of
Educational Research (New York: Macmillan, 1969), 1483-93: Herbert Si-
mon, "Evidence on Transfer," in Problem Solving and Education: Issues in
Teaching and Research, cd. D. T. Tuma and F. Reif (Hillsdale, NJ.: Erl-
baum Associates, Publishers, 1980), 882-84; David N. Perkins, "Thinking
Frames," paper presented at ASCD Conference on Approaches to Think-
ing, Alexandria, Virginia, August 6, 1985.

8"i 86
LEARNING TO LEARN:
IMPROVING THINKING SKILLS
ACROSS THE Cl IRRICULUM
by Marcia Heiman

Marcia Heiman discusses the development, structure, and effects of the Le:on-
ing to Learn Thinking Improvement Program. The program began nearly 20 years
ago with research at the University of Michigan. Successful learners were asked to
talk aloud their thinking while engaged in a wide variety of academic tasks. It was
discovered that the following thinking skills are common to saod learners: they ark
questions of materials they read and hear, continually raising aid testing hypothe-
ses; they devise informal feedback methods to assess their learning progress; they
break down complex ideas and tasks into manageable components; and they are
goal-directed it their,approach to learning. Over several years' time, these skills
were translate& into practices that proved to be highly effective for unsuccessful
students.
This chapter a reprinted with permission of the Association Jr Supervision and
Curriculum Development from Educational Leadership, September 1985.
The author directs the Learning to Learn Program, Boston College, Chestnut
Hill, Massachusetts, and is coeditor of this book.

When I was in high school I hated school. I never read nothing, never
did no school work. I dropped out of school as soon as they let me.
I couldn't get no job, so I decided to see if college was better. I went
for my GED, and came to Roxbury Community College. I didn't do
good my first semester hereI failed two courses. Then I took Learning
to Learn, and things really changed. I had to think about my school
work. Reading was like playing some gamelooking for the answers to
my questions. I'm a business major, and now I can do even hard subjects
like economics and accounting. It's like I think better. Math was a jum-
ble for me. Now I see how to do the parts and how they fit together.
Used to be I couldn't see no future for me. Now I can see my way to a
four-year college education. I just wished I took Learning to Learn
high school, so I didn't need to waste no time like that.
--student at Roxbury Community College

Duting the 1960s, a group of researcher-clinicians at the University of

Michigan took a nontraditional approach to improving students' learning
strategies. Rather than using a diagnosis-and-remediation model, which
at best results in only a. year's gain in a year's time, the MichiE A.n group
sought to discover skills that are critical to successful learning. If skills of
successful learners could be identified and translated for use with less
successful students, the group felt that learning gains might be more
rapid.
Over a period of several years, these researchers observe,. the learning
behaviors of successful students as they verbalized their thinking while
solving a variety of complex academic tasks. They found that good
learners:
1. "Program" their learning for content coursesidend:;ing the
component parts of complex principles/ideas and breaking down
major tasks into smaller units.
2. Ask questions about new materials, engaging in a covert dialogue
with author or lecturer, forming hypotheses, and reading or listen-
ing for confirmation.
3. Devise informal feedback mechanisms to assess their own progress.
4 Focus on instructional objectives, identifying and directing their
study behavior,; to meet course objectives.
The Michigan group translated these skills into a series of e:..ercises
that students could apply directly to their academic work. I joined the
group in 1967. Since then, as director of a number of college learning
centers, I have sought ways to apply the four general skills to a wide
range of academic areas and to adapt the terhniques to students of vary-
ing entry skill levels. In 1979, I was joined in this work by Joshua Slo-
mianko, who has helped put the skills into the framework of a cohesive
system and found applications to new contexts. The resulting combina-
tion of skills and instructional materials constitutes Learning to Learn

Learning to Learn has three stages: input (gathering information), or-

ganization (arranging information for further analysis), and output (stu-
dent demonstration of mastery of the material). Students learn to build
general learning skills and subject-specific skills into their daily school
work. After a few months of adapting these skills to their coursework,
most students report that they become involved with school work and
that they begin using the skills automatically. For example, one student
said, "I used to fall asleep in class and over my books. Now : want to
know what's going on. I ask myself, 'What's the teacher after now? Is
he answering my questions, or is th:-; something new ? "' As students be-
gin to "play" with the material in their courses and discover their own
variations of the skills, they increasingly view the skills as aspects of two
central learning tools: generating qt-estiolis and breaking dowi, complex
ideas and tasks into simpler, more comprehensible parts.

88
83
 As a result of work done with educationally disadvantaged college stu-
dents reading as low as the 5th g..ade level, the U.S. Department of Edu-
cation's Joint Dissemination Review Board approved Learning to Learn
for national dissemination. Data from controlled studies show that the
program has significant, long-term effects on students' grade point aver-
ages, the number of academic credits they complete per semester, and
their retention in school. For example, a study conducted with students
reading at the 6th grade level at Roxbury Community College showed
that LT!. students ..amen' a 2.9 grade point average; comparable students
who received tradltional remediation (for example, content-course tutor-
ing or basic skills support) earned a 2.2 grade point average (Heiman,
1983). LTL students also completed significantly more academic credits
per semester. Three semesters after treatment wzs completed, 70 percent
of the LTL students were still in college or had graduated, as compared
with 40 percent of non-LTL students.

LEARNING TO LEARN IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Learning to Learn has now been piloted by teachers in several Boston-
area high schools. In 1985-86, the program is being fully implemented
in a number of schools, incluCing Winchester High School, West Rox-
bury High School, and the Massachusetts Pre-Engineering Program at
Boston Latin High School in Massachusetts; Kings Park Junior and Senior
High Schools on Long Island; and Taft High School in Cincinnati
Learning to Learn is most effectively built into students' academic
work in two ways:
1. In the content classroom. In both junior and senior high schools,
teachers incorporate LTL skills directly into their classroom teaching. The
following vignettes illustrate this process:
Robert Stone's 10th grade chemistry class has been assigned Chap-
ter 7, which discusses the relationship among temperature, pres-
sure, and volume of gases. Students work in pairs, generating ques-
tions from the text and using an active method of reading to sole:
problems. In this way, their chemistry texts become "dictionaries"
that help them solve the sample problems in the text.
e Amy Anderson's 6th graders will be studying a unit on A;rica.
Working in small groups, they have identified questions --0 which
they would like to find answers. Their questions will be the basis of
small-group "-esearch" projects, in which they will find answers to
their questions in an encyclopedia. Each group has at least two "re-
source" persons who read at the 4th grade level or higher.
Albert Hart has just given a brief lecture on Greek city-states to his
9th grade social studies class. Students took notes on his lecure.

89
Co
 Later, working in pairs, students will help each other fill in missing
notes and generate questions from those notes. They will then use
their questions to read -to- find - answers in the textbook chapter on
Greek city-states.
As these illustrations suggest, Learning to Learn has a wide rar.ge of
applicat; xis for content classrooms. Classroom management problems
are minimal because student motivation is high. By looking for answers
to their own questions and breaking down complex ideas into manage-
able units, students gain a sense of mastery over their academic work.
Their information search becomes personal, as they are working to
achieve goals they have set for themselves.
2. As a credit course. In he senior high school, Learning to Learn is
also offered as a year-long credit course. Students are required to adapt
the appropriate LTL skills to content -area courses taken concurrently with
LTL. Students learn how the skills relate to each other by learning princi-
ples on which they are based and how to vary the skills for a wide range
of academic tasks. The course is designed to make students independent
learners in any academic course, whatever its structure.
Learning to Learn is available to schools through a combination of
training workshops and instructional materials. Content-area teachers re-
ceive field-relevant instructor manuals, which review those skills most
suited to a particular discipline, suggest ways of using the skills as cbss-
room activities or homework assignments, and provide sample lesson
plans. Manuals are available for teachers of social studies, English, math-
ematics, physical science, and biology/earth science. In addition, student
workbooks are available in these areas (such as Learning to Learn Social
SAdies).
A detailed manual pre-rides teachers of the LTL credit course with
step-by-step instruction in the content and structure of the course. In ad-
dition, a student workbook gives students practice in using LTL skills and
suggests ways to adapt them for use with content classwork.

POSITIVE OUTCOMES
Learning to Learn has positive outcomes for students, teachers, and
school administrators. Students become more actively engaged in their
work and can improve their basic skills (primarily in reading, writing,
and listening), content-course grades, and reasoning skills. Improved stu-
dent motivation and a higher level of student classroom participation, in
turn, have a positive effect on teacher morale. Schools that fully use the
system can expect to realize some of the following results: improved stu-

90
91
dent scores on competency exams, improved student retention through
graduation, and more students going on to post-secondary schools.
One reason for the sstem's effectiveness is that it provides students
with an environment conducive to active learning. Students are not sim-
ply advised to improve their organization, motivation, and interest in
school. Rather, as the student quoted in the beginning of this article
suggested, students develop tools for turning academic work into a kind
of "game" in which they predict questions and answers. The dichotomy
between "real world learning" and "book learning" begins .._ diminish
for many students as they see the relationship between the kinds of
learning they do in daily life and academic settings.
The useful effects of Learning to Learn appear to be a product of its
basic approach to higher-level learning: the skills that are central to the
system (generating questions, identifying essential parts of complex situ-
ations, looking for feedback on progress, directing behavior toward clear
goals) are part of all learning. Learning to Learn works because we are
teaching children to bring their own highly developed intellectual strate-
gies into a settingformal educationthat has often seemed alien
ground.

REFERENCE
F Oman, M. "Learning to Learn," Joint Dissemination Review Panel Submis-
s. . Washington, D.C.: National Diffusion Network, 1983.

91
A STRATEGY FOR DEVELOPING
DIALECTICAL THINKING SKILLS
by Joel Rudinow and Richard Paul

Joel Rudinow and Ric!;ard Paul discuss the importance of reflective self- criticism
and the ability to rearm sympathetically within alternative frames of reference. In
a series of exercises students learn to argue in and be sympathetic to positions
frames of referencedifferent from their own. The class is divided into groups ac-
cording to students' initial positions. The instructor functions as moderate r, creat-
ing an atmosphere that encourages mutual awareness and responsiveness. After ex-
perimenting with the alternative positions, .ostalents can defend both their own
views and those of others. The ability to sympathetically articulate an opinion oth-
er than one's own, and perhaps to consequently alter one's own opinion, is seen as
essential to the critical thinking process.
Th,. authors are with the Center for Critical Thinking and Moral Critique, Son-
oma State University, Rohnert Park, California.

Among the most difficult yet important intellectual skills currently

taught in Critical Thinking courses are those we would call dialectical.
These include the ability to reflect critically on one's own thinking and
the closely related ability to reason sympathetically within frames of ref-
erence distinct from, and even opposed to, one's own. The instructional
strategy we will present here is appropriate for students at grades 9
through 16 studying in a variety of disciplines. We wish to stress, howev-
er, that the abilities our strategy is intended to cultivate are latent and
important to cultivate at the earliest stages of formal education Accord-
ingly, we encourage instructors in the elementary grades to consider
adapting our recommendations to the needs and maturity levels of their
students. Before we turn to the details of our strategy, Ir briefly dis-
cuss the nature and importance of these abilities.
Reflective Self-Criticism: To think about one's own thinking, to make
one's own thinking the object of one- thinking, particularly with a view
to discovering its limitations and weaknessesthis is what we mean
by "reflecting critically on one's own thinking" or "reflective self-
criticism." The difficulty inherent in reflective self-criticism is both deep
and obvious: reflective self-criticism requires a level of provisional or hy-
pothetical detachment from one's own views, but since the critic and

92

93
the thinker are identical, this detachment frequently seems psychologi-
cally or ever. conceptually impossible. And yet not only is detachment
from one's own views a possibility, but also it and the reflective self-criti-
cism it makes possible are essential to intellectual self-guidance and to
autonomous intellectual growth. In other words, the abilities to detach
oneself from one's own views and to reflect critically on one's own think-
ing arc fundamental to learnin, -I think for oneself. Indeed, one's
awareness and grasp of one's own views are based in large part on one's
understanding of the ways one's views relate to and diverge from the
views of others.
Reasonisq Sympathetically Within Alternative Frimes of Reference:
There is no better way to demonstrate to students that detachment from
one's views and reflective self-criticism are possible and beneficial than to
have them do these things. And a good way to get students to do these
things is to have them engage in a process of sympathetic reasoning
within frames of reference that differ from their own.
Again we stress that this can be done in modest ways with simple and
elementary examples, or it can be done at advanced levels with highly
complicated examples. The level of difficulty can be adjusted by the in-
structor to the special needs and capacities of the students, and the de-
tails of what follows adjusted accordingly.
To reason sympathetically within a frame of reference different from
one's own requires that one engage in hypothetical reasoning, that one
be willing to entertain, as true, hypotheses that one is not already con-
vinced are true. And this it good exercise for the mind, indeed! One
needs to be able to entertain and to rationally evaluate hypotheses of
which one is not already convinced in order to learn anything at all. For-
tunately the capacity to think hypothetically is as genuine as the drive (to
which it is dialectically opposed, but which typically overrides it) to re-
main confined egocentrically or ethnocentrically within one's own frame
of reference.

Let us now present our instructional strategy for exercising and encour-
aging these abilities. We recommerI that wherever possible instructors
work with issues that touch the students' own interests and concerns, for
the reason that students are more readily, and deeply, and genuinely
motivated to apply themselves to tasks whose relevance to their interests
and concerns they can see and understand. Of course, an instruLtor may
wish to work to interest a class in those particular issues the instructor
may feel are of paramount importance. Indeed, there are many moral
and social issues that arguably all students need to develop an interest
in. This interest can be developed by leading students to see the connec-

93
tions between their interests and desires and these larger questions. For-
tunately, however, there is generally no need to inhibit student input on
this account. An instructor with a wide range of current interests can
usually find a lot to encourage in the interests and concepts of the aver-
age group of students. And the flexibility of mind of the instructor who
is willing to allow a community of interest to evolve in response to stu-
dent initiative is a useful model to exhibit early in the game. We recom-
mend that students be invited to suggest issues they would like to sec
discussed, and that they participate in the selection of issues for class ex-
ercises from the list of such suggestions. At early primary grades, and
also with particularly shy groups of students, there may have to be exten-
sive priming of the pump. Materials may have to be brought in by the
instructor to generate student awareness of issues which they come to sec
as related to their experience. We recommend that the instructor guide
the selection process toward issues about which the class exhibits consid-
erable diversity of opinion, rather than toward issues about which there
is general agreement. Ultimately, students need to deal with their shared
ethnocentricitics by discovering and reasoning within divergent points of
view and value systems.
Once an issue has been selected, there are a number of ways, depend-
ing on the size and setting of ..he class, instructor's preferences, and so
on, to structure class discussion so as to encourage and develop dialectical
thinking skills. An example will illustrate some general guidelines which
will help studentsand therefore their instructorssucceed.
Suppose the class is initially divided into groups correspol.ding to the
initial position each student takes on the issue. There may, of course, be
as few as two such groups or as many as there are students in the class
(though this latter possibility is even less likely than it is manageable
due to the psychological safety that comes with being a member of a
group). We recommend, as an instructive subsidiary exercise, that the in-
structor take as much time as needed to assist students in articulating as
many distinct positions on the issue as necessary, so that every student
feels comfoitable identifying with one or another position.
In a recent case involving a class which included students from a vari-
ety of Latin American and Pacific Rim origins, a small contingent of Pal-
estinian Arab students, and a group of American students, the students
elected to discuss the issue of terrorism. It is worth remarking how the
class framed the issue for discussion. It quickly became apparent that
there were competing understandings of terrorism underlying the stu-
dents' interest in the Lsue, and this posed an initial obstacle to discus-
sion: how to formulate a question that we could all disci, -s without ini-
tially nrejudicing the discussion against one or another of these
comp 4 understandings. An early formulation"What should the

94

45
United States government do to put a stop to terrorism?"failed to win
a consensus because it would have prejudiced the discussion against those
students who thought that terrorism might be a justifiable last resort for
occupied or exiled peoples. The class formulated and considered sevrrg
options before shortly arriving at a formulation which it found mason-
able by consensus: "How should the phenomena of terrorism be under-
stood and responded to?"
At this poiat two positions emerged: first, that terrorism is the use of
violence against innocent civilian noncombatants and as such is morally
unjustifiable, and warrants strong preventive and retaliatory measures;
and second, that what is called "terrorism" is in reality the understand-
able and justifiable response of oei_upied and exiled peoples to unpro-
voked military aggression. It is hard to imagine two positions more at
odds. It is interesting, therefore, that before proceeding to generate and
examine the arguments, the class also produced an intermediary posi-
tion: that armed resistance to military aggression within one's homeland
must be distinguished from the indiscriminate use of violence against ci-
vilian noncombatants outside one's homeland, and that in any case the
response to either sort of violence ought to stress diplomatic negotiation.
Our experience indicates that students are likely at first to avoid isola-
tion and exposure and rather to gravitate toward each other in large
numbers. Let us suppose, therefore, that the class is polarized into two
groups corresponding to antithetical positions on the issue.
Each of the resulting discussion groups is now assigned the task of pre-
paring a defense of its position, to be presented before the assembly of
the class as a whole by representatives of each group. The goals of the
task include (1) that each group be prepared to deliver as clear, concise,
and compelling a rationale for its position as it can devise; (2) that each
group be prepared to interrogate the other position0 as deeply and inci-
sively as possible; and (3) that each group be as fully prepared to answer
questions and respond to criticisms of its own position. Ti-z instructor
should be aware (and in due course make the students aware) that the
second and third of these goals involve reasoningthough not yet (nec-
essarily) sympatheticallywithin the frame of reference of the opposi-
tion, and further that the mature critical thinker incorporates the second
and third goals into the first. In addition to preparing the case in favor
of its position, each group is to select its team of three representatives
and assign them distinct roles, corresponding to the three goals above.
Once the discussion groups have made their preparations, the class is
reassembled for a discussion among the representatives of the positions.
As moderator, the instructor is in a position to guide the discussion in
the direction of mutual awareness and respect by facilitating and stress-
ing reciprocity (or mutual responsiveness) between the teams of represen-

95
tatives, by pointing out such problems as straw-man interpretations of
opposing points, and so on. It is well worth reviewing the discussion to-
gether as a group before proceeding to the next step.
Each of the discussion groups is now assigned the task of preparing a
defense of the (or a) position to which it was initially opposed, the rest
of the exercise to be carried through as before. This step is crucial. Its
importance lies in the fact that it makes it extremely difficult to avoid
considering an alternative frame of reference sympathetically. Whereas it
may, up until now, have been tempting and adequate to examine the
opposed position simply with a view to discovering its limitations and
weaknesses, it now becomes necessary to attend to its strengths. More im-
portant still, it now becomes necessary to probe and challenge the posi-
tion one initially identified with, to engage in reflective self-criticism.
In our experience, students frequently find this crucial step quite dif-
ficult, especially in connection with emotionally charged topics such as
terrorism. The results of the exercise, though, have been very encourag-
ing. In reflecting on their experience, our studentsregardless of their
initial positions on terrorismreported a wide range of beneficial effects
of the experience on their thinking and their approach to issues
generally.
We have found it useful to reinforce the exercise through the use of
audio and video recording technology.* First of all, a retrievable and ver-
ifiable record of the discussions is a great help in analyzing the argu-
ments with students after the fact. And such records also contribute ii-
rectly to reflective self-criticism by allowing the particip Ants to review
and critique their own performances.
We have also found it useful to vary this strategy in several ways; for
instance, have students discuss the issue in pairs, making sure that each
student has an opportunity to practice each of the three activities men-
tioned above from two antithetical positions; then have students each
compose essays in dialogue form, first defending one or anothc position
on an issue, then critically examining the initial thesis and its defei.t .
and finally responding to these criticisms and objections either Ly meet-
ing them or by adjusting the original position.
The strategy outlined here is not without risk. Since a great deal of
the content of discussion is left up to the students and the instructor's
role is in lai;,,e measure responsive, the instructor must be prepared to
deal with a Fide variety of situations which may arise. At the same time,
however, the instructor may look forward to the opportunity to recognize

'For information concerning the Center's Critt-a; Thinking Video Library, contact. Center for
Critical Thinking & Moral Critique tAttention. Joel Ruchnow or Richard Paul), Sonoma State Uni-
versity, Rohnen Park, California 94928.

96

9I
and reward deep and authentic insights arrived at by students. Recently,
in a dialectical essay responding to the question "Should all college stu-
dents be required to take a basic course in Critical Thinking?" a student
majoring in Communications wrote:
Is a required course in Critical Thinking at the college level the most effective
means of teaching individuals how to defend themselves agalris: "intellectual
trickery and self-delusion"? (Critical Thinking course description Sonoma State
University Catalog, 1982-83). Prior to flaking this course, I would not have
questioned the validity of such a requirement. In foci, I had only a faint idea
about what the course entailed, and I signed up for it simply because it was re-
quired. Since taking Critical Thinking, I hava begun to analyze, criticize and
more carefully evaluate the ideas presented in all my courses, including this
one, and including the idea that this course is worthwhile. Critical Thinking has
taken me beyond learned belief systems into the area of developing my
own....
Here the student has recognized and appreciated the value inherent in a
discipline which questions itself as well as everything else. The student
demonstrates that she understands the connections between such a disci-
pline and freedom of thought and between freedom of thought and re-
sponsibility for one's own thinking.
It is worth dwelling on these connections briefly to dispel' a common
worry among teachers: that an atmosphere that encourages questioning
may actually undermine discipline and contribute to the deterioration of
dassroom morale. The instructor should bear in mind that Critical
Thinking is a discipline, and it is, therefore, not to be confused with un-
ruly contempt for authority. To encourage the one does not necessitate
tolerating the other.
Finally. the abilities to engage in reflective self-criticism and to reason
sympathetically within alternative frames of reference are essential to the
discipline of critical thinking and, therefore, also to the goals of the Crit-
ical Thinking course. Unless these abilities and the commitment to exer-
cise them are established in the stlent, any systematic analytical or ar-
gumentative skills the student may acquire in the course are prone to
degenerate into sophistry.

REFERENCES
Benderson, Albert. "Critical Thinking." Focus 15 (1984).
Easley, J. "A Japanese Approach to Arithmetic." For the Learning of Mathe-
matics 3, no. 3 (1983).
Easley, J. "What's There to Talk About in Arithmetic?" Problem Solving 5
(1983).
Easley, J. "Is There Educative Power in Students' Alternative Frameworks ?"
Problem Solving 6 (1984): 1-4.
Easley, J. "A Teacher Educator's Perspective on Students and Teachers'

97
 IS

Schemes: Or Teaching by Listening." Paper presented at the Conference on

Thinking, Harvard University Graduate School of Education, 1984.
Passmore, John. "On Teaching to Be Critical." In The Concept of Education,
edited by R. S. Peters, pp. 192-211. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1967.
Paul, Richard W. "Human Factors in Learning." In Proceedings of Sixth Annu-
al Rupert N. Evans Symposium, April 25-26, 1985, edited by Hazel Taylor
Spitze. Urbana-Champaign, Ill.: Office of Vocational Education Research, Uni-
versity of Illinois, 1985.
Paul, Richard W. "Bloom's Taxonomy and Critical Thinking Instruction."
Educational Leadership (May 1985).
Paul, Richard W. "Critical Thinking and the Critical Person." In Proceedings
of the Harvard University Conference on Thinking. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, 1984.
Paul, Richard W. "The Critical Thinking Movement in Historical Perspective."
National Forum (Winter 1985).
Paul, Richakj W. "Teaching Critical Thinking in the 'Strong' Sense: A Focus
on Self-Deception, World Views, and a Dialectical Mode of Analysis." Informal
Logic (May 1982).
Paul, Richard W. "Dialogical Thinking: Critical Thought Essential to the Ac-
quisition of Rational Knowledge and Passion." In Teaching Thinking Skills:
Theory and Practice, edited by Joan Baron and kobert Sternberg. New York:
W. H. Freeman, 1986.
Paul, Richard W. "Critical Thinking Research: in i..-ponse to Stephen Norris."
Educational Leadership (May 1985).
Paul, Ric! "rd W. "Critical Thinking: Fundamental to Education for a Free Soci-
ety." Educational Leadership (September 1984).
Paul, Richard W. "The Socratic Spirit: An Answer to Louis Goldman " Educa-
tionalLeadership (September 1984).
Paul, Richard W. "A Review of Critical Thinking and Education by John E.
McPeck." Informal Logic (Spring 1986).
Peters, R. S. Reason and Compassion. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul,
1973.
Scriven, Michael. Reasoning. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976.
Scriven, Michael. "Critical for Survival." National Forum (Special Issue on Crit-
ical Thinking) (Winter 1985).
Siegel, Harvey. "Critical Thinking as Educational Ideal." Educational Forum
(November 1980): 7-23.

98
STRATEGIES FOR ACTIVE
INVOLVEMENT LNT PROBLEM SOLVING
by Joseph S. Karmos and Ann H. Karmos

Joseph S. Karmos and Ann H. Karmos argue that "good problem solvers tend
to be more active than poor problem solvers." In an effort to create more active
learning habits in students, the authors use a set of procedures that involve studen:
participation in problem solving. For example, students are asked to draw pictures
or diagrams of the problem under discussion, or they are asked to write simula-
tions. In addition, a set of specific problem-solving strategies is employed: think-
ing aloud, using trial and error, working backwards from the end of a problem,
and systematically listing all possible outcomes of an event. Karmos and Karmos
find that time management can influence problem solvinghelping students per-
severe is often a matter of scheduling and listing priorities:. They note that many of
the problem-solving strategies help the teacher become a better resource for stu-
dents. For example, when students talk aloud their problem solving, the teacher
can identify deficiencies in their reasoning.
The authors are with Southern Illinois Univers:4, Carbondale, in the Depart-
ment of Educational Psychology and the Department of Curriculum and Instruc-
tion, respectively.

The importance of problem solving is receiving more attention than

ever before. Business and industry list it as an essential skill for dealing
with the future (1). Educators are looking for ways to effectively teach it
in classrooms.
One thing we know is that good problem solvers tend to be more ac-
tive than poor problem solvers (5). They create mental pictures, relate
problems to familiar or concrete experiences, ask themselves questions,
think aloud, brainstorm, make diagrams or flowcharts, and use physical
aids to thinking. But not enough active problem solving is occurring in
classrooms. In the April 1983 Kappan, John Goodlad remarked that
teacher talk was by far the dominant classroom activity. "Teachers rarely
encouraged student-to-student dialogue or provided opportunities for
students to work collaboratively in small groups or to plan, set goals, de-
termine alternative ways of achieving these goals, and the like. The em-
phasis was on recall, not on problem solving or inquiry" (3, p. 552).
This chapter describes several classroom procedures and specific prob-
lem-solving strategies that encourage students to be active problem solv-
ers. Students learn to be active by participating in problem solving. They

99
learn to use their personal resources by working on lots of problems and
being exposed to a wide variety of different strategies.

SOME PROCEDURES FOR ENCOURAGING

ACTIVE PROBLEM SOLVING
For many instructional purposes it is appropriate for a teacher to dem-
onstrate a specific method for solving a class of similar problems. For ex-
ample, finding the area of a circle given the diameter of the circle is a
routine kind of problem which is efficiently solved by using a formula.
The ability to solve such routine problems is important because it arms
the student with skills for solving more complex problems. But if stu-
dents are to be prepared to solve non-routine problems, different in-
structional procedures are needed.
One procedure is to present a problem and ask each student to draw a
picture or some representation of the problem. The teacher asks a num-
ber of students to copy their representations on the chalkboard. The class
examines each one and asks for clarification of the picture if necessary.
From viewing each other's thinking, students learn different ways to or-
ganize information. They also gain confidence in their own problem-
solving abilities when the teacher is accepting of several different ap-
proaches to the same solution. We have used the following nonroutine
problem for this process in grade four through college level:
A mother St. Bernard had two pups. She ate ten pounds of dog food per day,
and each pup ate two pounds per day. The dogs' owner bought a one-hun-
dred-pound bag of dog food. One pup was sold after the third day. The other
pup was sold after the seventh day. For how many days did the one hundred
pounds of dog food last?
On page 101 is a fourth grader's St. Bernard drawing, which is typical
of what many fourtn graders have produced. Note that the student did
not sc've the problem, but her drawing brought her so close that the
teacher was able to reinforce her thinking skills and ask goo I questions
that led the class to the correct solution. ,

Simulation is another excellent procedure for active problem solving,

and it is applicable at any grade level and for any subject area. Simula-
tions are particularly useful for experiences with decision-making and in-
terpersonal skills. The following example is from business education:
You are a member of an office staff for a company whose president made a
decision to trade in all the existing office equipment and replace it with a sys-
tem of equipment from one company. The of.:m staff had been asked for Jut
on such matters as new procedures, workflow, job responsibility, trainir 'or
use of new equipment, and guidelines for implementing the new procedures.
Nevertheless, after the new sitting has been used for six weeks, some prob-

100
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"rAtv4i4iiiipaid4/4 10c*:
lems have arisen with job satisfaction and the staff is meeting to search for so-
lutions. You are one of the following staff members. Sandra Miles was Mr.
Hamblin's secretary. Her duties were to keep his calendar, take his calls and
serve as receptionist for his calla's, process all his paperwork, and retrieve in-
formation from his files. Her new title is office manager. She is now responsible
for directing the workflow from all the executives. Since there was no cross
training, she is unable to retrieve information when Don, the information pro-
cessor, is gone. Sandra also supervises all the work of the office staff. She is
beginning to feel that she lacks supervisory skills. She is also frustrated with the
pressure to resolve problems which have arisen with the rest of the staff, and
that is the reason she has called this meeting. Don Feldman was Mrs. Lon-
gan's secretary. His duties were similar to Sandra's. Don's new title is informa-
tion processor. He was eager to be trained on the new equipment and is en-
joying the challenge of problem solving for what the new equipment could do
for his work load. But Don is having problems with his back and his eyes. He
complains of the glare on the screen. In addition, his equipment was placed in
a small room adjacent to the main office and he misses the contact with the
rest of the staff. Charlene Henry was moved from her job as clerk/typist to that
of receptionist. She takes all incoming calls on the switchboard and receives
clients. She is having difficulty with retrieving information for customers and
dealing with their irritation when they feel that they are being slighted. Mason
Tyler was the clerk/typist who was primarily responsible for the filing system.
His new position is records clerk and he has full responsibility for storage and
retrieval of records. Like Don, he misses contact with the rest of the staff, but
also is running into problems with the increased flow of paper resulting from
the new system. Another problem is that no system has been identified for fil-
ing information stored on disks. Mason feels pressured to respond efficiently to
requests for information. Your staff meeting has begun, and the entire staff has
agreed that the office environment is depressing and that these unresolved
problems are beginning to cause friction. Your group has agreed to use a five-
step model for problem solving: (1) identify, understand, and prioritize the
problems; (2) brainstorm for solutions; (3) select tentative solutions, (4) deter-

101
 mine how to implement the solutions (who does what, when), and (5) discuss
what people have learned about themselves individually and as a group. The
staff has also agreed to set a date for reevaluation of the solution. You are a
member of the office staffproceed with the problem solving.
A second exams le is a simulation written by an elementary schooi
teacher for her social studies class.
Destitute on the Desert. You are with a group of scientists who are doing scien-
tific research in the desert. When you are 200 miles from your headquarters,
the engine in your vehicle blows up. Since survival depends on reaching your
headquarters, the most critical items available must be chosen for the 200-mile
trip. Below are I;sted fifteen items. Your task is to rank them in terms of their im-
portance to your group in its attempt to reach your headquarters. Write a 1"
by the most important item, a "2" by the second, and so on. The items are
these: tent, map of the desert, sun glasses, flashlight, blankets, sharp knife, ex-
tra shoes, first aid kit, signal flares, five gallons of water, magnetic compass,
one can dehydrated milk, two 45-ca!ibie pistols, food concentrate, box of
matches.
For these open-ended procedures, an extensive collection of non-
routine problems is an essential resource for teachers. More and more
substantive problems are becoming available commercially and in profes-
sional journals. As teachers provide opportunities for students to work in
groups, in pairs, or individually, problems can be selected that are ap-
propriate for emphasizing and illustrating specific problem-solving strat-
egies.

SOME SPECIFIC PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

Thinking Aloud
When using this strategy, people say aloud their thoughts while at-
tempting to solve a problem. Expressing thoughts, especially at sections
of a problem where difficulties or hesitancy arises, is a good way to avoid
skipping steps in reasoning, jumping over important information, or be-
ing unaware of the point at which being bogged down occurred.
Thinking aloud while solving problems requires practice. At first,
many students find it difficult to vocalize their thoughts as they work
problems. However, students do get used to expressing in words the
steps they take, and then gain confidence in talking out the problem in
front of the teacher and other students. This technique is used in full
class settings, in small groups, and in one-to-one discussions between
student and teacher. The choice of setting depends on the nature of the
problem, the students, and the teacher.
From thinking aloud, students learn to listen to each other, to locate
breakdowns in reasoning, to learn where the stumbling point is, to real-
ize how different people approach the same problem at the same time.

102
Students and teachers arc often amazed at how much they can learn
from each other by thinking aloud.

Using Trial and Error

Trial and error is often underestimated as a problem-solving strategy,
but it can be a key strategy in the solution of some problems. Trial and
error can be applied systematically by simply trying different solutions to
see if they work. More often than not, however, the search can be nar-
rowed by taking into account relevant knowledge and, by inference, re-
ducing the number of solutions to be tried.
Trial and error can also be advantageous in getting a feel for a prob-
lem. Trying out a reasonable guess, even if it does not work, can give
valuable information. For example, if trying to find a decimal approxi-
mation for the square root of 2, one might try 1.5 (1 is too small because
1 x 1 = 1, and 2 is too big because 2 x 2 = 4). Since 1.5 x 1.5 = 2.25,
1.5 is too big, but that is valuable information because it directs the next
attempt to a number between 1 and 1.5. Teachers should encourage stu-
dents to make reasonable guesses at times and should specify for them
the value of what was learned from trial and error and how an error can
narrow the search for a solution.
This same way of thinking about the information gained from an im-
perfect attempt can be applied to solutions of interpersonal problems.
Suppose a father and his daughter are applying the problem-solving pro-
cess to the condition of her room, particularly in regard to the dirty
clothes on the floor and on the furniture. An idea to try might be to put
a clothes hamper in her room. Both would agree that this is a trial solu-
tic:: to be evaluated, say in three weeks. If the solution is not the right
one, the attempt still will help to clarify the problem and will lead to a
better solution.
One roadblock to becoming a good problem solver is reluctance to
take a risk. Many adults have been conditioned over the years to believe
that there is some strategy or way to proceed in solving a problem that
they think they should have learned, and if they can't remember how to
solve this kind of problem, they simply give up. Teachers are confronted
with this attitude frequently when their students complain that they
haven't had this yet. Indeed, there are many specific approaches to prob-
lems that can be learned. But good problem solvers are not hampered by
the conviction that there is only one way to solve a problem. They do not
rely on some outside authority but have confidence in their own ability
to generate ideas. Teachers can encourage students to become self-reliant
by fleeing them to make reasonable guesses and to use trial and error to
gain insight into a problem.

103
 Working Backwards
Sometimes it is easier to solve a problem by working backwards rather
than attacking the problem head on. As an example, consider the fol-
lowing problem from Moshe Rubenstein's Patterns of Problem Solving
(4, p. 19):
ProblemHow many tennis matches of single elimination must be
played by 1025 players before a winner is declared?
Most of our students start at the beginning by figuring there would be
initially 512 games with one player getting a bye. Next there would be
256 matches with 1 bye, then 128 (1 bye), 64 (1 bye), 32 (1 bye), 16
(1 bye), 8 (1 bye), 4 (1 bye), 2 (1 bye), 1 (bye), finals. The sum of
512, 256, 128 . . . 4, 2, 1, 1 is 1024.
It is much more direct and general to start from the end and view one
winner and 1024 losers, and note that each loser would play one los-
ing game in a single elimination tournament. So there would be 1024
matches.
This working-backwards technique not only yields a solution; it also
displays a unique strategy that can be used for many problems. The solu-
tion path for the tennis match problem is more important than the an-
swer since the path yields a general method for solving such problems
work backwards. The solution is known for any number of N players;
that is, N 1.
Working backwards has many useful applications. Suppose you are
writing a position paper to convince your boss to accept a particularly
crucial idea. In thinking about how to draft the paper, you might begin
by working backwards and ask yourself, "What kinds of questions would
the boss ask me? What would be the boss's major objections? How do I
keep from offending the boss?" By working backwards, by starting with
the goal, you can write a more convincing paper.

Finding All the Possibilities

Another important strategy for .,:,,:ilem solving is to have a systematic
way of listing all possible outcomes of some occurrence. The system must
ensure that all possibilities are listed and also that only those possibilities
that make sense from the structure of the problem are listed.
Thinking exercises about drawing marbles from bags are useful for de-
veloping orderly ways tc exhaust all possibilities, and they can be gener-
alized to fit a large number of actual situations. An example: Suppose
there are four marbles in a bag, numbered 1, 2, 3, and 4. What are all
the ways to draw out the marbles one at a time if, once a marble is

104
drawn, it is not returned to the bag? One could actually make a list of
the ways with the help of a running conversation with oneself.
"O.K. Suppose I take out the 1 first. I'll list the ways if 1 is drawn
first and 2 is drawn second." (1234, 1243) "Now what are the ways for 1
first and 3 second?" (1324, 1342) "Now, 1 first and 4 second." (1423,
1432) A similar conversation goes on with oneself to list the ways if 2 is
drawn first (6 ways), if 3 is drawn first (6 ways), and if 4 is drawn first (6
ways). So there are 24 ways in all.
Another skill for finding these 24 possible ways is to draw a tree.

4 4 choices for 1st marble

A A\ A A
2 3 4 1 C) 4 1 2 4 1 2 3 3 choices for 2nd marble
(so tar 4 x 3 or 12)

34 2 42 334 32 41 41 2 2 3 13 1 2 2 choices tc. 3rd marble

(so tar 4 x 3 x 2 or 24)

4 4 23 24 14 24 12 1 32 31 21 1 choice for 4th marble

(4 x3 x2 x1 or 24)

There are 24 paths down this tree and the one that is indicated in the
drawing represents the combination 2314.
The skill of drawing a tree to determine all possibilities is an impor-
tant one. Suppose all the possible ways to arrange ten digits (without re-
placement, as in the example above) were critical information for the so-
lution to a problem. Listing all the possibilities would be formidable and
the tree would be impractical to draw. But by reducing the problem to a
simpler problem (another problem-solving strategy), one could realize
that there is a pattern for finding the number of combinations. The tree
for the four-digit problem makes it clear that there are 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 or
24 ways to arrange four digits. So it is logically sound to compute 10 x 9
x8x7x6x5x4x3x2x1 to find the number of ways to arrange ten
digits (without replacement).
This kind of thinking is a useful problem-solving skill. The fourdigit
problem has the same structure as figuring uu,, for example, these
problems:
 How many different ways can 4 colors be used to paint a car if the
colors for the body, the top, and two parts of the trim are arranged
differently? (24 ways)
What is the probability of drawing a "winning number" 2 1 4 3
from a box containing four chips labelled "1," "2," "3," "4"?
(1/24 or 1 of the 24 possibilities)
How many different routes are there that reach all of 4 cities only
once and that could originate in any of the four cities? (24) One
such route, (1) Cleveland to (3) St. Louis to (2) Kansas City to (4)
Chicago, is shown below. The illustration shows that regardless of
the city of origin, any other city can be reached next, making this
situation analogous to the 4-digit problem.

Kansas City
Cleveland (2)
(I)
Chicago
(4)

Often the number of ways to do something or the likelihood of an

event occurring is important information for solving a problem, not only
in mathematics, but also in other subject matter areas. It is a skill that
can and should be taught as one of many problem-solving strategies.
Time Management
Time management can influence problem solving. Poor scheduling
can result in insufficient time for thinking through a problem, or per-
haps never even getting to the problem. An appropriate amount of time
must be allocated for reflecting on the problem, for considering different
ways to approach a solution, and for reviewing and critiquing the steps
used. The pressure that can result from poor scheduling can cause subpar
problem solving by limiting the amount of planning time and the time
available for patient deliberation. A student's patience and perseverance
are often keys to good problem solving. Good time management skills
arc a necessary condition.
One might recommend to students that they keep a chart of their ac-
tivities to use as a basis foi managing their time better. Time priorities
3ften have to be set each day and a chart or list can help. Some students

106
do not manage their own time well enough to acquire an essential piece
of knowledge, get to the library, or talk to ., *meow: who can help them.
Allocating specific blocks of time to specific tasks according to their im-
portance and the time they require is a useful skill. Systematic reflection
on one's use of time and on how much is lost if time is used inefficiently
can lead students to modify their own behavior.
Time management requires scheduling, but flexibility in following a
schedule is also important. For example, there is a problem - solving strat-
egy that is useful when one has come to a dead end or exhausted all
ideas for approaching a problem. Wickelgren calls the strategy incuba-
tion and it means simply to get Away from the problem for a while (6).
It is a common experience to sleep on a problem and to solve it with a
new insight the next day. Even when time is limited, as in taking an
exam, going on to other problems and then coming back can be useful.
Teachers can model this strategy from time to time by leaving problems
with students instead of rushing to solve them bcforc the bell rings.
The key to time management, then, is to recognize the need for time
to gather information, to try different ideas, to critique solutions, and
also to have the flexibility in one's schedule for some incubation time.

Reasoning Critically and Logically

By observing student: when they talk aloud about their problem solv-
ing, checking their papers, and observing their activities, the teacher can
discern the extent of their deficiencies in logical and critical reasoning.
One of the major problems students have is dealing with ambiguities
in the English language. For example, consider the real-life story of a
famous mathematician who had to take a driving examination. He had
memorized many statements from a booklet, including "It is illegal to
park within fifteen feet of a fire hydrant." As part of the test, he was
given some true-false statements, one of which was "It is illegal to park
within nine feet of a fire hydrant." The mathematician checked "true"
on the grounds that if the statement he had memorized was true, then
the statement on the test was true. The examiner, however, claimed that
the correct response was "false," since the statement in the booklet ex-
plicitly mentioned fifteen feet and not nine feet, even though the math-
ematician was correct, according to the rules of logic.
Students need to be given more practice and guidance k dealing with
the logic of problem solving. A particular emphasis should be placed on
teachers' giving them many sound, appropriate problems to work and
listening to them reason aloud. As a resource for this activity, the au-
thors strongly recommend An Introduction to Logic by Exner and Kauf-
man (2).

107
 Critical reasoning is another area of student deficiency. Students often
lack skills to assess expressed ideas, beliefs, and statements that one en-
counters daily through the media and through remarks made by people
in such forms as opinions, reports, and rumors.
The process of critical inquiry must be an impartial one. Judgments
and evaluations are delayed until the data have been collected. Observa-
tions, people's opinions, and collected information should all be assessed
before decisions are made. The aim is to be objective, avoiding prcton-
ceived versions of the results. The process should be open enough to in-
vite further inquiry if people are not satisfied and problems are not
solved. Also, in critical inquiry, people's feelings are often involved. Re-
spect for people's personal dignity must be remembered when people are
the objects of the inquiry.
Another important part of the critical inquiry is evaluating the as-
sumptions being made during the inquiry. If assumptions are not clearly
in mind, then invalid conclusions can be drawn, inappropriate decisions
made, or people's feelings hurt.
People can improve their critical reasoning skills. It is evident from the
authors' experience that there is no substitute for practice. Students must
be given good situations, problems, and simulations from which to de-
velop and sharpen their skills.

Gathering, Recording, and Analyzing Data

The fast step in problem solving is to understand the problem. When
full information is presented to a student, understanding the problem
involves reading carefully, eliminating extraneous information, and, for
some problems, drawing a sketch or a diagram or organizing given data
in a table. These steps are obvious in solving the usual kinds of problems
students are given in school. Unfortunately, most problems encountered
in one's life at work, at home, or socially are not so neat. Crucial or
helpful information is often missing and the problem solver must have
skills not only for obtaining necessary information, but also for recogniz-
ing what information is needed. Later in life, students may need this
skill for problems like "What steps can I take to effect a behavior change
in person Y?"; "To cut costs and maintain sales volume, where can
money best be saved in the production of product X, packaging or ad-
vertising?"; "What is the best solution for a problem involving a dis-
agreement between labor and management?"
Data gathering can occur on many levels. In some cases, unstructured
observation is useful. For example, simply watching a production line for
an hour could help a person generate ideas for a more structured effi-

108

10,)
ciency study; or a task-oriented group could be observed for clues about
group discord. More analytical data gathering involves the use of check-
lists or coding of events or behaviors. Once data are collected, a second
skill is to summarize the information in meaningful form. If the infor-
mation is quantitative, data from a checklist can be recorded in a variety
of graphs, tables, or figures. Nonquantitative observations can be catego-
rized or written up as a case study. The skill of selecting a way to repre.
sent data interacts with a third skill, analyzing observational results.
Social and interpersonal problem solving can also require data gather-
ing. Much of this must be done via observation of people and their in-
teractions. For resolving conflicts between two people, the needs of both
persons must be known, and good listening skills can provide much of
the necessary data. Many interpersonal problems involve needs, prefer-
ences, or values of groups of people. Useful information can be collected
via interest surveys, evaluation forms, or other questionnaires.
If instruction in problem solving is to be transferable to real-life prob-
lems, students must learn to gather relevant ;-formation, and they must
be armed with the tools they need f,,, .........,rding and analyzing their
observations.

SOLVING REAL PROBLEMS

Problem-solving skills should be an integral part of the curriculum in
all subject matter areas. Teachers can emphasize the importance of prob-
lem-solving skills by looking for opportunities for students to solve prob-
lems that occur in their everyday lives. Active involvement in meaningful
problem solving is invaluable and should occur at all grade levels. Fol-
lowing are some examples from our own observations:
a high school biology class in which the problem of too much noise
during lab periods was solved by the students in such a way that
they monitored themselves and increased their productivity;
a fourth grade teacher facilitating a rule-setting session during the
first week of school; class rules were determined to satisfy students
and the teacher, and consequences were agreed upon;
a first grade teacher dealing with two students who were disputing
the ownership of a red felt pen; she directed the students to go out
in the hall, settle the matter, and report their solution to her; they
did.
Valuable lessons are learned when teachers facilitate problem solving
when natural opportunities arise. Such learning experiences with real
problem solving are often remembered above all others.

109
REFERENCES
1. Daniels, H., and Karmos, J. Skills for Adapting to Change. Carbondale:
Southern Illinois University, 1983. ED 237 687.
2. Exact, R., and Kaufman, B. An Introduction to Logic. St. Louis: CEMREL,
1978.
3. Good lad, J. I. "The Study of Schooling: Some Implications for School Im-
provement." Phi Delta Kappan 13, no. 6 (April 1983): 552-58.
4. Rubenstein, M. Patterns of Problem Solving. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pren-
tice-Hall, 1975.
5. Whimbey, A., and Lochhead, J. Problem Solving and Comprehension.
Philadelphia. Franklin Institute Press, 1979.
6. Wickelgren, W. A. How to Solve Problems. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman,
1974.

110

ILI
RESTRUCTURING WHAT WE TEACH
TO TEACH FOR CRITICAL THINKING*
by Robert J. Swartz

Roberti. Swartz argues that critical thinking can only be taught successfully if it
is fully integrated into content-area teaching: add-on approaches will not be effec-
tive. He provides sever.-1 examples of bow the curriculum in content-area instruc-
tion can be restructured to allow for the infusion of critical thinking skills into
classroom work. Swartz suggests that, through analogy and guided practice, stu-
dents at al I grade levels can learn essential critical thinking skills; further he main-
tains that these skills can be applied to all academic areas, as well as to real-life sit-
uations. In addition, he sees critical thinking skills working in combination with
creative thinking skills.
The author is Co-Director of the Critical and Creative Thinking Program, and
Professor of Philosophy at the University of Massachusetts, Boston. (A shorter ver-
sion of this chapter appeared in Educational Leadership (May 1986) and is forth-
coming in Thinking Across the Curriculum, the 1986 Yearbook of the Massachu-
setts Association of Supervisors and Curriculum Developers.)

AN APPROACH TO BRINGING CRITICAL THINKING

INTO THE CLASSROOM
The phrase "critical thinking" is used in educational circles today al-
most as often as "computers" was three years ago. However, bringing
critical thinking into classrooms that are steeped in efforts to help chil-
dren learn all the facts they can is not at all like bringing in a new piece
of equipment that we can learn to use in an hour. Add-on approaches to
critical thinking in the curriculum- -even if based on the introduction of
one of the many new curriculum packages available todaywill be a
frustrating experience if they are surrounded in other parts of the curric-
ulum by much the same teaching we see every day. Further, given the
variety of different things that are now called "critical thinking," it is
hard to know whether even these add-on curricula will really help stu-
dents to develop the critical thinking we hope for.
In contrast, teachers who have taken the time to think through what
critical thinking means, based on their own experience and their study of

Copyright ©1985 by Robert J. Swartz.

111

112
others' attempts to make this notion dear, have turned away from rely-
ing on prepackaged curricula and have risen to the challenge to infuse
critical thinking into their teaching by restructuring the same content
that they have been teaching. The results are often exciting, always ener-
vating, and constantly being refined in ways as numerous as individual
teaching styles. Once teachers embark on this road, there is no retreat-
ing, and teaching for critical thinking eventually permeates their teach-
ing as naturally as reading and writing do, and in ways that no prepack-
aged curriculum can duplicate.
In this paper I will illustrate this process by first starting with some of
its products, the classroom work of a number of teachers who have in-
fused critical thinking into their teaching. What critical thinking actually
involves will emerge from this look at what teaching for critical thinking
has become for these teachers. We will see that it is more than many
well-meaning educators who use this term take it to be. We will also see
that it is nothing esoteric that we need a massive amount of technical ex-
pertise to master. We do it often, as do our students, but we can all do
it better, and we can certainly teach our students to do it more systemati-
cally and pervasively than they normally do. Teaching for critical think-
ing in this way brings out the best in teachers and ultimately in their
students.

TEACHERS TEACHING FOR CRITICAL THINKING

The following examples, drawn from a number of Massachusetts
teachers who use this approach to bring critical thinking into their class-
rooms, will illustrate its potential. These examples are typical of what
other teachers in other cities as far apart as Baltimore, Maryland, and Ir-
vine, California, are doing.
Kevin O'Reilly, a high school American history teacher from the Ham-
ilton-Wenham school system, starts his lessons about the reliability of
sources of information in history by staging a scuffle in the corridors out-
side his classroom and then trying to ascertain what happened by asking
students who were in the vicinity. The differences in the accounts his
students give are like the variety of accounts that were given about who
started the firing in the Revolutionary War at the Battle of Lexington in
1775. The attempts by these students to determine which of the eyewit-
nesses gave the most accurate account of the scuffle, and their reflections
on why one account is better or worse than another, arm them with cer-
tain critical skills they draw on again and again in Kevin's classroom.
These skills relate to the reliability and accuracy of eyewitnesses, of obser-
vation, and of sources of information in general. In the immediate con-
text of their study of the Revolutionary War, these skills put Kevin's

112

113
students in an excellent position to make informed critical judgments
about the accuracy of various textbook accounts of this incident which
other students in other classrooms are directed to read simply to get the
facts.
These skills are, of course, important not only in the study of history.
They are important in ascertaining the credibility of a vast amount of in-
formation passed co us through a variety of sources in everyday situa-
tions, usually through the media. Kevin tries to teach so that these skills
will not only be helpful in reading history, but in this broader arena of
the everyday lives of his students; he tries to help them transfer these
skills out of his immediate classroom setting into their everyday thinking
by the use of analogy and guided practice on different examples (1).
Kevin's overall approachthat of restructuring traditional content to
teach for thinkingis an approach that is not restricted to American his-
tory or to high school. Cathy Skowron, a first grade teacher in the Prov-
incetown Elementary School, uses the same technique when she folloWs
up a reading of the tale of Chicken Little with a discussion, prompted by
her questioning, of whether the other animals should have trusted
Chicken Litde, and how they could have determined her reliability. Here
Cathy bases her lesson on the same critical thinking concept, that of the
reliability of sources of information, but structures her lesson in a grade-
appropriate way. Many teachers just use the Chicken Little story and oth-
ers like it to read from in order to help students build their listening
skills and perhaps their vocabulary. Cathy restructures the way she uses
the same material to teach for critical thinking by integrating question-
ing techniques keyed to her goal of helping her students think about the
reliability of sources of information. There are a rpultitude of other con-
texts, in other subject areas, and at other grade levels, in which the same
skill can be taught, reinforced, and elaborated.
Cathy Skowron also prompts her students' thinking about whether
Chicken Little had good evidence that the sky was falling herself. Could
there have been something else that made whatever hit her on the head
do so other than the sky falling? What could it have been and how could
we find out what actually caused this?
Causal explanation and causal inference involve a cluster of different
critical thinking skills from those involved in thinking about the reliabil-
ity of basic information we get from others or through observation
skills at the use of evidence in reasoning about cause and effectthat are
also crucially important in our everday lives. Accurate judgments about
what caused what are necessary in our attempts to control our environ-
ment, whether it be the immediate environment of our daily lives or the
broad environment of the natural world in which we live. They are also
crucially important in assessing the many claims people make directed at

113
.11
influencing our beliefs about the effects of certain courses of actiones-
pecially the purchase of various products through advertising.
Causal explanation also plays a role in determining responsibility.
Whose fault something is depends in part on whether the person in
question caused what we arc concerned about. But it involves more than
just determining what caused what, and there is no substitute for good,
dear, critical thinking about such questions. Another teacher, this time a
high school English teacher in the Groton school system, Cathy Peabody,
asks these questions of her students in thinking about the play Romeo
and Juliet. Usually in English dassrooms this play is read for vocabulary
building, plot analysis, and tile study of character. Cathy, recognizing
that it is a play in which chaace, emotion, misunderstanding, and delib-
erate intent interweave in a causal web to bring about the tragedy, uses
it to help her students develop critical thinking skills concerning causality
and responsibility. What was the complex web of causes that led to the
tragedy of the two lovers? Who, if anyone, was responsible? The depth
of the activities that she prompts starting with questions like these brings
her students to the depth of questions about causality and responsibil-
ity, building on the same core of inferential skills that Cathy Skowron
introduced in her elementary school classroom. And she, too, helps them
see analogies in their own experience as does Kevin O'Reilly, so that
transfer of these skills will be facilitated.
There are a multitude of similar opportunities across the curriculum
for restructuring what is taught to teach for the duster of critical think-
ing skills related to the use of evidence and reasoning about cause and
effect: well-founded explanation, prediction, and generalization. This is
not such a difficult thing to do once we think about it a little. Teachers
who take the time to think through what these skills involve usually find
that many already existing curriculum books that claim to include activi-
ties on these skills have an inadequate conception of them.
Restructuring traditional content is, of course, not the only way that a
teacher can bring critical thinking into the classroom. Being sensitive to
real-life situations in which these skills are important can prompt teach-
ers to structure entirely new activities into their teaching that involve the
same critical thinking skills that Cathy Skowron and Cathy Peabody base
their lessons on. The technique is the same: infusing teaching for critical
thinking into content material based on an understanding of the requi-
site skills and utilizing special thinking-skill-oriented techniques. This
way of bringing critical thinking into the classroom complements and
can reinforce what teachers do in restructuring traditional content. They
are especially important in teaching for the transfer of these skills.
In the fourth grade classroom of Phyllis Cooper in the Dennis-Yar-
mouth school system, for example, there is a similar concern about accu-

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115
rate appraisal of cause and effect. While Phyllis does restructure n radi-
tional material as Cathy Scowron does, on this occasion she focuses the
attention of her students on a specific problem about the school lunch-
room. What is causing the fact that students are more and more unable
to finish their meals by the end of the period, and that there is a rise in
anxiety and 'agitation in the lunchroom that everyone has noticed over
the past two weeks? What can we do about this? This kind of research
applies the same skills of casual inference to an actual situation. The con-
cept of causal inference that Phyllis helps the students to use and the
standards they develop of good causal judgment are the same as those
employed by Cathy Peabody and Cathy Skowron, though again grade-
appropriate.
There are, of course, a multitude of other real-life issues that teachers
can bring into the classroom that are rich in opportunities to teach for
critical thinking. These activities can go hand-in-hand with using the
same techniques in restructuring traditional material to build in a focus
on critical thinking. When this is done, the important thing is consisten-
cy in the use of the specific skill(s) involved, the use of the same termin-
ology, and helping students see the analogies in the various examples
that are used to teach for specific skills.
Such activities should not be a substitute for restructuring what we or-
dinarily teach, however. Without restructuring the content of our main-
stream instruction, such activities tend to separate teaching for thinking
from where we want students to exercise and develop good thinking
most: through the teaching we do in the core of the curriculum. As ex-
citing as they may be, their impact will be minimal. Juxtaposed against
restructured teaching, howevtr, they become powerful adjuncts. The real
challenge for teachers in the thinking skills movement is such restructur-
ing. The examples presented show how we can meet that challenge.

THE CONCEPT OF CRITICAL THINKING

The teachers mentioned, and the lessons they have developed, are
only a sniall sample of a growing number who have produced critical-
thinking-oriented lessons and units that are equally exciting. They all re-
veal a rich concept of critical thinking that many now feel is amenable to
the skills approach these teachers have adopted. Thinking critically im-
pacts on questions about what we should believe and do. Practicing it in-
volves the use of certain skills, and understanding what these are and
their appropriate application can lead to their being integrated into our
daily teaching routines in ways that are bound to impact on the lives of
our students outside school. Skills related to discriminating reliable and
unreliable sources of information, accurate observation, good and bad

115
 reasoning and inference (involving the use of both evidence and deduc-
tion), and the array of skills necessary to achieve the clarity we need to
assess these processes effectively are now recognized to be part and parcel
of critical thinking. The important thing about these skills, in contrast to
other thinking skills, is that their effective use involves us in the develop-
ment of viable standards which we can use to make these discrimina-
tions. These, too, should be the results of clear critical thought, and not
be simply taught to students in traditional ways.
Critical thinking skills presuppose others involving perceptual and con-
ceptual abilities, and such skills as the ability to categorize, classify, rec-
ognize patterns that can also be the subjects of thinking-oriented lessons.
They also work hand-in-hand With other skills often called creative think-
ing skills. Besides lessons directed at specific critical thinking skills, stu-
dents should be given opportunities to use whole clusters of different
skills, including both critical and creative thinking skills, in thinking
through complex issues. This will avoid the dangers of fragmentation to
which skills approaches inevitably give rise. Contrary to what some have
argued (2), combining a skills approach with such more holistic ap-
proaches is not only possible but practical; the combination yields an ap-
proach to teaching thinking that is more powerful than either.
But skills alone do not make a good critical thinker. Teachers must
also recognize something that thinkers from Plato onwards have under-
scored in endorsing critical thinking as a way of life: that critical thinking
must involve a whole duster of thinking attitudes and dispositions: be-
ing open-minded, considering other points of view, looking for all avail-
able evidence, for example. Teaching for critical thinking, therefore, in-
volves more than just routinely teaching students new skills. It must also
involve helping them develop these key attitudes of thought (3). For this
to happen effectively, students must be given opportunities to explore,
investigate, make errors and correct them, and take risks. The changes
necessary in classroom teaching to bring this about add a dimension to
teaching for critical thinking that is of great importance to develop in
systems firmly committed to critical thinking instruction as a goal.
It is clear that this conception of critical thinking is a richer conception
than is usually captured by taxonomies that locate critical activities under
one, or a small number of, heading(s) such as "evaluation." This con-
ception is finely tuned to incorporate such skill areas as reliable/unrelia-
ble sources, observation, and causal reasoning. The most comprehensive
taxonomy of critical thinking skills available today that includes this fine
tuning is that developed by Robert Ennis (4). While many approaches to
teaching for thinking which incorporate only broader categories such as
"evaluation" sometimes promote interesting classroom approaches,

116
117
there is often too little discrimination between the variety of skills that
we rail upon for aifTerent types of critical determinations in critical
thinking (5). This rtsults in little or no direct instruction about many of
these important skills. In this we sell our students short. Breaking free of
reliance on such bcoad categories and thinking through the different
things we must do in the variety of circumstances calling for critical
thinking provides a deeper appreciation of what is truly important, and
exceptionally teachable, in teaching for critical thinking.
The richness of the application of this concept must strike us here as
well. Some have argued that true critical thinkitig must be practiced only
on a small set of special problemsfor example, philosophical prob-
lems and that to teach for critical thinking we must bring philosophy
into the classroom (6). I feel that such problei as the free-will/deter-
minism problem are wonderful and intriguing issues for students to
grapple with, and excellent vehicles to stimulate good, clear, critical
thinking. But to restrict critical thinking to just thew issues robs us of a
wealth of viable applications of critical thinking. Indeed, more than
that, it makes it seem that critical thinking skills applied to issues about
the accuracy of what we read in the morning newspaper are misapplied.
The critical thinking concepts the teachers cited in this chapter use a::
basis for their lessons show not only how familiar we all are with critical
thinking, but also how various the applications of this concept are in our
daily lives. Bringing this into the classroom is exactly what teaching for
critical thinking should be.

BRINGING CRITICAL THINKING INTO THE CLASSROOM

How easy is it for teachers to do what is described in this chapter? It
can't be done overnight, but it doesn't take years. We are all familiar
with what it is to think critically, but this familiarity needs refinement,
broadening, and must be constantly in our consciousness. Teachers ex-
ploring issues critically is an ideal way to provide raw material for the
kind of look at this concept that can serve as the basis for the three les-
sons described above. But it does more: it models what the same teachers
will want to help their students do. So here we have one important in-
gredient in adopting the approach this chapter focuses on. But this is not
enough.
The lessons commented on were all developed with the conscious in-
tention of translating the teacher's understanding of certain critical
thinking concepts into dassroom activities that would help students use
and understand the critical thinking skills involved. Time is needed to
refine this process. Essential to it is an exploration by teachers of key crit-
ical thinking skills such as distinguishing reliable from unreliable

117
sources, or the use of evidence in such activities as making well-support-
ed predictions and generalizing, and a sensitivity to the scope and variety
of their application in nonacademic and academic contexts. Ideally, this
should happen in a setting in which groups of teachers work together to
bounce their ideas off each other, perhaps supported by an ongoing rela-
tionship with a critical thinking specialist. Bringing the results of class-
room applications back to this group is a further help in detecting things
that can be improved.
This approach to bringing critical thinking into the classroom can be
called the conceptual- infusion approach (7). It is the most powerful ap-
proach to bringing teaching for critical thinking into classroom activities.
It requires more than individual teachers' wanting to bring critical think-
ing into their teaching. Any school system that sets the infusion of criti-
cal thinking into mainstream instruction as a goal must be willing to
provide the time and support needed for this enterprise to succeed.
Without this we will have only second-best. And why should we settle
for that?

REFERENCES
1. Kevin O'Reilly, Critical Thinking in American History (Beverly, Mass.:
Thinking Press, 1984). Mr. O'Reilly has published four volumes of lessons in
American history.
2. William A. Sadler, Jr., and Arthur Whimbey, "A Holistic Approach to Im-
proving Thinking Skills," Phi Delta Kappan (November 1985).
3. John Dewey, How rye Think (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1933), 31-33.
4. Robert Ennis, "Goals for a Critical Thinking/Reasoning Curriculum," Edu-
cational Leadership (October 1985).
5. Such broad and unrefined categories appear in Bloom's Taxonomy, as well
as in the work of many concerned with creative thinking; see, for example,
Sidney Parnes and others, Guide to Creative Action (New York: Charles
Scribners Sons, 1976).
6. Matthew Lippman, "Philosophy in the Classroom," Educational .t....adership
(September 1984).
7. Roberti. Swartz, "Teaching for Thinking: A Developmental Model for the
Infusion of Thinking Skills into Mainstream Instruction," in Teaching
Thinking: Theory into Practice, ed. J. Baron and R. Sternberg (New York:
W. H. Freeman and Co., 1986).

118

113
DEVELOPING METACOGNMON
IN COMPOSITION WITH
PEER RESPONSE GROUPS
by Lynn Langer Meeks

Lynn Langer Meek discusses using peer response groups to improve elementary
school students' writing. The class it student-centered: students work with partners
or in groups, reading, praising, offering suggestions and asking questions about
each other's smiting. Working together and extemalk:ing their thinking helps stu-
dents develop an internal control editor. Through talking aloud, students learn to
listen to the internal voice that is the core of all writing. In a peer response group
doss, the teacher models the questioning and revirng techniques that are central
to this process. The teacher if a classroom resource, walking around the mom, an-
swering questions when asked, reinforcing appropriate behevior.
The author if Assistant Professor of English, Utob Stote University, Logan.

TIME: January
PLACE: Third grade classroom
SCENE: Students, gathered in small groups, arc engaged in an in-
tense discussion. They hardly notice their teacher who
walks around the room listening and answering
questions.
OVERHEARD:
Elizabeth: Why did you smell the floor?
Brent: I wanted to see what it was.
Elizabeth: You mean, you just bent down and thought, "Oh, it
smells like chocolate?"
Brent: Yes.
Stacy: Well you should write chocolate in, because I don't think
anybody's going to know what you're talking about. You
know, you just smelled the floor? You just got down on
your hands and knees and went [sniff]?

119
1`0
Fara: [reading] "Daffy the dolphin swims all day." What else
does he do? Does he eat all day?
Holly: No.
Fara: Does he like fish?

So, should I put down, "Copy Cat plays with my dad's

sodcs"?
Brent: Why dc*--'t you put in that she didn't have any babies?
Sean: No, she's only a kitten.
Brent: Oh, you mean a little one? Or a big one?

Holly: No, that doesn't sound good.

Fara: Put "in the hot."
Holly: Okay. [reads] "In the hot summer breeze because
Daffy..."
Fara: You could put "to cool down."
Holly: Wait. I want to work on this last line. Wait.
Farm [suggesting] "In the hot summer breeze to cool down."
Holly: No, 'cause water is cool. Plus there's a breeze.

The third graders are helping each other revise their compositions with
a technique called peer response. Through instruction, the students have
learned to think metacognitively about writing: they have conscious steps
and strategies that they use when they write, and they have developed
inner voices that help them to revise (25).
Students taught to collaborate during revision learn to function at
what Piaget (29, 30) called the formal operational level (25). As a result
of their interaction during revision, specifically during peer response
groups in which students read each other's writing and make suggestions
for improvement, students learn to manipulate ideas, to reason on the
basis of verbal statements, to suggest alternatives for language, and to
make recommendations for change (25).

WHAT ARE PEER RESPONSE GROUPS?

Even though peer response groups go by different name- peer revi-
sion groups, editing groups, peer tutoring, IA/aing 0.0,4 s, ,t %%tiling

120

1 .c..1
f;
collaboratives the peer response concept is the same: students meet
with partners or in groups to help each other revise their writing (20, 23,
25). Regardless of the name, peer response groups have three things in
common:
1. Students read each other's writing.
2. Students praise each other's writing.
3. Students offer suggestions and ask questions to help improve each
other's writing.
WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF PEER RESPONSE GROUPS?
A peer response group's major purpose is to teach students to write
better compositions through teaching them to think metacognitively,
and through encouraging them to have a positive attitude toward their
writing.
HOW DO PEER RESPONSE GROUPS WORK?
Peer response groups allow students to take more responsibility for
their writing. In addition, by helping each other revise, students learn to
look at their own and others' writing from the reader's perspective. By
receiving praise and suggestions for improvement, students become more
confident in their ability to write. When students feel responsible for,
have perspective on, and show confidence in their writing, they have a
Letter attitude toward writing, and they produce better writing (15, 21,
25).
WHAT CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT
SUPFORTS PEER RESPONSE?
Peer revision groups function more successfully in a classroom where
writing is important. The class should be student-centered, rather than
teacher-centered, and have a workshop atmosphere in which the teacher
and students see themselves as writers, and in which the teacher gives the
students responsibility for writing rather than taking the role of the sole
writing authority (17, 19).
WHAT IS THE TEACHER'S ROLE IN PEER RESPONSE?
The teacher organizes peer response groups and models tht procedu.te,
questioning techniques, and revising. During the peer revision sessions,
the teacher walks around the room, keeping students on task, answering
questions, and reinforcing appropriate behavior (25).
HOW DOES MODELING DEVELOP METACOGNITION?
Modeling revision b the concrete demonstration of an abstract con-

121
cept. It is essential to their development of metacognition that students
understand that writing is a recursive, messy process. Students need to be
aware of the trial-and-error nature of compositionthat most writing is
the result of the continual struggle to make meaning where there was no
meaning. In order to understand the recursive nature of writing, stu-
dents need demonstrations. Both revision and questioning techniques
should be modeled (25).
Revision Techniques: Teaching Students to Be Messy
Crossing out, underlining, drawing arrows, cutting and pastingways
of changing text should be modeled. Students need to understand the
impermanence of drafts, that anything can be changed, moved, left out
and then later put back in. Students need to see how to be messy in or-
der to be clearer (7).
Questioning Techniques: Revising from a Reader's Point of View
Another value to modeling is that it teaches the students to look at
their writing from the perspective of a reader. Students need to be
taught to ask the same questions about the content of their text that a
reader might ask. Learning to ask questions"Does this make sense?"
"Have I used the best possible order to present my information?" "Do I
need to include more details ?" "Have I written too much or too lit-
tle?"is essential to developing metacognition (25, 34).

WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO HAVE RULES

FOR PEER RESPONSE?
Students are more successful and efficient at peer revision when they
are guided by a set procedure (25). The rules serve two functions:
1. They reduce entropy by creating a format for the students to
follow.
2. They focus students on relevant features of revision and give them
a hierarchical order with which to approach revision (10, 22).

WHAT ARE THE PEER RESPONSE RULES

FOR ELEMENTARY STUDENTS?
1. Read your paper to your partner. Read exactly what you've written.
2. Ask what words your partner likes: Listen and underline them.
3. Ask what ideas your partner likes: Listen and underline them.
4. Read your paper again to your partner.
5. Ask your partner for suggestions to make your paper easier to
understand.
 6. Write down on your paper the suggestions for improvement your
partner gives you.
7. Thank your partner for the help.
8. Be proud of your work.

FINAL EDITING
Look for these:

CAPITALS QUOTATION MARKS

SENTENCE ENDINGS INDENTED PARAGRAPHS
"ANDS" THAT GET
OUT OF HAND (25)

WHY SHOULD STUDENTS HAVE COPIES

OF EACH OTHER'S WRITING?
Peer revision groups are more successful when students have copies of
each other's compositions and underline words and ideas they like as
well as make revisions (25). When the editors revise their copies along
with the author, the editors make more comments and more relevant
comments. There is less repetition in the groups because each student
has a record of what had been said before; therefore, groups that actively
mark all copies stay on task more efficiently (25). Another positive effect
of both editors and authors making revisions on their copies is that the
idea of revision is reinforced and so is the student-student teaching.

WHY SHOULD STUDENTS READ THEIR

COMPOSITIONS ALOUD?
When students read aloud, they can hear their mistakes. Most changes
that students make in peer revision groups are based on whether the
writing under discussion sounds all right. Initially students rely on their
internalized rules rather than on specifically taught external rules to tell
them if their writing is correct (28). Reading the compositions aloud sev-
eral times during the peer response process gives students a chance to put
their tacit knowledge about language to work. Students hear their words
differently when they read them aloud.

WHAT TEACHING TECHNIQUES CAN SUPPLEMENT

PEER RESPONSE?
As a complement to peer revision, individual conferences are an im-

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4 -...:
 portant way to model peer group behavior and to reinforce the students'
sense of power and accomplishment. The conferences are student direct-
ed, just as the peer revision groups are. Students follow the same proce-
dure: they read their compositions aloud; the teacher responds first with
positive comments. In order to give control of the conference to the stu-
dents, the teacher asks the student what kind of response the student
wants: ideas, mechanics, or content revision (19).

HOW CAN TAPE RECORDING AND VIDEO TAPING HELP

STUDENTS LEARN PEER RESPONSE TECHNIQUES?
Audio and video are essential parts of the techniques for teaching peer
response. The audio and video tapes of students interacting in their peer
revision groups become the basis for refining teaching and modeling.
The audio and video tapes of successful groups can be used as models for
other groups and as reinforcement to the groups who have performed
successfully.

HOW DO PEER RESPONSE GROUPS DEVELOP

METACOGNITION ABOUT COMPOSITION?

Developing Internal Locus of Control:

When Teachers Give Up Power Without Giving Up Authority
Central to the ability to revise and work in peer revision groups is the
concept of internal locus of control. The power to create, revise, and
evaluate text should resiii, with the student, not the teacher. This sense
4 control over writing comes from knowledge about composition process
as well as self confidence in writing ability (25).

Metacognition: Thinking About Writing

Metacognition is essential to developing internal locus of control. Me-
tacognition is self-awareness, the ability to consciously think about the
act of writing: to plan, make word choices, and revise with a sense of
purpose (11). This ability is the result of knowing how an individual's
unique writing process fits into the larger writing process. Knowing how
to plan writing, how to reflect upon it, and how to revise it from a read-
er's point of view creates self-confidence.

The Internal Editor: The Audience Within

A result of modeling and working in peer revision groups is the devel-

124
1 ,`,.f 5
opment of the internal editor. The internal editor is another name for
audience awareness. Helping students develop an internal voice with
whom they converse during the revision process is essential to developing
their internal locus of control (25). When students read their composi-
tions to their peers and hear the questions that their peers ask, they in-
ternalize those questions and ask those same types of questions of them-
selves as they are writing and revising (34). The peer revision group
becomes a demonstration of reading the text from a reader's point of
view. The demands of the audience become internalized because stu-
dents have had immediate audience response to their writing.

SUMMARY
Peer response is a method of teaching writing which ultimately devel-
ops students' metacognition and internal locus of control. When stu-
dents develop metacognition about writing, their internal locus of con-
trol also develops because students understand that writing is a process
that they can control; they become responsible for their own learning;
they rely on their internal editor, and relying on the internal editor en-
courages continued dialogues with the inner self.
Peer revision groups are certainly not the only way to help students de-
velop metacognition and internal locus of control, but peer revision
groups create an atmosphereand are created in an atmospherewhere
talk is essential to writing. The peer revision rules are designed to reduce
confusion and focus students on the important features of peer revision.
The peer revision rules become the scaffolding (4) for the questioning
strategy which begins the cycle of internal editor /metacognition /internal
locus of control.
Ideally, the peer community is an integral part of the cycle. For Carl
Bereiter
the idea of a community of scholars holds promise. Translated into practical
terms, this would mean turning the classroom into a social setting for mutual
support of knowledge construction, a setting that could eventually be internal-
ized by the individual student (4, p. 221).
Students best learn about writing in a classroom that is student-cen-
tered and writing-centered where rules exist to support a process rather
than dictate behavior, and where students working together become
what Bereiter called a "mutual support of knowledge construction" (4,
p. 221). This implies, as Janet Emig (14) and A. N. Applebee (1) point-
ed out, that even though most classrooms are teacher-centered, peers are
still the most important audience for students' writing. It also implies
that the "teacher-centered presentation of composition...is pedagogical-
ly, developmentally, and politically an anachronism" (4, p. 100).

125
1 #_`, 3
REFERENCES
1. Applebee, A. N. Writing in the Secondary School: English and the Content
Areas. Urbana, Ill.: National Council of Teacher ,f English, 1981.
2. Barritt, L.S., and Kroll, B.M. "Some Imp lir_ as of Cognitive-Develop-
mental Psychology for Research in Composing. In Research on Compos-
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bana, Ill.: National Council of Teachers of English, 1978.
3. Beach, R. "The Pragmatics of Self-Assessing." In Revising: New Essays for
Teachers of Writing, edited by R. A. Sudoi, 71-83. Urbana, National
Council of Teachers of English, 1982.
4. Bereiter, C. "Toward a Solution of the Learning Paradox." Review of Edu-
cational Research 55, no. 2 (1985): No. 201-26.
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Explorations in the Development of Writing, edited by B. M. Kroll and G.
Wells, 120-53. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1983.
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Rhetorical Tradition." In Reinventing the Rhetorical Tradition, edited by
A. Freedman and I. Pringle, 99-104. Conway, Ark.: L and S Books, 1980.
7. Calkins, L M. "Children Learn the Writer's Craft." Language Arts 57
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8. Calkins, L. M. Lessons from a Child: A Case Study of One Child's Growth
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language Learner, edited by A. Jaggar and M. T. Smith-Burke, 190-99.
Urbana, Ill.: National Council of Teachers of English, 1985.
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New Yolk: Simon and Schuster, 1982.
11. Costa, A. L. "Mediating the Metacognitive. ' Educational Leadership 42,
no. 3 (1984): No. 57-62.
12. Don Carlos, P. H. "Family Structure, Locus of Control, Reading Achieve-
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na State University, Tempe, 1981.
13. Donaldson, M., ed. Children's Minds. Glasgow: William Collins Sons,
1978.
14. Emig, J. The Composing Process of Twelfth Graders. Urbana, Ill.: National
Council of Teachers of English, 1971.
15. Friss, D. "Writing Class: Teachers and Students Writing Together." In
Teaching Writing: Essays from the Bay Area Writing Project, edited by G.
Camp, 292-98. Montclair, Boynton/Cook, 1982.
16. Gere, A. R., and Stevens, R. S. "The Language of Writing Groups: How
Oral Response Shapes Revision." Paper presented at Conference on College
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17. Graves, D. "We Won't Let Them Write." Language Arts 5 (1978):
635-40.
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mann Books, 1983.
19. Graves, D. "Patterns of Child Control of the Writing Process." In The De-
velopment of Children's Imaginative Writing, edited by H. Cowie, 219-32.
London: Croom Helm, 1984.
20. Healy, M. K. "Using Student Writing Response Groups in the Classroom."
In Teaching Writing: Essays from the Bay Area Writing Project, edited by
G. Camp, 266-91. Upper Montclair, NJ.: Boynton/Cook 1982.
21. Johnson, D. W. and others. Circles of Learning: Cooperation in the Class-
room. Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Devel-
opment, 1984.
22. Marder, D. "Revision as Discovery and the Reduction of Entropy." In Re-
vising: New Essays for Teachers of Writing, edited by R. A. Sudol, 3-12.
Urbana, Ill.: National Council of Teachers of English, 1982.
23. Mayher, J. S.; Lester, N. B.; and Pradl, G. M. Learning to Write/Writing
to Learn. Upper Montdair, NJ.: Boynton/Cook, 1983.
24. Meeks, L. L. Cassette recordings. Unpublished raw data, 1983.
25. Meeks, L. L. "Developing the Internal Editor: Peer Revision in a Third
Grade Class." Ph.D. disc., Arizona State University, 1985.
26. Moffett, J., and Wagner, B. J. Student-Centered Language Arts and Read-
ing, K-13. 2d ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976.
27. Mohr, M. M. Revision: The Rhythm of Meaning. Upper Montdair, NJ.:
Boynton/Cook, 1984.
28. Murray, D. M., and Graves, D. H. "Revision in the Writer's Workshop
and in the Classroom." In The Development of Children's Imaginative
Writing, edited by H. Cowie, 139-53. Manuka, Aus.: Croom Helm, 1980.
29. Piaget, J. The Language and Thought of the Child. New York: Harcourt,
Brace, 1926.
30. Piaget, J. "Appendix: Piaget's Theory of Intellectual Development." In
Children's Minds, edited by M. Donaldson, 129-45. Glasgow: William
Collins Sons, 1978.
31. Shafer, R. E. "Children's Interactions in Sustaining Writing: Studies in an
English Primary School." Department of English, Arizona State University,
Tempe, 1980. Typescript.
32. Smith, F. Writing and the Writer. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
1982.
33. Stanford, G. Developing Effective Classroom Groups: A Practical Guide for
Teachers. New York: Hart Publishing Co., 1977.
34. Wong, B. Y. L. "Self-Questioning Instructional Research: A Review." Re-
view of Educational Research 55 (1985): 227-51.

127 c
 BASICS IN BLOOM
by Norma J. Hoelzel

Norma]. Hoelzel uses Bloom's taxonomy to develop students' question-generat-

ing skills. She illustrates bow all levels of the taxonomy can be translated into stu-
dent-generated questions by average students. In her system, the upper levels of
Bloom's taxonomy are not limited to use with gifted students. She finds that stu-
dents become more active learners as they improve their question-asking skills and
become less dependent on the teacher for stimulation: "They use the taxonomy
not only to reinforce basic areas of study, but also to expand and challenge them-
selves and their classmates in many other areas of study."
The author teaches fifth grade at the Vineland School, DeSoto, Missouri, schoci
district.

Developing the ability to think, and thus to question, is the basis for
all ocher learning. In the very early elementary grades mechanical rote
and memory work commonly take precedence. However, we should con-
sider the fact that in a high-tech world, it might be wise to begin the
teaching of expanded thinking skills at an early age. Unfortunately, it is
well known that elementary and secondar; educators stress memoriza-
tion. This is an important and necessary skill. However, analytical think-
ing should also be developed if students are to be adept at reading com-
prehension and problem solving, necessary in all academic studies, and if
they are to participate fully in a technological society.
Finding the best way to help students think analytically should be of
interest to teachers on all levels of learning. One effective way is to uti-
lize the Benjamin Bloom Taxonomy of Thinking Skills. Unfortunately,
all six levels of the taxonomy are not always used in the regular class-
room. Normally, teachers use the first three levels: knowledge, compre-
hension, and application; however, use of the upper levelsanalysis,
synthesis, and evaluationis often expected only in classes for the gift-
ed. And when the taxonomy is used, we usually find it with teacher-di-
rected activities, where the teacher asks the questions. Commonly, the
assumption is that teachers ask questions and students answer them
based on memory and rote learning.
Teachers ask a tremendous number of questions. One study reveals that
pri-
mary school teachers ask 31/2 to 61/2 questions per minute! Elemen-
tary school teachers average 348 questions a day....yet.. The typical stu-

128
12.,)
 dent asks approximately one question per month. (Sadker, Myra, and Sadker,
David. "Questioning Skills." In Classroom Teaching Skills, 2d ed. Lexington,
Mass.: D.C. Heath & Co., 1982. Edited by James M. Cooper and others. p.
150.)

How well might students learn by developing their own skills of ques-
tioning, thus possibly exploring areas that might not be brought to light
by the classroom teacher.
It is challenging to work with a process that encourages students to
utilize Bloom's Taxonomy themselves. They use the taxonomy not only
to reinforce basic areas of study, but also to expand and challenge them-
selves and their classmates in many other areas of study. The challenge
and excitement of learning comes when they begin doing this them-
selves, and do not always have to depend upon the teacher for
stimulation.
To understand this process, one must first understand the definition
of the levels of Bloom's Taxonomy of thinking skills.
Bloom's Taxonomy is probably the best know.: system for classifying educa-
tional objectives as well as classroom questions. There are six levels of
Bloom's Taxonomy and questions at each level require a person responding to
use a different kind of thought process [taxonomy is another word for classifi-
cation]. (Sadker and Sadker, "Questioning Skills," p. 151.)
These levels are as follows:
KNOWLEDGE: This is the learning and repeating of information from
memoryunfortunately, this information is often quickly forgotten.
label repeat list recall recognize
who what when where define
COMPREHENSION: The student must have some knowledge and some
understanding of subject and be able to restate information in her/his
own way. The majority of classroom time is spent on this level.
describe explain identify report compare
illustrate review contrast compare locate

APPLICATION: The student must be able to explain and apply rules in

answering questions or problems.
solve choose use select schedule
employ classify operate translate demonstrate
ANALYSIS: The student is required to think critically, to break infor-
mation into parts and be able to offer evidence to support conclusions.
detect infer determine question solve
analyze test conclude criticize diagram

129
133
SYNTHESIS: Students produce an original product or idea of their own;
they make predictions to solve problems.
propose assemble organize develop design
produce plan predict arrange collect

EVALUATION: The student now judges the value of the information

collected and offers a solution for the problem.
decide evaluate judge value
estimate rate measure assess
Initiating the use of this taxonomy in developing these questioning
skills was a comparatively simple exercise in a self-contained class made
up of 25 fifth grade students ranging in abilities from learning disabled
to gifted, with reading achievement scores ranging from 2.4 to post-
high-school level. Our school district is mostly rural, centered in a small
Missouri community with students transported to school from a 50
square-mile area. The district offers special classes for students needing
remediation in reading, language, math; for the learning disabled; for
students needing special education; and for gifted students. Pull-out
classes for the gifted were started two years ago. This group was named
the Discovery dass, and of course, since it is new and it is well-known
that the students going to this dass are upper-level students, all students
think they want to participate. In initiating the learning of these ques-
tioning skills, I capimlired on this fact.
To capture student interest, I first explained that some of the study
skills I was about to introduce were skills commonly used only by the
teacher in the Discovery classes. I further explained that this method was
probably not utilized by the students themselves in any other classrooms
in the way that they would be expected to use it. They were told that
they were the first students with whom I had tried this method of teach-
ing, and that theynot the teacherwould be askb7.g most of the
questions.
Once I had their interest, their attention was then focused on a set of
wall charts which gave each level of Bloom, with verbs which a student
might use on each of the six levels. Then we progressed through each
level of the taxonomy, using very simple questions based on a subject we
had been studying in social studies, cotton. For example:
KNOWLEDGE: Name states where cotton would most likely be
grown in the United States.
COMPREHENSION: Explain why cotton grows best in these particular
areas.

130

131
APPLICATION: Illustrate five uses of cotton in today's society.
ANALYSIS: Debate the advantages of cotton vs. wool.
SYNTHESIS: Predict what the effect on our society would be if
cotton had never become a product of our
agriculture.
EVALUATION: Assess the value to our society of the invention of
the cotton gin.
As we worked our way through the charts and examples, student interest
increased rapidly. It was especially exciting to see all students on every
level participate enthusiastically in this exercise.
The next step was to turn the questioning over to the students, based
on the same subject, beginning with the knowledge level again and pro-
gressing on to the evaluation level. Students were asked to choose anoth-
er verb on each level, rather than using the one wz had just used. I was
surprised at the quality of questions these students immediately began to
fire at each other, and the overall interest it created in the subject itself.
All students were eager to take part, as they were thinking for them-
selves, with no threat of asking wrong questions.
Once all students had an opportunity to question, and I was reason-
ably sure that all had sufficient understanding of the method, an assign-
ment was given relating to the study of weather, which vie had just com-
pleted in science class. I was very pleased with the results. Some
examples of student activities follow:
KNOWLEDGE: Define barometer.
Recall and name cloud types.
How does air affect weather?
How does an anemometer work?
What is it called when it rains, sleets, or snows?
COMPREHENSION: Illustrate a barometer and an anemometer and
explain how they are used.
Compare air moisture with air pressure.
Explain the troposphere.
Explain how an anemometer is useful.
APPLICATION: Draw a scene of the three cloud types and name
the kinds of weather associated with each one.
Design a machine to predict rain.
Write a play about what you would be doing
outside today.
Plan and write a weather report for today.
Demonstrate how you might feel on a cumulus
cloud day.
ANALYSIS: Debate living in and out of the atmosphere.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of be-
ing a weather reporter.
Dissect the clouds.
SYNTHESIS: Think of a way to walk in the clouds.
Invent a new name for weather.
Think of a way to make air pressure, and list the
steps necessary.
Decide whether you'd prefer the climate in Mis-
souri or the climate in Florida and explain why.
Predict what life would be like without
thermometers.
Predict what would happen if there were never
any clouds.
EVALUATION: Decide what happens to a weather vane when a
storm blows in from the west.
Assess what might happen to your home if the
wind speed reached more than 117 km/hr.
Compare the weather in our state with that of
one of the southeastern states.
Students then presented their exercises to other students to complete.
Exercises using the verb "debate" became a favorite choice. Students
who feared giving oral presentations before the class could readily get up
and debate without any fear at all. The student who had to think of a
way to walk in the clouds chose to invent a magic cloud to float around
and see the world, until he came to Africa where he planned to squeeze
out the much needed rain for the starving people in that area. (The un-
usual idea often surfaces during this kind of activity.)
This exercise has been used in this class for the study of Halley's comet
and the human body, and in reading comprehension exercises, language
arts, and social studies. We also use it on holidays. We decided to do
"Halloween in Bloom." The students had great fun with this, discover-
ing information they would not have otherwise covered. Many students
chose Dracula, witches, or goblins for their subject, but one student de-
cided to produce her activities based on the bat. First of all, she found
out just what a bat was, when it fed, and where it lived. Then she illus-
trated what a bat looked like and built a mobile of one flying in the air.
Next she dramatized how a bat flies. To analyze the bat, she actually dis-
sected one (on paper), showing all of its body parts. On the synthesis
level, she created a new name for the bat, "Nightflyer"; discussed a way
to talk with a bat; and decided to choose a new color for the bat. Last of

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1
all, she predicted what could happen if the world had no bats at all.
When this student completed her exercise, she had a real understanding
of the bat and had developed some new ideas relating to it. Sharing this
knowledge with her classmates was great fun for her.
My students have found this to be a challenging and enjoyable way to
learn. They especially like to share their activities with other classmates in
both individual and group projects. The class is developing valuable
comprehension and questioning skills, but most imporrantly, they are
developing a healthy respect for each other as they solve and work
through the activities presented to one another.
For the very young primary classes, color-coded charts for each level of
Bloom could be used for easier identification of leVel, and simple verbs
could replace the ones used for upper grade activities.
The results of using this method have been very gratifying. Students
learn to ask questions and to answer them intelligently as they share with
each other. Ideas and facts are revealed which are often new to the stu-
dents, some of which probably would not have been covered using tradi-
tional methods. Minds are stretched in unforeseen ways, and results are
often refreshingly surprising. The shy or timid student gathers confi-
dence in the free and open atmosphere this method creates. In short, all
students become more active learners, engaged and interested in what
they are learning. Thus, the exercise and refinement of thinking skills
can and does occur when students know, understand, and use this
process.

133

134
TEACHING THINKING TO TEACH
LITERATURE WHILE TEACHING
LITERATURE TO TEACH THINKING
by Natalie C. Yeager

Using Bloom's taxonomy, Nate lee C. Yeager shows bow teaching thinking and
the study of literature "can be combined to the enhancement of both. " For exam-
ple, discussing the interpretation stage of thinking, she suggests using Venn dia.
grams to help students learn to compare and contrast characters in a novel; or con-
structing charts to compare survival methods of central characters in adventure
stories. Syllogisms can be used to help students identify and analyze the assump-
tions made by some of the characters in their reading. Students can engage in de-
ductive reasoning by solving matrix puzzles based on episodes in a novel; or they
can discover something new to them through a synthesis activity. Yeager shows
bow literature can be used to provide content for these thinking skills exercises.
Si,: feels that combining literature study with thinking skills practice helps stu-
dents more deeply understand what they read, and impacts positively on their atti-
tudes, sensitivity, and values.
The author it Gifted Coordinator, School District #27, Jacksonville, Illinois.

Productive learning, according to Hilda Taba, should contribute to

more than one objective and thus provide for multiple learnings (25).
The teaching of thinking and the study of literature can be combined to
the enhancement of both. Examples from literature will motivate stu-
dents in the development of critical thinking skills, and using those skills
will lead to a deeper understanding of literature.
The definition of critical. thinking used in this study is taken from
Classroom Questions: What Kinds? by Norris Sanders:
A preciseand useful definition of the phrase is that it includes all thought pro.
cesses beyond the memory category. A teacher who offers his students appro-
priate experiences in translation, interpretation, application, analysis, synthesis,
and evaluation can be assured he is providing instruction in every intellectual
aspect of critical thinking. (23, p. 6)
Sanders's categories are based on Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Ob-
jectives (6). Sanders has changed Bloom's lowest level, "knowledge," to

134
.1 3
"memory" to make it a thinking skill as are the other levels. Sanders
points out that the levels are both sequential and cumulative. Thus, each
level, including memory, is important in its own right and also as a com-
ponent of higher levels of thinking. He warns against getting bogged
down on c.),ct classification because many questions seem to fall between
two categories.
Translation is the ability to change the form in which ideas are ex-
pressed. This includes summarizing, illustrating what has been read,
mapping, graphing, and expressing ideas in a drama. Students who have
completed the reading of an example of literature can benefit from per-
forming these activities. For instance, students who have read about
Taran and Eilonwy's escape from the Spiral Castle in Lloyd Alexander's
Book of Three (1) will increase the clarity of their imagery if they dia-
gram the structure of the castle. Or they might be asked to put these ad-
ventures into play form. A way of using an additional translation experi-
ence is to have the students illustrate the main events in the play. If the
play is then recorded on a tape and the pictures are shown with an
opaque projector, the audience will share a narrated filmstrip.
Interpretation is the ability to sec relationships. This includes being
able to compare, infer, generalize, and understand simple cause and ef-
fect. Interpretation includes on a common-sense level many of the same
elements that are dealt with more formally in analysis.
Literature contains many possibilities for comparison. In discussion
and in writing assignments students can list or describe the likenesses
and differences of two or more characters or situations in a single book,
in different books, or in a series of books.
A Venn diagram is an instructional technique that can be used to help
students learn to compare and contrast. Two intersecting circles can be
drawn on the chalkboard and the name of a book character placed in
each circle. Students are then asked to list as many attributes as they can
for each character. When it is found that both characters share a certain
quality, that quality is written in the intersection of the two circles and
eliminated from the separate sides. After this has been done as a large
group so that they understand the method, students can work in small
groups, again using a Venn diagram, to determine the likenesses and
differences between two different characters, settings, or plots.
Retrieval charts (25) are another technique for comparing and contrast-
ing. In this way, for instance, students can compare their lives with the
life of Nomusa, the Zulu girl in Thirty-One Brothers and Sisters (18).
(See page 136.)
Another retrieval chart might compare the survival methods of the In-
dian girl Karana in Island of the Blue Dolphins (20) with those of Timo-
thy, the West Indian in The Cay (26). Venn diagrams and retrieval

135

1 t, k3
 Nomusa Students

Type of home

Family structure

Jobs for girls

Jobs for boys

Food

Entertainment

Love for family

charts can be used as the first step in developing generalizations.

Students look for similarities among the e imples and for cause-and-
effect relationships. Generalizations are usiially qualified by a degree of
probability (17).
Literature provides many examples of cause and effect. What caused a
character to do what he or she did? What result did he or she hope to
achieve by that act? The combination of a Venn diagram and mind
mapping (29) can lead students to a better understanding of cause and
effect as well as of the characters and event in a book. For instance, in
No Promises in the Wind (11), what were the causes and effects of Josh
Grondowski's decision to leave home?
Application is the ability to use skills and knowledge in a new situation.
Students are applying their skills any time that, with a minimum of
direction, they do something that they have previously learned. In a
broader sense, every time students read a novel, they are using the many
levels of reading skills they have previously acquired.
Application thinking also occurs when students get involved in proj-
ects and use skills they learned in an earlier situation. When students
read Key to the Treasure by Peggy Parish (21), they learn several
different codes. If they are asked to write a message using one of the
codes and then exchange their messages with other students, their
thinking is application.

136
 In the future world described in Konrad (19), parents can order a
child from a factory, specifying the characteristics they wish the child to
have. Students can find out what qualities their parents, teachers, and
friends would choose for an ordered child by conducting a survey. In do-
ing this they would be learning and applying the skills needed to con-
duct a survey. By keeping the responses for the three groups separate,
students would have the data needed to apply their graphing skills to
construct graphs. They could also make Venn diagrams for the purpose
of comparing and contrasting.
Sanders says that analysis is primarily logical reasoning, and students
should be aware of the rules they are following. Students who have been
taught to use syllogisms will find them helpful in discerning the assump-
tions made by some of the characters in literature. At the beginning of
The Cay (26), Phillip's thinking could be analyzed thus:
Major premise: All black men are inferior.
Minor premise: Timothy is a black man.
Conclusion: Timothy is inferior.
The conclusion is valid according to the rules of logic, but students who
have read The Cay realize that it is false. They can then reason that if
the conclusion is false and the minor premise is true, the major premise
must be false. A similar example can be found in Walk the World's Rim
(5). The Indian boy Chakoh has been taught that all slaves are cowards
because they have allowed themselves to be captured in battle. He then
learns that his best friend Esteban is a slave. Students can chart Chakoh's
conclusion and then see what must be changed if he is to regain his
friendship. The fallacy of his original premise is clearly established when
he learns that Esteban was sold into slavery by his parents to get money
so his brothers and sisters could eat. In this instance, the fact that Este-
ban was black was not a concern. This example can be diagrammed as
shown:
The largest circle, A, includes all cowards.
Circle Bwhich indudes all slavesis
placed inside A to show that all slaves are
cowards. Circle C, designating Esteban, is
inside Circle Bbecause he is a slave and,
therefore, a coward.
The diagram would be changed to reflect Chakoh's discovery that Este-
ban was not a coward taken in battle.
Circle A still includes all cowards,
and Circle B all slaves. But since
only some slaves are cowards, Circle B
is only partially inside Circle A.
Esteban fits into the part of Circle B
that is not inside Circle A. Therefore, he
is not a coward.

137
3
 Whether the use of Venn diagrams is categorized as interpretive or an-
alytic is partly a matter of complexity. A dearly analytic task would be to
compare and contrast the philosophies of the two major groups in Gam-
mage Cup by Carol Kendall (12). The members of the ruling class of a
fictitious town are known as Periods. Their authority is challenged by
several free-thinking individuals who have the good of the entire com-
munity as their goal. The philosophies of the two groups are not explicit-
ly stated and must be inferred from an analysis of the behavior of the
various characters.
Students engage in deductive reasoning when they solve matrix puz-
zles. These can be constructed with names and other information from a
book. The solutions require both deductive reasoning and a knowledge
of characters and events in the book. The following puzzle is based on
Escape from Warsaw by Ian Serraillier (24). The book is about children
who fled the Nazis, and describes their adventures in various countries.
In one episode the children receive clothing, although the author does
not specify what items each child received.

Deductive Reasoning Puzzle

Four childrenBronia, Edek, Jan, and Ruthare left homeless by the
Nazi invasion of Poland. Each is given an item of clothing by the Polish
Relief Agency: boots, a hat, mittens, or a sweater. When they finally
reach their parents, each tells of an adventure in a different country: Ba-
varia, Germany, Poland, and Switzerland. Use the clues below and the
matrix on page 139 to find which item of clothing each received and
which country that child tells about.

No one's country, clothing, or name starts with the same letter.

Jan tells about the farmer who found the children in his barn.
(Bavaria)
Bronia tells about Ivan, the Russian sentry. (Poland)
Edek tells about his experiences in prison. (Germany)
Edek's gift keeps only his hands warm.
A girl receives the sweater.

Defining analysis more broadly than Sanders, Bloom (6) says that it is
the breakdown of a communication into its parts so that one can see how
it is organized. This definition provides a particularly rewarding ap-
proach to the study of literature, for example, when applied to books
that have unique organizational plans.
In Time Cat (4) Lloyd Alexander gives the proverbial nine lives to the
black cat Gareth, who is enabled to go back in history to nine different
places and times. Simply by referring to the table of contents, students
 Clothing Country

BHMS B G P S

Bronia

Edek

Jan
-.I

Ruth

can see that there are two chapters for each visit. By analyzing the
themes of each visit students discover how Gareth is able to help the
people living at that time. For instance, Awin is a girl living on the Isle
of Man in 1588. Her awareness that the Manx cat lacks a tail helps her to
accept the fact that one of her eyes is blue and the other brown.
Madeleine L'Engle uses a delightfully intricate plan in A Swiftly Tilt-
ing Planet (15). This is a difficult book, and students understand it more
clearly when they analyze the way it is organized. Meg's mother-in-law
recites an ancient rune to protect them from danger. Each line of the
rune calls upon a specific power for good, such as the sun, to stand be-
tween them and the powers of darkness. Each line provides the key for
help in a different adventure as Charles Wallace goes back into history to
help people struggling in various situations.
Lloyd Alexander forecasts events in The High King (3) when Heh
Wen, the oracular pig, uses letter sticks to make a prophecy: stones will
speak, night will turn to noon, and rivers will burn with frozen fire be-
fore the sword Dymwyn will be regained. Each of these seemingly im-
possible things then happens in the story and students, discovering the
structure of the story, are excited each time they encounter another
episoc
Synthesis activities stimulate students to engage in imaginative, origi-
nal thinking, to discover something that is new to them. This category
includes most of the elements usually encompassed by "creative think-
ing." Synthesis thinking often leads to a product of some sortart, dra-
ma, writing, a plan for an invention, or a solution to a social problem.
Literature is itself a product of synthesis thinking, and immersing stu-
dents in good literature gives them a foundation for their own creative
expression. Good literature gives students models of good writing and

139

_.
 demonstrates that characters can be brought to life. It introduces them
all kinds of people and their achievements and problems to
and to a variety
of responses to diverse situations.
Teachers have a double responsibility in nurturing
creative thinking.
First, it is important that the classroom be a place where children know
that diverse ideas will be accepted. Antoine De
Saint-Exupery's little
prince (8) experienced rejection when he drew an elephant that
eaten by a boa constrictor. Adults called it a hat and advised him had been
to give
up drawing. Students also may find that their original ideas
derstood by classmates or teachers, and some, like the little are not un-
prince, may
learn to express only ordinary, unimaginative ideas.
Second, teachers must provide activities designed to help students
grow in their creative abilities. E. Paul Torrance has identified four
com-
ponents of creativity: fluency, flexibility, elaboration, and originality
(27). A student's abilities in each of these areas can be developed
through instruction and practice. Brainstorming is a technique that
can
be used to develop all of these components. Students
are asked to list as
many ideas as possible (fluency). As soon as a student shifts to a
new cat-
egory of answer or a different point of view (flexibility), the teacher
point this out and encourage others to do the can
same. Elaboration takes
place when students build on their own or others' ideasmaking modi-
fications of some kind. Originality is perhaps the most difficult
Original ideas usually come near the end of a brainstorming sessionto teach.
after
most of the commonplace ideas have been expressed. A delightful
book
to share with students as an example of fluent, flexible, and original
thinking is Mary Ann Hoberman's A House Is a House for Me
(10). In
fast-moving rhyme, the author tells of many different kinds of houses.
Students who previously had brainstormed for all the kinds of
houses are
particularly impressed by the wealth of ideas in this book.
Literature presents many opportunities for involving students
in syn-
thesis thinking. In Beg and Me (13) by Robert Lawson, Amos, a mouse,
dais that he was really responsible for many of the achievements credit-
ed to Ben Franklin. In a second book, Mr. Revere and 1 (14),
Paul Re-
vere's life is described by his horse. Students can analyze the structure of
these books and consider what steps Lawson had
to go through in order
to write his books. They then can choose a different person and tell
his
or her story from the point of view of some other animal.
Stud- Its who have read The First Two Lives of
Alexander (2) can be assigned to list as Lukas-Kasha by Lloyd
many characteristics as they can
of Lukas-Kasha in each of his first two lives; then they can look for
for each of the changes that he undergoes. At the end causes
of his
the boy is brought back to the scene of his first life, but he second life,
rejects this

140
141
and sets out to begin a new one. Students will have an opportunity for
synthesis thinking if they write about Lukas-Kasha's third life.
C. S. Lewis transports his characters into the Kingdom of Narnia in a
different way in each of the seven books in his Chronicles of Narnia (16).
Students can brainstorm for other ways of reaching Narnia or some other
world. They can then list the features of Narnia and compare them with
those of our world. Creating a new world and choosing a different way of
reaching it would require synthesis thinking.
One of the most difficult tasks that both the prince and Tom Canty
have in Mark Twain's The Prince and the Pauper (28) is convincing peo-
ple of their true identity. Students can work in small groups to prepare
skits in which either Tom or the Prince finds an original way to prove
who he is. They can begin this task by brainstorming for as many possi-
ble solutions as they can think of. The process of taking the existing
characters and writing a new dialogue would likewise involve synthesis
thinking.
The last kind of thinking listed by Sanders is evaluation. Evaluative
thinking involves two steps: setting up standards or values, and deter-
mining how well various alternatives fulfill these criteria. Good decision-
m ;king depends upon clear thinking at each of the other levels. It re-
quires that one recognize relationships, understand cause and effect, be
able to predict outcomes, and think of important, useful alternatives.
This two-step process of evaluation can be used to judge a character in
literature, an exercise that both enhances a student's decision-making
ability and deepens his understanding of the character. Katherine Pater-
son's The Master Puppeteer (22) describes a period in Japan when there
was widespread hunger. Saburo steals from the richto (;ive to the poor.
The young boy Jiro says, "Then he is not really bad, is he? Even if he is
a thief?" His father replies, "It is always bad to be a thief..." (22, p.
7).
Students can draw up lists of the traits of a good man and those of a
bad man, and then match Saburo's characteristics with those on the lists.
Just counting the characteristics that match is not a valid basis for judg-
ing. Students can debate the relative importance of the various traits.
The group frequently will not agree on a decision; students can learn
that it is all right to have different views, provided they have sound rea-
sons for their conclusions.
Later in the book Jiro is faced with a vitally important decision. He
thinks he knows who Saburo is and could win a large reward by revealing
him to the authorities. On the other hand, there are strong reasons for
not making his identity known. Teachers can encourage students to
make this decision for Jiro. The ability to predict outcomes is most

141
1 13
important here. Students can list all the consequences that might hap-
pen and all the people who would be affected by each of the choices. In-
dividual items listed can then be categorized as positive or negative and
their relative importance weighted. Possibly a third choiceperhaps
some sort of compromisewill be suggested, and if so it also should be
evaluated.
Manos, the dying king in First to Ride (9), has the right to name his
successor. Instead, he says that the next king will be the one who comes
riding on the back of a Fleet One, one of the untamed horses. After
reading the book, students can decide on reasons why they think this
method of choosing a king was wise or unwise. Expanding the problem,
the teacher can ask small groups of students to decide on a method of
choosing a king in a particular circumstance. The total group can then
decide on criteria by which to evaluate the plans and consider each of the
methods suggested.
In The Big Dave by Pearl Buck (7)jiya loses his whole family in a tid-
al wave. A rich old gentleman offers to take him as his son. He is also of-
fcred a place in the home of his best friend, whose father is a poor farm-
er. Which offer should he accept? Students, trying to make this decision,
will determine what they consider to be the most important values in
life. They then should describe the quality of life jiya would expect to
have as a consequence of each of the possible decisions. A decision can
be made by comparing these descriptions.

CONCLUSIONS
Strategies designed to teach thinkingtranslation, interpretation, ap-
plication, analysis, synthesis, and evaluationhave been combined with
the teaching of literature in this discussion. Literature has been utilized
to provide stimulating and enjoyable content for exercises designed to
develop thinking skills, while at the same time thinking activities have
enhanced the study of literature. This presentation has dealt with levels
of thinking in the cognitive domain only, but it is evident that frequent-
ly the suggested strategies will have positive effects upon students' atti-
tudes, sensitivities, and values.

REFERENCES
1. Alexander, Lloyd. The Book of Three. New York: Dell Publishing Co.,
1964.
2. The First Two Lives of Lukas-Kasha. New York: Dell Publishing
Co., 1978.

142
143
 3. - The High King. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1968.
4. ____ Time Cat. New York: Avon Books, 1968.
5. Baker, Betty. Walk the World's Rim. New York: Harper & Row, 1965.
6. Bloom, Benjamin S., ed. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Handbook
I: Cognitive Domain. New York: Longmans, Green, 1961.
7. Buck, Pearl. The Big Nave. New York: Scholastic Book Services, 1960.
8. De Saint-Exupery, Antoine. The little Prince. Translated by Katherine
Woods. New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1943.
9. Crowell, Pers. First to Ride. New York: Scholastic Book Services, 1959.
10. Hoberman, Mary Ann. A House Is a House for Me. New York: Viking
Press, 1978.
11. Hunt, Irene. No Promises in the Wind. New York: Berkeley Publishing
Group, 1983.
12. Kendall, Carol. Gammage Cup. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World,
1959.
13. Lawson, Robert. Ben and Me. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1939.
14. ______ Mr. Revere and I. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1953.
15. L'Engle, Madeleine. A Swiftly Tilting Planet. New York: Dell Publishing
Co., 1979.
16. Lewis, C.S. The Chronicles of Narnia. 7 books. New York: Macmillan Pub-
lishing Co., 1970.
17. McCollum, John A. Ah Hah! The Inquiry Process of Generating and Test-
ing.Knowledge. Santa Monica, Calif.: Goodyear Publishing Co., 1978.
18. Mirsky, Rcba Pacff. Thirty-One Brothers and Sisters. New York: Dell Pub-
lishing Co., 1952.
19. Nostlinger, Christine. Konrad. Translated by Anthca Bell. New York:
Franklin Watts, 1977.
20. O'Dell, Scott. Island of the Blue Dolphins. New York: Dell Publishing
Co., 1960.
21. Parish, Peggy. Key to the Treasure. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1966.
22. Paterson, Katherine. The Master Puppeteer. New York: Harper & Row,
1981.
23. Sanders, Norris. Classroom Questions: What Kinds? New York: Harper &
Row, 1966.
24. Serraillier, Ian. Escape from Warsaw. New York: Scholastic, n.d.
25. Taba, Hilda. Teachers' Handbook for Elementary Social Studies. Pale Alto,
Calif.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1967.
26. Taylor, Theodore. The Cay. New York: Avon Books, 1969.
27. Torrance, E. Paul. Guiding Creative Talent. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Pren-
tice-Hall, 1962.

143
14,4
28. Twain, Mark. The Prince and the Pauper. New York: Scholastic Book Ser-
vices, 1958.
29. Winocur, S. Lee. "Developing Lesson Plans with Cognitive Objectives." In
Developing Minds: A Resource Book for Teaching Thinking, edited by Ar-
thur L. Costa. Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development, 1985.

144

145
USING THINKING SKILLS
IN MODIFIED ESL
by Patsy A. Jaynes

In her description of a thinking skills program in a modified ESL classroom, Pat-

sy A. Jaynes suggests bow to use Bloom's taxonomy to teach basic skills in courses
across the Curriculum. Sbe outlines the structure and content of the program, and
,presents data on its effectiveness. The teaching /learning process that teachers in-
corporated into their classrooms included clustering (a non-linear way of organiz-
ing information), student assignment contracts, grouping students ty reading lev-
el, dialogue journals, and reading logs. In addition, different levels of Bloom's
taxonomy of thinking skills were used in daily lesson assignments. Students were
encouraged to go beyond factual knowledge to analysis, synthesis, and evaluation
of new infirmationiaynes reports that the project improved students' scores on
standardized reading and language proficiency tests, as well as their mastery of
content course material.
The author is Program Evaluation Specialist in the Department of Second Lan-
guage Educalon, Jefferson County Public Schools, Lakewood, Colorado.

Arvada Senior High School in Arvada, Colorado, is one of Jefferson

County Public School District's thirteen comprehensive high schools.
The total enrollment for Arvada High is approximately 2,000 students
with English 2... a Second Language (ESL) students comprising only five
percent of the total. However, as ESL students gain competence in the
English language, they are mainstreamed into modified core-curriculum
classrooms. The modified -L1(-,roolas at Arvada Senior High School are
designed to provide a positta. learning experience for students who score
at or below the 25th percentile on a grade-level standardized reading
test. As the ESL students are scheduled into the modified classrooms
(language arts, history, and biology), there is a definite impact on these
cla.,rooms. The impacted riodif cd classrooms may have from one-third
to fifty percent of limited-English-sr.eakirg students enrolled along with
the regular modified students.
Many of the ESL student were from the pre-literate Htmong culture
of rural Cambodic., precluding a history of eclu_ar..:nal opportunities.
The regular modified students were coming into the project clazstooms
with a history (.1: poor attendance, lack of reading ability, an general
difficulties with school. Initially, this high concentration of ESL ...ndents
in the modified classrooms was a cause of concern. Both the teacl.e.s and

145
143
the regular modified students had difficulty in making adjustments to
culturally and linguistically different students.
An interdisciplinary/critical thinking pilot project was created to assist
the mainstreamed ESL students, the regular modified students, and their
teachers. The modified teachers were assisted in developing skills in team
teaching and restructuring content materials to teach basic skills within
the context of Bloom's Taxonomy. Curriculum was coordinated across
the d:sciplines of language arts, history, biology, and English as a Second
Language.
Project teachers planned coordinated units for each semester using the
language arts and ESL classes as content reinforcement of social studies
while the students were learning the required language skills. The teach-
ers also met on a weekly basis as a commitment to communication for
continued cooperation and coordination.
Concurrently with common subject/content planning, all participating
teachers were trained to use the same teaching/learning processes.
Bloom's model of cognitive objectives was used for all lessons and
assignments.
By having project teachers use the same common teaching techniques,
there was a framework of consistency as stwients went from one class to
another in their school day. Participating teachers also shared their high
expectations for student production and achievement, and their organi-
zation, standardized requirements, and Bloom's Taxonomy as the com-
mon basis for their planning.
The teaching /learning processes that teachers jointly incorporated into
their daily lessons were as follows:
1. Clustering (Mapping): This non-linear way of organizing informa-
tion has also been called webbing. It is a process for integrating in-
fonration that forms the base for many theories of conceptual
thinking. It is a visual display of categories and their relationships.
It is used by teachers to organize materials and concepts for teach-
ing and by students to integrate concepts for meaning. These clus-
ters can be used as a pre-reading activity, study guides, or basic
outlines for written composition. Clustering is used in all project
classes: language arts, ESL, biology, and history.
2. Student Contracts: The weekly student contracts organize the daily
assignments for project students. These contracts are kept in a
three-ring looscleaf notebook and keep track of weekly reading,
writing, and other assignments. Students know their status each
week and are cognizant of their earned grade on a regular basis.
3. Grouping: Long a standard vt the elementary level, adult and peer
tutors have been made available to the project teachers so that they

14 7 146
 can group their students into higher and lower groups, based on
an informal reading inventory. Keeping in mind all students were
reading below the twenty-fifth percentile, teachers were able to
sort them into two groups: those reading at a higher or intermedi-
ate level (grades six to nine) and those reading at primary levels
(grades three to five). Teachers use differentiated lessons for each
group based on students' ability to read materials and accomplish
written assignments.
4. Word of the Day: All project teachers emphasize the same vocabu-
lary word each day. These words are taken from the content area
lessons and are assessed at the end of each week by the language
arts teacher and the ESL teacher. These words are defined, are used
in the classrooms, and are an integral part of a student's day.
5. Completed Sentences: All teachersscience, history, ESL, and lan-
guage artsremind students to produce all work, either written or
spoken, in complete sentences.
6. Dialogue Journals: Students ate required to write daily in their
journals. These are read by the language arts and ESL teachers.
This activity is a conversation in writing between el& students and
teachers. It provides a meaningful natural experience in both read-
ing and writing. This also gives the teacher a chance to develop a
personal relationship with each student.
7. SSR/Reading Logs: There are two times during the school day that
are set aside for SSR. Additionally, students are required to keep a
weekly log of the number of pages read and the time spent reading
books other than texts.
8. Bloom's Taxonomy: Teachers incorporate the different levels of
Bloom's critical thinking skills into their daily assignments. They
encourage students to go beyond the knowledge/comprehension
1c7els to work with analysis, synthesis, and evaluative efforts.
Teachers work with the students and take them in a systematic way
from the pragmatic lower levels of Bloom to the higher levels of
synthesis and evaluation.
This project was studied intensively in its first semester of operation.
The purposes of the study were to (a) identify growth in reading by the
ESL project students, (b) show all students' (both ESL and modified) in-
creased ability to achieve content area objectives, and (c) show improve-
ment in all students' total academic functioning.
The general approach used in this study was to collect data from the
following evaluation instruments: Secondary Level English Proficiency
(SLEP), Test Forms 1 and 2; Language Assessment Scale (LAS), Forms

147
A-B; an Individual Reading Inventory (IRI); Level 19 of the California
Achievement Test (CAT), Reading Subtest; and third and fourth quar-
ter, spring 1985 grades.
The subjects were seventy-two high-school-age students enrolled in
modified core-curriculum classes during the spring semester of 1985.
Seven teachers provided the instruction for the project classrooms.
The data collection instruments used in the study collected pre /pest
information on the participants.
The SLEP is a 150-item, four-option multiple choice test of English
language proficiency. It provides a total score and diagnostic subscores
that measure ability in (1) understanding spoken English and (2) under-
stand:.ng written English. It is designed as a placement instrument by
public secondary schools. It is considered highly reliable and "the con-
tent validity of the [SLEP] test is good, particularly for English as a sec-
ond language students enrolled in grades seven through twelve. The con-
struct validity also appears to be good..." (Charles Stanfield,
"Reliability and Validity of the Secondary Level English Proficiency
Test," System 12 [1984]: 1-2).
The LAS is a standardized convergent oral language measure that con-
sists of (1) phonemic, (2) lexical, and (3) syntactical subtests. These sub-
tests measure general language ability and may be used for diagnostic
purposes. Pre - and posttest scores were both available for this study.
The Reading Subtest of Level 19 of the CAT was also used for the ESL
participants. This standardized test of general reading ability was rou-
tinely used by the Jefferson County School District's Office of Second
Language Education to qualify students for inclusion into their state-
funded English Language Proficiency Program. For those students whose
productive language levels were higher (an LAS of 3 or higher), both
pre- and posttest CAT scores were available.
Third quarter and fourth quarter grades in academic subjects were re-
corded for all student participants. Grades for such classes as art, voca-
tional education, musc, and student assistant were not considered in this
study.
Data were collected from approximately February to June of 1985.
Grades were recorded from the central office's computer bank. The re-
sults of the initial study show that students met the pilot project's objec-
tives in the abbreviated time of one semester.
Students' growth objectives included the following:
A. Growth in Reading
Thirty-nine of the ESL project students had pre/posttest scores on an
M. The ESL students showed the most improvement as forty-nine per-

148
cent of the project ESL students improved one grade level or more on the
pre/post IRI. Even though two different Individual Reading Inventories
were used, invalidating these results, both lRI's were graded material
from 3rd grade reading level to 11th grade reading level, giving some
credibility to the improvement in scores. (The SRA copy of a secondary
IRI has been perceived as superior to the original Jefferson County IRI
and will be used hereafter.) The mainstreamed students showed little
gain. The teachers saw this as a result of an accumulation of 10 years of
negative experience in school environments, lack of attendance, and lack
of seriousness while taking the inventory. Quite possibly, the ESL stu-
dents were spared this background and approached the t.sk with the
proper attitude.
B. Increase in Ability to Achieve Content Area C!)jectivcs
The basic method to assess the ability to achieve content area objec-
tives was to compare student achievement grades in academic subjects
from halfway through the spring semester (3rd quarter grades) to the end
of the semester (4th quarter grades and/or semester grades).
The ESL students showed slightly better success in grade improve-
ment. Of the forty-five ESL project students, nineteen showed grade im-
provement by one letter grade from the third to fourth quarter in one or
more academic classes. Ten of the twenty-seven modified students
showed the same gain. Of those nineteen ESL project students with im-
proved grades, forty-two percent showed improvement in two or mere
academic classes by raising their grades from third to fourth quarter by
one letter grade. This shows an expansion of the ability to meet content
area objectives across classes and subjects. Thirty percent of the modified
project students achieved the same intra-subject improvement.
Overall, forty percent of all project students were able to meet content
area objectives in academic classes. A critical look at those improved
grades, however, shows them to be at the lower end of the scale. Forty-
S'AX percent of the improved grades were either a "D" or "17" to "C,"
while thirty-one percent were from "F' to "D " i.e., from failing to
passing. This is important to a high school student needing a certain
number of credit hours to meet graduation requirements.
C. Improvement in ESL Students' Total Academic Functioning
The SLEP Test Manual indicates that ESL students who score at the
seventieth percentile (scaled score of fifty to fifty-one) or above on the
SLEP are at the advanced proficiency level where students speak and un-
derstand English.
The SLEP provide fine discrimination for the lower end of the lan-

149
th;
guage assessment scale and provides for charting growth of students who
have a pre/post position, the goal being one of mainstreaming without
the continuing aid of ESL special instruction.
Of the thirty-four project ESL students with pre/post SEEP scaled
scores, seventy-nine percent improved their scores. Fifty percent of the
ESL project students improved their scores by three levels or more.
The potential for the project students to continue to show growth in
their ability to function successfully within academic classes is great. The
seventy-nine percent improved SLEP score rate of Arvada's project ESL
students shows positive growth toward total mainstreaming.
D. Individual Growth in English Skills by ESL Project Students
Along with the gains shown on the SLEP, an analysis of the LAS, Lev-
el II Test, fourid a forty-four percent growth factor. Of the thirty-nine
project ESL students who have both pre- and posttest scores, seventeen
improved one or more levels. More than one-half (66.7 percent) of the
ESL project students passed their language arts class. This is a higher suc-
cess rate than for the modified students in the same project language arts
class. Only 43.5 percent of the modified project students passed their se-
mester course.
A survey completed in August 1983 by Jefferson County's Office of
Program Evaluation showed that at the secondary level, fifty-seven per-
cent of the regular secondary teachers teaching at ESL-impacted schools
seldom had adequate communication with the ESL staff. The efforts of
this project reversed this noncommunication factor, as ESL and content
area teachers met and planned together on a weekly basis.
The majority of the project teachers came into the pilot program as
master teachers with a background in team teaching; therefore, only a
small amount of project effort was spent in learning how to teach as a
team. However, in this project, this was the first time a major effort was
undertaken to promote teaming combined with communication between
the ESL teachers and regular classroom teachers. The teachers were al-
lowed latitude to expand their skills, with very positive results. It was
documented at the filial workshop that the teachers found the teaming
effort to be the best achieved objective and they celebrated the true in-
terdisciplinary effects. They genuinely supported being able to share the
same students for approximately eighty percent of their teaching day.
This resulted in a continuance and consistency of processes than left the
students knowing that their collective group of teachers cared about their
education and left the teachers knowing the students better.
The staff felt that a real strength of the program was the consistency of
processes. The modified mainstreamed students liked the structure and
the consistent set of standards from class to class; ESL students benefited

150
15i
from the repetitions. The teachers enjoyed the challenge of using
Bloom's Taxonomy and the innovative ways of making lesson plans. The
clustering activities helped students read and study for content area les-
sons. More student language was produced and students became actively
engaged in the Bloom model of critical thinking processes.
The joint curricular efforts made lesson objectives coherent and clear,
and teachers felt that their lessons were of higher quality than before.
The use of reading logs, journals, and weekly contracts in all classes gave
the students a more tangible way of seeing their progress and evaluation.
The most successful staffing technique was the support to each content
area project classroom with a tutor as paraprofessional. The initial IRI
test was given for grouping purposes. Once each dassroom was divided
into two groups by reading ability, differentiated lessons, objectives, and
materials were planned for each group. The tutor managed one group
under the supervision of the teacher, thus maintaining a ten or twelve to
one ratio in each project classroom. The second most significant achieve-
ment reported by project teachers was the improved relationship between
the ESL and the modified students. In a school that had seeds of cultural
conflict three years ago, this change is to be celebrated. The joint class-
room activities gave insight and empathy to staff and students alike.
To summarize, principal findings from this descriptive study indicated
that student objectives were met. Major characteristics included the
following:
Approximately one-half of the ESL project students with
pre/posttest data available improved one grade level or more on
the IRI.
Forty-two percent of the ESL project students improved their con-
tent area grades by one letter grade from third to fourth quarter.
Thirty-seven percent of the modified students showed the same
improvement.
Fifty-eight percent of the ESL project students and fifty-nine per-
cent of the modified students passed their second semester aca-
demic classes.
Seventy-nine percent of the ESL project students showed a gain on
their SLEP test scores.
Forty-four percent of the ESL project students showed improve-
ment on the LAS, Level II, by one or more levels.
The positive intersupport and intercommunication between ESL staff
and impacted content area teachers, combined with an interdisciplinary
equal process approach, helped all students to grow and achieve.
THE DIRECT TEACHING OF ANALYSIS
by Ronald E. Charlton

Ronald E. Charlton writes that it is not enough to ark students to analyze materials:
they must be instructed in how to go about the process of analysis. Chariton outlines
a method of teaching analysis skills that is based on Bloom's taxonomy and Beyer's
teaching framework. Students begin by defining their goals; they then break down
material into its component parts, and look for relationships between these parts; fi-
nally they identify the organizing principles of the parts to the whole. Combining
practice in these skills with the modeling and guided practice suggested by Beyer,
Charlton finds that the students can improve their analytic skills in all arearfrom bi-
ology through woodsbop.
The author is Science Coordinator for Mt. Lebanon School District, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania.

Analysis is a basic thinking skill which we expect students to be able to

perform. We often ask students to analyze materials. Sometimes they ac-
complish the analysis to their own and our satisfaction. Sometimes they
do not. Some students can analyze effectively. Some students cannot.
The problem seems to be that we really do not explicitly teach students
the skill of analysis, but rather we give them practice doing analysis.
Those who can analyze do it. Those who cannot either soak it up to some
extent by virtue of being in the class where analysis is being practiced, or
they fall by the wayside, never really learning the skill.
In order to explicitly teach analysis we have developed a generic skill
model of analysis that can be modified to any content area. Our model is
based upon Bloom's taxonomy and the explicit teaching framework of
Beyer.
Bloom recognizes three levels of analysis. At the fast level the student
is expected to break down material into its constituent parts and to iden-
tify or classify the elements. At the second level the student is required
to find the relationships among the elements and to determine their con-
nections and interactions. At the third level the student is required to
identify the organizational principles that unify the whole. Not every sit-
uation 1-nds itself to all three, levels of analysis. The teacher must deter-
mine the goal(s) of the analysis and the levels of analysis that will be
used.

152
ANALYSISA GENERIC SKILL MODEL
1. State the reason for the analysis. What are you trying to find out?
2. Break down the material into the elements.
a> Identify the dues to look for.
b. Search the material piece by piece.
3. Define the relationship (s) of the elements to one another.
4. Identify the organizational principles of the elements to the whole.
5. State what you have found.
This model is designed for teaching all three levels of analysis. Stu-
dents expected to analyze at the first level would use steps 1, 2, and 5.
Students expected to analyze at the second level would use steps 1, 2, 3,
and 5. Students expected to analyze at the third level would use all the
steps.
To the generic skill model of analysis we can apply Beyer's framework
for the explicit teaching of a skill. Beyer's review of the research on skill
learning indicates that skills should be taught continuously using a
framework of six stages: readiness, introduction, guided practice, expan-
sion/broadening, guided practice, and application (to autonomous use).
We can look at a specific example to see how this might operate. Sup-
pose the teacher's objective was to have students analyze line graphs to
interpret data, a common type of analysis in science. In many cases stu-
dents are given the graphs and told to analyze them. Student perfor-
mance of the task is often less than adequate. We ask ourselves, "What
went wrong?" The answer is twofold. First, we made assumptions about
the students' skill level. We assumed that they were at the level of appli-
cation. Second, we did not directly teach them how to analyze line
graphs.
Let's try it another way. Let's teach the skill before we expect students
to apply Begin by introducing analysis in general. Define it. Explain
it. Have students explain it. When you are satisfied that the students
have a general idea of the concept, give them the generic skill model for
analysis and explain the model. Let the students know what is expected
at each level of analysis. The defusing, explaining, and model presenta-
tion should only take ten or fifteen minutes, and it is time well spent.
The next step is an important one. Have the students analyze some-
thing they are familiar with in their everyday life. Work this gli this
analysis with the students. At this time we want the focus to be on the
skill, not on the subject matter content. We have used the analysis of a

153
stereo system with our students (Figure 1). You may find examples even
more appropriate for your students. Make sure the students understand
the skill by giving them at least one more guided practicemore if nec-
essary. The guided practice can occur during the same class period as the
introduction of the skill. Additional guided practice could take the form
of homework assignments that are reviewed the next day in class.

Figure 1. The Analysis of a Stereo System

ELEMENTS. What are the individual parts of a stereo system?

Power supply Amplifier
Speakers Radio tuner
Tape deck Turntable

RELATIONSHIPS. How do the elements interact with each other?

Power supplyamplifier Power supplyturntable
Power supplyradio tuner Amplifiertape deck
Amplifierspeakers Tape deckspeakers

Many other relationships are not included to save space.

ORGANIZATIONAL PRINCIPLES. How do the relationships among the elements go

together to make the system work?

Radio Tuner
rower Amplifier Tape Deck
Turntable

Speakers

When you are sure the students have a good understanding of the
general skill of analysis, you can then apply the skill to more specific
subject matter content. We now return to the analysis of line graphs in-
troduced above. The students now have a model to use for analysis. The
teacher builds upon the model by briefly reviewing and reinforcing it ev-
ery time the students engage in analysis. The teacher should prepare a

15,i 154
planning guide to focus the analysis on the task at hand (Figure 2). The
planning guide helps to keep the lesson going by suggesting questions
for the teacher to ask. It also identifies the three levels of analysis and
how they relate to the specific content.

Figure 2. Teacher Planning Guide

SKILL: Analysis
SUBJECT AREA: Science (Biology)
GOAL: Analysis of line graphs to interpret data
I. IDENTIFY THE ELEMENTS OF THE GRAPH.
A. Does the graph have a title? If so, what is the title?
B. What is the label of the variable indicated by the horizontal (X) axis?
C. What is the label of the variable indicated by the vertical (Y) axis?
D. What are the units of the graph?
E. How many lines are on the graph?
F. What does each line represent?
II. SEARCH THE GRAPH TO FIND THE ELEMENTS.
III. IDENTIFY THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE ELEMENTS.
A. What is the value of Y for each X location?
B. How do the two variables (X, Y) influence each other?
C. Where does each line go on the graph?
IV. IDENTIFY THE ORGANIZATIONAL PRINCIPLES.
A. Is there a pattern?
1. For a single line?
2. For all the lines?
B. What does the whole graph indicate?
C. Can any inferences be drawn based on the graph?
V. STATE WHAT WAS FOUND.

The teacher may also want to make a student guide sheet for student
use with specific questions that correlate the skill model with the subject
matter content (Figure 3). As the students become more proficient in the
skill of analysis, after several guided practices, the questions may become
less directive and fewer in number.
An ideal situation would be to have reinforcement and guided practice
of the skill in other courses and in other ,trade levels, but even within

155 153
 I

Figure 3. Student Guide Sheet

Zinnia
48 .-
44 /
40 /
/
ca
36
/
5 32 /
5
E 28 /
c
8 24
/
/
20 /
g 16 / Marigold

12
/
8
o /
NO.
IN.. ..... ..".

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 2e 30 32 34 36
D a 'y s

STEM GROWTH. Average of 20 plants of each type.

DIRECTIONS: Analyze the graph above using the analysis skill model and answer
the questions below.

(Answers provided for teacher use)

1. What is the title of the graph?

(Stem Growth)

2. What is the label of the X axis?

(Days)

3. What is the label of the Y axis?

(Height in Centimeters)

4. What are the units of the graph?

(Days, Centimeters)

156

157
5. What does each unit represent?
(2 days, 4 centimeters)

6. Now many lines are on the graph?

(Two)

7. What does each line represent?

(Marigolds, Zinnias)

8. Which plants had the most rapid growth during the first 12 days?
(Marigolds)

9. What is the period of the most rapid growth for the marigolds? (Day 9 through
Day 11)

10. What is the pattern of growth for the marigolds?

(Slow but steady growth for the first 8 days; rapid growth for Days 9 through 11;
no additional growth for the rest of the time)

11. What is the pattern of growth for the zinnias?

(Slow but steady growth for the first 15 days; rapid growth for Days 16 through
24; no additional growth for the rest of the time)

12. "That does the graph indicate about the growth of marigolds as compared to
zinnias?
(Marigolds crow faster for the first 11 days to reach a final height of 16 centime-
ters. Zinnias grow slowly for the first 15 days, but then grow rapidly until Day 24
to reach a final height of 48 centimeters.)

the confines of a siiigle course, teacher, may be able to make significant

improvements in students' ability to analyze.
The skill of analysis may be approached in a slightly different manner
depending upon the content and the goals of the teacher. The important
thing is to explicitly teach the skill before it is to be used and to review
the steps of the skill when it is used. The examples that follow illustrate
some different approaches.
A history teacher might use the skill of analysis when teaching about
the American Civil War. The teacher may want to have students analyze

157 1
the cat: u: the war. Student. would need to consult source materials:
students could be given copies of primary sources, or they could go to
the library to find sources on their own. Students would be directed to
search the source materials piece by piece for any evidence of issues of
strife between the northern states and the southern states. They would
be asked to write down the issue and the dates of concern. For example,
from 1816 to 1857 there was a see-sawed battle in Congress over tariffs
with the northern states generally favoring high protective tariffs and the
southern states favoring low tariffs and free trade. Even this first level of
analysis, identifying the elements, would give students a better under-
standing of the multiple causes of the American Civil War.
The teacher could move to the second level of analysis, relationships.
Students would be required to determine if there were any relationships
among the issues identified in the first level. A major example of such a
relationship is the free homestead issue entangled with the slavery ques-
tion. This relationship led to the Missouri Compromise in 1820, the
Compromise of 1850, and the problems involved with these
compromises.
If desired, the third level of analysis, organizational principles, could
be pursued at a basic level by having students write a comprehensive pa-
per on their findings from the first two levels. At an advanced level we
have the makings of a doctoral dissertation in history.
The use of analysis is not confined to academic areas. Teachers in the
fine arts and in the practical arts also need to teach and use the skill of
analysis.
An art teacher might be teaching a lesson on the use of color. One of
the basic ideas in this type of lesson is the organization of the color
wheel. The teacher could introduce the students to the three primary col-
ors of red, blue, and yellow. This could be followed by giving the stu-
dents a color wheel with the primary and secondary colors and asking
them analysis questions at the three levels.
A woodshop teacher might have students analyze the requirements for
their projects before they begin to work. Analysis at the first level might
include the type of wood to be used, the type of hardware to be used,
and the tools to be used. Second-level analysis might include how each
piece of wood joins to another piece, whether the joints will be nailed or
glued or both, and whether power tools or hand tools will be used for
each of the operations. Third-level analysis would have students plan all
of the construction sequences and visualize the finished project.
The skill of analysis ail and should be used in all content areas. You
can explicitly teach the generic skill model and then use it at whatever
level meets your learning objectives.

158

15.9
REFERENCES
Beyer, Barry K. "Practical Strategics for the Direct Teaching of Thinking
Skills." In Developing Minds: A Resource Book for Teaching Thinking, edited
by Arthur L. Costa. Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curricu-
lum Development, 1985.
Bloom, Benjamin S. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Handbook I: Cogni-
tive Domain. New York: David McKay Company, 1956.

159
1Gu
CONVERSATION WITH
ARTHUR WHIMBEY

Arthur Wbimbey maintains that early verbal give-and-take between parent and
child develops the End of intelligence that leads to academic success. He discusses
research showing the distinctions between successful and unsuccessful learners:
good students think systematically, draw on information they bring to a problem,
and work carefully and deliberately toward problem solution. In contrast, poor stu-
dents attack problems unsystematically and supelfwiaily; they are indifferent to-
ward accuracy, and are generally care/ea in their problem solving. Whimbey main-
tains that good think og, like golf; involves a set of J tills that can be demonstrated
and practiced. If they practice consciously, responding to guidance and feedback,
students can significantly improve their thinking
In this chapter the initials JIS identify the name of the pugication where it ap-
peared originally: The Journal 4 Learning Skills, Winter 1982. Reprinted with
permission.
Arthur Tr/bimbey it the author of Intelligence Can Be Taught and the coauthor
of Problem Solving and Comprehension.

JLS: Why have past experimental studies failed to show that intelligence
can be improved by training?
WHIMBEY: I think the reason is that psychology and the study of intel-
ligence are very young sciences. We're only gradually corning to under-
stand what it is that intelligence tests measure and how this can be im-
proved through training. Some of the early attempts to improve
intelligencepre-school programs that wer' run during the early six-
tiesbegan with the notion that low intelligence resulted from sensory
deprivation, and that intelligence could be improved through the enrich-
ment of sensory input. This was translated into providing students with
clay and paint and trips, mobiles lb. 2.1e young infant, and other things
that would provide sensory stimulation. However, more recent studies
indicate that it isn't just raw sensory stimulation that's needed, but in-
stead a particular type of verbal interaction with an adult that produces
the pattern of thinking that's called academic intelligence.
JLS: What type of interaction is that? What kinds of early experiences
develop intelligence in children?
WHIMBEY: Intelligence develops through a type of verbal interaction
that teaches the child to make discriminations and to keep track of rela-

160

16j.
tionships. Developmental psychologists tell us that without educational
intervention, higher levels of intelligence tend to arise from a distinctive
type of verbal interaction in the pre-schooler's home. In the lower-in-
come home, where children are closely spaced and the mother doesn't
have too much time for each child, if a child comes to his mother and
asks to buy a candy bar, the mother may answer, "Here's some money.
Bring back the change." In the upper-income home, the children are
more widely spaced, and the mother often has a richer educational back-
ground and may be more interested in the child's education. A mother
in this environment might say, "Here's 25C. The candy bar's a dime and
you'll get 15C change. That's a nickel and a dime, or three nickels.
When you come back, we'll count the change." And when the child
comes back, they do count the change together. This teaches the child
the mental pattern of analyzing a complex entity into relevant parts. It
teaches the child to systematically make discriminations and classifica-
tions which are meaningful with respect to some goal. And it isn't just
this one type of pedantic situationit's a verbal interaction all along the
way. An eight-year-old telling a four-year-old, "Put on your boots 'cause
mommy said so," is different from the mother telling the child, "You
have to put on your boots because it's raining outside, and you don't
want your feet to get wet. If you get wet you'll get a cold and have to
stay in bed." The mother is explaining the cause-and-effect relationship.
This kind of continual asking and answering questions develops the type
of intelligence needed for academic success.
JLS: Much of your work is based on an early study by Bloom and Broder.
Tell us about this study. What did it show about cognitive learning?
WHIMBEY: In 1950 Benjamin Bloom and Lois Broder published a
monograph entitled "Problem-solving Process of College Students". The
Bloom and Broder Ludy had diagnostic and remedial components. First,
they asked students with both high and low scores on aptitude tests to
think aloud while solving academic reasoning problems. They found that
the problem-solving behavior of low-aptitude college students was char-
acteristically different from that of high-aptitude students.
The cognitive profile of low-aptitude college students had two promi-
nent features. First, there was one-shot thinking, rather than extended.
sequential construction of understanding. Second, there was a willing-
ness to allow gaps of knowledge to exist, an attitude of indifference to-
wards achieving an accurate and complete comprehension of situations
and relations. These students were mentally careless and superficial in
solving problems. They often rushed through instructions or even
skipped them, and selected a wrong answer on the basis of a feeling or a
guess. They were almost completely passive in their thinking, taking lit-
tle time to consider a question or break it down into its component
Parts.
High-aptitude students, by contrast, made an active attack on prob-
lems. When a question was initially unclear, they employed a lengthy se-
quential analysis in arriving at an answer. They began with what they
understood of the problem, drew on other information, and carefully
proceeded through a series of steps that brought them to a conclusion.
Haling isolated the habitual thinking deficiencies of low-aptitude stu-
denti, Bloom and Broder undertook to develop a remedial training pro-
gram. This was only a pilot project, but the method they developed may
find wide application. A set of problems was selected on which the con-
trasting approaches of good and poor students were dearly evident. In-
trospective reports of extremely capable students were then collected,
and these model solutions served as the primary teaching material. Stu-
dents were trained individually in the procedure of thinking aloud while
solving sample reasoning problems. During a typical training session, the
student attempted to solve a problem while thinking aloud. His verbaliz-
ing was reviewed and discussed by the instructor, and he was then given
the protocol of model solutions to the problem. With thc assistance of
the instructor, the student made a list of differences and similarities be-
tween his solution and that of the model. The instructor emphasized
that the student should look for differences that occurred regularly, rath-
er than those that were unique to individual problems.
In the sessions that followed, time was divided between practice in ac-
quiring the approach used by the model and comparison and analysis of
solution protocols. When solving problems, the student attempted to
apply the general principles derived from his list.
JLS: How well did the program work?
WHIMBEY: No standardized test was used to evaluate program success.
School grades were taken as a criterion of gain. Comparison with various
control groups indicated that grades on comprehensive examinations in-
creased to a significant degreeenough to allow the experimental stu-
dents, who had been failing and on probation, to continue in college. In
addition, there were marked changes in the students' problem solving in
training sessions. They approached problems more actively, began with
what they understood, set up hypotheses, reasoned sequentially in steps
and so on. Students reported a carry -over effect to all their thinking. For
example, they reported taking a more analytical approach to the argu-
ments of others, and thinking twice before making comments in class
discussion.

162
160
JLS: If this work was done in 1950, why hasn't it surfaced until recently?
Didn't Bloom and Broder follow up on their work?
WHIMBEY: It's kind of interesting that Bloom, after the publication of
the 1950 monograph, did not pursue this research, but instead got into
mastery learning. The reason was that, in the pilot project with college
students, academic reasoning problems from various content areas were
used. These problems, from disciplines such as physics and political sci-
ence, required both reasoning and subject -area knowledge. Bloom and
Broder found that there was often a gap in the students' knowledge that
interfered with the development of critical reading and reasoning. So
Bloom got more concerned with ensuring that students had the founda-
tion in knowledge. With thirty years of hindsight, we see that the prob-
lem with the standard mastery learning method is that it doesn't teach
students how to master the material. We now realize that many students
need courses focussing on teaching students how to learn.
JLS: You have been using a method similar to Blown and Brodcr's for
some years now. What do you feel is the most critical problem in teach-
ing improved thinking?
WHIMBEY: Teaching thinking runs into a peculiar difficulty. Generally
there are two phases to teaching any skill. The skill is explained and
demonstrated to the student. The student practices the skill with guid-
ance and feedback. For example, golf is taught by showing the novice
how to grasp the club, place his feet, and how to move his arms and
body as he swings. The novice watches the pro, he can even watch a
slow-motion film of the pro in action, and in this way he can learn the
pro's technique. The pro observes the pupil as he practices, he points
out his flaws and he shows him how to improve.
In contrast to playing golf, the activities of reasoning are generally car-
ried on inside one's head. This makes it difficult for a teacher to teach
and for a learner to learn. To teach something, we would like it out in
the open where both teacher and student can see it. As it is, a beginner
cannot observe how an expert thinks in analyzing complex ideas. And
the expert has trouble demonstrating his technique to a beginning
student.
JLS: How do you solve that problem? What instructional strategies ap-
pear effective in helping students to improve their thinking?
W}UMBEY: One solution to this dilemma is to have both teachers and
students think aloud as they work through ideas. Have them vocalize
their thoughts as they analyze relationships, sort concepts, and form gen-
eralizations. If both students and experts vocalize their thoughts as they

1631 6
work through complex ideas and relationships, the steps that they take
are open to view, and their activities can be observed and communicat-
ed. Naturally a person cannot put all the motions of his mind into
words, any more than a map-maker can show every bend and hill along
the road. But research shows that he can exhibit enough of his thinking
for someone else to follow his path through a problem or complex
concept.
JLS: What kinds of problems are most suitable for cognitive training?
WHIMBEY: I believe the most crucial characteristic is that all of the in-
formation that a student needs to solve the problem should be available
to him. That is, the problem should not be unsolvable because of lack of
knowledge. On the contrary, the problem acquires difficulty from the
necessity of careful, thorough sequential processing. For example, take a
problem like this: Cross out the letter after the letter in the word "par-
don" which is in the same position in the word as it is in the alphabet.
Let's look at how a good problem solver would approach this problem.
When he reads "Cross out the letter after the letter", he may stop and
say, "This is confusing." Reading a little further he'll say to himself,
"Okay, so I have to cross out a letter which is in the same position in the
word as it is in the alphabet. `P' is in the first position in the word 'par-
don'. But 'a' is in the first position in the alphabet. In the word 'par-
don', 'a' is in the second position, 'r' is in the third position. Okay, 'd'
is in the fourth position in the ward and it's also in the fourth position
in the alphabet. But now in the beginning of the problem, there was
something confusing. Let me go back to it. I have to cross out the letter
after the letter in the word 'pardon'. So I have to cross out the letter af-
ter the 'd'cross out the letter 'o'."
You cap see how solving this problem is a step-by-step process. Even
the good problem solver initially finds it confusing. But he starts with
something that he can get a grip on and then gradually works through it
and eventually works back to the more complicated part. Now, in con-
trast, the poor problem solver, who does badly on IQ tests or the S.A.T.,
will very often just cross out the "d". He'll just lose the initial section of
information. He kind of blurs over it in his mind. And sometimes he
rm even cross out the "d" in the word "word". He hasn't isolated that
Iie has to cross out a letter in the word "pardon". He isn't that careful
in his interpretation of the sentence. We fmd that this kind of ap-
proachteaching content-free problem-solving techniquesis highly ef-
fective in helping students develop analytical thinking skills.
JLS: You have also suggested ways of teaching thinking skills in the con-
tent areas. Could you give us an idea of how this can be done?
WHIMBEY: Well, Jack Lochhead, at the University of Massachusetts,

164
Amherst, is teaching kids thinking skills as part of their learning physics
and engineering. First students work through content-free problems of
the kind I just discussed. Then he has them shift over ^ problems in
physics. Here's the kind of problem that's usedsimple, Jut one that's
often deceptive to students: A bicyclist sets out on a ten-mile trip. The
first half of the trip is level. But on the second half, he must go up and
down two hills Sketch a distance vs. time graph that is consistent with
the above inform2tion.
JW Carmichael, at Xavier University, has a similar training program.
Proposed science majors spend a pre-college summer in a cognitive train-
ing program; these skills are later reinforced through cognitive training
with chemistry problems, an integral part of the introductory chemistry
course. It's been three or four years since the program has been institut-
ed at Xavier, and it does seem to be effective. There's been a whole stan-
dard deviation increase in students' performance on a standardized test
of introductory chemistry published by the American Chemical Society.
Another example is Bloomfield College. where the approach is being
used in a remedial math course. There, our approach was used in two
sections of remedial math along with the remedial math text. For com-
parison, another two sections used just the remedial math course in the
conventional method. A standardized test of remedial math showed. sig-
nificantly larger gains by students using the cognitive training methods
and thinking aloud in the solution of math problems.
JLS: Bloom and Broder used one-to-one instruction. That's not very
practical for wide use. What do you suggest as an alternative?
WHIM:BEY: What seems to be a reasonable compromise is to have stu-
dents work in pairs and take turns as problem solver and listener. Thy
student who's designated as the problem solver reads the problem out
loud and does all his thir.:,ing out loud. He may make diagrams to sup-
plement the exhibition of his thinking. In general, he externalizes his
own thinking. The listener is asked to listen for the strategies that the
problem solver is using in order to learn the strategies and also to listen
for errors. If the listener catches an error, he points it out to the problem
solver, saying, "Now, listen, read that over a little more carefully; per-
form that computation a little more carefully; count that a little more
carefully." Or the iistener may ask, "What exactly is that relationship?"
When students take turns in this way, on one problem, one student is
the problem solver, the other's the listener. On the next problem, they
switch roles.
JLS: What role do you think the Journal of Learning Skills can play in
improving instruction in thinking skills?
WHIMBEY: I think we're just starting to get an understanding of how

165
16a
 students who score well on IQ tests and who are academically successful
differ in their thinking from students who have academic difficulties.
We're also beginning to get an understanding of how to teach this aca-
demic thinking skill. It's in this regard that I'm happy to see the publi-
cation of the new Journal of Learning Rills, a journal which will allow
communication among practitioners who are actually in the field teach-
ing students to think more effectivelypractitioners who ate seeking im-
proved methods and who also have a theoretical orientationdeveloping
procedures which make sense and are effective.
Recently a number of prominent psychologists, such as Hilgard and
Cronbach, have been critical of psychology, acknowledging that tradi-
tional psychology and traditional psych journals have focussed on learn-
ing problems that are remote from the classroom, and haven't really con-
tributed to the improvement of academic competence. On the other
hand, a number of the applied journals describe procedures without any
real theoretical rationale. And in some cases these journals have perpetu-
ated notions that really don't contribute to the improvement of learning.
I believe that the Journal of Learning Shills will fill the gap between the-
ory and practice by being a clearinghouse and forum for the dissemina-
tion of studies focussing on cognitive aspects of real academic learning.

166
TEACHING PRECISE PROCESSING
THROUGH WRIIING INSTRUCTION
by Kendall Didsbury

Kendall Didsbuty bas developed a writing program that focuses on Arthur

Whimbey's 'Precise processing." This is a method where students are asked to
identify and "precuely spell out the series of operations" they use in solving an ac-
ademic problem; they are then asked to apply these operations in solving an aca-
demic problem; they are then asked to apply these operations in solving new prob-
lems. An important classroom assignment in Didsbuty's program it students'
written responses to a collection of essay questions. Students 1.7: then asked to car-
ry out a series of pre-writing activities that help them break the assignment into
component parts.
The author teaches English at Tilton School, New Hampshire.

Without having to restructure our junior English classes, we have im-

proved our students' expository writing skills while teaching them to be
more perceptive and analytical in their thinking. We found Arthur
Whimbey's "precise processing" brought the objectives of Tilton
School's conference-based writing program into sharper focus and gave
us a new impetus to fine -tune our program.
In "The Key to Higher Order Thinking is Precise Processing" [Educa-
tional Leadership 42 (September 1984): 66-70], Whimbey shows it is not
necessary to "rearrange or restructure academic topics to exercise specific
reasoning skills"-
All we need to modify is our pedagogy, shifting the emphasis to mental pro-
cessing, with provisions made to observe and provide feedback on the pro-
cessing. For example, if a student has difficulty following worked examples to
solve new problems, a teacher might ask the student to explain the changes or
operations occurring between the first and second step of the example, probe
with helpful questions when the explanation is incomplete or errcleous and
continue this until the student is able to precisely spell out the series of opera-
tions and apply them in solving new p,,olems (Whimbey, p. 69).

We have learned that Whimbey's thinking strategy has been very helpful
in our writing program. In its most recent revision this course builds on
Whimbey's ,,urk by using three strategies to help students become pre-
cise sequential thinkers and more confident writers.

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1C)
 The central innovation of ouz program is the collection of essay ques-
tions that we assign. Each assignment consists of a specific problem and a
body of detailed and proscribed data. By controlling the amount and
type of information that each student has, the writing instructors can be
more cifective in addressing the intellectual stumbling blocks of the pre-
writing process.
Take, for example, the following assignment. It demands that stu-
dents classify information to solve a problem:
In one segment of "60 Minutes" Andy Rooney, a CBS commenta-
tor, talked about the words z.dvertisers use. He reported that the ten
most commonly used words were the following:
1. new 6. rich
2. natural 7. real
3. light 8. fresh
4. save 9. extra
5. free 10. discover/discovered
These words appear most frequently because they connect the prod-
uct being advertised with values that are important to us. In a well-
organized essay, identify the values that these words suggest.
In order for students to respond effectively to this problem, they must
carry out the following pre - writing activities in sequence:
1. Turn the statement of the problem into a question. ("In a well-or-
ganized essay, identify the values that these words suggest" be-
comes "What are the values that these words suggest?")
2. Identify several connotations for each
ch word.
3. Group words that share common meanings.
4. Determine the cultural values implied in each grouping.
5. Find adver'qing examples that demonstrate how the use of each of
the 10 worm, implies the values hypothesized in step 4.
6. Write a one-sentence answer (a thesis statement) to the question
posed in step 1.
7. Create a writing plan (an outline) that identifies the thesis state-
ment and supports it with examples from each word grouping.
We do three things to help students become adept at using such a
process. First, the students observe how another writer solved a similar
problem. They read a description of a sample problem, study an expla-
nation of the thought processes used in the pre-writing process, and ana-
lyze a model essay. Next, the instructor leads the students through the
pre-writing process on their first essay. In the class discussion the stu-

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163
dents practice the sequential process about which they have just read. By
the end of the class the students and teacher will have developed a writ-
ing plan that the students can use to complete their essays. As they write
their essays, the teacher will check that the students employ the correct
thinking process. Finally, the teacher will give the students a second writ-
ing assignment based on the original model. For this paper they will re-
ceive no help in processing the information because we assume that they
have internalized the cognitive strategies sufficiently and will be able to
work independently.
When creating these assignments, we look for subjects about which
students have prior knowledge; we want them to recognize that they
have something substantial to say. Consequently, many of the topics
deal with popular a lture. Among the more successful topics using classi-
fication skills have been those listed below:
Problem Data
1. What personal characteristics do The results of a survey
young Americans admire? about American heroes
2. To whom does a particular A summary of articles
magazine appeal? in a magazine with a
precise demographic focus
3. What are the programming A list of the top 10
tastes of the 1967-68 prime-time TV shows for
television audience? 1967-68
4. Describe the role of A list of rules for wives
married '.':Jmen in 1845 written in 1845
5. Explain how life will be A list of predictions of
different in 2000 A.D. scientific and technical
innovations that will be
made in the next 14 years
Students find these assignments challenging and informative. Generally
they are liprised by how many insights they have, consequently, they
gain confidence in their writing ability.
We also try to make the assignments as interdisciplinary as possible.
During the twelve weeks of the course, we teach five types of writing
problems:
1. Classifying Information
2. Comparison and Contrast
3. Analysis of Structure
4. Analysis of Character
5. Problem Solving

169

S
While some of the assignments are literature based, many come from a
variety of subject areas. For example, one of the traditional comparison-
/contrast assignments asks students to compare two short stories having
similar themes. In our program, on the other hand, we include two so-
cial studies assignments: one using paired statements from the Republi-
can and Democratic . rty platforms, and another pairing statements
from the USSR constitution with reports by foreign correspondents. Both
assignments ask the students to contrast points of view. Likewise for the
third type of writing problem, analysis of structure, we not only present
several poems for analysis but also provide a diagram of a complex piece
of machinery and ask that students describe the purposes of the mechan-
ical components.
We have found that the diversity of topics e_tcourages the transference
of writing and thinking skills to essays assigned in other courses. After
doing a social studies assignment in English class, students are less likely
to ask their history teachers if the next papers will be graded for form as
well as content. They know that good writing follows from clear and pre-
cise thinking.
The use of these assigned topics makes possible a second innovation:
the opportunity to provide feedback on mental processing. When the
students prepare their first essay for each type of writing problem, the
teachers monitor their student? performance in a workshop/conference
setting. Students write every day, and the teachers use most classes to
read the newest drafts. Because the teachers are familiar with the data in
each assignment, they can not only make comments on the sentence
style, grammar, and general organization; they can also respond to the
analytical processing in the essay. For instance, if a student has drawn a
faulty inference, the teacher can ask the youngster to explain the sequen-
tial steps used to an dyze the data and then help the student re-analyze
the information correctly.
A side benefit of observing how students respond to thinking prob-
1 is a new approach for teaching how to correct errors in sentence me-
c .nits. One of the moat common grammatical mistakes is to use the
pronoun it or this to refer to a concept described in a prior noun clause.
Previously we had corrected this error by showing our students that the
pronoun referred too broadly to all or part c r. the last sentence. To rectify
the error we told our students to replace the pronoun with a word that
renames the antecedent concept. Now we not only teach the grammatical
concept of broad reference but also address the underlying difficulty of
abstractions by asking students to describe how they arrived at the faulty
statement. Thus we deal wits. the cause of the problem and not just its
symptoms.

170
 Another good example of how cognitive skills can prevent usage errors
appears when we correct a student's misuse of the verb to be. Our stu-
dents frequently write sentences in which the subject and complement
are falsely coordinated (i.e.,' Physically attractive women are Mike's bad
points," instead of "His infatuation with physically attractive women is
Mike's weakness."). Before we incorporated cognitive skills in the curric-
ulum, we prevented this error by mandating that students avoid the use
of to be as much as possible. Now we let them use linking verbs freely,
and when they write a sentence equating unlike things (as in our exam-
ple), we ask them to review with the teacher how they developed the
idea. They quickly recognize that they me,..n "weakness" when the say
"bad points" and that women are not the character's weakness but rath-
er his infatuation with them is. Using this process, we show them why
the verb to be is difficult to use, and we suggest the context in which it
can be used correctly. Most importantly, we enlarge their repertoire of
sentence styles rather than diminishing it, while, at the same time, im-
proving the quality of their thinking.
Our third innovation occurs in our instruction of rue editing process.
We place great emphasis on editing for two reasons. First we want our
students to learn to revise their own work and to outgrow the need for
writing conferencesto become independent writers. We also want our
students to become self-critical thinkers. Whereas the pre-writing lectures
and the writing conferences taught our students how to think about a
problem, our discussions about editing concentrate on teaching students
how to stand at a distance from their writing and think about thinking,
a skill called metacognition. Specifically, we teach our students how to
identify whether and how fully their thinking has served their writing.
We initially teach our students metaccgnitive skills by showing them
how other writers' thinking resulted in a particular essay structure. As
our students read and analyze model essays, they learn why the particular
thinking processes are appropriate to that assignment. Moreover, later in
class discussions, the students evaluate different thinking strategies to de-
termine which one will be more successful under a given set of condi-
tions. Through this process the students learn to be more self-conscious
and thus more effective in their planning.
We complement this critical editing process with a second technique.
Early in the course students receive an evaluation sheet of 33 questions
listed under four headings: organization, mechanics and grammar, con-
tent, and style. We review each of these questions with the students
when we teach the particular concept. Furthermore, every time students
prepare their final drafts they are expected a, use the questions to review
their work, and when the teachers grade the essays, they also use the
evaluation sheet as a grading criterion. Thus, the application of these

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1 2
 questions by both students and faculty reminds the students of their
writing goals and reinforces the desired impression that good writing can
be achieved, not magically, but one step at time.
Those questions appearing under the organization and content head-
ings have proved to be especially effective in helping students recognize
sloppy thinking. These questions read as follows:
Organization
1. Does the paper have a clearly defined introduction, middle, end
conclusion?
2. Does the introductory paragraph contain a thesis statement that ex-
presses the central idea of the paper?
3. Is the thesis statement followed by a statement of organization that
signals how the pap vitl be developed?
4. Does each body paragraph contain a single topic sentence which
supports, explains, or otherwise reinforces the idea expressed in the
thesis?
5. Does eac: sentence in each paragraph elaborate on the topic sen-
tence of the paragraph?
6. Does the concluding paragraph begin with a restatement of the
thesis?
Content
1. Does the thesis statement effectively respond to the writing prob-
lem as presented?
2. Does each paragraph providr: appropriate supporting details, evi-
dence, and information in sufficient quantities to be effective?
3. Does each topic sentence serve as more than a label for a group of
similar sentences? Does every topic sentence imaginatively and per-
ceptively show the relationships between the supporting details?
4. Does the introduction grab the reader's attention and focus it on
the thesis?
5. Does the conclusion convey a sense of completeness, of loose ends
tied up?
These questions listed under the organizational heading remind stu-
dents that thinking involves sequential steps. Students quickly learn that
factual evidence supports topic sentences and that topic sentences serve a
thesis. Similarly, the questions related to content evaluate the depth of
thinking in an essay; they help a student distinguish between shallow
and insightful ideas. Together the two sets of questions hold students ac-
countable for their work and encourage them to be their own most se-
vere critic.

172
 2n1wIIMI4=11111111

Because this writing program is so time consuming, it is a separate se-

mester course. We limit the discussion of literature to the second semes-
ter because we have found that the intensive aspect of the writing has
several advantages. First, the students incorporate new writing skills more
consistently into each paper. Because success in the program depends on
reaching competency in writing, we also find it possible to guarantee
higher minimum level of writing proficiency. Finally, the extensive time
commitment that the English department has made to composition work
rewinds the students of the importance that the school places on writing
and thinking skills
Unfortunately, the program's chief asset creates its greatest problem.
How does the average high school English teacher with a pupil load of
120 to 160 find time for a conference-based writing course? Here are
some suggestions. First of all, so that work load is shared, the school
should require each of its English faculty to teach this course. In schools
where teachers must teach more than one section of writing, the program
should be staggered so that some students take the course each semester.
Secondly, the administration should limit the class size to twenty or
twenty-five students. To be effective, this course demands that students
write daily; therefore, teachers can expect to correct a theme per student
each week. Schools that have a large enrollment and have flexibility
might increase the size of literature classes to compensate for the small
writing sections. Thirdly, the faculty should plan on few( . ,,vriLag assign-
ments during the rest of the year.
Under these conditions a conference-based program can probably
work. Our experience has been that on the workshop days (dass periods
when students revise their writing) most students have only a couple of
paragraphs prepared for a critique. The conferences tend to be short be-
cause the teacher knows the potential thinking/writing problems implicit
in each assignment and can quickly identify a student's errors. Our
teachers have found that they develop a repertoire of questions appropri-
ate for each stage of the writing process; therefore, they can help as
many as ten or twelve stulents in a period. During the waiting time the
other students work on their papers or work on some self-teaching gram-
mar exercises that are also assigned each week.
By attacking writing problems through sequential thinking, we have
begun to show students that the composing process is not an occult art
but rather a practical craft. They no longer see writing as a monumental
and intimidating endeavor; writing problems become manageable be-
cause the students know how to approach each task in the composing
process. At the same time the nature of the material and the emphasis
on thinking skills fosters the students' self-image because they recognize
that they have something intelligent to say and that exploring ideas can
be fun.

173
THINKING ABOUT LEARNING:
AN ANARCHISTIC APPROACH
TO TEACHING PROBLEM SOLVING
by Jack Lochhead

Jack Locbbead maintains that scientific progress is not the result of strict adher-
ence to a set of rigid logical procedures. Rather, "good science is a search for
methods that have the widest conceivable application." Good scientists do not fol-
low a prescribed method; they "discover methods that work."
However, when we teach students science we behave as if there were one prob-
lem-solving methodology that all students should adopt. Lochhead maintains that
instruction of this kind prevents students from examining problem - solving options
and critically evaluating their own attempts at problem solution. Since science is
distmguisbed "not by its method, but... by self-awareness of method," in effect
we are preventing students from practicing science when we insist that they use a
particular problem-solving approach.
This chapter is reprinted with permission from The Journal of Learning Skills,
Winter 1982.
The author is Director of the Cognitive Development Project at the University of
Massachusetts, Amherst.

Most philosophers of science claim that science progresses because its

practitioners follow a set of logical procedures known as the scientific
method. They acknowledge that individual scientists lapse occasionally
from this strict discipline, but they see these lapses as either detrimental
to the progress of science or at best lucky breaks which must eventually
be reexamined. There is considerable debate about the precise structural
details of the "scientific method", but few philosophers doubt it exists.
In his book Against Methou (1975), Feyerabend sees no such method.
. the idea of a fixed method, or a fixed theory of rationality, rests t-.111 too
naive a view of man and his social surroundings .... there is only one princi-
ple that can be defended under all circumstances and in all stages of human
development. It is the principle: anything goes. (pp. 27-28)
To Feyerabend "lapses" in scientific discipline are essential for "prog-
ress". In addition to the standard techniques of logical argument, he
sees propaganda, rhetoric and the exercise of raw power as tools which
the successful scientist must use to "advance" knowledge.
Support for the anarchist position can also be found by studying the
history of science. Kuhn (1962) has shown that new scientific theories of-

174
175
 las.1011111

ten cannot be logically evaluated within the context of the theories that
preceded them. Thus scientists who want to break new ground afford to
restrict themselves to any arbitrary set of methodological techniques. The
only rule which can guide the selection of a new technique is that it
work. A new method must first of all convince the investigator and sec-
ond be convincing to other scientists. Thus the good scientist does not
follow a prescribed method, but on the contrary discovers methods that
work.
This view of science is not a rejection of all methodology in favor of
totally unstructured investigation. It simply states that scientists should
learn many methodologies and use each as a tool rather than as a reli-
gion. For Feyerabend, the practice of science is an art requiring the exer-
cise of many skills, rather than the methodical application of techniques.
The genius of the successful scientist is in the art of inventing and select-
ing appropriate tools.
By now the reader may well wonder what all this has to do with teach-
ing problem solving. Novice problem solvers scarcely need instruction in
'-hy. According to Bloom and Brodcr (1950) they:
1. ... have great difficulty in ascertaining what they are required to
do.
2. ... (demonstrate a) lack of objectivity in dealing with problems.
3. ... seem to grope blindly toward a solution. Their problem-solving
is characterized by feelings, hunches and guesses.
4. .. . (have an) inability to complete a chain of reasoning.
5. . lack necessary subject-matter knowledge. (pp. 38-39)

Clearly these students need to be taught a specific method for systematic

thought.

THE PROBLEM-SOLVING DILEMMA

But problems arise as soon as one tries to define a problem-solving
methodology that ought to be taught to all students. While experts can
agree on the merits of various special techniques (e.g. breaking problems
into parts, examining special cases, or making linear approximations),
there is no consensus as to the best overall strategy. Some people advo-
cate starting every problem by drawing a picture, others prefer a list of
known facts, stilt others demand a statement of goals. Tht choice be-
tween these general strategics seems (and is) arbitrary.
If we ignore the selection dilemma and, blessed with immaculate in-
sight, impose some procedure upon our students, then we face yet an-
other difficulty. Many students will stubbornly ignore our advice; others
will follow it for a time before giving up. Unless we are willing to impose

175
severe grading penalities, few seem to benefit from our wisdom. A col-
league once required his students to lay out a complete solution plan be-
fore solving any problem. Durin' the final exam he walked around the
room and noted that over half ti't class left blani spaces before each so-
lution to be filled in as a final step. My experience has been similar. I
start each semester with a strict policy on exactly what each solution must
include, but as the semester wears on the policy wears down. I always
feel guilty about letting students off the hook, but I never have the ener-
gy to impose the required discipline.

RESOLVLNG THE DILEMMA

Epistemological anarchism offers an explanation for both of the above
difficulties. Experts cannot agree on the best overall strategy because
there is none. Students, and teachers, will not conform to any one strate-
gy because to do so would be ineffective and unwise. Man's special ge-
nius is not as the user of toolsvirtually any lift forms can do that; it is
as the inventor of tools. Sccn from this perspective, drilling students in a
particular methodology for problem solving actually denies them the op-
portunity to learn, because the key to problem solving lies in finding an
appropriate method. But then where are we? The students described by
Bloom and Broder surely need to learn something; they definitely lack
discipline and a sense of systematic method. What can be done to help
them?
An answer to the above questions lies in a more careful analysis of the
anarchist position. When Feyerabend states "anything goes" he only
tells part of the talc. Science is distinguished from other endeavors not
by its method but rather by self-awareness of method. Scientists keep
track of both their conclusions and their methods. Feyerabend should
perhaps have said "anything goes provided one knows what one is do-
ing." Novice students, particularly poor ones, haven't the vaguest no-
tion of how they solve or fail to solve problems; and it is this single
weakness that makes learning almost impossible. They do not need to be
taught methods which they can only follow in a mindless fashion, rather
they need to be taught to th;nk about whatever method they happen to
choose. A problem solver who reflects upon his method can learn from
mistakes and will make progress even when guided by faulty intuitions. I
should also point out a second necessary restriction on anarchism. In or
der to keep track of one's method, one must apply it consistently. Many
low aptitude students view each new situation as distinct from everything
else; they make no attempt to find methods that work in as many differ-
ent situations as possible. Good science it a search for methods that have
the widest conceivable application.

176
 111 1111111T116.

DEVELOPING AN AWARENESS OF
THOUGHT PROCESSES
Making students conscious of their own reasoning has long been a cen-
tral concern in education. Dewey (1933) saw the fostering of reflective
thought as a key element in higher education. Today most courses in
problem solving stress the importance that awareness has in:
1. allowing students to be in introl of their own thoughts.
2. permitting students to refine effective techniques and rye . inef-
fective ones.
The standard method for promoting such awareness is to present and dis-
cuss a variety of problem-solving techniques. Several variants of this ap-
proach are discussed by Hayes (1976), Larkin (1975), Norman (1977),
Rubinstein (1975), Schwenk' .! (1979) and Wickelgren (1974). While this
approach has often bccn effective, it has rarely bccn anarchistic. Al-
though it does teach a diversity of approaches, it nonetheless specifies
the rules and acceptability of each. In so doing it dots not develop as
full/ as it might the students' skits in inventing and evaluating their
own strategies. The need for this latter kind of training is perhaps great-
est among the low achieving students described by Bloom and Broder.
These students are unprepared for the sophistication of a course on com-
parative methodology because they have not yet learned to examine even
a single strategy.
In working with such students, there is a danger of assuming that, bc-
causc they invent ineffective strategies, those strategies are not worthy of
examination. We may feel it necessary to first teach them a good strategy
and then show them how to examine it. This view is based on the erro-
neous assumption that the process of invention may be separated from
the process of evaluation. It is only through constructing a strategy that
one can become aware of the components to be examined; but it is only
through self-reflection on these components that one understands how to
construct them.
A 'ire anarchist's aroroach to teaching problem- solving would not
show students how to stave problems, but would instead force them to
consider whatever solutions they chose to use. Such a process has bccn
developed by Arthur Whimbey.2 In his approach students are asked to
work in pairs. They are given a series of relatively easy problems which
they must work according to the following rules. For each problem one
student takes on the role of problem solve: and the other the role of lis-
tener; they then switch roles for the subsequent problem. The problem
solver's role is to read the problem aloud and to continue talking
throughout the entire solution process. The listener's role is to keep the

177
problem solver talking and to continually probe for more detailed de-
scriptions of the problem solver's thought process. A good listener will
ask for clarification of even the most trivial steps. These are often the
most difficult to explain, since they have become automatic and were
probably learned when we were too young to grasp their meaning. The
listener must not solve the problem or give hints to the problem solver;
his function is solely to demand greater clarity.
The above process is described in greater detail in a problem solving
workbook ( Whimbey and Lochhead, 1979) which includes a series of
simple problems, each accompanied by one or more solutions. These so-
lutions contain an outline of key steps; some are verbatim transcril. s
from a model problem solver's thinking aloud protocol. However, the
solutions are not presented as optimal. In fact, students refer to ther-
ily when their own methods fail. They are told that there is nothl.._,
special about the book's solutions; any procedure is equally good provid-
ed it works and provided they understand why it works.
Solving problems according to Whimbey's rules is a demanding and
rewarding task even for college faculty. Few of us have ever been con-
scious of our own thinking at the level of detail this exercise demands.
Yet the method has also proved useful for high school remedial pro-
grams. Because this material meets the needs of so divergent a poput.
tion, I feel it ...... tapping important fundamental skills Furthermore the
approach demonstrates the power of appropriately contrclled anarchy. By
allowing each student to find his own way, all students can learn effec-
tively, even when there is a wide range of talent.
I would now like to contrast the structure and the anarchy in Whim-
bey's approach. Problems in the workbook are simple and they have one
right answer. The role of each student is well-defined and it is important
for the teacher to insist that all participants adhere to their roles. Stu-
dents are sometimes asked to hand in a written record of their thoughts
while working a problem. In many cases this exercise does not produce
acceptable results until students have been threatened with grading pen-
alties. But within the variety of solution methods students produce, any-
thing goes. The only criteria imposed on a solution are that it work and
that it can be explained. Teachers must resist the temptation to show off
by demonstrating a "better" method. This display can only curb the
student's confidence; it discourages inventions, risk-taking and self re-
flection, while promoting only imitation.
Although the Whimbey method does not teach a method for solving
problems, it does stress certain attitudes. These include:
1. a faith in persistent systematic analysis

178
17j
 2. concern for accuracy
3. the patience to employ a step-by-step procedure
4. avoidance of wild guessing
5. a determination to remain actively involved with the problem.
It is these general characteristics that describe the differences between
good and poor problem solvers, not knowledge of some list of tech-
niques.
The approach described above can be applied to almost any of the
conventional disciplines. Introductory physics is one example. I have
found that by using appropriately selected problems, it is possible to
move students through physics with very little direct instruction on how
to work problems. Traditional physics exercises can be used, but they are
improved by the following changes. Most textbook problems stress the
algebraic or formula-related perspective on physics. To the expert such
problems also suggest graphical, pictorial and even verbal image. Unfor-
tunately, as Perry (1968) has shown, undergraduates tend to see things
only as they are presented, and they have great difficulty =slating be-
tween different perspectives. It is therefore highly instructive to give stu-
dents problems that require translation between different representa-
tions,3 for example, a problem with an algebraic statement that requests
a graphical answer. Thies mixing of traditi)nal modes is highly challeng-
ing and helps students 1 iderstand the role of symbolization in their own
thought processes.
In making students, and ourselves, more conscious of how symboliza-
tion schemes affect our thinking, we also open up the possibility of
pushing anarchism one step further. Why restrict students to the symbol-
ization conventions of the past? Why not allow them to experiment with
their own idi Isyncratic systems? Faced with the image of Babel my own
interest in anarchism wanes, but there are specific instances where the
idea does work. Perhaps the most striking ot. ?le concerns angular mo-
tion. The current fashion in physics is to use axial vectors to represent
torques and angular velocities. This use of vectors is conceptually quite
different from their use in representing linear velocities, bui: students fail
to notice the distinction (and we usually do a terrible job of pointing it
out to them). I have found it useful to ask students how they would rep-
re,,cnt the u :.-ntation of a planz in three dimensional space. Their an-
swers rarely involve axial vectors, but the exercise of considering the diffi-
culties involved in crtating such a representation allows them to
appreciate the axial system when it is presented to them.
Another application of anarchism to the physics classroom concerns
the construction of formulas. Clement, Lochhead and Soloway (1979)

179
have shown that science students have great difficuity in translating En-
glish statements into mathematics. For this reason, I do not give students
the formulas of physics. Rather I ask them to construct these formulas
out of what they already know. For example, one question I have used is
the following:
An object that is high off the floor has potentially recoverable energy that
can be obtained by dropping it. That energy is related to the height off the
floor, the strength of gravity, a I the mass of the object. Write a formula that is
consistent with this information.
There are an infinite number of possible answers, and the students learn
a great deal by considering the alternatives. In grading these problems I
allow any answer that is consistent with the English statement, whether
or not it is "comet" physics. Even after the students do learn the "cor-
rect" formula an element of anarchy remains. Students from my course
are as likely to use E = ghm as the more conventional E = mgh.
These last two examples are helpful in demonstrating the advantages
of epistemologcal anarchism. By taking the position "anything goes",
one is freed from the blinders imposed by our methodological habits.
This is particularly important in teaching, where we are often blind to
the students' difficulty because we are unaware of the peculiarities of a
system in which we are too thoroughly enmeshed. Of course, after we
study alternatives we are always free to return to the old system; but we
do so by choice and with greater understanding.

EVALUATION
Because the above approach is relatively new, there is no objective evi-
dence for its effectiveness. Students and faculty often make strong state-
ments in its support, but data from large statistically meaningful samples
has not yet been gathered. However, LSe method shares much in com-
mon with the Guided Design'' system developed by Charles Wales. A re-
cent review of Guided Design (Wales, 1979) shows that a single course
can have measurable impact on college students' four year grade point
average. A much greater impact would likely be possible from a series of
these courses.

CONCLUSION
Although the tenets of epistemological anarchism may at first seem
absurd, )articularly as applied to the low achieving student, they are
both reasonable and practical. Feyerabend claims that the key to scientif-
ic progress has not been adherence to a well defin,:d methodology. This
paper suggests that students can be taught to become effective problem
solvers without being programmed to execute specific problem-solving

180
techniques. If this view is correct, the key to successful problem solving
lies not so much in the mastery of techniques as in the art of inventing
and selecting appropriate strategies.5

NOTES
I may for example consider myself to be merely the tool of a virus.
2 Arthur Whinbcy is not to my knowledge an anarchist. His approach devel-
oped out of his experience as a teacher, not from theoretical musings.
3 Excellent work in this area has been done by George S. Monk.
4 Guided Design was not developed from anarchist principles and many of its
advocates would take strong exception to the views expressed in this paper.
5 Larkin (1978) provides empirical evidence for this conclusion. Her analysis of
the problem-solving protocols of both e.:perts and novices shows clear differ-
ences i f the ability to select strategies.

REFERENCES
Bloom, B.S., and Broder, U. Problem-solving Processes of College Students:
An Exploratory Investigation. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1950.
Dewey, J. How We Think. New York: Heath Books, 1933.
Feyerabend, P. Against Method. Atlantic Highlands, NJ.: Humanities Press,
1975.
Hayes, J.R. "It's the Thought That Counts: New Approaches to Ed mtional
Theory" in D. Klahr (ed.), Cognition and Instruction. Hillsdale, N. J.: Law-
rence Erlbaum Assoc., 1976.
Kuhn, T.S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press, 1962.
Larkin, J. "Developing Useful Instruction in General Thinking Skills" in SESA-
ME Report. University of ealifomiz;., Berkeley, 1975.
Larkin, J. "Processing Information for Effective Problem Solving" M SESAME
Report. University of California, Berkeley, 1977.
Monk, G.S. Constructive Calculus. University of Washington, 1978.
Norman, D.A. "Teaching Learning Strategies", mimeo. University of Califor-
nia, San Diego, 1977.
Perry, W. G., Jr. Forms of Intellectual and Ethical Development in the College
Years: A Scheme. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970.
Paget, J. Biology and Knowledge. Chicago: The University of Chicr.go Press,
1971.
Polya, G. How to Solve It. Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 1948.
Rubinstein, M.F. Patterns of Problem Solving. Englewood Cliff, NJ.: Prentice-
Hall, 1975.
Schoenfeld, A.H. "Can Heuristics Be Taught? The Elements of a Theory and a

181 1S
Rcport on the Teaching of General Mathematical problem-Soi:ing Skills." In
Introduction to Cognitive Process Instruction. Philadelphia: Franklin Institute
Prtz, 1979.
von Glasersfeld, E. "Cybernetics, Experience, and the Concept of Self' in
Ozer, M.N. (ed.), A Cybernetic Approach to the 14 tressmert of Children: To-
ward a More Humane Use of Human Beings. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press,
1979.
Wales, C.E. "Does How You Teach Make a Difference?" Engineering Educa-
tion (February 1979.
Whimbey, A., and Lochhead, J. Problem Solving and Comprehension: A Short
Course in AJalytical Reasoning. Philadelphia- Franklin Institute Press, 1979.
Wickelgren, W.A. How to Solve Problems: Elements of a Theory of Problems
and Problems Solving. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman, 1974

182
HOLISTIC THINKING SKILLS
INSTRUCTION: AN INTERDISCIPLINARY
APPROACH TO IMPROVING
INTELLECTUAL PERFORMANCE
by William A. Sadler, Jr.

William A. Sadler, Jr., di:cusses a holistic approach to learning that combines the
teaching of analytical thinking with communication to improve students' intellectual
skills. The program, which is in use at Bloomfield College, in Now Jersey, and at Paul
Robeson High School, in Chicago, integrates analytical skills instruction into every
content course in the program; further, skills acquired in one course are reinforced in
anotheracross such different academic disciplines as the humanities and the
sciences.
Like Arthur Whimbey, Sadler views intelligence as a set of identifiable behaviors,
and sets about finding ways to help s:Jdents apply analytic and problem-solving Ails
to their academic tasks.
The author is Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences at Lock Haven University,
Pennsylvania.

A number of cognitive development programs emphasize teaching

from a taxonomy of thinking skills. While such taxonomies may be help-
ful in diagnosis, interventions are likely to be more successful if they are
holistic. As Arthur Whimbey har suggested, teaching thinking is like
teaching a sport: the teacher is a coach, modeling actions, calling stu-
dents' attention to effective and ineffective strategies. The tennis coach
knows that a new player must get the feel of the entire action in swing-
ing a tennis racket; attempting to help the player string together a series
component behaviors comprising tne swing will not get the ball over
the net. Similarly, instruction in thinking skills is most effective if it is
holistic, combining analytical thinking practice with communication to
improve students' general intellectual abilities.
Such a program is in use at Bloomfield College, in New Jersey, and at
Paul Robeson High and Middle School, in Chicago. First developed by
my colleagues and me as a two-year core freshman program at Bloom-
field College, and later extended for four years, the program has been
adapted for middle through high school use at the Robeson school. At
both sites, the program focuses upon developing cognitive skills. These

183
include basic processes of reading, writing, and computation for many
students; but the major skills aimed for are those of analytical thinking
and communication. Whether in math, natural science, social science,
humanities, career planning, or human development classes, students are
directed toward the improvement of communication and analytical
thinking skills. Analytical skills learned in one course, such af hum an-
ides, are reinforced in others, such as science. Thus, these skills have a
better chance of becoming a permanent part of a student's behavioral
repertoire. We chose these two cognitive skills because we believe they
are of fundamental importance to our students' successful achievement
in both their college and later careers.
With these two skills as primary goals, a new, more difficult problem
arose. What does analytical thiC ag mean? Teachers in the sciences were
more comfortable with the concept of analysis than were those in the hu-
manities; the latter had to develop their own definition and model for
teaching analytical thinking. After several years of trying to teach it,
most program teachers conduded that we were talking about reading
and solving p..oblems intelligently. But had we reduced program classes
to a basic, remedial level? Reading physics, Freud, Orwell, and Kafka in
required program courses (as our Bloomfield College students did) hard-
ly seemed remedial. Then what were we doing? Regardless of discipline,
our common aim was to improve students' intellectual performanceto
help them read with more intelligence and understanding. But what
does that involve?
As a first step in improving students' analytical abilities, we had to
specify our understanding of intelligence in terms of behaviors that could
be identified, taught, and assessed. We came to see intelligence, at least
in terms of our course aims, as a complex set of behaviors, involving at-
tention, selection, analysis (breaking something down into constituent
parts), formulating an idea, testing it (with experience and logic), and
applying it (in a practical way or through an enlargement of understand-
ing). In effect, we were constructing a model of analytical, problem-solv-
ing intelligence, similar to that underlying IQ and Scholastic Aptitude
Tests.
We learned three important lessons from implementing a skills-orient-
ed learning program at the college level. First, it is crucial to articulate a
set of primary goals, such as the development of basic and higher-level
cognitive skills. Second, it is essential to specify these goals precisely, so
that teachers can tailor instruction and assignments to meet these goals,
and monitor students' and their own progress in attaining them. In oth-
er words, we needed to know exactly what we wanted set tents to do and
then to make that objective clear to them. Thirdalso a principleped-
agogy is more important than content. As Kierkegaard put it,

184
1K;
 iMI ,M.1110

the how is more important than the what. Until teachers assimilate that
principle, they will find teaching skills an unsatisfying, nearly impossible
task.

PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION: HOW TO DO IT

How is such a program set in motion? Most teachers found that stu-
dents had trouble getting th- main point of written material. To help
them develop both communication ar..1 analytical skills, we decided our
first target would be to rapik them to get the point. Our search for
suitable materials lasted several years; ii fact it is continuing. One of the
books that worked foi us at Bloomfield College was a collection of short
essays in natural science by Steven Gould, Et, ?t. Since Darwin. Most of its
chapters are tightly structured arguments that explode previous assump-
tions through careful reasoning and evidence. Students are assigned a
chapter and then asked to compose an essay on their own, often in class,
to demInstrate that they got the point. They can state it in their own
words, and they can cite evidence from the chapter supporting their
idea. When we first used this method, two grades were possible: Yes or
No. Students either got the point or they lid not. Most received a No on
their fast few papers. After several attempts teachers began asking, "Can
I give a No +? A Yes ?".
Eventually we reverted to letter grades. But the lesson had been
learned effectively by both teach.trs and students. An author had com-
municated a message; students could take definite, teachable steps to re-
ceive that message. But the most important aspect was that students had
to take those steps on their own, receNing feedback after they had first
tried without help to get the message.
This kind of experience confirmed another principle for us: to make
students work on their own. It was a particularly hard lesson to learn.
Most teachers have developed an inclination to help students through
material with lectures, supplemental readings, recitation sections, illus-
trations, outlines, and other teaching aids. At Bloomfield College and
Paul Robeson High, the faculty has learned to resist that inclination.
Students are forced to ask their own questions in order to analyze and
understand the material. Students need to learn to question the materi-
al, because tke questioning process is basic to intelligent understanding.
Once they learn to question, to carry on a dialogue with the material,
they are well on the way to cc (prehension.
That phase has some cost factors, however; it requires much feedback.
In one course, our workload amounted to 27 papers per student per se-
mester, or 54 papers per student per year. In other wards, a social science
or humat.ities teacher with a class of 20 grades ove: 1,000 papers each

185

183
year for one dass. Science classes developed their own version of this ac-
tive principle. Using this "discovery method" students do experiments,
form their hypotheses, and test them against experience and logic.
Teachers act as resource persons, consultants, and feedback experts. Math
and human development courses use a similar model.
Wherever this approach is used, te-*.hers are more like coaches, elicit-
ing improved performance, rather than being didactic imparters of infor-
mation. Coaching has become a model for many of us who are pursuing
the task of improving cognitive skills.
We discovered that an effective educational program must focus on
students in the process of developing competencies. That is, we needed
to create an environment that not on'-; reinforced generic skills but also
permitted a clearly delineated developmtntal model to operate. Whatev-
er their placement in the program then, students follow a sequential
learning pattern. One step !cads to another; students must demonstrate
a satisfactory degree of mastery with each step before progressing to an-
other part of the program. This results in a more complex analysis of ar-
guments and then in the more demanding task of applying one major
idea to another in doing a comparative assessment. By the time students
finish the program, they have demonstrated their capacity to follow a
book-length argument in discussions and papers; they can also apply a
set of major ideas (such as Freud's notion of internal conflict) to a his-
torical event (such as the Salem witch trials). In science, students move
from simple experiments determining the properties of space to calcula-
tions about the movements and phases of stars.
Here again the analogy with sports is appropriate. The teaching of
skills works when a carefully structured series of actions builds upon each
other. A beginning or intermediate skier does not start on a tough expert
trail. But in high school and college classes something like that may hap-
pen. Consider the common general education course in Western civiliza-
tiOP. given to college freshmen. Such a course often proposes to provide
students with information about history, to help them understand and
critiqut both historical events and major ideas, compare the values of
one person or era with another, and use these insights to prepare for
both careers and life. The kinds of cognitive skills needed for such a task,
not to mention the requisite level of maturity, far exceed the developed
capacities of most students. Educational programs often push too much
on students too soon, forcing them into survival strategies rather than
fostering growth. In teaching skiing, for example, if students want to use
advanced trails with expertise and enjoyment, they must first learn the
necessary maneuvers and be able to integrate them easily in a variety of
challenging situations. The same principle applies when teaching intel-
lectual skills.

186
 By trying to teach cognitive skills effectively, we learned from our ex-
perience, which was later clarified through reading about human devel-
opment. These ideas can lead to some fundamental policies. Underlying
these policies are some basic assumptions that should be m:...dt. explicit:
(1) intelligence is a complex of skills that can be developed; (2) a focus
on student activity, especially questioning and a verbalization of think-
ing, is an important method to develop intelligence; (3) the provision of
regular, appropriate feedback is equally important; (4) the use of a se-
quential learning pattern that requires mastery at each stage promotes
this development; (5) an environment that is conducive to cognitive de-
velopment and promotes student/teacher interaction is most desirable;
and (6) teachers need training to provide this kind of instruction effec-
tively. These assumptions have been articulated into the following poli-
des that we believe to be most important:
Develop a dear, consistent focus on cognitive development.
Identify specific objectives so that both teachers and students know
what is expected.
Determine the levels and abilities of students and keep a close
watch on their progress.
Make students learn to question the material.
Devr' -p a sequential learning pattern that starts with what stu-
dent geed to learn first in order to move toward the stated
objective.
Require students to demonstrate a mastery of each behavior before
allowing them to move to more advanced tasks.
Construct active learning experiences that require students to de-
velop and test their competencies.
Provide regular, careful, sensitive feedback so that students have a
good idea about what they are doing right as well as what they
need to correct.
Construct an environment that constantly reinforces cognitive de-
velopment, promotes student initiative and faculty/student inter-
action, and provides support, encouragement, and rewards for
both faculty and students.
Strong faculty involvement made the program possible. Although the
program is completely interdisciplinary, courses are broken down accord-
ing to general academic divisions. Faculty responsible for a course meet
together on a regular weekly basis, not only for course planning and
monitor ing, but also f'r teacher training. Teachers share critical incidents
with tht group regularly. All classes are observed; nearly everyone has a

187
cLis taped, which is then observed with several other teachers, who help
select portions to be shown to the entire faculty group for analysis and
discussion. Consultants have been used to provide specific instruction on
new methods; and faculty have learned from them to continue to in-
struct and coach themselves. Most teachers attend educational confer-
ences on a variety of issues. Faculty continue to read about human devel-
opment, learning, and education topics that most had not explored
earlier. In short, the discovery method has been applied to the develop-
ment of the faculty as educators. What sustains the process is the emer-
gent, closely knit groups of teachers. What threatens the teamwork prin-
ciple is the tendency to break from the group and revert to covering
content. One way to prevent that L to establish some criteria by which
faculty can assess their own development; the best context for this is a
supportive group, which helps individuals in self-assessment and growth.
What kind of results can be expected from this program? Perhaps the
first indication is a change within faculty. There is often a notable rise in
morale, a recovery of a sense of excitement that comes from meaningful
interaction and mutual learning with peers. This leads to a heightened
sense of collegiality. A danger here is that if only one group has formed
to teach skills, it may become a clique. If there is an overall attempt to
redefine learning in terms of cognitive development, however, then
there is the possibility for a sense of shared purpose among faculty, ad-
ministration, and students. Another result is the undeniable improve-
ment in students. They develop competencies; they learn to deal more
effectively with increasingly difficult material; they question mere and
become more curious; their grades improve; they realize, often for the
first time, that teachers care about them and want to help them develop.
For faculty, there is the recovery of a sense of mission for higher educa-
tion. Indeed, this educational experience is liberating for students and
faculty, and it serves real needs.

188

183
COGNITIVE MODIFIABILITY ll\T
ADOLESCENCE: CO GNI'''. VE STRUCTURE
AND THE EFFECTS OF INTERVENTION
by Reuven Feuerstein, Ronald Miller, Mildred B. Hoffman,
Ya'acov Rand, Yael Mintzker, and Mogens Reimer Jenscn

Reuven Feuerstein and his colleagues focus on the learning abilities of culturally
deprived adolescents. Their definition of deprivation does not connote culturally
different, but rather the learners' inability to learn from their environment. Ac-
cording to Feuerstein, this inability stems from an early, deprived Mediated Learn-
ing Experience.
Feuerstein has designed an intervention program, Instrumental Enrichment (IE),
to address the needs of adolescents with such environmentally induced learning
disabilities. The IE system, first developed in Israel and now in use in the United
States, ir a set of content-free exercises intended to improve these students' intel-
lectual functioning. In this chapter, Feuerstein and his colleagues provide examples
of IE exercises and discuss how the exercises are incorporated into a structured me-
s,..ited learning experience. Finally, they present data on Instrumental Enrich-
ment's effects on various cognitive and intelligence measures.
This chapter is reprinted with permission from The Journal of Special Education
(Summer 1981): 269-87. Copyright © 1986 The Journal of Special Education.

Difficulties in learning occur at many levels and range from very spe-
cific to more generalized problems, as the conditions we call learning dis-
ability and mental retardation, respectively, tend to suggest. Perhaps the
most pervasive problem confronted by education is the difficulty for
some in learning to learn, whether in a narrow field or in the broader
sense of a reduced ability to adapt to novel events and situations.
Increasing numbers of children who experience difficulties in learning
are being called learning disabled. Presumably the ability, or some part
of it, that facilitates learning in se called normal individuals is absent or
deficient in the learning-disabled person. In this sense, special education
means education for special or disabled people. This approach to the
problem of the nonlearner or low-functioning individual has been criti-
cized (for example, see Dunn [2]) because it places the locus of the prob-
lem within the individual. In other words, it is not the individual's per-
formance that is low; rather, it is his/her competence to learn that is
impaired. It has been suggested that learning disability might be more
appropriately called teaching disability. Clearly, the implication is that
189

1S0
 we require special kinds of education for children with learning difficul-
ties. The locus of the problem does not lie with the child; it lies with the
teacher who is unable to impart learning to the child.
The problem with both of these approaches is that although they both
contain elements of truth, neither includes the whole truth. A more
plausible explanation may emerge if the two approaches are combined or
reconciled to include and account for both sides of the coin. The first
step in this direction is the recognition that learning, or at least some
part of it, is a product of the interaction between the teacher and learn-
er. If so, a disability may reside in the nature of the interaction. A sec-
ond and related step is to distinguish between the phcnomcnon of learn-
ing (or nonlearning) and the learner. Consequently, it is not the learner
who is special but his condition or state. In similar vein, a distinction
may be drawn between the teacher and the curriculum; that is, it is not
necessarily the teacher who is disabled but the curriculum that is dis-
abling under certain circumstances. Thus, what is required is a special
kind of educational curriculum to satisfy the needs of a special kind of
nonlearning phenomenon. In the sections that fe!low an attempt is
ma te to develop these points. The etiology of low cognitive performance
is discussed and the nature of the nonlearniug phcnomcnon is described.
This is followed by a brief description of an intervention program de-
signed to reverse low cognitive performance and some relevant empirical
findings.
MEDIATED LEARNING EXPERIENCE
Our cozen: in the field of educational intervention has been directed
not to special children but to an understanding of and remedy for a syn-
drome th-t we refer to as cultural deprivation. By this team we do not re-
fer to an individual from a culture that is deprived or depriving but rath-
er to an individual deprived of his/her own culture, whatever that
culture may be. Defined operationally, cultural deprivation refers to a
state of low modifiability; that is, an inability or reduced ability to learn
by direct exposure to environmental events. This condition finds expres-
sion iu pior cognitive performance. Unlike the phenomenon of cultural
difference, however, cultural deprivation is exemplified not by failure in
certain restricted fields of knowledge because of a lack of familiarity, but
by a generalized reduced propensity to learn and become modified even
under apparently conducive learning conditions. In order to understand
and subsequently reverse the syndroue of cultural deprivation, it is nec-
essary to consider the etiology of low cognitive performance and inade.
quate cognitive modifiability.
We argue that ' ian intelligence is an expression of two distinct
kinds of learning. As with learning in other living organisms, human

190
learning may occur as a result of direct exposure to the environment.
Most psychological theories, such as the stimulus-response learning the-
ory and the stimulus-organism-response Piugetian approach, are con-
cerned with how the individual learns in reaction to or in interaction
with the environment of objects and --vents. In addition to this universal
kind of learning, we maintain that human learning involves a qualita-
tively different kind of learning with respect to its end product. Learning
how to learn (or, in our terms, cognitive modifiability) is a direct func-
tion of what we refer to as Mediated Learning Experience (MLE). In con-
trast to learning by direct exposure, mediated learning occurs when a
mediator interposes himself between the leaner and the environment
and interprets the world to the learner. Thus MLE is not necessarily syn-
onymous with social interaction. The issue is not whether the individual
receives stimulus information from inanimate or animate sources but the
kind of information that is received. The essence of a mediated interac-
tion is that in the process of mediating information, a transformation oc-
curs that facilitates the transmission of meaning not inherent in the raw
stimulus or sensory information impinging on the organism. Typically
mother-infant 'interactions abound witu instances of mediated learning.
For example, the mother selects certain stimuli for presentation and ig-
nores others. She frames, filters, schedules, and provides a sequence for
the stimuli presented. She attributes specific meanings to objects and
events. Thus, temporal, spatial, causal, and other relationships not in-
herent either in the objects or in the child's actions are mediated by the
mother and other significant caretaking figures. In addition to transmit-
ting all kinds of specific information that is simply not available via di-
rect exposure, such as a knowledge of the past, mediated learning pro-
vides the kind of experience necessary for the building of cognitive
structure.
It would appear that the need to impose order on the world, and the
cognitive tools required to achieve this, are not readily available from ei-
ther environmental or constitutional sources. Instead, it is that collective
human activity that is referred to as culture that elicits the need and pro-
vides the tools for the imposition of order and understanding on the
world, In its broadest sense, MLE may be understood as the psychological
.

component of cultural transmission. The universal phenomenon of cul-

tural transmission from generatiori to generation has tended to be taken
for granted by psychologists (a noteworthy exception is Bruner [1]), not
only with respect to the psychological processes involved but also with re-
spect to their psychological products. Apart from their specific contents,
different cultures all provide a structure within which the direct exposure
to and experience of objects and events may be organized, interpretea,
and understood. Appreciation of the past and anticipation of the future

191
are cultural imperatives that render the human organism adaptable by
invoking representational processes that enable the individual Lo project
himself beyond the immediate world of direct observation and action.
Although language is a powerful medium for cultural transmission, MLE
may be provided in modalities other than language; furthermore, not all
language use has a necessary mediating function. The defining character-
istics of MLE are (a) an intention, not necessarily conscious, on the part
of th,- mediator to interpret to the child the experienced world and (b)
to transcend the experience and the needs of the immediate here and
now by the mediated learning. The language of instruction and the level
of technological sophistication of a given culture are not determinants of
effective mediated learning. Whether a child learns to construct a canoe
or a transistor radio, he/she must simultaneously learn to plan ahead,
employ appropriate strategies, understand how the parts are related to
the whole, draw logical inferences, and so on. Over and above the specif-
ic contents of any task or skill, whether writing a computer program or
tracking an animal, information must be organized, operations per-
formed, and an entire set of complex activities integrated into a purpose-
ful and meaningful system of action. Thus, MLE may be understood as
the transmission of universal cognitive structures by the initiated to the
uninitiated and immature members of society. It is the acquisition of
structure that renders the individual adaptable or modifiable.
ETIOLOGY OF LOW COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE AND MLE
The significance of the MLE concept as a crucial component of the de-
velopment of intelligence becomes evident when the relation between it
and learning by direct exposure is considered. We conterd that the more
and the earlier an individual is provided with MLEs, the greater will be
his/her ability to benefit from direct exposure. Therefore, culturally de-
prived individuals (that is, individuals deprived of MLE) have difficulty
in learning because they lack the cognitive structures that serve to con-
nect, organize, integrate, and relate stimulus information. In short, such
inaividuals do not have the cognitive equipment with which to adapt to
new and novel events in a manner that would deepen their L..derstand-
ing and render them increasingly modifiable.
In addition to the MLE emphasis on the structural components of
mental activity, it also has important etiological implications. Low cogni-
tive performance is usually attributed to either environmental or consti-
tutional factors. Arguments supporting socioeconomic factors such as
poverty, class, and education are intended to counter claims that the ba-
sis of low cognitive performance is either of a genetic or cogenital nature.
In terms of MLE theory, neither environmental nor constitutional factors
may be regarded as direct causal factors that inevitably produce low cog-
nitive performance. The direct or proximal etiology of low performance
is a lack of MLE. Genetic, socioeconomic, and environmental conditions
are only indirectly implicated in the sense of being distal factors that
may, but do not necessarily, trigger conditions that impede the provision
of MLE. Thus, sensory and organic impairments of various kinds as well
as psychological conditions may render an individual less receptive to
MLE. Alternatively, various social and psychological conditions such as
poverty or emotional disturbance may prevent the mediator from provid-
ing adequate MLE. Whatever the distal condition that results in low cog-
nitive performance, the proximal or necessary condition is inadequate
MLE. The educational implications of conceptualizing the etiology of
low cognitive performance in the above way are of both theoretical and
practical importance. By locating the cause of low cognitive performance
in either the socioeconomic conditions of the students' parents or in gen-
etic/organic disorders, or even in developmental disorders that may arise
during critical periods in the preschool years, the educator is confronted
with conditions over which he/she has no control. If, however, low cog-
nitive performance is directly attributable to a lack of MLE, irrespective
of any associated distal conditions, then the problem falls squarely with-
in the educator's domain. Furthermore, and of even more fundamental
significance, there is no reason to believe that the syndrome of cultural
deprivationas reflected in low cognitive performanceis an irreversible
or immutable condition. Although it must be acknowledged that certain
extreme distal conditions may set practical limits to both the provision
and reception of MLE, in principle a state of low cognitive performance
may be reversed by the provision of appropriate MLE. The point that
must be emphasized is that this theory of cognitive modifiability does
not necessarily imply that there are no limits to an individual's cognitive
functioning. What the educator may extract from the theory is that there
are no preconceived limits, and that the extent of cognitive modifiability
is a function of the investment the educator is willing or able to make.
In practical terms this means that the responsibility for educational deci-
sions must be returned to the educator. Although psychologists, sociolo-
gists, and medical practitioners may provide information concerning
manifest performance levels, organic conditions, and socioeconomic con-
ditions, all of which may help in indicating the extent and nature of the
investment required, it is the educator who is responsible for teaching
and who must decide whether or not to make the investment.
COGNITIVE MODIFIABILITY
From an educational perspective, the explanatory value of any psycho-
logical theory is a function of its power to serve as a blueprint for cogni-

193 1 t,(
.1
tive change. A theory of cognitive modifiability that describes the phe-
nomenon f low cognitive performance and explains its etiology must
also incorpoi.ae the two additional and related components of assess-
ment and intervention if it is to have any real significance for education.
Within the context of cognitive modifiability the goal of both assessment
and intervention is the production of meaningful structural cognitive
change. In the assessment situation, the purpose is not to produce long-
term changes but to assess the potential of the individual's structural
modifiability and to diagnose any specific difficulties that individual may
encounter in the process. The goal of intervention is to bring about long-
term changes of a kind that will render the individual modifiable. In
terms of our definition of the syndrome of cultural deprivation, interven-
tion must be directed at the production of structural changes that will
transform the individual into an autonomous learner. The term structure
is not lightly employed, and neither are the implications for intervention
minimized or overlooked. The essence of a structural change is that its
effects should show an increment over time, as opposed to the simple ac-
cumulation of specific information that is subject to a gradual process of
fading, forgetting, or extinction.
Given, on the one hand, an etiology based on a lack of MLE and, on
the other hand, a goal of producing structural changes, intervention pro-
cedures must be designed to provide a link in the causal chain of events.
Clearly, intervention must take the form of providing the kinds of MLEs
that for a host of reasons the individual has missed. But in addition, in-
tervention must be directed at those cognitive processes whose malfunc-
tion or failure to function adequately have prevented the construction of
requisite structure by the low-performing individual. Thus, intervention
procedures must be developed with the goal of correcting deficient cog-
nitive functions in order to produce changes in the cognitive structure.
The point should be made, [however,] that cognitive structures cannot
simply be implanted directly by training or intervention. The focus of in-
tervention, in terms of our approach, is to provide the individual with
the functional prerequisites that will enable him/her to construct the
cognitive structures that will enhance modifiabilitythat is, learning
though direct exposure to impinging stimuli.
INTERVENTION: INSTRUMENTAL ENRICHMENT
To meet the above requirements, an intervention program called In-
strumental Enrichment has been designed primarily for use with cultur-
ally deprived young adolescents. The program is intended as a phase-spe-
cific substitute for MLE. Traditionally, adolescence has not been the
focus of cognitive intervention efforts, although it is typically the period

194
at which low cognitive performance can no longer be ignored or glossed
over by either the educational authorities or the individuals concerned.
In the present forum, a complete description of the program, didactic
methods, and supporting theory and research is not possible (see Feuer-
stein, and others [4]. For the present purposes, the more salient theoreti-
cal and conceptual characteristics of the program are emphasized, while
those reflecting technique and dassroom application will not be dis-
cussed. The program consists of 15 instruments containing pencil-and-
paper exercises as follows: Organization of Dots; Analytic Perception;
Orientation in Space I, II, and III; Comparisons; Categorization; Instruc-
tions; Family Relations; Illustrations; Numerical Progressions; Temporal
Relations; Stencil Design; and Transitive Relations and Syllogisms. The
program is integrated into the regular school curriculum and extends
over a 2- to 3-year period, with a minimum of three sessions per week
devoted to work on the instruments. While the names of the individual
instruments indicate the dimensions of the program, in another sense
the program is intended to be content-free.
The term content-free is intended to convey that the contents of any
particular exercise are merely a vehicle, or instrument, to achieve the
overall goals of the program. The major goal of Instrumental Enrichment
is to enhance the cognitive modifiability of the individual, and this is
achieved by the implementation of six subgoals as follows:
(a) The correction of deficient cognitive functions;
(b) The teaching of specific concepts, opetations, and vocabulary re-
quired by the Instrumental Enrichment exercises;
(c) The development of an intrinsic nee-1 for adequate cognitive func-
tioning and the spontaneous use of operational thinking by the
production of crystallized schema and habit formation;
(d) The production of insight and understanding of one's own
thought processes, in particular those processes that produce suc-
cess and are responsible for failure;
(e) The production of task-intrinsic motivation that is reinforced by
the meaning of the program in a broader social context; and
(f) A change in orientation towards oneself from passive recipient and
reproducer to active generator of information.
Although the achievement of all the subgoals of the program depend
on an active interaction between the three elements of student, teacher,
and instruments, subgoals (b) and (d) rely heavily on the teacher's con-
tribution. The remaining subgoals are achieved by the nature of the in-
struments themselves with the exception of the last subgoal, which is a
product of all the others together. In general, each instrument focuses on

195
a particular or small set of deficient functions, while incorporating most
of them in a more diffuse fashion. Depending on the nature of the in-
strument and the students involved, specific contents may have to be
taught and different kinds of insight and understanding encouraged and
elicited. The exercises are designed to capture the interest of the students
and to enhance task-intrinsic motivation by being graded iL difficulty
and balanced with respect to the effort required and challenge present-
ed. Constant repetition is used to achieve crystallization and automatiza-
tion of schema, not by monotonously repeating the same task but by
holding constant the same principle while varying the kinds of exercises
and applications. In this way schema become more fluid as well as more
spontaneous.
ELLUSTRAnON: ORGANIZATION OF DOTS
AND SYLLOGISMS
The actual implementation of the subgoals may be illustrated with ref-
erence to two instruments, Organization of Dots and Syllogisms, the first
and last instruments, respectively. Examples from these instruments are
provided in Figures 1 and 2. Organization of Dots is a nonverbal instru-
ment in which the task throughout is to organize an amorphous cloud of
dots by projecting into it the virtual relationships (that is, relationships
that are potential but not yet actualized) required for the ider.tification
of a given standard figure. The student has to join the dots pertaining to
the model figure while bearing in mind that the orientation of the mod-
el may change and that one form may be superimposed on the other.
The logico-verbal reasoning tasks in Syllogisms involve the application of
set theory to the understanding and solution of syllogisms. Although ap-
parently very different in nature, both instruments remediate similar de-
ficient functions, albeit at a different level. Organization of Dots focuses
primarily on the difficulty in projecting virtual relations. Thus the stu-
dent must project onto a random set of dots a structure of relationships
that matches a given model. In the case of Syllogisms, although the fo-
cus is on formal operations, relations must be imposed on a set of ele-
ments according to a modelnot a concrete form but an abstract logical
model. In a broad sense, then, both instruments deal Wit.' the need to
impose order on the world. Deficient functions that may impede success-
ful performance include impulsivity, a lack of spontaneous comparison
between the model and the solution, a lack of precision, and an inability
to consider two sources of information simultaneously. All these defi-
ciencies are challenged in both Organization of Dots and Syllogisms, de-
spite the very different nature of their content and tasks. To correctly
find the shapes in the clouds of dots or to solve the class-inclus; n tasks,
the learner must gather the data by sharp and precise perceptit i of the

196
 The student must perceive the dots in an amorphous, irregular cloud so as to
project figures identical in form and size to those in the given modes. The task
becomes more complicated by density of the dots, overlapping, increasing
complexity of the figures, and changes in their orientation. Successful comple-
tion demands segregation and articulation of the field.
Among the cognitive functions involved are:
Projection of virtual relationships Use of relevant information
Discrimination of form and size Discovery of strategies
Constancy of form and size Perspective
across changes in orientation Restraint of impulsivity

. ,
a

.
0 0 0
.

The thickened dots aid in projecting the square, but also serve as a distrac-
tor and prevent the perception of similarities between frames. In addition to
the functions and operations listed on the title page (above), the tasks in-
volve labeling, precio,:on and accuracy, planning, determination of starting
point, systematic search, and comparison to model. Successful completion
aids in creation and maintenance of motivation.

Figure 1. Example from Organization of Dots

components of the task, must compare in a precise manner his/her pro-

duction with that of the model, and must recognize that some elements
have properties that require simultaneous consideration.
With respect to the second (b) subgoal, it is clear from Figures 1 and 2
that the contents, operations, and vocabulary involved in the tasks are
different for each instrument. Nevertheless, the need for labeling and
defining the task elements and applying strategies in the solution of a
problem remain invariant across all instruments. The third (c) subgoal of
producing crystallized and flexible schema that are spontaneously activat-
ed is difficult to illustrate without exposure to an entire instrument.
However, it should be fairly obvious from the examples provided in Fig-
ures 1 and 2 how these tasks may be varied with respect to complexity,
novelty, and variety while keeping constant a set of prerequisite func-
Each one of the shapes below represents a set. Every set has a name.

The names of the sets are. salt, spices, food, ice-cream, dessert, cake, pepper,
vinegar.

Fill in the name of the set. Fill in the names of the sets in the correct
places.

Shape Name :if Set

CD= food

<=7' =

.1 = dessert

0 = vinegar

= pepper

Logico-verbal reasoning becomes highl, abstract. Meaning is based on the rules,

which have been acquired regarding members of sets and sub-sets. The task in-
volves encoding and decoding, use of signs, finding relationships, discovering the
principle upon which categories have been formed, choosing and processing rele-
vant data, and thinking logically.

Figure 2. Example from Syllogisms

tions, strategies, and operations. In this way the dual aim of crystalliza-
tion and flexibility is achieved by repetition through variation. The
fourth (d) subgoal of creating insight is accomplished by pointing out to
the student the reasons for specific failures or difficulties, such as failure
to apply a learned strategy, and also by group discussions of what is re-
quired for successful performance. The kinds of tasks represented in Fig-
ures 1 and 2 are designed to be intrinsically motivating, the fifth (e) sub-
goal. They are not derived from regular school subject matter, which
often carries with it associations of failure, boredom, and monotony. Per-

198
haps most important is that the tasks are difficult and represent an intel-
lectual challenge without requiting a great deal of prior content knowi-
edge. The discovery by the low performer that he/she is able to success-
fully solve tasks for which his/her peers and even the teacher do not have
ready answers is a powerful motivational incentive that may be used to
break the vicious elide of self-fulfilling negative expectations. Even the
limited illustration provided by the examples in Figures 1 and 2 is suffi-
cient to indicate how the sixth (f) subgoal is achieved. The tasks from the
first to last instrument require the generation of information by the stu-
dent, not the passive registration and reproduction of facts. The common
thread running through all the instruments is that understanding and
our ability to adapt depend on the manner and extent to which we are
able to impose structure on objects and events in the environment. Space
does not permit a discussion of the role of the cognitive map in the un-
derlying conception and design of Instrumental Enrichment, but it
should be mentioned that the above account is incomplete for this
reason.
EMPIRICAL SUPPORT
The question of whether Instrumental Enrichment works will be di-
rected primarily to three aspects: long-term effects, differential effects,
and theoretical issues concerning the nature of the effects. Although the
basic evaluation research studies on the immediate short-term effects fol-
lowing the completion of the Instrumental Enrichment program have
been reported in detail elsewhere (4, 5, Notes 1 and 2), a brief descrip-
tive statement of the general findings here provides a background against
which the long-term, differential, and theoretical aspects of the program
may be viewed.
The original research was conducted in Israel (see Feuerstein and oth-
ers [4]) on a ta.al sample of 218 retarded adolescents between the ages of
12 and 15 years. Results of IQ tests indicated that the subjects ranged
from borderline to educable mentally retarded, and their general level of
scholastic achievement was about 3 to 4 years behind their school peers.
Three major findings emerged from the research findings. First, immedi-
ately following the completion of the program, significant gains on vari-
ous cognitive and intelligence measures were obtained by groups that re-
ceived instrumental Enrichment (IE) with respect to comparison groups
that received a general enrichment program (GE). Second, despite the
fact that the IE groups received less instruction in formal school subjects,
amounting to + 300 hours over a 2-year period, the comparison groups
did not perform significantly better than the IE groups on any of the
school achievement tests. Not only were initial pretest significant differ-
ences in favor of the comparison groups eliminated on the posttests, but

199
U
the IE groups performed significantly better than the comparison groups
on a few of the achievement tests. Third, no significant differences be-
tween the IE and comparison groups were obtained on measures of self-
image. Essentially similar findings have been reported in the United
States (Note 1) and Canada (Note 2), although research in North Ameri-
ca has not yet been completed.
The above research findings indicate that Instrumental Enrichment
produces fairly substantial gains in performance on cognitive and intel-
lective tasks. A follow-up study was conducted to test the extent to
which the short-term gains of the groups were sustained over time. Ap-
proximately 2 years after the completion of the program, the students in
both the IE and GE groups were drafted into the Israeli Army and 184
subjects (IE = 95, GE = 89) were tested on an Army intelligence test
called the DAPAR. The DAPAR test yields a stanine score (10 to 90).
In the initial stage of the evaluation research, the Primary Mental
Abilities test (PMA) was used as a pre- and postintervention criterion
measure. For the follow-up study, the DAPAR scores were analyzed us-
ing analysis of covariance with the initial PMA pretest scores as the covar-
iate. The analysis yielded a highly significant difference between the
DAPAR scores for the IE (M = 52.52) and GE (M = 45.28) groups (F =
28.8, p <. .001). These results indicate that the gains achieved by the
IE groups on the posttests (immediately following the intervention) were
sustained and continued to differentiate between the groups even after
about 2 years.
Educational research, especially of an innovative nature, does not per-
mit the kind of precision or control afforded by the laboratory. The re-
sults presented are not intended to provide conclusive answers to any of
the questions posed. They do suggest that valuable information may be
derived by going beyond the question of whether an intervention pro-
gram works. Taken as a whole, the data appear to support the general
conclusion that low-functioning adolescents benefit from intervention
and that meaningful cognitive changes are possible beyond the early
years of life. Although a single measure of intelligence may represent
meager research evidence of cognitive change, such measures carry con-
siderable weight in determining life opportunities. In the case of the IE
subjects, their scores on the DAPAR test placed them within the normal
IQ range, and consequently they were eligible for opportunities that arc
closed to the low-functioning individual. All are agreed that the ultimate
test of intervention is adaptation to life. Today, perhaps more than ever
before, education is the Ley to successful adaptation. Instrumental En-
richment in both its didactic and material aspects represents an applica-
tion of a general theory of cognitive modifiability. The theory attempts
to explain and thereby to lay the foundation for the production of cogni-

200
tive changes that will enable individuals to become increasingly modified
as a result of their encounters with educational and life experiences.
REFERENCES
1. Bruner, J.; Oliver, R.; and Greenfield, P. M. Studies in Cognitive Growth.
New York: Wiley, 1966.
2. Dunn, L. M. "Special Education for the Mildly RetardedIs Much of It Jus-
tifiable?" Exceptional Children 1 (1968): 5-22.
3. Feuerstein, R.; Rand, Y.; and Hoffman, M. B. The Dynamic Assessment of
Retarded Performers. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1979.
4. Feuerstein, R.; Rand, Y.; Hoffman, M. B.; and Miller, R. Instrumental En-
richment. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1980.
5. Feuerstein, R.; Rand, Y.; Hoffman, M. B.; Hoffman, M.; and Miller, R.
"Cognitive Modifiability in Retarded Adolescents: Effects of Instrumental
Enrichment." American Journal of Mental Deficiency 6 (1979): 539-50.
NOTES
1. Haywood, H. C. "Modification of Cognitive Functions in Slow-Learning Ad-
olescents." Paper presented at the 5th International Congress of the Interna-
tionk: Association for the Scientific Study of Mental Deficiency (IASSMD),
Jerusalem, Israel, August 1979.
2. Narro, H.; Silverman, H.; and Waksman, M. "Assessing and Developing
Cognitive Potential in Vocational High School Students." Paper presented at
the 5th International Congress of the International Association for the Scien-
tific Study of Mental Deficiency (IASSMD), Jerusalem, Israel, August 1979.

201
202
USING VOCABULARY STUDY
TO GENERATE THINKING
by Ernestine W. Roberts

Ernestine W. Roberts discusses ways of facilitating critical thinking through vocabu-

lary development. She notes that vocabulary, like thinking skills themselves, "tran-
scends all disciplines, even though there is vocabulary that is uniqde to each disci-
pline." She suggests that vocabulary study be used as a means to teach thinking skills
in all academic disciplines, and provides a series of vocabulary development exercises.
Some of the exercises can be used in all academic fields, others are content area specrf
k. These include crosswurd puzzles that reinforce word skills, practicing with syn.
onyms, analyzing the relationships between sets of words, categorizing lists of words,
and evaluating math fuss while working toward problem solution.
The author is a Reading Specialist, Pine Bluff Schools, Arkansas.

With the emphasis on reform of public schools, there has been a grad-
ual shift away from teaching higher-level cognitive skills. This is a serious
trend. If we are to educate a population which is capable of solving
problems and taking positions in today's complex job market, it is obvi-
ous that thinking skills should be taught to students. The formal instruc-
tion should be followed by ample time allotted for practicing and per-
fecting these skills.
Thinking transcends all disciplines. Vocabulary study is also an area
which transcends al! disciplines, even though there is vocabulary that is
unique to each discipline and is best learned in that setting. Vocabulary
skills and thinking skills may at first appear to be incongruent, but Barry
Beyer in "Common Sense About Teaching Thinking Skill?' gives a clear
definition of critical thinking which helps clarify the relationship.
Critical thinking has been defined in various ways. careful and exact evalua
lion and judgment, subjecting a topic to severe criticism, thoughtful consider
ation about issues of great import, issues that imply considerable risk or dan
ger, range of very specific analytical or evaluative skills such as identifying bias
in a statement. judging the logic of an argument, or evaluating the accuracy of
a given factual claim (1).
It is reasonable to conclude that if the acth;ty includes areas such as
categorizing, problem solving, analyzing, generalizing, and evaluating,
it becomes a critical thinking activity.

202
 Because introducing new vocabulary is one of the prerequisites of good
teaching, vocabulary study provides an outlet through which all second-
ary education disciplines can teach thinking skills. This chapter providcs
a group of unrelated vocabulary exercises that can be used in the various
disciplines to provide vocabulary enrichment and practice in thinking.

SYLLACROSTIC (ALL AREAS)

The syllacrostic is a variation of the crossword puzzle and can be used
to reinforce a wide variety of word skills including syllabication, syn-
onyms, antonyms, homonyms, and vocabulary. In order to solve the
puzzle, students will have to analyze the data given. The material for
this activity can be drawn from any of the content areas.
It is simple to construct a syllacrostic. First choose a general topic.
Then decide on the terms you want to use. Next take a sheet of paper
and draw a box at the top. This is the syllabox.
Below the box and to the left of the page, list definitions for the terms
1 you've chosen. To the right of each definition, draw a line. Students will
write the word that fits the definition on this line. Inside the syllabox,
write all your terms in syllable form, listing each syllable separately and
alphabetically. Students must read the definitions and then attempt to
construct the right answer from the syllables provided. The number of
syllables in each term can be written in parentheses.

Mathematics Syllacrostic
a er oc ri
al gc am to
an glc pen tan
cir gon quad tri
cic hex rec try
c lat

1. A set of points, all equally distant from Dric certain point.

(2)
2. The space between two iincs of surfaces that meet.
(2)
3. A figure having six sides and six angles. (3)
4. A figure having eight sides and eight angles. (3)

203
o
41.; -4.
5. A figure having five sides and five angles. (3)
6. A figure having four sides and four angles. (5)
7. A figure having four sides and four right angles.
(3)
8. A figure having three sides and three angles.
(3)
9. The study that measures and compares lines, angles, surfaces, and
solids. (4)

Answers:1. circle 2. angle 3. hexagon 4. octagon 5. pentagon

6. quadrilateral 7. rectangle 8. triangle 9. geometry

SMASHING TV SYNONYMS (Reading, English)

The purpose of this activity is to give students practice in working with
synonyms through creative thinking and use of a thesaurus. Learners
need to be aware that there are many ways of stating ideas. This exercise
will show learners that the television shows they watch could have been
called by other words which retain the same meaning. This activity is a
vocabulary building exercise. It also causes students to think creatively as
they try to figure out names for popular shows.
Student Directions: On this sheet you will find the names of ten pop-
ular television shows. The titles do not look familiar because they are
synonyms for the shows' real tides. Your job is to figure out what the
real tides are. You may use your dictionary or thesaurus to help figure
out the real titles.

1. Administration of Justice in Darkness

2. The Power Clan
3. Unlike Blows
4. The U.S. Stationary Musical Performers
5. Household Knots
6. The Lady Records Homicides
7. Which Person Is in Charge?
8. Astounding Tales
9. Acclaim
10. Events in Existence

204
Answers:
1. Night Court
2. Dynasty
3. Different Strokes
4. American Bandstand
5. Family Ties
6. Murder She Wrote
7. Who's the Boss?
8. Amazing Stories
9. Fame
10. Facts of Life
A variation of this activity would be to gin students a list of current
television shows or song titles and have them create alternative titles.

CATCH THE CONNECTION (English, Social Studies, Reading)

This activity is designed to provide an opportunity for students to ana-
lyze the relationship between sets of w,--' , and to produce a word that
corresponds to the given set in the sull,. way.
Student Directions: In each set of words given below, you will find
two words that have a definite relationship. Choose from the vocabulary
list one of the words that fits the single word in the same way as the
paired words. Insert this word where the ? appears.
1. dim 'jump 4. lake paddle
fade ? ? row
2. mask geese 5. chimpanzee apply,
hide ? ape ?

3. find dirt 6. sink reward

? filth rise ?

Vocabulary words: leap discover fowl lagoon fruit punish

Answers: 1. leap 2. fowl 3. discover 4. lagoon 5. fruit 6. punish

CREATE A CATEGORY (All Areas)

The purpose of this activity is to provide students with an opportunity
to analyze a list and to come up with a category that relates to the words
in the list. This can be done in most content areas including science,
math, English, social studies, and home economics.

205

20j
 Student Directions: In each of the sets below, three of the words are
related. Circle the word that is unrelated. On the line at the top of the
set, write the word or phrase that explains the relationship existing
among the remaining three words.
1 2
pennies polygon
nickels quadrilateral
dimes circle
squirrels hexagon
3 4

iris snake
grass sparrow
petunia crow
daisy eagle
5. 6
wok educational
counter enormous
electric fry pan comedy
microwave adventure
Answers: 1. coins, squirrels 2. figures with straight edges, circle
3. flowers, grass 4. birds, snake S. things that cook,
counter 6. kinds of TV programs, enormous

THINKING IN MATH
This activity gives students an opportunity to evaluate the facts that
are given and to come up with a solution to the problem.
Student Directions: Tina just got four new stamps for her collection.
She is confused about which stamp comes from which country. Can you
sort out the stamps?
Country
Color
Picture

206

1!
r% ,,f
4
1. The stamp with the train on it is pink.
2. The German stamp has a picture of a runner.
3. The flower is not on the French stamp.
4. The Swedish stamp is not pink.
5. The plane is not on a yellow stamp.
6. The United States stamp is blue.
7. The flower is on a violet stamp.
Answers:
Country France Germany U.S. Sweden
Color pink yellow blue violet
Picture train runner plane flower

SUMMARY
To obtain a well-rounded education, a student has to be taught more
than just: the basics. He or she needs to be taught to think. Through the
preceding vocabulary activities, students will be challenged to use key
thinking skills. They will be given an opportunity to analyze data and re-
lationships between words. They will categorize words with commonal-
ities. They will evaluate facts and create solutions. In short, by engaging
in these activities, students will take a positive step toward becoming the
thinkers and problem solvers they will need to be to take positions in to-
day's complex world.

REFERENCES
1. Beyer, Barry K. "Common Sense About Teaching Thinking Skills." Educa-
tional Leadership (November 1983): 41-49.
2. Robertson, Judy, and Strange, Vonna. "Principles of Compagination: A
Critical Analysis/Process Approach." The Reader IRA in Arkansas 9, no. 1
(October 1985): 4-7.

207
2 jr
TEACHING CRITICAL THINKING:
ARE WE MAKING CRITICAL MISTAKES?
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
by Robert J. Sternberg

Robert J. Sternberg argues that conventional thinking skills programs present

problems unlike those that students will encounter as adults: there is often not a
"best possible" solution, problems are complicated and intractable, and important
consequences result from whatever solutions are chosen. He has devised a hinking
skills program to train students for real-life types of problems. This program, Intel-
ligence Applied, teaches general intellectual skills and critical thinking skills to
high school and college students. The program uses a wide range of problems
from "neat academic ones to messy practical ones"many of which have no
"right" answers. Sternberg describes several aspects of the program, and shows
how they deal with a range of problem types. He feels strongly that students will
not be able to transfer thinking skills into everyday life unless 'Programs designed
to teach thinking skills reflect the realities of everyday problem solving and deci-
sion making."
This chapter is condensed from a two-part version that appeared in Phi Delta
Kappan, November and December 1985. Reprinted with permission.
The author is Associate Professor, Department of Psychology, at Yale University,
New Haven, Connecticut.

Probably never before in the history of educational practice has there

been a greater push to teach children to think critically. The signs are ev-
erywhere: multiple alternative programs to teach critical thinking at a va-
riety of ages (1), tomes that review in some detail the numerous pro-
grams available (2), workshops for teachers and administrators sponsored
by prestigious educational organizations, and an outpouring of journal
articles on teaching critical thinking.
However, what is required for critical thinking in adulthood and what
school programs are doing to develop critical thinking have little relation
to one another. In the real world, problems are not easily defined, infor-
mation needed to solve a problem is often not readily available, solutions
are context-related, and a "best possible" solution is not often clear.
Moreover, the problems- -and their possible solutionshave important
consequences, and many problems are complicated, messy, and stub-
bornly persistent.

208
411 i 3
t
 What's to be done? If current approaches to teaching critical thinking
do not deal adequately with the demands of critical thinking in every-
day life, then how are we to train students for the demands that life will
present them?
I do not believe that the problem we face is insolublethough it is
complicated, and, like most real-life problems, there is no one right so-
lution. One possible solution is to supplement the kinds of training in
critical thinking that we are now giving students with training that in-
volves salving real-life problems. In my own theory of intelligence (3), I
have distinguished between the more academic and the more practical
applications of thinking skills, and I have found in my research that the
skillful application of thinking skills to one of these domains in no way
insures their skillful application to the other. Moreover, good thinking in
cue academic or practical area of endeavor does not guarantee good
thinking in another. So programs need to sample a variety of content do-
mains and a variety of thinking skills and to sample them in ways that
are true to the way problems appear in our everyday lives.
In my own program for training thinking skills (4), I have attempted
to address some of the problems I have noted in conventional thinking
skills programs by including a range of problemsfrom neat academic
ones to messy practical ones. When I have presented a precis of the pro-
gram to audiences and have described some of the practical problems, I
have been challenged on several occasions with regard to my wisdom in
including problems that have no "right" answers. After all, how can so-
lutions to such problems be objectively scored? They can't be, of course,
any more than solutions to any of life's significant problems can be ob-
jectively scored.
Teachers and students are often less comfortable with these less aca-
demic problems in the programresolving conflicts, using informal
knowledge to reach complex decisions, deciding what kinds of responses
are adaptive or maladaptive in given situations, and so on. But comfort
at the cost of reality is no virtue. If we wish to prepae. students to solve
the problems they will confront in their lives, then we must present
them with realistic simulations of real problems, not merely with prob-
lems that are tailored to our convenience because they are objectively
scorable or have been removed from context.
The time has come to be critical of critical-thinking programs. But I
do not believe that we need to throw away what we have. Much of what
we have is quite good (5). Moreover, there are even a handful of pro-
grams, such as Philosophy for Children, that take into account at least
some of the issues I have raised. What we must do is supplement what
we have and make it better. And we can start right now. Do you have a

209
real problem you are having trouble solving? Present it to your class.
They may not solve it, but they'll learn something from trying.
We need not continue to make the mistakes we have been making,
and some programs are less susceptible to these mistakes than others. In
the remainder of this article, I describe my new program, Intelligence
Applied, which was designed to avoid as many of these mistakes as
possible.
Intelligence Applied is a yearlong course that trains intellectual skills
iu general and critical-thinking skills in particular. It is intended for stu-
dents in high school or college. Students may be of any socioeconomic
level, although, in order to profit fully, high school students using the
program should be of at least average ability.
The program is divided into five parts. The first provides some histori-
cal background on theories of intelligence and on attempts to increase
intelligence. It also describes the "triarchic" theory of human intelli-
gence on which the program is based (6). According to this theory, intel-
ligence must be understood in its relation to the internal, mental world
of the individual; to the external, environmental world of the individual;
and to the individual's experience as it relates to the internal and exter-
nal worlds.
The second part of the program contains training material relevant to
intellectual skills that deal with the internal world of the individual. This
training material is directed at three kinds of mental processes: 1) meta-
components, or the executive processes used to plan, monitor, and evalu-
ate problem solving; 2) performance components, or the nonexecutive
processes used to carry oat the instructions of the metacomponents; and
3) knowledge-acquisition components, or the nonexecutive processes
used to learn how to solve the problems that are then controlled by the
metacomponents and solved by the performance components.
For example, consider a problem of analogical reasoning: WASHING-
TON : 1 : : LINCOLN : (a. 5, b. 10, c. 15, d. 20). Metacomponents are
used to judge the nature of the problem (that it is an analogy), to decide
on the steps that are needed to solve the problem (e.g., understanding
each of the terms of the analogy, inferring the relation between WASH-
INGTON and 1, applying this relation from LINCOLN to each of the
possible answers, and so on), to decide the order in which these steps
should be executed, to monitor whether the steps one has chosen are
really leading to a solution, and the like. Performance components are
used to actually execute the steps in solving the problem. Knowledge-ac-
quisition components were used at some time in the past to learn how to
solve analogies of this sort. The three kinds of components are used in-
teractively to figure out that the analogy deals with the faces of Presi-
dents that appear on currency.

210
 The third part of the program contains material relevant to the experi-
ence of the individual in solving problems presented by various kinds of
tasks and situations. In particular, individuals receive instruction and
practice in how to deal with novel kinds of problems and situations and
in how to automatize (make subconscious) various aspects of information
processing.
For example, in the section on dealing with novelty, one might be
presented with a counterfactual analogy that is a modification of the one
presented above. It might read: Suppose that the denominations of all
currency were doubled in value. Then what would be the completion of
WASHINGTON : 2 : : LINCOLN : (a. 10, b. 20, c. 25, d. 40)? The so-
lution now becomes 10. In this problem and others in the section deal-
ing with novelty, students must learn to think in new ways and to deal
with problems that differ in kind or in content from those to which they
are accustomed.
The fourth part of the program contains training and exercises in intel-
ligence as it is applied to everyday life. In this part of the program, stu-
dents face everyday problems: resolving conflicts, making decisions about
relationships with other people, decoding nonverbal cues, and so on.
The idea is to train and encourage students to apply the mental processes
of intelligence to everyday life, not merely to academic situations.
The fifth and final part of the program deals with the emotional and
motivational blocks that prevent students from applying their intelli-
gence to everyday livingblocks such as lack of motivation, lack of per-
severance, inability to translate thought into action, fear of failure, and
spreading oneself too thin.
Now, just how does this program circumvent the pitfalls described ear-
lier? Consider each of the "critical mistakes" and how the program re-
sponds to it.
1. and 2. Problems of recognition and definition. Recognizing the ex-
istence and nature of a problem are metacomponents )f the process of
solving problems. Consider, for example, the part of the program that
deals with "defining the nature of a problem." This section opens with
some real-life illustrations of inadequate definitions of problems, includ-
ing people unable to meet their expenses who define the problem as un-
derearning rather than overspending; a political leader who defined a
problem as one of covering up the events surrounding a politically moti-
vated burglary rather than one of minimizing the damages of full disclo-
sure; and second-graders at a Hebrew day school who, when given an
ability test in English in the afternoon, read it right to left because they
believed that material presented in the afternoontheir normal time for
learning Hebrewshould always be read from right to left. The program
then contains tips on improving one's definition of problems, such as re-
read or reconsider the question, redefine goals, and ask whether the goal

211
toward which one is striving is .alistic. Finally, students are presented
with a series of problems that develop skills in defining problems.
An example of a problem that develops skills in defining problems is
the nine-dot problem. In this problem the student is presented with
three aligned rows of three dots each and is instructed to connect the
dots with straight lines, without lifting the pencil from the paper and
without drawing more than four lines. Most students fail to solve the
problem without guidance, in part because they assume that the pencil
must stay within the implicit perimeter defined by the nine dots. In fact,
the problem can be solved only if the pencil goes outside that assumed
perimeter. After students have tried the problem on their own, the text
makes the point that we often introduce constraints into the definition
of a problem that are not actually there in the first place.
3. Ill - structured problems. Many of the problems in the training pro-
gram are ill-structured. That is, there is no crystal-clear, step-by-step
path to a solution. The nine-dot problem is one example of such an ill-
structured problem.
The hatrack problem is another. In it, students are told to use a vari-
ety of prespecified items to construct a hatrack. The critical elements that
students must somehow recognize are that two poles can be bound to-
gether with a C-clamp and can be supported by wedging them, like a
pole lamp, against the floor and ceiling of a room and that the clamp
can be used as a hook for the hat. There is no clear path to attaining
these two insights in this ill-structured problem.
Finally, consider one of the mathematical insight problems included
in the text: "A man was putting some finishing touches on his house
and realized that he needed one thing that he did not have. He went to
the hardware store and asked the clerk, 'How much will 150 cost me?'
The clerk in the hardware store answered, 'They are 75 cents apiece, so
150 will cost you $2.25.' What did the man buy?" Treating this as a
well-structured problem will lead only to failure. None of the routine al-
gorithms that students might readily apply to this problem will work.
Rather, students must look at the problem in a new way in order to real-
ize that the man bought house numbers. Again, no clear path to this in-
sight exists, and one must often realize that problems that appear to be
well-structured may in fact be ill-structured.
4. through 6. The solution of everyday problems depends on context,
and there is no one best solution to such problems. Unlike many other
programs, Intelligence Applied emphasizes everyday problem solving in
everyday contexts, both in a special chapter on practical intelligence and
in numerous illustrations and practice exercises throughout the book. For
example, a problem on resource allocation requires the student to imag-
ine that he or she is the campaign manager for a senatorial candidate

212

d
and has $100,000 to spend or. a political campaign. The student must
decide how to allocate the funds. In another problem on resource alloca-
tion, the student has to decide what kinds of tests should be conducted
before a new product, the widget, is introduced to the market. In a
problem on solution monitoring, the student must consider what kinds
of steps could 1.,:.; mken to monitor adherence to an arms-reduction trea-
ty, given the porsible tendency of the parties to such an agreement to
cheat. Thus the program contains not only the usual kinds of highly
structured prob.,....-ns whose solutions are unique and independent of con-
text, but also problems that have no unique solution and whose solu-
tions depend on context.
The role of everyday context is emphasized throughout the program
because most problems that an individual faces must talc.: account of
such rontext. When students ?..re instructed ;t1 the components of think-
ing, they are usually given a set of fairly academic kinds of problems. For
example, the performance component of inference is taught, in part, in
the context of test-like analogies, both verba! nonverbal.
But in Intelligence Applied this componetr. of thinUng is also taught
through everyday inferences and the fallacies that accompany them. For
example, one inferential-fallacy problem tells students that "Josh and
Sandy were discussing the Reds and the Blues, two baseball teams. Sandy
asked Josh why he thought the Reds had a better chance of winning the
pennant this year than did the nes; Josh replied, 'If every man on the
Red team is better than every man on the Blue team, then the Reds
must be the better team.' " The inferential fallacy of "composition" in
this example is not uncommon. Any number of "blue-ribbon" commis-
sions consist of sets of experts who, individually, are among the best in
their fields but who, collectively, prove unable to woe'' together.
The role of context is so central to the Intelligence Applied program
that students are taught explicitly how to use context in their learning
and problem solving. The section of the program that deals with learn-
ing vocabulary, for example, does not merely present lists of words to be
memorized, nor does it concentrate merely on learning specific words
from context. Rather, it sharpens the general learning-to-learn skills that
students will need to figure out the meanings of words from context.
The emphasis is not on specific word knowledge (there zre too many
words to make such training very useful) but on teachig students how
to use context to acquire word knowledge.
7. The role of informal knowledge in problem solving. Everyday prob-
lem solving depends on informal knowledge at least as much as it de-
pends on formal knowledge, and the Intelligence Applied program rec-
ognizes this fact. One kind of problem from the chapter on practical
intelligence, for example, shows students pictures of two people interact-
ing and tells them that one of the people is the other's supervi-
213
I
sor. Students must decode nonverbal cues to determine which individual
is the supervisor. When students first encounter such problems, it is un-
likely that they have ever been formally taught what kinds of cues to
look for. Hence they must rely on informal knowledge. The program ac-
tually teaches students to look for such nonverbal cues as direction of
gaze, relative formality of dress, age, tenseness of hands, and socioeco-
nomic dass.
Take an example in a lighter vein. Students are shown pictures of cou-
ples, half of which are genuine (they are involed in a close relationship)
and half of which are fake (the couples were posed by a photographer to
look as if they were involved in a close relationship). Once again, stu-
dents are asked to use informal knowledge to decide which couples are
real and which are fake. Later, the students are taught to look for such
dues as relaxation, body lean, positioning of arms and legs, tenseness of
hands, match in socioeconomic dass, distance between the bodies, and
amount of physical contact.
In another section of the same chapter, students are presented with
this problem: "Rate the following strategics of working according to how
important you believe them to be for doing well at the day-to-day work
of a business manager: a) think in terms of tasks accomplished rather
than hours spent working, b) be in charge of all phases of every task or
project you are involved with, c) use a daily list of goals arranged accord-
ing to your priorities, d) carefully consider the optimal strategy before
beginning a task, e) reward yourself upon completion of important
tasks." Students give their ratings on a scale of 1 to 7. Once again, their
ability to make sensible ratings depends on informal rather than on for-
mal knowledge.
8. Consequentiality of solutions. Although the Intelligence Applied
program contains its share of academic kinds of problems, it also intro-
duces problems in which the solutions matter, either to the student or to
others. For example, one insight problem in the text asks the student to
figure out from given information how Napoleon died. The answer,
though still disputed in some quarters, is from arsenic poisoning caused
by arsenic present in wallpaper. Just as death from lead poisoning is not
uncommon in our own times, death from arsenic poisoning was not an
uncommon cause of death in the past, and Napoleon's death and how
he died certainly had an impact on the world.
Students are encouraged to think about problems relevant to their
own lives as well as to the lives of others. For example, in a kind of prob-
lem that recurs throughout the text, students are asked to think of an in-
stance in their own lives in which the better use of a given component of
information processing, such as the metacomponent of strategy selection,
might have resulted in better problem-solving performance. Or students

214
might be given a problem and asked how conscious and deliberate appli-
cation of a component of information processing might improve problem
solving or decision making. In one such problem for strategy selection,
students are asked to "list some of the steps [they] would take in order
to help [them] decide among colleges and choose the best one."
9. Group problem solving. The training program discusses some of the
problems associated with group problem solving, especially the problem
of "groupthink," in which the efforts of a group of thinkers arc much
less than the sum of their individual efforts. But the role of group prob-
lem solving in the program does not end with the text itself. The text of
the Intelligence Applied program is accompanied by an instructor's man-
ual that suggests many opportunities for group problem solving. For ex-
ample, each chapter in the manual has a list of individual and group
projects that can be done by members of the class.
10. The complication, messiness, and stubbornness of everyday prub-
lems. The text contains problems that reflect these unpleasant attributes
of everyday problems. For example, in conflict-resolution problems, stu-
dents are given case studies of conflicts that need to be resolved. The
problems may be interpersonal, interorganizational, or international.
The students must decide on the merits of the alternative ways of resolv-
ing the conflicts. In one such conflict, a family is deciding whether or
not the wife's mother should move in with them. In another problem,
two nations depend on water from a single river, and the nation up-
stream is unintentionally polluting the water through the generation of
hydroelectric power. These scenarios are constructed so that the case for
each party to the conflict is rated roughly equal in merit. The resolution
of the conflicts is thus by no means a routine affair. In these problems
students must face the complication, messiness, and stubbornness of the
problems that confront them in their daily lives.

I have tried to show that the critical mistakes we make in the teaching
of critical thinking are not inevitable, nor are they irremediable. Rather,
programs can be constructed that reflect the realities of critical thinking
in everyday life. Intelligence Applied is one example, but the possibili-
ties abound for constructing other valuable programs.
Still, unless programs designed to teach thinking skills reflect the reali-
ties of everyday problem solving and decision making, it is doubtful that
students will be able to apply what they have learned from these pro-
grams to their everyday lives. The only way to insure the transfer of
training from thinking-skills programs to everyday lives is to teach for
that transfer, and, at a minimum, such teaching involves avoiding the
critical mistakes I cited above. We must teach students to solve problems

215
2i5
WM,
as they occur in the real world, not as they appear in the simple, orderly
world of courses in critical thinkinga world in which, unfortunately,
none of us lives.
REFERENCES
1. Martin V. Covington and others, The Productive Thinking Program: A
Course in Learning to Think (Columbus, O.: Charles Merrill, 1974); Reuven
Fcucrstcin and others, Instrumental Enrichment: An Intervention Program
for Cognitive hfodifiability (Baltimore: University Park Press, 1980); Matthew
Lipman, Ann M. Sharp, and Frederick S. Oscanyan, Philosophy in the Class-
room, 2d cd. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1980); and Arthur
Whimbcy, with Linda S. Whimbcy, Intelligence Can Be Taught (New York:
E. P. Dutton, 1975).
2. Susan Chipman, Judith Siegel, and Robert Glaser, eds., Thinking and Learn-
ing Skills: Current Research and Open Questions, 2 vols. (Hillsdale, N.J.:
Erlbaum, 1985); a....: ''lymond S. Nickerson, David N. Perkins, and Edward
E. Smith, Teaching Thinking (New York: Academic Press, forthcoming.)
3. Robert J. Sternberg, Beyond IQ.: A Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
4. Robert J. Sternberg, intelligence Applied: Understanding and Increasing In-
tellectual Skills (San Diego, Calif.: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, forthcoming).
5. For a discussion of what is good in what we now have, sec Robert.J. Stern-
berg, "How Can We Teach Intelligence?" Educational Leadership 42 (1984):
38-50.
6. Sternberg, Beyond I.Q.

n ....9
41 $
216
THE DIRECT TEACHING
OF THINKING AS A SKILL
by Edward de Bono

Edward de Bono discusses bit view of the thinking process and the best means of
teaching thinking as a skill. He defines thinking as "the operating skill with which
intelligence acts upon experience," and find: that perception and thinVng have a
crucial relationship, which it infrequently and insufficiently explored. Human be-
ings have active, self organizing system:. They arrange incoming information into
patterns that allow complex lath such as crossing a road and recognizing friends to
become apparently simple. A pattern-making system bat its disadvantages, howev-
er: the point -to point thinking underlying it can lead to an inappropria.'s focus on
details. This, in turn, can kad one away from finding solutions to problems.
de Bon: feels that teaching thinking at part of content area instruction is incl.
fective, Atce "attending to content distracts firm attending to the thinking tools
being used." His CoRT system it not taught as part tf content; it teacher students
to use a set of thinking "tools" that can be transferred to different academic areas
and to real-life situations.
This chapter it reprinted with permission from Phi Delta Kappan (June 1983):
703-8. Copyright C) 1983 by Edward de Bono.
The author is director of the Cognitive Research Trust in Cambridge, England,
and of the Edward de Bono Resource Centel, 36 Harrison Street, New Rochelle,
NY 10801.

A major trend may be developing in education toward the direct

teaching of thinking as a skill. I intend in this article to answer two basic
questions related to this trend. First, what is thinking? And second, how
can we teach thinking directly? My answers spring from 14 years of expe-
rience in the field. During this time I developed an ir.structional pro-
gram on thinking skills that is now used by several million schoolchildren
in many different countries and cultures.
Of course, some educators believe that thinking is simpi" a matter of
innate intelligence. Two corollaries follow from this belief: (1) we do not
have to do anything specific to help highly intelligent individuals learn
how to think, and (2) there is little we can do to help less intelligent in-
dividuals learn how to think. Thus those who hold thi., belief rest con-
tent. Yet many highly intelligent individuals often seem to be rather in-
effective thinkers. Such people are often good at reactive thinking and

217
puzzle solvingbut less able to think about topics that require a broader
view. They may show cleverness, but not wisdom.
I prefer to see the relationship between intelligence and thinking as
similar to the relationship between a car and its driver. Engineering de-
termines the innate potential of the car, but the skill with which the car
is driven must be learned and practiced. Thus I would define thinking as
"the operating skill with which intelligence acts upon experience."
What, then, is the relationship of information to thinking? It seems
obvious to me that God can neither think nor have a sense of humor.
Perfect knowledge precludes the need to move from one arrangement of
knowledge to a better one. Thus perfect knowledge makes thinking un-
necessary. Nonetheless, educators often seem to believe that we can at-
tain such perfect knowledge. However, even if it were possible to absorb
perfect knowledge about the past, we can only have very partial knowl-
edge about the future. Yet, as soon as a youngster leaves school, he or
she will be operating in the future. Every initiative, decision, or plan will
be carried out in the future and thus will require thinking, not just the
sorting and re-sorting of knowledge. I have coined the term "operacy"
to stand alongside literacy and numeracy as a primary goal of education.
Operacy is the skill of doing things, of making things happen. The type
of thinking that my program (which I will describe later) teaches is very
much concerned with operacy.
In short, information is no substitute for thinking, and thinking is no
substitute for information. The dilemma is that there is never enough
time to teach all the information that could usefully be taught. Yet we
may have to reduce the time we spend teaching information, in order to
focus instead on the direct teaching of thinking skills.
The relationship between logic and thinking is likewise not a linear
oise. The computer world has a saying, "Garbage ingarbage out." In
other words, even if the computer is working flawlessly, this will not vali-
date a given outcome. Bad logic makes for bad thinking, but good logic
(like the flawless computer) does not insure good thinking. Every logi-
cian knows that a conclusion is only as good as the premises. Mathemat-
ics, logic (of various sorts), andincreasinglydata processing are excel-
lent service tools. But the deeper we advance into the computer age, the
greater the need to emphasize the perceptual side of thinking, which
these tools serve.
Meanwhile, emotions, values, and feelings influence thinking at three
stages. We may feel a strong emotion (e.g., fear, anger, hatred) even be-
fore we encounter a situation. That emotion channels our perceptions.
More usually, there is a brief period of undirected perception, until we
recognize the situation. This recognition triggers emotion, which there-
after channels perception. The trained thinker should be operating in

218

213
the third mode: perception explores the situation as broadly as possible,
and, in the end, emotions determine the decision. There is no contradic-
tion at all between emotions and thinking. The purpose of thinking is to
arrange the world so that our emotions can be applied in a valuable
manner.
The relationship of perception to thinking is, to my mind, the crucial
area. In the past, far too many of our approaches to thinking (e.g.,
mathematics, logic) have concerned themselves with the "processing" as-
pect. We are rather good at processing but poor in the perceptual area.
What do I mean by perception? Quite simply, the way our minds
make sense of the world around us. Language is a reflection of our tradi-
tional perceptions (as distinct from the moment-to-moment ones). Un-
derstanding how perception works is not so easy. But this is a crucial
pointone that has a direct effect on the way we teach thinking.
Imagine a man holding a small block of wood. He releases the wood,
and it falls to the ground. When he releases it a second time, the wood
moves upward. This is strange and mysterious behavior. The third time
he releases the wood, it remains exactly where it issuspended in space.
This is also mysterious behavior. If I were now to reveal that, in the sec-
ond instance, the man was standing at the bottom of a swimming pool,
then it seems perfectly natural for the wood to float upward. In the third
instance, the man is an astronaut in orbit; thus it is perfectly natural for
wood to remain suspended, since it is weightless. Behavior that seemed
strange and unaccountable suddenly seems normal and logicalonce we
have defined the "universe" in which it is taking place.
The traditional universe of information handling is a "passive" one.
We record information through marks on paper or marks on magnetic
tape. We can handle and process that information. The marks on the
surface of the paper or tape and the information itself do not alter, un-
less we alter them.
An "active" system is totally different; here, the information actually
organizes itself into patterns. We human beings have self-organizing in-
formation systems. I first wrote about them in 1969 in my book, The
Mechanism of Mind (1). I showed then how such systems work, and I
suggested how the structure of a nerve network would produce such pat-
tern-making effects. My hypothesis has since been simulated by comput-
er, and the nerve network functions substantially as I had suggested (2).
In the world of information handling, the concept of self-organizing in-
formation systems is now coming to the fore (3). Such systems are quite
different from our usual computers.
Once we enter the "universe" of active, self-organizing systems, then
the behavior of such things as perception and creativity becomes quite
clear. The processes are no longer mysterious. Just as happened with the

219
block of wood, phenomena that seemed to be unaccountable are sud-
denly seen to be explicableonce we have identified the appropriate
universe.
The function of a self-organizing system is to allow incoming experi-
ence to organize itself into patterns. We could loosely compare these pat-
terns to the streets in a town. The self-organizing system is immensely
efficient; it allows us to get up in the morning, cross a road, recognize
friends, read and write. Without such a pattern-making and pattern-us-
ing system, we would spend about a month just in crossing a road.
However, the advantages of a patterning system are also its disadvan-
tages. "Point-to-point thinking" is a good example. In this kind of
thinking, we follow a pattern from one point to the nextand then fol-
low the dominant pattern from that next point onward. In an experi-
ment that I conducted jointly with the Inner London Education Author-
ity (4), I asked 24 groups of 11-year-olds to discuss the suggestion that
"bread, fish, and milk should be free." Although many of the children
came from deprived backgrounds, 23 of the 24 groups opposed the idea
of free bread, fish, and milk. The point-to-point thinking that led to
this stand went as follows: (1) the shops would be crowded; (2) the buses
going to the shops would be crowded; (3) the bus drivers would demand
more money; (4) the drivers would not get more money, and they would
go on strike; (5) other people would go on strike as well; and (6) there
would be chaosso giving away bread, fish, and milk is a bad idea.
Thus can point-to-point thinking lead us astray, as we miss the forest
while fixating on the trees.
However, direct teaching of thinking can offset the disadvantages of a
patterning system. At the end of a pilot project on the teaching of think-
ing in Venezuelan schools, for example, we held a press conference. A
journalist attending that conference claimed that all attempts to teach
thinking are really h form of brainwashing in western capitalist values.
The journalist happened to be wearing spectacles. So I removed her spec-
tacles and asked what she used them for. She told me that she used the
spectacles in order to see things more clearly. I then explained that the
perceptual tools we were teaching in the lessons on thinking served the
same purpose. The tools enable youngsters to scan their experiences so
that they can see things more clearly and more broadly. A better map of
the world is the result. These thinkers can still retain their original values
and choices, however. Giving spectacles to nearsighted individuals en-
ables them to see three glasses on a tablecontaining wine, orange
juice, and milk. The individuals still exercise choice as to which drink
each prefers. In the same way, our instructional program cuts across cul-
tures and ideologies. The program is used in industrialized nations, such
as Canada and Great Britain, and in developing nations, such as Venezu-

220
ela and Malaysia; it will soon be used in Cuba, China, and Bulgariaas
well as in Catholic Ireland.
My point is that, in terms of perception we need to achieve two
things: (1) the ability to see things more clearly and more broadly and
(2) the ability to see things differently (i.e., creativity or `.`lateral think-
ing" [5]). As I have said, perception takes place in an "active" informa-
tion system. Such systems allow experience to organize itself into im-
mensely useful patterns, without which life would be impossible. But, as
I said above, the very advantages of the patterning system are also its dis-
advantages. We must overcome these disadvantages and improve percep-
tion in two ways: in breadth and in creativity or lateral thinking (both of
which fall under the heading of "change").
Let me turn now to the second question that I posed at the beginning
of this article. How can we teach thinking as a skill? Such teaching is go-
ing on right now; it is not tomorrow's dream, but today's reality. Mil-
lions of children are involved. In Venezuela, for example, 106,000 teach-
ers have been trained to use my program, and every schoolchild takes a
course in thinking. By law, Venezuelan schoolchildren in every grade
must have two hours of direct instruction per week in thinking skills.
The contracts of some labor union members in Venezuela specify that
their employers must make provisions to teach them thinking skills. My
program is also in use in many other countriesincluding Australia, the
U.S., and Israel, as well as those nations I have mentioned previously.
The program of which I speak is called CoRT. (The acronym stands for
Cognitive Research Trust, located in Cambridge, England.) I have al-
ready outlined the theoretical foundation for the design of this program.
The lessons themselves focus on the perceptual aspect of thinking. The
design of the tools takes into account the behavior of self-organizing pat-
terning systems.
The design criteria for a practical instructional program should include
the following elements.
The program should be usable by teachers who represent a wide
range of teaching talents, not just by the highly gifted or the highly
qualified. (The 106,000 Venezuelan teachers were not all geniuses.)
The program should not require complicated teacher training, since
it is difficult to generalize such programs. (The CoRT program can
be used by teachers with no special training or with only simple
training.)
The program should be robust enough to resist damage as it is
passed along from trainer to trainerand thence from new trainer
to teachers and, finally, to pupils.

221 0 r
 The program should employ parallel design so that, if some parts of
the program are badly taught and other parts are skipped or later
forgotten, what remains is usable and valuable in its own right.
(This contrasts with hierarchical design, in which a student must
grasp a basic concept before moving on to the neyt concept layer;
failure at any concept layer in a pror,ram of this type makes the
whole system unworkable.)
The program should be enjoyable for 3th teachers and youngsters.
The program should focus on thinking skills that help a learner to
function better in his or her life outside of school, not merely to be-
come more proficient at solving puzzles or playing games.
Before considering ways of teaching thinking, we must confront a pri-
or question: Should thinking be taught in its own right? Certain practi-
cal considerations affect the answer to this question. For example, there
are no gaps in the school schedule as it now exists. Thus it seems to
make more sense to insert thinking skills into an existing subject area.
English makes a good home, because a natural synergy exists between
thinking and the expression of thought in language. In addition, the
teaching style is often more open-ended in English dasses than in some
other subject areas. However, the CoRT program has been used effective-
ly by science teachers, by music teachers, and even by physical education
teachers.
Despite these practical considerations, I believe that we should have a
specific place in the curriculum that is set aside for the teaching of think-
ing skills. This formal recognition is essential so that pupils, teachers,
and parents all recognize that thinking skills are being taught directly. In
time, I would certainly hope that the skills taught in the "thinking les-
sons" would find their ways into such subject areas as geography, histo-
ry, social studies, and science. However, the first step is to establish
"thinking" as a subject in its own right.
Having dealt with this question, we can now look at some of the tradi-
tional approaches to the teaching of thinking:
Logic, mathematics, and data processing. These are very important
subjects, but they concern themselves with processing, not with the per-
ceptual side of thinking. The better that students become at processing,
the more they need to strengthen their perception.
Critical thinking. This is a popular approach because it is tradition-
al. It also employs a relatively easy teaching method (the spotting of
faults). This approach has only limited value, however. The spotting of
faultsregardless of its usefulness in debate or argumentis only one
aspect of thinking. The approach includes no generative, constructive, or
creative elements. The avoidance of faults does not improve one's ability

222
to plan or to make decisions. The avoidance of faults is, to my mind, an
aspect of thinking that has traditionally been overvalued.
Discussion. Directly or indirectly, discussion must be the most wide-
ly used method of teaching thinking. Youngsters are asked to discuss (or
write essays on) a subject. The aim is to provide practice in thinking. The
teacher notes and comments on faults and inappropriate uses of evi-
dence, hoping that students will extract from these clues some general
principles of thinking, which they will then use in future, unrelated situ-
ations. In reality, relatively little transfer of thinking skills from one situ-
ation to another takes place.
Puzzles, games, and simulations. I have used games and problems
as motivators, to get people interested in thinking. However, because of
he difficulty of transfer, I do not believe that such devices have much
teaching value. A skillful chess player does not transfer to his or her ev-
eryday life the fine sense of strategy developed through playing this
game. A youngster may develop a puzzle-solving method, but thinking
does not seem to proceed in that same fashion in real life. I have grave
reservations about the traditional information-processing model of think-
ing, which seems more a description than a system of operating.
This brings me to the central problem: transfer and content. Does a
generalizable skill of thinking exist? Many theorists think not. They be-
lieve instead that there is thinking in mathematics, thinking in science,
and thinking in historybut that in each case the rules are different,
just as the rules for Monopoly differ from those for chess. I do not see
this as a point of view with which I must either agree or disagree totally.
Clearly, subject idioms exist. Nevertheless, it is possible to establish both
habits of mind and specific thinking techniques that can be applied in
any subject area. For example, the willingness to look for alternatives is a
generalizable thinking habit. And deliberate provocation is a technique
that can be applied to generate ideas in any situation.
Because we cannot succeed in teaching generalizable thinking skills
through the use of specific content materials, some theorists believe that
such skills cannot exist. But there is another way of looking at this situa-
tion: the view that generalizable thinking skills exist but cannot be
taught using specific content. My experience has led me to the latter
view. As I have already noted with regard to the "discussion method" of
teaching thinking skills, little transfer of such skills seems to take place
from one situation to another. Given the mechanics of perception and
attention, this is hardly surprising. If the subject of a discussion is inter-
esting, thenby definition attention follows this interest. But this at-
tention is not focused on the metacognitive level; that is, participants are
not thinking about the thinking that they are using to discuss the sub-
ject. Moreover, it is very difficult to transfer a complex action sequence
from one situation to another. That is why the CoRT program deliber-
ately focuses on "tools" that can be transferred.
I have noticed among U.S. educators a tendency to try to teach think-
ing through content materials. This approach seemsto its propo-
nentsto have two merits. First, this approach makes it easier to intro-
duce thinking into the curriculum, because the material must be covered
anyway (and it is already familiar to the teacher). Second, this approach
seems to be killing two birds with one stone: teaching thinking and
teaching content. But this approach is not effective. I am afraid that the
nettle must be grasped. Either one wishes to teach thinking effectively or
merely to make a token gesture. Attending to content distracts from at-
tending to the thinking tools being used. Theory predicts this outcome:
you cannot build meta-patterns on one level and experience patterns on
another level at the same time. Experience backs up this expectation.
Wherever there has been an attempt to teach thinking skills and content
together, the training in thinking seems to be weaker than when those
skills are taught in isolation.
So what is the CoRT method? It is best to illustrate this method with
an example.
I was teaching a class of 30 boys, all 11 years of age, in Sydney, Aus-
tralia. I asked if they would each like to be given $5 a week for coming
to school. All 30 thought this was a fine idea. "We could buy sweets or
chewing gum. . . . We could buy comics. . . . We could get toys with-
out having to ask Mum or Dad."
I then introduced and explained a simple tool called the PMI (which I
will describe later). The explanation took about four minutes. In groups
of five, the boys applied the PMI tool to the suggestion that they should
be given $5 a week for coming to school. For three to four minutes they
talked and thought on their own. At no time did I interfere. I never dis-
cussed the $5 suggestion, other than to state it. I did not suggest that
the youngsters consider this, think of that, and so forth. At the end of
their thinking time, the groups reported back to me: "The bigger boys
would beat us up and take the money. . . . The school would raise its
charges for meals. . . . Our parents would not buy us presents. . . .
Who would decide how much money different ages received? . . . There
would be less money to pay teachers. . . . There would be less money for
a school minibus."
When they had finished their reports, I again asked the boys to ex-
press their views on the suggestion of pay for attending school. This
time, 29 of the 30 had completely reversed their opinion and thought it
a bad idea. We subsequently learned that the one holdout received no
pocket money at home. The important point is that my contribution was

224
minimal. I did not interact with the boys. I simply explained the PMI
tool, and the boys then used it on their ownas their tool. My "superi-
or" intelligence and broader experiences were not influences. The boys
did their own thinking.
The PMI is a simple scanning tool designed to avoid the point-to-
point thinking that I mentioned earlier. The thinker looks first in the
Plus direction (good points), and then in the Minus direction (bad
points), and finally in the Interesting direction (interesting things that
might arise or are worth noting, even if they are neither good nor bad).
Each direction is scanned formally, one after another. This formal scan
produces a better and broader map. Thinking is used to explore, not
merely to back up a snap judgment. The thinker then applies judgment
to the better map. The PMI is the first of the 60 CoRT lessons.
For the rest of this particular lesson on thinking, I might have asked
the boys to apply the PMI in various ways (e.g., one group doing only
"Plus" or "Minus" or "Interesting") to a number of thinking items,
such as: Should all cars be colored yellow? Would it be a good idea for
everyone to wear a badge showing his or her mood at the moment? Is
homework a good idea? Note that the items are not related. Moreover,
the groups would be allowed to spend only two to three minutes on
each. This is quite deliberate and essenti4 to the method.
The items are switched rapidly so that attention stays on the PMI tool
and not on the content. Once skill in the use of the tool is developed,
students can apply the PMI to other situations in other settings. One girl
told us how she used the PMI at home to decide whether or not to have
her long hair cut. Some children report that they have used the PMI with
their parents, in discussing such major decisions as moving to a new
town or buying a car. This is the sort of transfer that the CoRT program
aims to achieve.
The PMI is a scanning tool, not a judgment tool. If a thinker spots 10
"Plus" points and only two "Minus" points, this does not necessarily
mean that the idea is a good one. Like all scanning, the PMI is subjec-
tive, depending on the thinker's perspective. One boy said, as a "Plus"
point, that yellow cars would be kept cleaner. Another boy slated this as
a "Minus" pointbecause he had to clean his dad's car and would
therefore have to perform this chore more often. Both were right.
The PMI is designed to be artificial, memorable, and easy to pro-
nounce. At first, some teachers rejected "PMI" as pointless jargon. They
preferred to encourage or exhort the youngsters to look az the good
points and the bad points in any situation. The youngsters probably did
soat that moment. However, without the artificial term "PMI" to cry-
stallize the process and to create a meta-pattern, the exhortation does not
stick. One teacher told me how he had used the term "PMI" and how

225
119n
his colleague, in a parallel lesson, had used exhortation. His colleague
was soon convinced of the value of the term "PMI."
One girl said that she initially thought the PMI a rather silly device,
since she knew how she felt about a subject. But she noted that, as she
wrote things down under each letter (she was doing a written exercise in-
stead of the usual oral approach), she became less certain In the end,
the points she had written down did cause her to change her mind. Yet
she had written down the points. That is precisely the purpose of a scan-
ning tool.
It is important to realize that the description of thinking and the de-
sign of tools are two totally different things. It is possible to describe the
process of thinking and to break it into components. But then one is
tempted to turn each component into a tool, on the premise that, if the
components are taught, thinking skills must surely be enhanced. Howev-
er, teaching someone how to describe a flower does not teach him or her
how to grow a flower. The purpose of analysis and the purpose of an op-
erating tool are separate and distinct.
The CoRT tools are designed specifically as operating tools. Such a de-
sign has two components: (1) the tool must be easy to use, and (2) it
must have a useful effect. Abstract analyses and subdivisions of the
thinking process may be intellectually neat, but this does not guarantee
usability or effectiveness. My many years of experience, working with
thousands of executives and organizations in different countries, have
given me some insight into those aspects of thinking that have practical
value. I have also worked with scientists, designers, lawyers, and many
others who are involved in the "action world" of thinking, as distinct
from the "contemplative world."
The CoRT program (6) has six sections, each consisting of 10 lessons:
CoRT I (breadth), CoRT II (organization), CoRT III (interaction), CoRT
IV (creativity), CoRT V (information and feeling), and CoRT VI (action).
All teachers who use the program should teach CoRT I. (Some teachers
use only the 10 lessons of CoRT I.) Therevfter, the sections can be used
in any order. For example, a teacher might use CoRT I, CoRT IV, and
CoRT V. The last section (CoRT VI) is somewhat different from the oth-
er sections, in that it provides a framework for a staged approach to
thinking.
I believe that thinking is best taught to 9-, 10-, and 11-year-olds.
Youngsters in the middle grades really enjoy thinking and motivation is
very high. They have sufficient verbal fluency and experience to operate
the thinking tools. The curriculum is more easily modified in the middle
grades to include thinking as a basic subject. But the CoRT materials

226
0t
A., ..... a
have also been used with children younger than 9 and with students
ranging in age from 12 to adult.
So basic is thinking as a that the same CoRT lessons have been
used by children in the jungles of South America and by top executives
of the Ford Motor Company, United Kingdom. The lessons have been
taught to students ranging in I.Q. from below 80 to above 140. The les-
sons have also been used with groups of mixed ability.
David Lane, at the Hungerford Guidance Centre in London, found
that the teaching of thinking to delinquent and violent youngsters
brought about an improvement in behavior, as measured by a sharp fall
in the number of disciplinary encounters these youngsters had with su-
pervisors (7). William Copley and Edna Copley, in preliminary work at
an institution for young offenders, found similar changes (3). They re-
counted how one youth, on the verge of attackiflg an officer with a ham-
mer, brought to mind a thinking lesson corm:m(4d with consequences
and quietly put the hammer down. I mention these changes in behavior
for two reasons. First, I believe that the true test of teaching thinking is
the effect of such teaching on behavior. Second, we do not really have
any adequate way of measuring thinking performance. Standardized tests
are largely irrelevant, because they do not allow us to observe the think-
er's composite performance.
John Edwards taught the CoRT program in lieu of a portion of the sci-
ence syllabus to a class in Australia. Using an analysis -of- discourse ap-
proach to measurement, he found that the rmined students did signifi-
cantly better at thinking than untrained peers; the trained students even
seemed to do better in science, although they had had less instructional
time devoted to that subject (9). It is not difficult to show that pupils
who have had training in thinking produce a wider scan when they are
asked to consider some subject. In Ireland, Liam Staunton found that,
before CoRT training, individuals produced an average of four sentences
on a topic, whereas after CoRT training they produced an average of 47
(10). We are currently analyzing data from the experiment in Venezuela
and data from the Schools Council project in England.
I prefer that CoRT users carry out their own tests and pilot projects.
Tests carried out by the designers of a program are of limited value for
two reasons: (1) the conditions of teaching are ideal (and often far re-
moved from those prevailing in schools where the program will be used),
and (2) such studies always contain an element of bias.
It is impossible, however, to measure the soft data: the confidence of
those who have had training in thinking, the focus of their thinking,
their willingness to think about things, the effectiveness of their think-

227
ing, their structured approach and breadth of consideration. Teachers of-
ten sum up these factors as "maturity," in commenting about those
children who come to their classrooms after some training in thinking.
I would expect four levels of achievement in the acquisition of think-
ing skills through use of the CoRT program:
Level I. A general awareness of thinking as a skill. A willingness to
"think" about something. A willingness to explore around a subject. A
willingness to listen to others. No recollection of any specific thinking
tool.
Level 2. A more structured approach to thinking, including better
balance, looking at the consequences of an action or choice (taking other
people's views into account), and a search for alternatives. Perhaps a
mention of a few of the CoRT tools.
Level 3. Focused and deliberate use of some of the CoRT tools. The
organization of thinking as a series of steps. A sense of purpose in
thinking.
Level 4. Fluent and appropriate use of many CoRT tools. Definite
consciousness of the metacognitive level of thinking. Observation of and
comment on the thinker's own thinking. The designing of thinking tasks
and strategics, followed by the carrying out of these tasks.
In most situations, I would expect average attainment to fall some-
where between levels 1 and 2. With a more definite emphasis on
"thinking," this would rise to a point between levels 2 and 3. Only in
exceptional groups with thorough training would I expect to find average
attainment at level 4.
Perhaps the most important aspect of the direct teaching of thinking
as a skill is the self-image of a youngster as a "thinker," however. This is
an operational image. Thinking becomes a skill at which the youngster
can improve. Such a self-image is different from the more usual "value"
images: "I am intelligent" (I get on well at school) or "I am not intelli-
gent" (I do not get on well at school, and school is a bore). Value im-
ages are self-reinforcing. So are operational imagesbut the reinforce-
ment goes in opposite directions at the negative end. In other words, the
less intelligent students find repeated evidence of their lack of intelli-
gence, but they also notice those occasions when they do manage to
come up with good ideas.
REFERENCES
1. Edward de Bono, The Mechanism of Mind (New York: Simon & Schuster,
1969).
2. M. H. Lee and A. R. Maradurajan, "A Computer Package of the Evaluation
of Neuron Models Involving Large Uniform Networks," International Jour
nal of Man-Machine Studies (1982): 189-210.

11 c, r)
228
3. John Hopfield, "Brain, Computer, and Memory," Engineering and Science
(September 1982).
4. Unpublished material, Cognitive Research Trust.
5. Edward de &no, Lateral Thinking (New York: Harper and Row, 1970).
6. CoRT Thinking Program, Pergamon, Inc., Maxwell House, Fairview Park,
Elmsford, N.Y. 10523.
7. Personal communication from David Lane.
8. William Copley and Edna Copley, Practical Teaching of Thinking,
forthcoming.
9. Unpublished paper by John Edwards, James Cook University, Queensland,
Australia.
10. Personal communication from Liam Staunton.

229 4-1 .-
4 ti
DEVELOPING STUDENTS'
THINKING SKILLS THROUGH
MULTIPLE PERSPECTIVES
by Ronald Lee Rubin

Ronald Let Rubin teaches students to "appreci4a and understand multiple per.
spectiva" through methods of divergent questioning. Throughout bit chapter, Rubin
introduces a variety of techniques for encouraging divergent thinking. There include
seeing different uses of common objects and different points of :new on a given issue;
playing different roles in a simulation; dirting irking between the letter and intent of
a rule through dircrusion and mock trials; ant defining concepts differently in differ.
eat contexts. Rubin maintains that these activities promote better decision making
and foster creativity in a wide range of areas, including social studies and language
arts.
The &What if Principal of Bingham Memorial School, Middlebury, Vermont.

The following learning activities are aimed at developing students'

thinking skills as related to fostering an appreciation and understanding
of multiple perspectives. The primary methodology involved utilizes di-
vegent questioning. In turn, the activities have direct application to
building student? ability to draw conclusions and make judgments and
decisions in a fashion requiring the consideration of the total context af-
fecting a particular judgment or decision.
These activities may be used as a unit of study concerning the develop-
ment of attibutes that are essential to critical thinking or they may be in-
corporated into other units of study in the areas of social studies and lan-
guage arts.
Although these activities are likely to be most useful in grades six
through twelve, it is quite possible that instructor modifications would
make them relevant to tither younger or older students.
Activity 1: More Than One Way to See I
Objective: To help students to begin to be comfortable with the concept
of multiple perspectives.
Method: The instructor asks students to define the purpose of common
objects found in the classroom or at home (for example, a chair, desk,
plate, bowl). S /he then turns the objects upside down or places them in

230
some other unusual position and asks students to sLlect one for which
they are to imagine a purpose or purposes that might be served by the
object in its changed position.
Students should be instructed not to be concerned with whether or not
the defined purpose(s) is practical or real. They should be allowed to use
other objects or constructs in developing a new purpose for the object.
For example, several chairs turned upside down might be used as a
protective barrier or pen of some kind. Similarly, a bowl covered with
aluminum foil might become a model of an unidentified flying object
from a pullet of Lilliputians.
Students should then be asked to draw or create day replicas of the
new object and to write a brief description of its function. Descriptions
might be made more creative by fashioning them in the form of explan-
atory information cards commonly found in museums: to include state-
ments regarding the period of time in which the object existed and was
used, how it evolved, who invented it, why it was invented, and how it
was used. Another approach might be to write descriptions as news re-
ports which cite a new invention or discovery. Students should share
their completed work with one another.
Activity 2: More Than One Way to See II
Objective: To help build and reinforce the concept of multiple
perspectives.
Method: The instructor begins this activity by presenting students with a
divergent question that represents two distinct points of view. S/he then
asks students to consider both viewpoints. For exam;-le, the instructor
asks:
Which is more delicate, a snowflake or a person's self-esteem?
Which is colder, a piece of ice or a cold heart?
Which grows more quickly, a baby or self-confidence?
Students should then be instructed to argue both viewpoints by writ-
ing at least three supporting reasons for either position. Thereafter, they
share these arguments with one another and may be involved in a series
of classroom debates which provide experience relative to supporting
both sides of the question posed and answered.
Activity 3: More Than One Way to See III
Objective: To help build and reinforce the concept of multiple
perspectives.
Method: This activity may be conducted as a simulation, using role
playing, or by the discussion of a real or imaginary event. For example,
the instructor could present the following situation:

231
1.1 r'/
,,,
 James is on the playground during morning recess and slaps Carla, a younger
student, in the face. Carla runs to the teacher on duty (who did not actually ob-
serve the incident) and, with tears streaming down her face, informs the teach-
er of James' action.
The instructor then asks students to consider these questions:
1. What should the teacher on duty do?
2. Since the teacher on duty did not see the incident, how should
s/he learn what actually occurred?
3. Are there any possible reasons that might have led James to strike
Carla? What are they?
4. Do any of these reasons excuse or justify James's behavior or affect
the manner in which the teacher should deal with James and
Carla?
5. Arc James and Carla bad people? Why or why not?
6. What might James and Carla do to avoid this situation in the
future?
Students should write down their answers and share them with one
another.
A variation of this activity would involve faculty members in the role
playing of a similar situation that might occur between adults. In this in-
stance, students write a brief nahative of what they witnessed occurring
among faculty. These narratives are discussed and then students answer
questions like those presented above, changing the names and roles of
the actors :is necessary.
Activity 4: Distinguishing Between the Letter and Intent of a Rule
Objective: To give practice in and therefore reinforce thinking skills.
Method: In this activity, the instructor presents a real or fabricated
school rule. By offering successive illustrations of its apparent transgres-
sion, s/he leads students to distinguish between its literal interpretation
and its intent or purpose. For example, the following situation might be
used:
Hopeville Elementary School has recently adopted a new school rule which
pronibits students from bringing any weapons or war-related toys to school.
This rule was adopted to help lessen violent and aggressive play among stu-
dents in the hope of establishing a more friendly, creative school atmosphere.
With this set of circumstances in mind, the students are then asked to
determine whether or not the following student actions are contrary to
the letter, the intent, or both the letter and the intent of the rule:
1. John brings his B-B gun and ammunition to school.
2. Sandy is making believe that a stick he found on the playground is

232
 a sword and is chasing several classmates who are pretending to be
dragons.
3. Emily brings in her father's hunting rifle for show and tell.
4. Paul brings a toy to school that can change from a robot into a
rocket launcher.
5. Matthew brings a loud, battery-operated siren to school and wants
to use it curing indoor recess.
6. Michael and Nicole bring toy trucks to school and are playing a
game they call "crash" during recess.
The instructor should feel free to elaborate on the above circumstances
so as to enrich student? discussion.
A variation of the above activity would be to explore the principle of
freedom of speech in various contexts as related to whether or not specif-
ic forms of speech are protected by the First Amendment to the Consti-
tution. For example:
1. Jackie calls Louis a dummy.
2. Ian yells, "Fire, fire, fire," in a crowded movie theatre when th:re
is really no fire.
3. Mary decides that to protest American involvement in El Salvador,
she is going to burn the flag of the-United States.
4. Workers at a local place of business put various posters around
tcwn, hand out leaflets, and take an ad in a newspaper, all of
which express their discontent with what they believe to be unfair
working conditions.
5. A newspaper reporter writes a story in which he accuses a govern-
ment official of lying. The report indicates that the information
cited came from a reliable source, but when asked to divulge the
source of the information, the reporter refuses.
Elaboration of the above circumstances and the initiation of research
are likely to make the activity more substantial and valuable.
Activity 5: Mock Trial
Objective: To extend and reinforce student? thinking skills by distin-
guishing between the letter and the intent of a law.
Method: This activity makes use of a well-known children's story as the
basis for conducting a mock trial.
For example, the story of Gold docks and the Three Bears might serve
as a basis for examining the letter and the intent of the law as related to
breaking and entering; the story of Little Red Riding Hood could be
used to explore the legal concept of assault and battery; or Jack and the

233
(Yr, 4
cG l..5..X
Beanstalk could be used to study the concept of robbery. The latter
would, of course, require the instructor to change the ending of the story
such that the Giant lives and mikes a complaint to the local police indi-
cating that Jack robbed him of his possessions.
Whatever story ;s chosen, students should recreate a trial in its entire-
ty. This entails selecting students to act as major protagonists from the
story and choosing other children to participate as defense and prosecut-
ing attorneys, witnesses, judge, jury, and police. Students must conduct
various types of research relative to the legal principles involved in the
particular story and those pertaining to more generalized legal concepts,
such as preparation of briefs, admissable evidence, depositions, court-
room procedure, and role responsibilities. Additionally, they must care-
fully study the facts of the story in order to adapt it as a mock trial and
to thoroughly prepare for participation in their particular roles. Follow-
ing the accomplishment of these activities, students are ready to conduct
the mock trial.
It should be noted that the mock trial is not a play. For example, al-
though lawyers should prepare questions and review these questions with
their teacher, the actual posing of such questions to witnesses should not
be rehearsed. Instead, the simulation of the trial should occur as natural-
ly as possible so that all participants are provided with the opportunity to
act and react in a manner that encourages students to think on their feet.
Videotaping the mock trial will enable students to discuss the perfor-
rnance of their role responsibilities as they relate to both the process and
the ultimate outcome expressed by the verdict.
Activity 6: Defining a Concept
Objective: To enable students to understand how variations in circum-
stances may affect the definition of a specific concept.
Method: The instructor begins this activity by placing the word "vio-
lence" on the chalkboard and asking students to define and brainstorm
examples of violence. Thereafter, s/he offers the following situations and
discusses each one with students relative to how they conform with or
create differences in the meaning of the concept of violence.
Situation A: Brett doesn't like one of his classmates, Tyrone, because
Tyrone comes from a wealthy family and Brett's family is poor. Brett
waits after school for Tyrone and starts a fist fight with him.
Situation B: Marjorie is walking home from school after dance class
and is tackled to the ground by two older boys who want to steal her
money. Her friend Mark sees what is happening and shouts, "Leave
her alone!" The two boys pay no attention to Mark, so he picks up a

234
 stick and uses it to beat the two boys off Marjorie until they, Marjorie
and Mark, are able to run away.
Situation C: Carlos's mother, Virginia, is determined to do all that
she can to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons. In her town there is
a factory that manufactures the guidance systems for nuclear war-
heads. Carlos's mother has done everything possible to have the fac-
tory closed. She has written to her congressman, her state senators,
and even the President. She has also submitted a petition to local and
state officials with the signatures of over one thousand people who
agree that the factory should be dosed. In part, the petition states
that by helping to produce nuclear weapons, the factory is threatening
people throughout the country with grave danger and, in a sense, is
holding people hostage as a result of that threat.
Virginia's efforts have no effect. She decides that the only way to
dose the factory is to use force to destroy the building. Virginia plants
a time-bomb in the factory which is set to explode at a time when Vi2-
ginia is certain that no one will be in or near the building. The bomb
explodes as planned, destroying the building. No one is physically
hurt, but obviously all the people who are employed in the factory
lose their jobs.
Situation D: Barbara is a college student who is opposed to the denial
of human rights in the Union of South Africa. The college she attends
maintains a large number of investments in the Union of South Africa
which help to support that country's economy and, in turn, support
both the government and its policies. Barbara decides that one way to
help change those policies is to protest economic support of the coun-
try and its government. Since her college provides such support
through its investments, Barbara organizes and conducts a sit-down
strike of students and faculty. The strike is so successful that no classes
can be held and, as a result, non-striking students complain that their
right to attend classes has been denied. Barbara explains that she and
others involved in the strike are practicing passive resistance which she
believes is protected by the Constitutional right of freedom of speech.
In summary, it should be noted that all of the above activities have
been successfully used with students. Additionally, beyond the develop-
m of thinking skills, the learning experiences involved readily lend
thei rselves to fostering creativity, research skills, and a wide variety of
abilities that are ordinarily components of social studies and language
arts curricula.

235 0
DEVELOPING THINKING SKILLS
IN MUSIC REHEARSAL CLASS
by Douglas E. Reahm

As Douglas E. Reabm notes, music educators may at first find difficulties in in-
troducing thinking skills into music education: performance classes, which empha-
size ensemble playing, seem to run contrary to individual decision making. Stu-
dents are asked to replicate a composer's music, not to think for themselves.
However, Reahm maintains that "musicianship is largely a process of making deci-
sions," and thinking skills instruction should be integral to the performance class.
He suggests teaching students to think critically about the music they are playing,
searching the best alternatives of tone and tempo, analyzing "what U not on pa-
per"the exact type of attack, a personal soma,, the tone colors.
This chapter is reprinted by permission from Music Educators Journal. Copyright
©1986 by Mun'c Educators National Conference.
The author U former Supervisor of Music, Grand Rapids Public Schools,
Michigan.

School districts are searching for ways to teach students to think. The
knowledge explosion has convinced us that the facts and figures we teach
today will be less useful in the future than the skills of gathering,
processing, and assessing information. What can music educators do to
teach higher order thinking? Much of what we do runs contrary to indi-
vidual decision making, especially in the performance classes where the
ensemble is expected to play or sing as a group under the direction of
the teacher. We teach students to replicate the music of the composer
rather than to think for themselves. Is that our major goal? Are there al-
ternatives to the lock-step rehearsal techniques which develop fine per-
formers but do not teach students to be critical thinkers about the world
of music?
Many of our secondary music performance classes do not encourage
students to learn that musicianship is largely a process of making deci-
sions. The more subtle the decisions, the less obtrusive the nuances of
the music, and the more musical the performance. True musicianship is
a melding of technical skills and decision making in how to image the
music so the listener is not focused on the notes and the performance
medium but drawn to the expressive thoughts which the music conveys.
Music edu,:ators have an obligation to teach higher order thinking in
the performance class. The students need to know that many perfor-

ra ,,,,,, 236
 mance decisions are made consciously by the teacher and reflect both
training and personal insight from years of performing, analyzing, com-
paring, and thinking about various styles of music.
Thinking is a process of reflecting upon, weighing, arguing, and sup-
porting alternative points of view. In its technical definition it has a hier-
archy of syntactical, logical, argumentative, and verbal principles to be
mastered. It deals with inference, assumptions, and contradictions. In
the educational setting the student cm advance ideas, share reasoning,
and hear the objections of other students. It is not necessarily focused on
picking out errors, but is a search for the best alternatives through logical
thought, sound argument, and perceptive insight. In order for this
process to happen, the student must see that alternatives exist, know that
decisions are being made, practice thinking skills, and be allowed to par-
ticipate in some outcome.
Can we teach our students to think critically about the music they are
performing? Yes, if we structure classes to allow it to happen! This
structure should involve the student in an analysis of performance op-
tions, experimentation, and conducting, as well as critical analysis of the
teacher's interpretive decisions. In this way the students will become a
thinking part of the class and be less like an organ pipe sounding at the
1 touch of the organist. Instead of our being a conductor, we can assume
the role of educator/conductor.

PERFORMANCE OPTIONS
The music that our secondary school bands, orchestras, and choirs per-
form is printed on paper and has visual symbols to direct both the player
and the teacher in its interpretation. We should not only teach the sym-
bols on the paper, but also analyze what is not on the paper. The cre-
scendo and decrescendo markings are there, but the exact degree of am-
plitude is not there. A metric marking may be there, but the relative
tempo changes are stated in broad terms and are left to the conductor's
discretion. The notes are there, but the exact type of attack may be dis-
cretionary. The tone colors produced by the performing group are a com-
bination of the teacher's personal sound preference and the group's play-
ing or singing skill.
Teachers know that many of the symbols have relative meanings and
that we make many decisions regarding their interpretation. Does the
student know we are doing that? I think not. We instill our view of the
performance options by repetitive drill until we are satisfied. We lead
the students to believe in our finest autocratic tradition that there is but
one way for the music to be performed. They perceive the teacher's di-
rection as an attempt to achieve that single avenue to perfection. We
pattern too many of our rehearsal techniques in the secondary school af-

237

23
ter the maestros of the symphony. Those techniques have a place in the
education of young people, but they must be balanced by the broader
perspective that only three percent of our students will become career
musicians. The others will become amateur musicians and consumers.
We owe it to our students to let them know when we make critical
and creative decisions about how the music will be performed. Tell the
class the thoughts going through your mind during the rehearsal.
"Band, that section was louder than I think it ought to be because I
want to prepare for section B. How loud do you think A should be if
there must be a contrast between the two sections?" "Choir, we can
slow this to a crawl at measure 34, but I wonder if we can get it back to a
run again. I would like three suggestions of possible ways to perform
measures 34 through 55. What do we want to create here?" This should
not imply that students will make the final selection of performance pa-
rameters, but they will learn that decision making is a part of rehearsing.
Some teachers may be concerned with the amount of time this routine
would take away from the rehearsal. This is a part of the curriculum and
therefore an integral part of the class time. We base confidence in the
knowledge we gain largely on the attention we have given to alternatives.
This process of alternative investigation will enhance the knowledge and
thus the understanding of the students, leading them to better
musicianship.

EXPERIMENTATION
In addition to investigating viable options, we should encourage bold
experimentation in the music class. We should even make it possible for
some nonmusical things to happen. We often leave the impression that
there is one and only one way to perform the music. This short-changes
the student. Time should be devoted to experimentation.
Each student in the class should believe that the music can be per-
formed in a unique way according to his or her own specifications. Many
of these performances will fall short of accepted musical standards, but
we are teaching, not performing.
When the class has a good grasp of the notes and the basic interpreta-
tion of a section of music, ask that they each write ways they would
change the dynamics, tempo, tone color, or phrasing of the section. The
truly courageous teacher will let them alter notes both rhythmically and
tonally. Select three or four students to share their concepts with the
class. Discuss the students' ideas to help you and the class define exactly
what the originator is seeking. Allow for discussion and dissension. This
will open some eyes to the decisions the composer as well as the conduc-
tor must make when creating or recreating a composition. Conduct the
class in a rendition of those concepts. Before discussing the outcome, ask

238
23
each student to write down his or her reaction to the interpretation that
was played. This provides an avenue for practicing independent judg-
ment. Any subsequent discussion will have greater meaning when the
student can compare her or his own opinion with those of others in the
dass.
There is a point to having students write their ideas on paper and hav-
ing the teacher conduct a rendition incorporating some of those ideas.
Pencil and paper are not out of place in the music rehearsal dass. Stu-
dents will have ideas, but they may not be well formed until put into
words on paper. The writing need not be lengthy or detailed, but it
should be thoughtful. Since we are primarily interested in the dass's
hearing and participating in the sound of the various experiments, the
teacher's conducting will serve to focus on the listening rather than the
mechanics of the exercise. It will also add credibility to the students' sug-
gestions. Some students may not wish to share all that they have written,
but the exercise will still serve as a though. base for them during the
analysis and discussion by the class.
An advanced step in experimentation would be for the class to be
taught only the notes of a new selection, devoid of any interpretation by
the teacher. The student versions can serve as a gauge for the teacher to
measure the degree of musical development of the class.

CONDUCTING
Those of us who conduct know that one of the best ways to feel the
music is through the act of moving our arms, hands, and bodies when
conducting. Our minds have rationally defined our expectations of the
music, but our physical movement clarifies and alters those expectations.
We say, "This feels right," or "It just does not feel right."
Our students need opportunity to feel the same things we do. Each
purchase of band and orchestra music sets could include one or two addi-
tional conductor's scores. (Choral music in octavo form already has all
the parts printed, so extra purchases are not necessary.) One or two stu-
dents should be selected each class period to be relieved of their singing
or playing responsibility. Conductor's stands could be set up to the right
and to the left of the teacher's stand, and the students could be allowed
to conduct along with the teacher during the hour. The teacher could
stop occasionally and ask them what they have seen and heard. Many in-
strumentalists will have never seen other players' parts, and their atten-
tion should be drawn to the activity of other instruments.
Over time, every student in the class should have multiple opportuni-
ties to conduct. As they become more proficient, the teacher might ask
one of them to conduct a section and make personal decisions about the
music. It would even be appropriate for the student to go counter to the

239

24 0
printed expressive markingsfor example, perform a forte where a piano
is notatedand experiment with the music. In this way each student will
have alternative ways of thinking and feeling about the music. The other
students will benefit from the varied interpretations of a given section of
music.
Being put in command of the ensemble makes the student conductor
hear and think critically about the music. How many of us have benefit-
ted from fine educator/conductors who entrusted us with responsibilities
at an early age that enabled us to develop our musicianship? There
should be more.

ANALYZE THE TEACHER'S INTERPRETATION

This may be the hardest and yet the most rewarding segment of the
process of teaching thinking. Should the students challenge the teacher's
interpretive decisions?
If the previous parts of this process have been exercised, the students
will develop a trustworthy conception of how various types of music
should be performed. If there is a degree of difference between the
teacher's standard and the student's, there should be a place in our edu-
cational setting for those differences to gain credibility. A challenge for
the teacher would be to program a student-conceived interpretation on a
public concert. Make the audience aware of this teaching and learning
technique. Let them participate in the educational experience which goes
beyond performance. Such a program would gain high marks from the
parents as well as the administration of the school. Parents know little of
the education we provide in the classroom and believe we teach only to
the performances we present. They enjoy learning about what their sons
and daughters are learning in school as much as they enjoy seeing and
hearing students perform.
Teaching thinking skills in the music class will serve a dual purpose in
the education of the student: to develop independent musicianship
through critical thinking, and to teach students to wrestle with ambigu-
ity in subject matter within which there is no single right answer. There
are many right answers which must be decided among in music. This
practice of confronting equally viable alternatives will serve the student
well iu making decisions outside of music throughout life.
Music educators often feel pressure to justify music's existence in the
curriculum. The best rationale for music in the educational life of every
student is this: Music is an expression of reality and is as legitimate as
any other expression of reality by human thought, be it in words, num-
bers, or visual images. If music is an expression of reality by human
thought, then we should include d.:, aspect of teaching the thinking pro-
cess in our music classes.

240
DEVELOPING HIGHER-ORDER
THINKING SKILLS IN HOME
ECONOMICS: A LESSON PLAN

by Nancy A. Watts

Nancy A. Watts notes thatcontrary to popular assumptionsthinking skills have

long been central to borne economics instruction. The home economics student is con
stantly faced with a range of choices in the marketplace that require informed decision
making. However, Watts notes that thinking skills instruction may be absent in areas
of traditional skill instruction, such as clothing and textiles. Watts maintgins rho;
thinking skills instruction should be part of even these areasthat we should "stop
'teaching' Home Economics shill; and model thinking in our classrooms." She pro-
vides a cleteriled lesson plan where students apply thinking skills to fabric construction.
The author it a Mentor Teacher for home economics and computer strategies at
Lodi Senior Elementxy School, California.

Home Economics studies are rarely if ever mentioned or discussed

when talking about higher-level thinking in the classroom. Yet critical
thinking is not a new concept in Home Economics. In fact, in many of
the areas of Home Economics, higher-level thinking is a most integral
part of the curriculum.
If a person is adept at thinking critically, she is adept at gathering, analyzing,
synthesizing, and assessing information as well as identifying misinformation,
disinformation, prejudice, and one-sidedness. A student with such skills will
have the tools of life-long learning... (1, p. 1).
For example., in con. ocr education students learn to gather, analyze,
sy_ d:esize, and assess information in LI::: marketplace. In interpersonal
relationships, we are teadiing problem-solving and decision-making
techniques. Lhe is a series of choices and Home Economics teaches
choices.
Are we doing as mutt. with a traditional skill area such as clothing and
textiles? Or are students becoming bored with discussion in which they
are asked to shnply ides what teachers aircady know? The challenge is

2414.1
1-t
to stop teaching Home Economics skills and to model thinking in our
classrooms. The following lesson plan for an eighth grade Home Eco-
nomics class takes the learning of fabric construction out of the area of
demonstration and memorization, into the area of higher-level thinking.

Background: The students have had no instruction in fabric construc-

tion and most have little, if any, background in fabrics.
Objective: Using previous knowledge of categorization and characteris-
tics, students will categorize twelve fabric samples into three methods of
fabric construction.

Preparation: Assemble a set of twelve fabric samples for every three or

four students. Fabrics mounted on card stock will be easier to handle and
more permanent. Samples should include the following:
woven fabrics, with and without nap
knit fabrics, with and without nap, sheer
felt, non-woven interfacing, synthetic suede
at least three samples in the same color.

A student task sheet, similar to Figure 1, should be given to each stu-

dent. If possible, a small handheld microscope (2) for each group of stu-
dents will enable them to gather more information.
The lesson will require a minimum of one day and no more than three
days, depending on the class ability and the objectives of the teacher.
After each student has a copy of the task sheet, explain that the as-
signment is not a test, nor is there just one correct answer. They are not
expected to know all about these fabrics, but to look for characteristics
that each may have in common with others.
Make certain students understand the terms "characteristics," "cate-
gori-;ation," and "fabric construction." Most especially make certain
students understand the concept of fabric construction. Perhaps compare
the construction of fabric to the many ways a wooden fence may be con-
structed. When talking about ways of categorizing fabric construction,
discuss characteristics briefly, because you want students to identify char-
acteristics already in their knowledge. For example, "Since you have
three samples of blue fabric, can you assume that because they are all
blue they are all made the same way?"
Explain that you have already given them one piece of new informa-
tion, in that on the ditto you have said, "Three methods of fabric con-
struction," and have given them three columns in which to record their
observations.

242
 They first need to sort the samples into three groups, relying on what
they perceive to be common characteristics. Record the numbers of each
group, one set in each column. Students are then to record the common
characteristics that caused them to think they were made by the same
methods. (See Figure 2.)
The final part of the assignment involves students creating a name for
each of the three types of construction. Assure them there is no one cor-
rect name at this point in the assignment, but that it must be based on
the common characteristics. Some of the more interesting, creative types
of construction have included "wire" and "chain" to describe pressed
and knit construction.
Give each group a set of fabric samples. (Code each set with a letter
and each sample with a number for ease in sorting later.) Allow student
groups to work at their own pace and in their own way. Monitor each
group to make certain they understand the terminology and the task to
which they have been assigned.
After groups have had time to complete this portion of the assign-
ment, give them a handheld microscope, briefly demonstrating its use.
Ask the groups to see if they can find any additional information to help
in correctly categorizing the fabrics. Direct them to add it to their task
sheet.
The following day, or as appropriate, conduct a class discussion on
their findings. Carefully discuss their findings, possibly charting the in-
formation on large sheets of paper. Have students make corrections and
additions as necessary on their papers. Through the discussion some con-
clusions will be drawn by the class as a whole. Use this as a springboard
for further discussion of fabrics and fabric construction.
Junior high students need to develop skills in gathering, analyzing,
synthesizing, and assessing information. Students need to be taught
thinking skills. Give them every opportunity possible to learn.

REFERENCES
1. "IntroductionThe Heart and Core of Educational Reform" In Program
and Abstracts. Sonoma, Calif.: Third International Conference on Critical
Thinking and Educational Reform, 1985.
2. Tasco's 30 Power Illuminated Microscope, "The Little Looker." Cost $6.95
(plus shipping and handling) at present writing. Silver Burdett Company,
Western Regional Office, 1559 Industrial Road, San Carlos, CA 94070.

243
LODI SENIOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
Home Economics 1

Name

Date

Period
Textiles Unit Fabric Characteristics
Identify Method of Construction

ASSIGNMENT: Look at each of the fabric samples in your set, seeing if you can find
fabrics that have been constructed by the same method. The th ee methods of fabric
construction are represented by the samples.
Categorize the fabrics; fist common characteristics, give each cawgory or group of
fabrics a name you feel is appropriate.

Card /Ps Card N's Card Ys

,

.
1

Common
Characteristics
Common
Characteristics
Common
Characteristics

Name of this category Name of this category Name of this category

*Characteristic A trait, quality, or property distinguishing an individual, group, or

type from every other member of its class or kind.

PLEASE BE CAREFUL WITH THE FABRIC SAMPLES. TRY NOT TO STRETCH OR

DAMAGE THEM.
N. Watts Figure 1.
9/85

r: , 244
440
LODI SENIOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
Home Economics 1

Name

Date

Period
Textiles Unit Fabric Characteristics*
Identify Method of Construction

ASSIGNMENT: Look at each of the fabric samples in your set, seeing if you -an find
fabrics that have been constructed by the same method. The three methods of fabric
construction are represented by the samples.
Categorize the fabrics, list common characteristics, give each category or group of
fabrics a name you feel is appropriate.

Card its Card /Ps Card k's

I/, 9; iv 3/66,8' .g/5,-/4/2

Common Common Common
Characteristics Characteristics Characteristics

.cigt .stieehe5 ialw/irte0A-

s-#74e* _5079 eetctre/d?
7=5-h/eh

tfifre
Name of this category
-hain
Name of this category
7r/e7ioveci
Name of this category

'Characteristic A t: ail, quality, or property distinguishing .1n individual, group, or

type from every other member of its class or kind.

PLEASE BE CAREFUL WITH THE FABRIC SAMPLES. TRY NOT TO STRETCH OR

DAMAGE THEM.

N. Watts Figure 2.
9/85

245
USING LITERATURE TO DEVELOP
CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS*
by Maria Tymoczko

Maria Tymoczko shows bow four types of critical thinkinginduction, deduction,

constructing sound arguments, and model making/theory buildingcan be used in
the study of literature. She provides numerous examples of the development of these
thinking skills and suggests that the humanities have .7.1rtain advantages over science
and math for improving these skills in students. In the humanities, unlike those more
technical areas, the student can "generate a question that has not yet been answered
and thzt will still be within his or her grasp to answer." Tymoczko finds that critical
thinking in literary inquiry results in an open-ended, challenging learning experience
for both students and teacher.
The author is Associate Professor of Comparative Literature, University of Massa-
chusetts, Amherst.

Literature is rarely put forward as a vehicle for teaching critical think-

ing, yet it is as capable of teaching students to think well as the disci-
plines most often credited with promoting these skills: math, science,
logic, and philosophy. After a brief review of various aspects of critical
thinking, I will suggest strategies for teaching these skills in literature
classes.
Four types of critical thinking are commonly addressed in our educa-
tional system. The first is induction: the ability to draw conclusions from
data and specific facts. The second is deduction: the ability to reason
from premises, to move from the general to the particular, to understand
implications of a hypothesis. Both induction and deduction are involved
in the construction of sound complex arguments, and in the ability to
criticize arguments. Both are also involved in model making and theory
building. Model making and theory building, in turn, generally involve
a positive feedback loop, whereby known data suggest a theory or model,
and that model is tested and refined by further investigation and experi-
ment or data gathering.
Mathematics teaches critical thinking primarily because it exercises stu-

Copyright @ 1986 by Maria Tymoczko.

246
dents' powers of deduction: they learn to construct proofs, to move from
axioms to theorems. Science teaches critical thinking primarily by teach-
ing students inductionthe basis of the scientific method and experi-
mental designas well as the rudiments of model making and theoriz-
ing. Philosophy teaches students both the principles of logicon what
basis deductions and inferences are validas well as ways of constructing
arguments. Typically in philosophical arguments, students learn to at-
tend to general principles and their implications, as well as to modify as-
sertions so as to accommodate specific munples--that is, students are
trained practically in both deduction and induction. Literature is as fine
a tool for teaching critical thinking as any of these disciplines. Though
literature may not offer opportunities for rigorous proof as mathematics
does, or for quantitative experiment as science does, for teaching critical
thinking as a whole it is one of the most flexible disciplines in the
academy.
The following sections contain four successful strategies for teaclAing
critical thinking using literature. My examples are taken from courses I
have taught in Irish Studies and Comparative Literature; analogous types
of questions and approaches can be used in any literary field.

INDUCTION
Literature courses can be structured around units of inquiry. That is,
readings can be treated as data that will generate general conclusions to
questions that have been raised. This is a technique that every literature
teacher uses. For example, in secondary schools we use such strategies to
get students to delineate the characteristics of short stories as opposed to
novels, or to define different sorts of comedy.
It is a technique that comes into its own on the college level, however,
when students can oe put to work on questions that have no simple an-
swer. The following are examples of questions that have proved success-
ful: What are the distinguishing features of fantasy literature? How does
audience affect authors' treatments of form and content? What are the
differences between children's literature and adult literature? What folk-
lore exists at a university and what are its functions? In what ways is
Yeats indebted to native Irish tradition? Questions aimed at the develop-
ment of inductive arguments can be posed regarding specific work:;,
genres, periods, and theoretical issues.
Such an inductive approach to literature can be used tc :;t:ucture

247
sj
 whole courses, as well as units within courses. It can, for example, be
used in a thematics course, such as "The Theme of the Otherworld in
Medieval Literature," in which students can be asked to define the typo-
logies and functions of the Otherworld in a specific body of literature.
Students can also be taught induction by being encouraged to do in-
vestigative independent projects as final papers. In my classes students
have undertaken experiments as diverse as an investigation of oral trans-
mission to see how well people remember various types of stories told to
them, and a survey of early Irish literature to determine the role sounds,
noise, and music play in the corpus.
Material approached this way will teach students to generate conclu-
sions for themselves about individual works and more general aspects of
literature on the basis of texts at their command. That is, students will
evolve not only as more critical independent readers, they will also devel-
op metaliterary skillsthe basis of theoretical inquiry to be discussed be-
low. Emphasis on induction also encourages students to be specific and
precise in their thinkingcharacteristics as valuable in literary discourse
as in other fields.
When students learn that a class has an investigative approach, they
begin to generate questions themselves and to answer those questions as
well. That is, a learning environment that attends to the critical thinking
skill of induction promotes curious and lively habits of ..nind. In order
for such an atmosphere to flourish, however, the teacher has to be ready
to listen to and consider carefully the students' assessments of the texts
at hand. Indeed such pedagogical openness is essential for teaching and
encouraging all critical thinking.
The humanities offer a more satisfying field in which students may
undertake inductive inquiries than even the sciences. For in the sciences,
it is rare that a student can generate a question that (1) has not yet been
answered and that (2) will still be within his or her grasp to answer. For
many students, scientific questions in beginning or even middle-level sci-
ence courses and scientific experiments, particularly those that repeat
classic experiments of the past, have something of a contrived nature and
seem a repetitive exercise. In humanistic fields, particularly literature,
any student on the college level will be able to ask some questions that
have not been answered and to generate feasible answers to those ques-
tions. This is possible because some of the raw materials of literature
(namely, some texts) are more accessible, basic analytic techniques are
easier to master, and the experimental designs are generally simpler than
the analogous materials, techniques, and experimental designs of scien-
tific fields.

248
24J
L
DEDUCTION
Deduction is also a critical thinking skill that can be taught and rein-
forced through literature. Again whole courses as well as units can be or-
ganized around a deductive investigation. In a literary setting deduction
generally takes one of the following forms. In the first form, a course be-
gins with an assertion (Proposition A), and ask what follows from this as-
sertion. For example, students can be presented with the information
"the Celts had a strong belief in the Otherworld," and then asked in
what ways this belief appears in and shapes Celtic literature.
A second form that deduction often takes is to ask an if-then ques-
tion. If such and such were true (Proposition B), what would then fol-
low? The conclusions can then be assessed to see whether they are true or
whether they lead to a reductio ad absurdum. For example, students
might be asked to consider what follows from taking James Joyce serious-
ly as an Irishman writing in the Irish tradition. The deductions that fol-
low from such a proposition may represent significant new critical depar-
tures; indeed, for the example at hand, one can show that the converse,
a prominent critical stance regarding Joyce as disconnected from the Irish
tradition, does in fact lead to a reductio.
Incorporating deductive strategies in the framework of literature classes
not only develops students' general critical thinking skills, it makes them
better students of literature. It encourages depth of inquiry, and an at-
tention to consistency. Teaching deductive strategies of the second sort
alio teaches students to be open to possible arguments; in short it makes
far more creative minds. At the same time, such approaches provide stu-
dents with ways of testing arguments so that their creativity is
disciplined.
An advantage of using literature as a mode for teaching critical think-
ing skills related to deduction is that literature is more concrete than
mathematics. Students who have difficulty manipulating mathematical
symbols can, thus, still learn these habits of mind. Moreover, by exercis-
ing deduction in a concrete domain such as literature, students can more
easil! learn to apply these critical thinking skills to broader aspects of
their lives. They come to understand more readily the implications, for
example, of their major life choices on other aspects of their lives.

CONSTRUCTING SOUND ARGUMENTS

Most complex arguments evolve from the interplay of both induction
and deduction. In practice, the questions posed to student., z,enerally do

249 0:-
440 0
not depend on either pure induction or pure deduction for their answers.
In order for students to construct arguments well, they need to be able
to move back and forth between various types of critical processes. The
development of this sort of mental flexibility is a particular strength of
the discipline of philosophy, but literature classts are also ideal places to
learn to construct arguments.
The central aspect of a successful strategy for teaching students to con-
struct sound arguments turns on asking them real questions to which
there are no standard answers in the critical literature and to get the class
to work collectively on these questions. This is a technique borrowed
from philosophy which teaches complex argument by engaging students
on real questions that contemporary philosophers debate. Though stu-
dents may be taught the history of the dialectic on the issue, such history
is presented primarily to sharpen students' wits and to increase their
awareness of the issues involved. That is, the history of the debate is
taught to students in order to facilitate students' own arguments and po-
sitions on questions for which no consensus has been reached. Current
philosophical topics discussed by students include the relation of names
to referents, the nature of translation, the implications of mathematical
proofs generated by computers, the logical basis of altruism in moral sys-
tems, and so forth. These are also areas on which there is lively debate ir,
the professional journals.
Such questions should be a significant element of every course taught.
Examples of questions I have proposed in recent semesters include the
following. \Vaal are the differences between science fiction and other
types of fantasy, and are these differences theoretically significant? Are
Celtic poets shaman figures, and if so, how does this affect our under-
standing of their poetry? Are there signs of thematic coherence in ti e
Welsh Mabinap? What is the nature of James Joyce's female figures? Is
Arthurian romance a form of fantasy literature, and .4' so, how does this
medieval genre relate to and differ from modern fantasy literature?
These are questions on which literary critics have no agreement, and yet
all are capable of being approached by undergraduates who have read
appropriate primary literary texts.
There are several advantages in posing such questions to students.
First, if there is no standard critical position on a topic, then students
will in fact be thrown onto their own mental resources for a solution..
They do not have the easy option of turning to an authority for the
Truth; they must puzzle over the question and reason out an answer.
Second, asking such questions makes the class an actual forum for inqui-
ry, not a Socratic exercise. As positions evolve, students have a genuine

250
sense of accomplishmentthey sec that their critical reasoning and argu-
ments have been effective in achieving an increased understanding of the
problem at hand. They have become in a small way members of the
community of scholars.
Moreover, if open questions are posed then the instructor also is en-
gaged in the process of argument and investigation. There is nothing so
undermining to a student's sense of confidence in his or her growing
powers of critical thinking than to believe that the teacher knows it all,
that the student's own struggles with the topic in some way a sham,
that the teacher is bored with the students' thoughts because the teacher
has heard it all before, that there is only one answer (the teacher's) to be
discovered. Such patronizing attitudes are most easily avoided if the
teacher also has an investigative attitude toward at least some of the ma-
terial in a course.
A teacher's openness will also influence the mode of discussion and ar-
gumentation. If the teacher is a member of the process of inquiry, then
it is not up to the teacher alone to assess students' arguments as they
evolve. This facilitates students' talking to each other, learning not only
to construct and advance arguments, but to assess and challenge the ar-
guments of others as well. Both are aspects of critical thinking. This sort
of discussion provides opportunities for students to practice all aspects of
argument formation: making assertions on the basis of evidence (i.e., in-
duction from a close textual reading), offering counterexamples, and so
forth. A teacher can also introduce deductive reasoning as a criterion for
evaluation of arguments presented in the discussion: if x is the case as is
being asserted, what would the implications be? Thus, students can learn
to use reductio arguments in intellectual discourse.
One advantage literature classes have over philosophy classes as a for-
mat for training students to form sound arguments is that the arguments
are generally constructed with reference to a closed domainthat is, the
literary text or texts under discussion. This is a relative equalizer for class
participants; the ability to think critically is foregrounded, and less ad-
vantage is given to students on the basis of their general knowledge.
Moreover, the basis of evidence and the source of inductive argument are
more defined namely, the literary works under discussion. This sort of
structure and framework for argumentation facilitates the process of
learning to think critically. It offers security to those students particularly
whose educational backgrounds may not be strong or wha may be uncer-
tain about the process of constructing arguments, because it presents a
limited field of reference which can be mastered by all class participants.

251 4n4.,
MODEL BUILDING AND THEORY FORMATION
Recently theory has become a topic of great interest to teachers of lit..
erature, and literary theory has begun to be incorporated into many
courses or to be the primary subject of literature classes. Model making
and theory building are major aspects of critical thinking, and literature
offers many opportunities to engage in these processes. Students have
the opportunity to build such skills in more traditional literature courses
as well as in courses directly devoted to discussions of literary theory.
Model making and theory formation are second-order critical thinking
skills. That is, they presuppose the ability to handle induction and de-
duction, to gather and assess data, and to form well-reasoned arguments.
This is an advanced critical skill, but one we expect members of our soci-
ety to understand and master. Model making in the domain of literature
is, of course, no different as a process from model making and the search
for theoretical formulation in other intellectual disciplines. Theories at-
tempt to coordinate and explain phenomena, as well as to predict. Liter-
ary theory addresses many aspects of literaturefrom genres, to the rela-
tion of text and author/teller, to the place of the literary work in its
cultural setting.
There are at least two aspects of theory formation that can engage stu-
dents, even those who are learning basic critical thinking skills. Students
can learn to assess existing theories, to test them and modify them. Stu-
dents can also be engaged in the steps involved in the construction of
theory.
An example of the former might be a course such as "The Celtic Basis
of Arthurian Romance." In this course, after determining what aspects
of medieval romance should be accounted for by a theory of genre devel-
opment and after deciding what would count as an adequate theory of
the origin of romance, students can test the Celtic hypothesis of the ori-
gin of romance on the basis of a representative selection of significant ro-
mances and Celtic literary texts. Students in this type of framework can
discuss theories abstractly, can be presented with a specific theory, and
can also be given material for testing the theory in question.
Another approach to stimulate the understanding of theory formation
might occur in a course such as "Medieval Lyric." Students can survey
the range of non-narrative poetic types in medieval literature. The inade-
quacies of traditional definitions of lyric to inscribe medieva! poetry, as
well as the inadequacies of theories that see dsssical literature and Medi-
eval Latin literature as the fountainhead of medieval vernacular poetry
can be presented. The focus in the course would be on developing alter-
nate models for the medieval corpus. This example illustrates one of the

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253
practical advantages or theory and model formation: such activities en-
courage students to develop literary breadth. When students sec that
counterexamples to theories can often b- generated by a broad consider-
ation of texts, students gain (:nthusiasm for the sort of spade work and
research that mastery of my field requires.
A third example of teaching students about theory formation might
occur in a freshman-level course such as "Fantasy and Literature." Such
a course can present a theory of a particular genre of literature step by
step, illustrating the complexity of theory formation, showing how defi-
nitions must be established, examples brought forward, evidence incor-
porated. The theory developed can be related to other theories of the
genre, as well as to the wider framework of literary theory as a whole.
Such a course, which can teach some of the fundamental elements of
critical thinking discussed above (induction, deduction, and construction
of complex arguments), can also be a demonstration of the complexity of
theory formation. While concentrating pedagogically on the basic critical
thinking skills, it can prepare students for more advanced stages. A basic
course can thus also serve students whose intellectual development is
advanced.
Literature again is an ideal vehicle for teaching model building and
theory formation. The basic materials to be organized by theories of lit-
erature arc often highly accessible, and a sufficient amount of material
can be presented so that there is adequate data to build theories around
or test theories with. Moreover, students can be engaged on literary pro-
jects involving underworked fields, types of literature just being integrat-
ed into academic consideration, or old problems that bear reexamina-
don. Thus, they can try their hands at areas that are in need of
theoretical formulation or reformulationa task which is difficult for
students to undertake in scientific fields or mathematics.
Teaching critical skills to students is never easy in lay field. In literary
studies, one must know the substance of a field and the critical debate
about a field, without being wedded to a rigid critical stance. It means
neing vulnerable before studentsbeing engaged as one asks them to be
engaged, learning as they learn, being open to having one's own argu-
ments challenged, as well as being prepared to challenge students' argu-
ments. It means giving up the safety of constant dependence on defined
positions. It means, in short, being willing to model one's own critical
thinking as one asks students to develop their skills. There are obviously
great benefits that make these difficulties worthwhile. Students learn
thinking skills as well as content, and literary inquiry as a whole also
stands to benefit from such approaches. In addition, it makes teaching a

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254
tremendous adventureone opens the door to students' thoughts, and
one gets many unexpected and stimulating gifts in return.
On the whole, literature teachers and literary critics consider them-
selves sharp critical thinkers. Nonetheless, literary studies are generally
thot., : as one of the least likely disciplines to teach critical thinking,
largely because in literature classes we neither conduct physical experi-
ments nor construa proofs. While literature teachers willingly assume
the lion's share of teaching students to write well and to express them-
selves well, they tend to pass on the responsibility for teaching critical
thinking to other disciplines. It's time to change these stereotypes.

(I- 254
r:,00,
QUESTIONING IN A WRITING PROGRAM
TO DEVELOP THINKING
by Paula K. Flemming

Paula K. Flemming describes ming questions to improve primary school students'

writing and thinking. She empharizes the importance of a shift in the teacher's role,
from information-giver to facilitator. With numerous examples, including teacher/
student dialogues, Flernming shows how a teacher's questions of student writing can
lead to problem scMng and improved decision *raking. The teacher, reading the stu-
dent's writing in progress, observes the student's intent and asks probing questions.
Fkmming shows how different questions can have specific effects on students' work:
they can help students expand their work when needed, focus on a topia, deepen the
students' understanding of their topics, and strengthen their essays' endings. irhen
students externalize their thinking through writing, she finds that they develop as
both writers and thinkers.
The author is Reading and Writing Coordinator for the Con Val School District,
Peterborough, New Hampshire.

"Should I draw myself in the jacket?" Bridget, a wispy, blonde first

grader, asks me as I walk by her desk.
I stop. "What do you think?"
Putting the tip of her thumbnail in her mouth, she looks at the draw-
ing of her jacket. She reads aloud the text written in invented spelling at
the bottom of her paper: Where is my denim jacket? She looks at me
and asks, "No?"
"Why not?"
"Because it wouldn't make any sense if I was saying, 'Where is my
denim jacket?' and I was wearing it."
I touch her lightly on the back. "Good thinking, Bridget." I move
on.
Here we see the strategy of questioning within the context of writing
to allow the student to develop her/his own thinking process. Bridget
rose to the challenge and demonstrated that she could solve the problem
at hand through critical thinking.
She needed me at this point in her development as a thinker, not to
provide her with the answer, but to provide her with the question to
force her into an advantageous position for engagement with her
problem.

255 re
40u
 My role as teacher as been "structured away from that of information-
giver and into getting the child to develop his own thought processes"
(2) through the use of a judicious question at the right time. Studies
conducted in the 1960s at the Merrill-Palmer Institute, a private, non-
profit educational institution in Detroit, found that parents who were
authoritarian did not encourage children to be independent thinkers.
As a result...these children seemed to have difficulty in handling abstract
problems. They had difficulty conceptualizing....So we undertook to train kin-
dergarten teachers to treat children as active learners, to ask questions, to set
up tasks in which the child had to solve a problem.
....The results... showed that the children became "faster, more effective,
reflective and flexible" learners. (2)

Teachers have been asking questions ever since schools began. Most
questions asked have stirred the dust of the mind, but have not stripped
the outer layers to expose a new surface. Most of the questions have
asked for literal, factual information. Questions for which the teacher al-
ways has the correct answer. Questions which tap memory only.
Construed broadly, critical thinking comprises the mental processes, strategies
and representations people use to solve problems, make decisions, and learn
new concepts. (7. p. 46)
We need to ask questions which force students to solve problems make
decisions, learn new concepts. We need to ask questions which help stu-
dents to understand what they are learning, to apply the learning, to an-
alyze, synthesize, and evaluate. Questions for which we teachers do not
always have the one and only correct answer.
The use of questions to develop critical thinking is an integral compo-
nent of a process-based writing program. Questions are used before writ-
ing (What will you write?), during writing (What will you write next?),
during revision (Which lead is better?), and during editing (How do you
know when to use a period?).
Questions are posed at different times to compel students to think
about what they are doing, what they have done, what they will do. The
questions oblige students to reflect on and project from their activity and
to learn from their intellectual engagement.
Beneath these thought-provoking questions rests the assumption that
students are capable of thinking. They can rtflect on their actions,
words, thoughts. "Birds fly, fish swim; man thinks and learns" (6, p.
189). The power for learning resides with the learner and not the teach-
er. Once students understand *hat teachers believe are capable of
thinking critically, students seize their power and soar.
Good questions grow from observations of what the students are trying
to do in their writing. The teacher follows the lead of the student and
the questions nudge the student forward and prepare the way for instruc-

256
tion and learning. I recall Lee Ann, a third grader who had used a colon
in her writing.
"What's this, Lee Ann?" I asked pointing to the colon.
"I don't know. It's two dots."
"How did you happen to use them in your writing?"
"Well, I noticed them when I was reading. Whenever there was a list
of things, they used the two dots, so I did."
Lee Ann had written:
This is what I did during my vacation in Maine: swam, looked for shells, fished,
went to the movies, played with my cousin, played miniature golf and slept in a
tent.
Lee Ann thought as a writer when she was reading. She observed a con-
vention of print, formed a hypothesis about its use, and filed it for a fu-
ture need. She experimented with this "new" convention in her writing.
The first question probed her knowledge to see if she knew the name for
this new convention. (I knew the answer.) The second question probed
her understanding of the concept. (I did not know the answer.)
I observed what Lee Ann had done in her writing and asked two ques-
tions to probe the depth of understanding Lee Ann had regarding colons.
Lee Ann's answers provided the information needed for instruction.
Lee Ann had analyzed what shv read and applied the new concept in her
writing. She needed reinforcement that her hypothesis was correct and
she needed the label to apply to the new convention. I also learned a lit-
tle more about how Lee Ann is thinking about the world of print.
Mike, a first grader, started putting periods in his writing. He knew
the label and told me he used periods at the end of a sentence. I then
queried, "What's a sentence?"
"It's when you come to the end of a line. See."
He had punctuated his writing just as he said, at the end of each line,
not at the end of each sentence:
This is a Big.
Foot it is crushing.
cars I like Big.
Foots
"What if the sentence doesn't end here but goes on to the middle of
the next line?"
"It's like I said, put the period right there, at the end of the line."
I did not push him any further in terms of his definition. I knew his
concept of a sentence was too distant from the truth to be tampered
with. A teacher should:
give children opportunities to verify or disprove their own beliefs. When they
fail to discern any contradictions between their statements and the evidence

25:
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 [the teacher] has suggested, she/he does not press further....She recognizes
that more experience as well as more maturity will be necessary for more ade-
quate understanding. [The teacher] respects their ideas and does not try to
change them with a verbal explanation. (1, p. 73)
Good questions also gros from the teacher. They are real questions
he/she has about the writing. What does the teacher want to know
about? What does the teacher wonder about? His/her curiosities provide
the fertile ground for the growth of questions. I wanted to know what
Lee Ann knew about colons and how she had learned about them.
One afternoon Peter, a third grader, and I were talking about his writ-
ing. In his story he had built a robot which would do anything he want-
ed. I wanted to know what kinds of things he had the robot do. His an-
swer WAS, "Clean my room, take out the garbage, stack wood." He later
revised his writing to include these specifics.
Further on in his story, the main character landed on Mars. The Mar-
rigns "seemed to know him."
My curiosity again caused me to ask, "What did the Martians do
which showed that they knew him?"
"Well, if he had been a real stranger, they would have attacked
him."
Peter changed this part of his writing from The Martians seemed to
know him to The Martians didn't attack him because they remembered
him from when he was a baby.
It is sound practice to look at what the child is trying to do and ask
genuine questions, but there are different questions for different pur-
poses. One can form questions based on where the students are in their
development as writers and where they are in their pieces of writing.
If the writing needs to be expanded, think, "What do I want to know
more about?" And ask those questions. Or ask questions such as these:
Exactly what h3ppeneci?
How did you (or a character) feel?
Tell me the details so I can picture the whole episode (activity, scene, etc.).
c How did it start?
If the teacher senses a lack of focus in the writing, some questions that
may direct the thinking of the writer are these:
What are you really saying here?
What's the most important reason you chose this topic? What's important
about it to you?
What do you want your reader to learn?
Which is the most important part of your story? Why?
Is there anything that doesn't seem important in your story?

258

253
 It seems as if you have two stones here. One is about and the oth-
er is about Which one is the more important? (exciting, special,
interesting)
If the teacher has trouble visualizing the scene, he/she might ask one
or more of these questions:
Read me the places where you're pleased with your description. What makes
it good writing?
If I had been watching you, how would I have known that you (or a character)
felt sad? What exactly would I have seen?
If the lead or ending is weak. ask
Is your reader going to be hooked into reading nght away? Why or why not?
How else could you start (end) your story?
Have you told too much at the beginning (ending)?
Does the reader need to know all that?
What are ten other ways to begin (end) your story?
Which is best? Why?
If the teacher v.-.;..uts information about the student's understanding of
a concept or technique, he/she can ask
Why did you make this change from your first to second draft?
How did you figure out the spelli4 for this word?
This section gives me a good understanding of what was happening. How did
you do it?
How did you decide to write about this topic?
How do you know when to use quotation marks?
What do you think of this piece of writing? Why?
What problems did you have when writing? How did you solve them?
What did you learn in writing this piece?
What's the difference between your first and last drafts?
If the teacher wants to know where =dents are in their development
as writers, these questions are helpful:
How have you changed as a writer?
What do you have to do to be a good writer?
If you had more time, what part of your writing would you spend time on?
Why?
What is the best story you have written this year? Why?
What makes a good lead?
What is the hardest part of writing for you?
What is the easiest part?
What have you tried that is new for you?
What kinds of response help you most as a writer?

259
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(These questions have been influenced by the research work done by
Nancie Atwell (3), Lucy McCormick Calkins (4), Donald Graves (5), and
Susan Sowers.)
Students must think to answer these questions. They reflect on their
processes, strategies, and representations. They solve problems, make de-
cisions, and learn new concepts. They think about their thinking and de-
cision making. They use language to talk about language. They are
thinking critically.
The process of answering questions brings to consciousness what may
have been an unconscious action. Melanie, a first grader, had written the
final page to her story "Christmas Eve." She ended with the sentence
Kim was happy. When we were talking about her story, she asked me if
I thought happy or glad was better. Her questions excited me. She was
deliberating over a choice of words, unusual for a first grader. I asked my
usual question, "What do you think?"
She answered, "I think glad."

"Because glad means she was excited and happy all over. And happy
means...just happy, not so exciting, just happy like smiling."
It is less important whether Melanie is correct in her definitions of
happy and glad. It is more important that she is thinking about and ana-
lyzing the meanings of words. She knows her message and understands
that she must choose the exact word to communicate her message. She
thinks about the power of words.
Students who write every day encounter problems. What will I write
about? What words will I use to tell my story? What form will I use?
What questions will others have about my writing? These self-posed
questions cause thinking to occur.
Writing students think after they have written. They think about how
they can improve their writing. They think in response to questions
posed by teachers and peers.
Through this thinking the students are learning.
Children do not necessarily learn because adults provide opportunities for
them to use and explore materials. The children must engage in thinking about
what they do. For most children, the intervention by means of questions,
whether narrow or broad in focus, numerous or few, is essential to learning. (1,
f). 84)
Teachers who use the strategy of questioning within the context of
writing help their students to think critically. Students, even the young
students, show repeatedly that when the teacher asks good questions,
they use them as springboards for the discovery of solutions, for making
decisions, and for the creation of new concepts.

260
REFERENCES
1. Almy, Millie, and Genishi, Celia. Ways of Studying Children. New York:
Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1979.
2. Ames, Lynne. "The Need: Teachers Who Can Make Them Think." New
York Times Educational Winter Survey (January 9, 19P;).
3. Atwell, Nancie. "Making the Grade: Evaluating Wm. ng in Conference."
In Understanding Writing, edited by Thomas Newkirk and Nancie Atwell.
Chelmsford, Mass.: The Northeast Regional Exchange, 1982.
4. Calkins, Lucy McCormick. Lessons from a Child. Exeter, N.H.: Heinemann
Educational Books, 1983.
5. Graves, Donald H. Writing: Teachers and Children at Work. Exeter, N.
H.: Heinemann Educational Books, 1982.
6. Holt, John. How Children Learn. New York: Pitman Publishing, 1967.
7. Sternberg, Robert J. "Critical Thinking. Its Nature, Measurement and Im-
provement." In Essays on the Intellect, edited by Robert.). Sternberg. Alex-
andria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development,
1985.

ck --,
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261
SIMULATION AND THINKING
by Ronald Levitsky

Ronald Levitsky shows how simulation exercises can improve high school students'
understanding of and attitude toward history. To clarify hh use of the process,
Levitsky describes a Civil War simulation. The simulation, which emphasized the
war's causes, involved stude.nts' taking on roles of persons on both sides of the con-
flict. Students spent two or three weeks acquiring background informatiod on the
war's causes before beginning the simdation. In his description of the simulation it-
self; Levitsky discusses students' identification of their allies and opponents in the
conflict, as well as their resistance to voicing unpopular positions. Levitsky discussed
the teacher's role in this process, where the teacher serves as moderator and facilitator.
IT/hen the simulation is completed, students return to a discussion of the issues pre-
sented and analyze emotions provided by the simulation. Levitsky finds that the simu-
lation as a whole helps students use new analytic skills: they become involved in the
essential questions raised by historical problens.
The author is Social Studies Chairperson, Sunset Ridge School, Northfield, Illinois.

A loud disturbance broke out against a far wall of the student cafete-
ria. When I arrived, about a dozen eighth graders were shouting at one
another. One boy pointed angrily at a poster illustrated with a white
overseer whipping a kneeling black slave; on it was written, "The South
is cruel, the North will rule!" Students were heatedly discussing the mer-
its of the plantation system vs. the conditions of Northern factory work-
crs, the tariff, and the Biblical justification of slavery with arguments
that might have been heard in Congress one hundred and fifty years
ago. This incid.f.nt was the result of a Civil War simulation, a spillover
from the classroom, and for the teacher a refreshing example of students
looking beyond the text to analyze the why and how of a historical situa-
tion. It point; to the intent of this chapter: to show that the use of simu-
lation is particularly -cited to the adolescent's thought processes and atti-
tude toward history, and that it is one of the best methods of promoting
thinking that can be used in the history classroom.
Thinking necessitates making a judgment, a type of intellectual exer-
cise requiring an open-ended qt. estion and sufficient data for each side
of the question to be defensible. This is precisely the type of thinking
that David Matthews, President of the Kettering Foundation, has called
"civic intelligence" and that he finds necessary for a thriving democracy.
By civic intelligence, he means not only to understand the facts but also

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263
to go beyond them to understand what these facts mean to other people
and to oneself, and then to make judgments (1).
Adolescents are particularly suited to engage in this type of thinking,
for most have entered what Piagct has called the formal operations stage.
No longer are they bound to their own particular world, but now
"...the given environment can be treated as one of a number of possi-
ble conditions"(2). Students are able to hypothesize about particular sit-
uations and then make deductions. Martin Sleeper, Principal of the Run-
kle School in Brookline, Massachusetts, has applied Piaget's theory of
formal operations to the adolescent history student who can now move
from abstract principle to concrete example, understand point of view in
historical context, and speculate" ...imagine alternatives, construct
different possibilities and play out their outcome"(3).
Sleeper goes on to differentiate two distinct categories of historical re-
ality in the minds of adolescents. One has direct relevance upon their
own lives and therefore is very meaningful and encourages the greatest
use of imagination and hypothesis. He uses as an example the Great De-
pression, because the historical event helped to shape their parents' val-
ues to which they were continually subjected. The other category he calls
"formal History" which is less meaningful to students and therefore at-
tracts much less speculative thinking.
All of the above imply difficulties for the teacher seeking to have ado-
lescent students in a history class practice thinking skills. Piaget indicates
that adolescents are entering or have entered a stage in thinking which
will allow them to hypothesize about what is or, in the case of history,
what was possible. Matthews indicates that critical thinking, as much as
it strengthens a democratic society, must allow us to "...understand
facts as others would understand them for themselvesfrom perspectives
and circumstances quite different from our own"(4). Sleeper cautions
the teacher that students will speculate best upon historical situations
which are somehow made meaningful to them. Executed properly, a
simulation can utilize Piaget's formal operations stage, respect if not in-
corporate Sleeper's advice, and allow the student ample opportunity to
exercise Matthews's call for civic intelligence.
Packaged simulations have been available since the 1960s and have
grown in popularity over the years; indeed, the computer revolution has
added dozens of such historical activities. However, they have engen-
dered two criticisms. One arises from the essential strength of the simula-
tion its open-endedness, for why role play a situation if the ending has
been preordained? Yet, those who oppose what they term "secular hu-
manism" resent giving a fair hearing to a differing viewpoint. It should
suffice Iere merely to warn those who use simulation as a stimulus for
critical thinking to be prepared for such censure.

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2 .1 -2
 The second criticism comes from those educators who see a dichotomy
between what they regard as real teachingthe 3-R's as instructed by
means of lecture, drill, and memorizationas contrasted to a simulation
which they regard as merely a game and therefore a time-waster. The re-
cent concern among the general public that American education is some-
how failing and needs to get back to basics has no doubt increased the
wariness of some teachers to spend several days, or even weeks, allowing
their students to role pia; a particular historical event. This criticism is
valid only insofar as a teacher misuses the simulationfor example, not
clearly relating the activity to the unit as a whole or not requiring
enough student preparation.
The following paragraphs will delineate one simulation that has been
used successfully for a number of years in an eighth grade United States
History class. It is not meant as a lesson to be duplicated but rather as an 1
example of how such an activity can successfully stimulate critical
thinking.
The simulation, entitled "The Union Divides," is published by 01-
cott Forward Publisiiers(5). Its mayor comp ments are a written guide, a
record narrating historical background information, and a set of index
cards giving biographical sketches of pseudo-governors in charge of the
thirty states in the Union in 1850. Although not real personages, these
characters have viewpoints which reflect the actual beliefs of ante-bellum
governors the Governor of Massachusetts is an abolitionist; South Caro-
lina, a Southern extremist; and Kentucky, a Southern moderate not
wishing to offend the anti-slavery constituency in his state. Students play
the roles of these governors and attend a conference in which they at-
tempt to advise Congress regardinn a peaceful settlement of the issues
that threaten civil war.
In choosing to utilize this simulation, the teacher has consciously shift-
ed emphasis away from the Civil War itselfthat is, the study of strate-
gy, military leaders, and battlesto the more difficult but equally fasci-
nating question of causation. Was the Civil War inevitable? If so, why?
If not, what could have been done to prevent such a conflict? The ideal
recipe for thinking: an open-ended historical situation, ample factual
data availa,)le for opposing viewpoints, and the opportunity, as Mat-
thews has written, to "...understand facts as others would understand
them for themselves. .."(1). All these processes are leading to well-rea-
soned judgment
Before the simulation is introduced, students need to assimilate as
much background information as possible, and therefore spend two to
three weeks studying events leading to the Civil War, from the origins of
slavery to Lincoln's election. Emphasis is placed on analyzing each side of
an issue as well as delving into social history through the use of primary

264
2b

1
sourcesfor example, a slaveowner's view of the plantation sy3teat vs.
Frederick Douglass's. Through classroom discussion and probing by the
teacher, students are asked to examine why many Northerners and
Southerners viewed certain issues differently, as well as why there were
differences of opinion within each region. A common vocabulary de-
veloped, using such specialized terms as "popular sovereignty," "Pecu-
liar Institution," and "Secession." Because the class is studying caysa-
don, a concept naturally yielding to analysis and evaluation, the teacher
is able to utilize the higher order questions of Bloom's Taxonomy (e.g.,
"Why did the South defend slavery so strongly?") (6).
Only after having investigated the background of the controversy are
students introduced to the simulation. Each is. given the role of a gover-
nor (two or three students are made officers in charge of running the
conference). Roles are generally assigned at random, although the parts
of at least a few Northern abolitionists and Southern extremists arc given
to more vocal students, well suited to live up to their fiery reputations.
Invariably many of the children selected to portray Southern governors
voice their dissatisfaction, asserting they have no wish to defend the in-
stitution of slavery or to side with traitors. Of course, this is precisely
what is needed if the entire class is to appreciate why sectional differ-
ences eventually led to secession. These students are told that they are in
the position of lawyers who must sometimes defend ideas with which
they do not agree. Gradually they reconcile themselves to the luck of the
draw, becoming emotionally involved as they are forced in the activity to
defend their positions.
After the role selection each student must study his/her governor's
biographical card, then demonstrate an understanding of the informa-
tion by writing in character an election speech. This speech also allows
the student to extrapolate upon the governor's imaginary life, engage in
campaign rhetoric, and address key ismesall excellent preparation for
the upcoming Governors' Conference. For example, a student portraying
the abolitionist Governor of New Hampshire wrote,
I feel that davery has made life in the South shocking and very sickening. I feel
that slave trading is the lowest of all human occupations, and slavery should
be done av, ay with immediately, even if force is needed to do so, and slave
holders should be forced to repent their sin by serving time in jail.
The more moderate student-Governor of Virginia countered,
Our state needs slavery to survive. The crops we plant would nevei get the
proper care needed without slave help. The Northerners don't kr,ow the situa-
tion we have. If we could educate them to this fact, the states in the Union
would work together.
Another purpose of this writing exercise is to help each student clarify
his/her governor's position. For example, a girl who portrayed the Gov-

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26,3
error of Minois wrote a stirring speech unabashedly in support of aboli-
tion. She had assumed, without carefully reading the biography card,
that Illinois a Northern state and the Land of Lincoln, would naturally
be strongly anti-slavery. Upon closer reading, and questioning by the
teacher, she realized that downstate Illinois was strongly Southern in her-
itage and sentiment, and therefore rewrote her speech in a tone moder-
ate enough to make even a seasoned politician proud.
The last phase of preparation allows the "governors" time to familiar-
ize themselves with their likely allies and opponents and begin to co-
alesce into voting L pups. Throrgh closer analysis students will learn that
there are not simply two blocs but four--abolitionists (four governors),
Northern moderates (eleven), Southern moderates (eleven), and South-
ern extremists (four). From the information given as well as through
teacher guidance, each student is forced once again to think beyond
mere platitudes of anti-slavery and state's rights to analyze just where
she/he stands on a particular issue; indeed depending upon the ques-
tion, governors within the same region might oppose one another. The
more clear-sighted soon see, and others discover as the simulation pro-
gresses, that Northern and Southern moderates often have more in com-
mon with one anotherthat is, the ultimate preservation of the
Unionthan they do with their more extreme colleagues. This, of
course, is the key issue; will moderation on both sides prevail through
compromise to save the Union, or will the result be secession and war?
Because the answer is unknown at the activity's initiation, students are
forced to respond to each upcoming question as they think the role de-
mands, and because classmates are depending upon everyone's sincere
participation, they rarely fail to take their roles seriously.
The Governors' Conference itself comprises four half-hour sessions,
each one corresponding to a specific year in which a crucial issue faced
the nation, beginning in 1850 with the Compromise of 1850 and ending
with the election of Lincoln and the threat of secession. (Based upon but
not limited to the packaged simulation, a formal agenda has been devel-
oped, a copy of which is included.) Desks are arranged in a horseshoe
facing a podium and speaker's table. Within each session students are
asked to examine critically one specific issue and then vote either on the
original question or an alternative they have formulated.
For example, the first question occurs in 1850"Shall California be
admitted to the Union as a free state?" As with upcoming questions, a
guest speaker, usually a teacher, appears to review the backgroundthis
time as John C. Calhoun and Daniel \"ebster (for Lincoln in a later ses-
sion, the superintendent appears in a beard and stovepipe hat). Next the
"governors" are permitted to debate the question. This is usually slow-
going at first, but as students begin to feel at ease exchanging opinions

266
with their peers, discussion grows livelier and more and more hands are
raised demanding recognition by the harried chairperson (many friend-
ships are temporarily lost that day). Impromptu speeches include emo-
tional outbursts, angry denunciations, and reasoned appeals to logic and
compromise. By reacting to one another's remarks, students are achiev-
ing much higher level inquiry than in a traditional classroom setting
where they merely respond to the teacher(7).
After several minutes of discussion, the chairperson calls time for cau-
cus, in which the "governors" group themselves into blocs, review the
question, and attempt to reach a coLsensus concerning the upcoming
vote. Abolitionists and Southern extremists do their part by denouncing
the opposition's immorality and any attempt at compromise, while lead-
ers within the ranks of both moderate groups may seek out one another
in an attempt to negotiate a deal. "hen the caucus period has ended, a
roll call vote is taken, the teacher noting how each "governor" has vot-
ed, and, if the question fails, the floor is opened to compromise
measures.
Regarding the admission of California, in a recent playing of the simu-
lation the moderates of both North and South agreed to split the state in
two by extending the Missouri Compromise line to the Pacific Ocean,
thus concurring that for each side half a loaf was better than none. In
previous simulations this question did not always lead to compromise,
the extremists on both sides having made the moral issue of slavery para-
mount. From an educational standpoint there is no wrong answer, only
answers well reasoned or not.
During the short recess between sessions, the teacher approaches stu-
dents who seemingly have not voted in character or have not yet partici-
pated actively, and questions them, not to criticize but to help clarify
their thinking. Sometimes students who appear to have broken character
give good reasons for their actions and have actually engaged in some
powerfully original thinking (e.g., a Southern extremist voting for a
compromise unfair to the South in order to anger Southern moderates
against the North).
The following years (1854, 1859, and 1861) are generally role played
far more in earnest, as students grow accustomed to the simulation's for-
mat. It is at this point that the line is crossed from what Martin Sleeper
has identified as "formal History"not particularly significant to ado-
lescentsto the more personally relevant history he sees as promoting
abstract, speculative, and therefore more truly critical thinking. Students
become caught up in their characters. Southerners, goaded by the insulis
and criticisms of their Northern colleagues, grow more defensive con-
cerning slavery, which more and more of them begin to refer to as their
"Peculiar Institution." They boo and walk out in protest when .achers

267

25,3
 representing abolitionists Harriet Beecher Stowe and William Lloyd Gar-
rison enter to give speeches. They lash out at the Yankees who exploit
the factory workers more than slaves are exploited. As those who role
played these Southern governors later explained, they never felt that
slavery was justifiable but felt trapped into defending an indefensible
system, just as Southerners in the ante-bellum era felt uapi'td.
Whether the Governors' Conference results in a peaceful settlement of
the issues or in a civil war is determined solely by how the students have
examined and responded to each of the four critical questions. Extrem-
ism and conflict win as often as moderation and compromise. What de-
termines the simulation's success is not the outcome but how well stu-
dents have placed themselves in the hearts and minds of their roles and
how.effectively their thinking skills have been utilized.
At the simulation's conclusion, students rearrange their seats into rows
and return to the present. The activity is not complete, however, until
they participate in a closure consisting of two parts. First the teacher
leads a discussion examining the questions and attitudes raised by the
Governors' Contemn, -. Decisions that individuals and voting blocs made
are challenged, as students must reexamine and defend their choices.
The emotions that developed are also analyzed to determine what effect
they had on the various decisions. One conclusion usually drawn is that
feelings tended to grow hotter as the activity progressed, making com-
promise more difficult. This leads to extrapolation to current events and
a discussion of crises in the Middle East, Central America, and South Af-
rica. Students exhibit a deeper understanding of the complexities of
these issues after the simulation and in theh discussions are less likely to
accept superficial explanations. They are generally more cautious and
willing to investigate both sides of a question.
The second aspect of closure is a take-home essay briefly summarizing
what understandings the simulation helped the student achieve. As one
girl wrote,
I feel that this [simulation] showed me how hard it really ir, to compromise.

When deciding for a whole country it becomes a difficult task, because you're
deciding what to do for the present and later or the future. Another thing this
taught me was the different sides of the issue. I learned how not only the
Southerners felt but also the abolitionists, extremists and the Northerners. It
was difficult trying to play a person who was for slavery when you know it is
wrong, but in doing so you can better understand the conflict.
As mentioned earlier, The Union Divides is but one of a plethora of
simulations commercially available. In addition, it certainly is possible to
create one to answer a particular need(8). The teacher wishing to utilize
a simulation should be certain the activity supports a unit in the existing
curriculum, can be tailored to a particular class size or time limitation,

268

1
and stimulates thinking. Many of the computer simulations currently
available appear in the format of an arcade game pitting the individual
against the screen. This type of activity yields more satisfactory results if
students participate in small groups, where decisions need to be dis-
cussed, evaluated, and defended before being made final. Otherwise
thinking skills are minimized
In condusion, simulation is an excellent means of promoting higher-
order thinking in the history dassroom. It permits adolescents, having
reached what Piaget has termed the formal stage of operations, an op-
portunity to speculate about the past, analyzing not only what happened
but, more importantly, how and why it happened and if it necessarily
had to occur. By immersing themselves in the attitudes and emotions of
a character from the pastindeed, assuming that personagestudents
become more engrossed in a historical problem and therefore more will-
ing to investigate it. An intellectual leap occurs as they personalize histo-
ry and are able to observe and react to events, as Matthews would have
them, from a perspective and circumstance very different from their
own. Ultimately through analyzing the past in this manner, adolescents
prepare themselves for the all important role of citizen in a democratic
society with the ability to use their thinking skills in everyday life.

Governors' Conference to Prevent a Civil WarAgenda

Session #1-1850
1. Call to order and roll call.
2. Welcoming speech by Governor cf Pennsylvania.
3. Introduction by Chairperson.
4. Background to question.
5. Question: "Shall California be admitted to the Union as a free state?"
a. Addresses by Sen. John C. Calhoun (intro, !uced by Governor of South Caroli
na) and Sen. Daniel Webster (introduced by Governor of New Hampshire).
b. Discussion.
c. Caucus.
d. Vote (compromise?).
6. Adjournment.
Session #2-1854
1. Call to order.
2. Address by Harriet Beecher Stowe (Uncle Tom's Cabin) introuuced by Governor
of Ohio.
3. Background to question.
4. Address by Stephan A. Douglas (introduced by Governor of Illinois). "Popular
Sovereignty."
5. Question. "Should the People of Kansas and Nebraska decide for themselves to
allow or outlaw slavery?"

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2O:I
 a. Discussion.
b. Caucus.
c. Vote.
6. Adjournment.
Session #3-1859
1. Call to order.
2. Raid on Harper's Ferry, Virginia.
a. Explanation by Governor of Virginia.
b. Discussion.
3. Question: "Shall the federal government recognize slavery and protect it in states
and territories where it now exists?"
a. Address by William Lloyd Garrison (abolitionist), introduced by Governor of
Massachusetts.
b. Discussion.
c. Caucus.
d. Vote.
4. Adjournment.
Session #4-1861
1. Call to order.
2. Review of Election of 1860.
3. Address by President-Elect Abraham Lincoln introduced by Governor of New
York.
4. Background to question.
5. Question: "Can a state legally secede from the Union?"
a. Discussion.
b. Caucus.
c. Vote.
6. Concluding remarks by Chairperson.
7. Adjournment.

REFERENCES
1. David Matthews, "Civic Intelligence," Social Education 49, no. 8 (Novem-
ber/December 1985): 680.
2. R. Droz and M. Rahmy, Understanding Piaget (New York. International
Universities Press, 1976), 58.
3. Martin Sleeper, "How Do Adolescents Use and Understand History?" Fac-
ing History and Ourselv-- News (Spring 1985): 6.
4. Matthews, "Civic Intelligence," 680.
5. Eric Rothschild, Joan Platt, and Daniel C. Smith. The Union DividesA
Simulation of the Causes of the Civil War (Hartsdale, N. Y.: Olcott For-
ward Publishers, 1971.)

270
2/
6. Arthur Carin and Robert B. Sund, Creative Questioning and Sensitive Lis-
tening Techniques (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co.,
1978), 16-17.
7. Ibid., 26-27.
8. For example, sec Ronald Levitsky and George Steffen, "Supreme Court
Simulation," Social Studies 74, no. 2 (March April, 1983): 89-92.

271
2!
THE PRE-CONTACT TIME AMERICAN
INDIAN: A STUDY IN THE MEANING
AND DEVELOP) TENT OF CITLTURE
A TEAM:NG UNIT
by John M. Feeser

John M. Feeser's teaching unit on an aspect of American Indian history/social stud-

Us illustrates the integration of thinking skills instruction into the classroom. Students
engage in activities that help them examine why and how the culture developed; iney
learn to hypothesize from evidence, to question aspects of both the Indian and their
own culture, and to analyze the criteria they use to evaluate practices from unfamiliar
cultures. Teachers can use this teaching unit as a model and guide for constructing
similar units from other areas of study.
The author teaches Social Studies at the Salisbury Middle School, Allentown,
Pennsylvania.

Teacher Note: This unit is designed to introduce students to the various and
unique cultures developed by the aboriginal inhabitants of the Americas prior to
Europe ;r1 contact. During this process students are introduced to the concept of
what culture is and how it develops. Activities are designed specifically to en-
courage students to examine the whys as well as the whats in regards to the de-
velopment of culture. The skill of hypothesizing from evidence is stressed and
the ability to state and substantiate hypotheses in written form is emphasized.
In the process of researching Indian cultures students begin to question and to
better understand aspects of their own culture. By role playing students develop
the ability to empathize and to more objectively analyze the unconscious criteria
they use in the evaluation of unfamiliar cultural characteristics. The range of ac-
tivities keeps students interested, allows for the exhibition ofa variety of skills,
and provides flexibility in dealing with various ability levels while at the same
time developing the thinking skills we deem essential in the educational process.

272
INTRODUCTION

People lived in the Americas many thousands of years before Colum-

bus discovered the New World. This period is known as pre-Columbian
or pre-contact time. Some groups of pre-contact time Americans were
"uncivilized" hunters who wandered after herds of wild game. Others
lived in small villages and tended cornfields. Still others lived in citics as
amazingly beautiful as any ir. the Old World; citics in which the arts,
crafts, religious ceremonies, and forms of government were highly dmel-
oped. The people of pre-Columbian America spoke many languages.
Their customs and religious and political vystems differed widely. Their
story is wonderful and tragic Much of it has doubtless been lost forever.
In this unit you will examine six of the major Indian cultue g oups with
the goal of understanding what their cultures were like, ha they dif-
fered, and why each developed in its own particular way.
Filmstrip: American Adventures. New York: Scholastic Magazine, 1973.

Teacher Note. Any appropriate device to spark student int:rest may be used
here.

OBJECTIVES

1. Students will know of the variety of Indian cultural groups existing

in pre-contact time America and of the cultural differences be-
tween them.
2. Students will know how environment affects cultural development.
3. Students will know how various Indian cultural groups developed
divergent systems of status and rank, group personalities, religion,
and labor division, and will hypothesize as to the reasons for their
development.
4. Students will know how archeological methods are used to discern
cultural characteristics.
5. Students will develop a hypothesis as to the origin of man and
prove this hypothesis with concrete evidence.
6. Students will develop an attitudc by which they evaluate an unfa-
miliar culture by its success in adapting to environmental condi-
tions rather than by comparison with one's own culture.

273

2 7,!.
UNIT ACTIVITIES

Teacher Note: Activities may be altered, deleted or made optional based on stu-
dent ability. A grading system may be devised for each activity in order to pro-
duce a collective activity grade.

Activity 1
Because there was such a wide variety of American Indian lifestyles, we
cannot study just one American Indian culture. Instead we will examine
six representative subcultures from throughout the Western Hemisphere.
Tie subcultures are the Eastern Woodland Indians, the Eskimo, the
Hopi-Zuni Pueblo culture, the Meso-Amcricans, the Plains Indians, and
the Pacific-Northwest Indians. Although there are more, these w it pro-
vide us with both a geographical and cultural cross-section of American
Indian lifestyles. The class will divide into six groups, each of wl i will
be responsible for researching one of these Indian cultural groups. Using
the list provided as a guide, distribute the specific cultural traits to be
studied among the members of the group. Each member will then be re-
spor 'ble for researching the topics given his/her group in order to deter-
mine how the Indian group practiced these traits and why they devel-
oped in this way. For example, Plains Indians lived in tipis. That student
responsible for the shelter type of the Plains Indians will resear Iiat
topic in order to determine not only what the tipi was like physically but
also to discover why that unique shelter was developed by this particular
Indian group. Each student group will then have opportunity to present
the results of their research to the rest of the class. Students are encour-
aged to use visuals or any other aids that will promote the comprehen-
sion of their topics.
Activity I Subtopics:
1. How nomadic was the group and why?
2. Fanning (type, crops, domesticated animals)
3. Hunting, fishing, food gathering
4. Food preparation
5. Religion
6. Social structure (e.g., child rearing, marriage, division of labor,
status and rank)
7. Shelter, housing architecture
8. Clothing
9. Crafts, art, and music
10. Trade
11. Transportation
12. Government

274
 13. Warfare and weapons
14. Education
15. Personality traits
16. Medicine and healing practices
17. Unusual customs and characteristics

Teacher Note: During these presentations is an ideal time to examine character

ists.cs of our own culture. For instance, in studying rank among the Plains Indi-
ans the student would discover that the accumulation of wealth was not used as
a measure of status. Press students to analyze why it was not used with the
Plains culture and why it ir such a significant factor in ours. By so doing stu-
dents will gain not only an understanding of the role of status and rank in cul-
ture, but also the reasons for its development and divergence from culture to
culture.

Activity II
In this activity you and your group will develop and prove a hypothe-
sis. To accomplish this task you will use a technique which is very similar
to that employed by large think tank organizations such as the RAND
Corporation in developing possible solutions :o complex problems. This
technique involves three steps. In the fast step you and your group will
brainstorm the question. Brainstorming simply means thinking of all the
possible solutions to the problem. In the second step you will examine
the facts or eviden-e which you will use to narrow your list of possibilities
down to the one .iat seems to be the most probable solution to the
problem. Finally, you will develop that solution into a hypothesis and,
in a short essay, show why this possibility is the most likely solution to
the problem. You will be working together with your group but each of
you will develop and prove your own hypothesis and they need not be
the same.
The F toblem you will consider is this. Anthropologists are fairly cer-
tain that people have been living throughout the Eastern Hemisphere for
well over 100,000 years but they have ' m only living in the Western
Hemisphere for about 20,000 to 40,000 years. This suggests that some
time around 20,000 to 40,000 years ago people (the ancestors of the
American Indian) began migrating from the Eastern to the Western
Hemispheres. Your problem is to determine the route that these original
migrants to America used in getting here. Look at a globe or world map
and along with your group brainstorm as to the possible routes used, list-
ing at least five possibilities. Look for the places where the hemispheres
are the closest to one anoth r, as these would be the most likely routes
utilized.
Now that you have a list of possible solutions, your next task is to ex-

275
amine the evidence in order to narrow that list down to a most probable
solution your hypothesis. Use the following evidence to accomplish
this:
1. The American Indian has certain physical racial characteristics
which: identify him as being of oriental ancestry.
2. The most recent archeological evidence suggests that man first ap-
peared in the Western Hemisphere about 25 to 30 thousand years
ago.
3. Thirty thousand years ago the earth was undergoing an ice age.
During this perio ' much of the earth's water was locked =..,p in the
form of glacial ice. This resulted in lowering the sea A about
300 feet from its present level. (During the ice ages the oceans did
not freeze.)
4. The cooling of the earth during this period resulted in large scale
migrations of the game animals which man depended on for food.
5. According to current data, 30,000 years ago man's ability to build
boats was limited, and it is extremely doubtful that he could have
built one capable of long ocean voyages.
Now that you have developed your hypothesis you must prove it. In a
short essay state what you believe is the most probable solution to the
problem and defend it using as much evidence as possible. Remember,
the more evidence you can use to support your hypothesis the better it
is. You might want to compare your hypothesis with what the experts
have theorized occurred using the same data that you did. Read "Search
for the First Americans" (National Geographic, September 1979), and
make this omparison.

Teacher Note: It is helpful to explain that a hypothesis is often disputed and

sometimes proven wrong when new evidence is uncovered. The objective here is
not to present dogma but to stimulate deductive reasoning. Other sources may
be substituted for the National Gec.tiraphic article listed in the activity.

Activity ///
There have been a number of people who have suggested that the cul-
tures developed by the American Indian were influenced by outside
sources. Speculation as to the origin of these sources has included every-
thing from extraterrestial forces to ancient Eastern civilizations. One of
these speculators, Thor Hyerdahl, went to peat lengths to prove the va-
lidity of one of these theories. He has written a book on the subject, en-
titl-i The Ra Expeditions. Read the book to determine what Hyerdahrs
theory of culture-contact is. In an essay explain the theory he prornscs

276
and the evidence he offers. Discuss to what extent you accept his hypoth-
eses and what questions he leaves unanswered that may tend to cast
doubt on it. Compare the strength of Hyerdahl's hypothesis with that of
the hypothesis discussed in Activity II. Explain why the latter iniCat be
more widely accepted than the former.

Teacher Note: This it an excellent activity to enhance critical reading skills. It

can be used effectively as an optional activity for more highly motivated stu-
dents who complete the other activities at a more rapid pace than the majority
of the class.

Activity IV
One of the objectives of this unit is to be able to analyze the reasons
for the existence of cultural differences between societal groups. This ac-
tivity will provide you with the opportimity to hone your analytical skills
in the comparison of two Native American cultures.
Before you can determine why cultural differences occurred you must
first be aware of what differences existed. Accordingly the first step in
this activity is to compare two Indian cultural groups using a variety of
criteria. Choose any two different Indian groups or two tribes from dif-
ferent cultural groups.
Research the cultures of these two groups to the extent neces.,ary to
summarize their cultures in chart form. At the top of the chart indicate
the two groups or tribes studied. Along the lefthand side, list the follow-
ing cultural categories: home, religion, how nomadic, I -ocl, Ncrfare,
family structure, status and rank, tools, clothing, and transportation. Af-
ter putting your information into capsule form, fill in the chart. For ex-
ample, if you were comparing the Plains and Eastern Woodland cultures,
the first category on your chart might look like this:

Plains Eastern-Woodland

Homes (shelter) tipi, hides and long longhouse, saplings

poles, portable, one- and bark, semi-perma-
family dwellings nent multi-family

Complete a similar column for each cultural characteristic.

In the second part of this activity u are going to analyze the differ-
ences between these caltures and attempt to discern the reasons for the
development of these differences. Using your chart, choose five areas
where cultural differences occurred between the two groups you have
studied. Consider such factors as vegetation patterar, animal life, topog-
raphy, climate, and the like in order to suggest possible reasons for the
development of these differences. For each of the five areas you have
chosen to analyze write a paragraph in which you explain what you be-
lieve to be the reasons for these differences. For instance, a possible ex-
planation for the differences between the shelters of the Plains and the
Eastern Woodland Indians might be as follows:
The environment of the Plains Indians provided them with limited
amounts of wood. They did have a plentiful supply of hides and so made
use of these as their primary building material. They were nomadic and
had nuclear families and so built homes that were relatively small and
portable. The Eastern Woodland Indians had a plentiful supply of wood
and so used it as their main building material. Since they were farmers
they could stay in one place for two or three rears and so built their
homes to last that long. They lived in extended families and so cfier
built structures to accommodate large numbers of people.

Teacher Note: This activity requires students to analyze and synthesize informa-
tion in order to develop their own conclusions. Emphasize that the paragraph,
in step two of the activity are to concentrate on the quesdion of why differences
developed and not what those differences were. The development of these para-
graphs is the key to the success of the activity.

Activity V

Teacher Note. "his activity is designed to acquaint students with archeological

methods and terminology through role playing. While completing this activity
students will analyze relatively unfamiliar evidence, synthesize this information,
and draw conclusions in the form of substantiated hypotheses. The activity is
done in a group setting in order to encourage dialogue which enhances the
thinking processes.
In order to set up the activity he teacher must construct two visual aids. The
first is a poster upon which pictures of ten to fifteen artifacts (for example, pro-
jectile points, awls, bones, broken pots) are glued. Assign a number to each ar-
tifact. The second aid is a fictitious a theological site map on which post hole
molds, wood ash, bone fragments, tamped areas, and other such finds have
been plotted. Use the numbers on your artifact pictures to plot on the site map
where the artifacts were found. Add to this some background information in the
form of site location, vegetation pattern!, rainfall, and occupation date, and
your students will do the rest.

278

273
 In this activity you and the other group members are al-heologists.
You have just excavated the artifacts pictured on the poster. lou have
made a map of the site on which the location where each artifact was
found has been plotted and other significant data recorded. The map in-
dudes a key as well as some helpful background information.
Your job as archeologists is to examine the evidence and to detemine
as much as possible about the culture of the people who occupied this
site. Ask yourselves questions such as these: What kind of clothing did
they wear? \7hat kind of shelters did they use? How long did they stay
here? How many of them lived here? These will lead you to conclusions.
Sometimes single artifacts may pr )vide dues, but sometimes combina-
tions of artifacts or their locations may prove useful in drawing conclu-
sions. Work together, discuss the evidence and implications, and discov-
er as much as you can about this culture. Use your imaginations but
remember that each conclusion must Le substantiated by hard evidence.
As your group discovers the various t::.:Itural aspects of this Indian
group, make a list of all of the characteristics determined. Next to each
characteristic explain what evidence can be cited to prove it. For exam-
ple, if you found the remains of wood ash and charred wood in three ar-
eas of two-foot-diameter circles, one statement might look like this:
These people had the use Remains of charred
of and could control wood and wood ash were
control fire. found only in distinct
and confined areas.
The more cultural characteristics your group can determine th. better.
But remember, each conclusion must be substantiated.
Activity VI
When studying a new or unfamiliar culture we have a natural tenden-
cy to form judgments ur evaluations based or. the criteria of our own cul-
ture. If the people we are studying have customs and characteristics very
different from our own we oftentimes will automatically think of them
negatively, using expletives such as "gross" or "horrible" in our descrip-
tions of them. One of the goals of this unit is to learn how to objectively
analyze an unfamiliar culture and, if we must evaluate it, to use the cri-
teria of how well that culture serves the physical and psychologLal needs
of the people who have developed it. One way tc achieve the goal of ob-
jective cultural analysis is to put yourself in the place of the people you
are studying and to examine a cultural characteristic from their point of
vie.T.v rather than your own. This process is called role playing and it is
what you will be doing in this activity.

279

4 Su
 The first step in this procedure is to become familiar with several cul-
tural characteristics of various American Indian groups that we would
consider rather unusual based on our own culture. Listed below are ex-
cerpts from three books that will provide you with information or the
practice of three of these cultural traits (self-torture, torturing enetaies,
and human sacrifice). Read any two of them to become familiar with
these practices.
After you have familiarized yourself with two of the traits, choose one
to concentrate on. Pretend you are one of the Indians who practice this
cultural characteristic. You have been asked by an outsider, a parson of a
different culture who views this practice as wrong, to explain why your
group does it. In the form of a two- to thee-page essay explain why your
group has developed and practices this ritual. For example, if you (hose
the topic human sacrifice you would write your essay from the pti...pec-
tive of an Aztec Indian who was explaining the purposes of the large-
scale sacrificial killings of Immans that occur in his culture. You are, in
effect, trying to convince someone who thinks this practice is wrong why
you believe it is necessary and right. By doing so you will begin to un-
derstand the practice for its actual purpose rather than judging it based
on the criteria of what your culture considers right or wrong.
Readir. ; selections for Activity VI:
1. Elizabeth Baity, Americans Before Columbus (New York: The Vi-
king Press, 1961), 204-207).
2. Oliver La Farge, A Pictorial History of the American Indian (New
York: Crown Publishers, 1956), 56-57.
3. Clark Wissler, Indians of the United States (Garden City, N.Y.:
Doubleday, 1940), 162-63.

Teacher Note: Topics and references for this activity may be substituted so ktg
as they pelf-G.= the function of presenting what would ordinarily be thought of
as negative cultural traits. A good followup for this activity is to select a number
of essays for oral presentation during which the teacher asks open-ended ques-
tions designed to stimulate thinking into the nature of moral judgments and
the philosophical question of whether right and wrong exist naturally or are sim-
ply the product of cultural expectations.

Teacher Note. Implementing this unit means taking five or six sections of class-
es, dividing each class into six groups and having each group working on a dif
ferent activity all at the Jame time. On first glance this appears to be a logistical
nightmare. It can, however, be effectively done by using the schedule that fol-
lows. This schedule assumes that the stz dent groupings for Activity I will be
used for the completion of Activity II whic.' will take two class periods and Ac-

280
ISM LI .4-
tivity V which will take one class perba'. The teacher will concentrate on these
two groups while periodically helping other students individually with their in-
dependent work on Activities I, IV, and VI. Activity III is treat, d as optional.

Unit Activity Schedule

Activity I Groupings

Hopi-
Pacific- Eastern Meso- Zuni
Plains Northwest Eskimo Woodland American Pueblo

Day 1 Unit Expla-

nations

Day 2 Act.1

Day 3 Act. II Act. Aci. Act. Act. Act. V

I, IV, VI I, IV, VI I, IV, VI I, IV, VI

Day 4 Act. II Act. II Act. Act. Act. V Act.

I, IV, VI I, IV, VI I, IV, VI

Day 5 Act. Act. II Act. II Act V Act. Act.

I, IV, VI I, IV, VI I, IV, VI

Day 6 Act. Act. Act. II Act. II Act. Act.

I, IV, VI I, IV, VI I, IV, VI I, IV, VI

Day 7 Act. Act. Act. V Act. II Act. II Act.

I, IV, VI I, IV, VI I, IV, VI

Day 8 Act. Act. V Nct. Act. Act. II Act. II

I, IV, VI I, IV, VI I, IV, Vi

Day 9 Act. V Act. Act. Act. Act. Act. II

1, IV, VI I, IV, VI I, IV, VI I, IV, VI

Day 10 Am Act. Act. Act. Act. Act.

I, IV, VI 1,1V, VI 1, IV, VI I, IV, VI UV, VI 1, IV, VI

Day 11 Act. I
Presenta
tion

Day 12 Act. I
Pr -enta-
Lon

281

282
 Unit Activity ScheduleContinued
Act vity I Groupings

Hopi-
Pacific- Eastern Meso- Zuni
Plains Northwest Eskimo Woodland American Pueblo
Day 13 Act. I
Presenta-
tion

Day 14 Act. I
Presenta-
tion

Day 15 Act. I
Presenta-
tion

Day 16 Act. I
Presenta-
tion

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Teacher Note: Uncited works are listed specifically jr J their value in completing
the research necessary for Activities I and IV.

] Ambler, Richard The Anasazi Flagstaff, Ariz.; Museum of Northern Arizo-

na, 1977.
2. Batty, Elizabeth. Americans Before Columbus. New York: Viking Press,
1961.
;. Benson, Elizabeth P. The Maya World. New York. Crowell and Co., 1967.
4.Bleeker, Sonia. The Aztec. New York: William Morrow and Co., 1967.
5. Bleeker, Sonia. Thy Cherokee. New York: William Morrow and Co., 1952.
6. Bleeker, Sonia. The Crow Indians. New York: William Morrow and Co.,
1953.
7. Bleeker, Sonia. The Delaware Indians. New York: William Morrow an,: Co.,
1953.
8. Bleeker, Sonia. The Maya. New York: William Morrow and Co., 1961.
9. Bleeker, Sonia. The Seminole Indians. New York: William Morrow and Co.,
1954.
10. Bleeker, Sonia. The Sloux Indians. Ncw York, William Morrow and Co.,
1962.

2 E.: ,3 282

1/11711.1.
11. Canby, Thomas Y. "The Search for the First Americ_ s." National Geo-
graphic 156, no. 3 (September 1979): 330-63.
12. Coy, Harold. Man C, to America. Boston, Mass.: Little, Brown and Co.,
1973.
13. Deloria, Vine. Indians of the Pacific Northwest. Garden City, N.Y.: Dou-
bleday and Co., 1977.
14. Driver, Harold E. Indians of gorth America. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1961.
15. Erdoes, Richard. Native Americans: The Pueblos. New York: Sterling Pub-
lishing Co., 1983.
16. "First Americans." American Adventures, Unit II. New York: Scholastic
Magazine, 1973. Filmstrip.
17. Heyerdahl, Thor. The Ra Expeditions. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday and
Co., 1971.
18. Josephy, Sophia, and Josephy, Alvin. The Indian Heritage of America. New
York: Knopf, 1968.
19. La Farge, Oliver. A Pictorial History of the American Indian. New York:
Crown Publishers, 1956.
20. Rachlis, Eugene. Indians of the Plains. New York: American Heritage Pub-
lishing Co., 1960.
21. Stuart, Gene S. The Mighty Aztecs. Washington, D.C.: National Geograph-
ic Society, 1981.
22. Turner, Geoffrey. Indians of North America. Poole, U.K.: Blandford Press,
1979.
23. Wissler, Clark. Indians of the United States. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday

11 and 1., 1940.

Teacher Note: This unit was developed approximately five years ago and has
beer; used successfully by high school students of all ability levels. If used as the
initial unit in a school year it results in several added benefits. Students newly
placed in sections must work cooperatively in order to complete several of the
activities and so quiay get acquainted. The teacher must work with students
both individually and in small groups and in so doing rapidly learns about the
personalities and skill levels of his students. Both research and writing skills are
necessary in several activities and the teacher has the opportunity to determine
early the students' assets and liabilities in these areas. The open-ended discus-
sions produced by the activities establish an open classroom atmosphere which is
non - threatening to students. The creation of such a classroom atmosphere
enables it to be more easily maintain.d throughout the school year.

283
284
 mpaIIIIMINIM11M1IiMa.

TIENK METRIC
by Delores Gallo

In this chapter- Delores Gallo demonstrates a method for teaching content

knowledge (in this case, a unit on the metric system) by having students practice
and develop imaginrtive problem-solving skills. Gallo notes ',hat intellectual tasks
must exercise students' skills in such areas as classihing, sequencing, identifying,
and evaluating assumptions, and clarifying problems. Improved creative thinking,
on the other hand, requires divergent thinking skills, such as sensitivity to prob-
lems, and perceptual and cogestive flexibility. Further, Gallo believes that by re-
quiring students to relate new knowledge to past experience, and to transfer new
knowledge to different contexts, teachers can help students integrate information
in a meaningful way.
The author is Co-founder of the Critical and Creative Thinking Master of Arts
Program, University of Massachusetts, Boston.

THE NEED FOR IMPROVED PROBLEM-SOLVING SKITTS

The most recent National Assessment of Educational Progress (19b2)
again documented the lack of conceptual understanding and problem-
solving skills among students of mathematics in the United States. For
example, only one-fifth of thirteen-year-olds and two-fifths of seventeen-
year-olds correctly answered this question requiring estimation in a mul-
tiplication problem with decimals: "Estimate the answer: 3.04 x 53"
(1). Often the memorization of mathematics procedures and formulas is
substituted for logical problem solving, permitting successful computa-
tion skills to obscure the reasoning deficiency. For example, when stu-
dents were asked to compute the exact answer to a similar decimal multi-
plication problem, almost three-fifths of thirteen-year-olds and more
than four-fifths of seventeen-year-olds computed correctly. The pattern is
consistent across the NAEP mathematics assessment: students compute
accurately following given rules but fail to reason with numbers. In a re-
cent issue of Educational Leadership, Marilyn Burns reports t' - "Ele-
mentary grade children spend an estimated ninety percent of their school
mathematics time on paper-and-pencil computation practice, most often
learning computation skills by xote"(2).
This chapter suggests a way of introducing; the study of the metric sys-
tem to students in the upper elementary school grades that develops and

c. 284
practices logical and imaginative problem-solving processes and the at-
tendant personal attitudes and traits, while developing content knowl-
edge and practicing computational skills. It outlines the teacher's role,
the unit plan, and guides, and offers a detailed analysis of the way in
which the unit develops critical and creative thinking. I begin by defin-
ing terms, identifying the components of teaching for thinkingcogni-
tive processes, traits nd attitudes, and social context. I list specific rec-
ommendations for practice related to each component and identify an
exemplary feature of the metric unit.
Inspired and inspiring teachers has long cultivated in their students
both reason and imagination along Wial content knowledge. For such
teachers, much of the material here will seem familiar; for them, I hope
it will provide a supportive example and a clarification of the structure
and principles of such practice. For those who are newly embracing the
goal of teaching for critical and creative thinking, I hope to provide a
convincing rationale for such effort and a clear example to adopt for im-
plementation or use as structural guidelines for developing other curricu-
lum projects.

EDUCATING FOR CRITICAL AND CREATIVE THINKING

Cognition occurs in an intrapersonal and interpersonal context by
which it is influenced in appearance and meaning. The consistent dem-
onstration of complex cognitive processes requires the support and/or
contribution of appropriate personal attitudes and traits. The cultivation
of attitudes and traits is, of course, much influenced by classroom cli-
mate and general procedures (3). A discussion of each set of factors fol-
lows, with specific recommendations for practice.

Cognitive Processes
Improved critical thinking requires a focus on the development of re-
fined discrimination in the convergent processes of observation, analysis,
inference, and evaluation. Tasks exercising these processes call for the
following:
idea evaluation
observing
defining
analyzing
classifying, categorizing
comparing, contrasting
sequencing
summarizing, generalizing
pattern-proving

285

283
 inferring, interpreting
elaborating, detailing a plan
evaluating, assessing against articulated criteria
identifying assumptions
evaluating assumptions
problem clarification.
Questions beginning with "How" and "Why" most often elicit reflec-
tive thinking.
Improved creative problem solving requires a focus on the develop-
ment of divergent thinking skills: sensitivity to problems, fluency, flexi-
bility (perceptual and cognitive), and originality. Tasks exercising these
processes call for the following:
question-generating
idea, problem, design generating
observing through all the senses
hypothesizing
predicting
estimating
synthesizing, combining
problem-finding
pattern-finding.
Questions asking "What if" elicit creative oi imaginative thinking.
Several recommendations for practice are implied by this conceptual-
ization; they appear in the list that follows. Other recommendations
based on relevant principles of learning are also noted. In each case, a
specific aspect of the Think Metric unit (which appears later in this chap-
ter) is referred to as demonstrating the principle or strategy.
1. Facilitate conceptual preparation. Studies of comprehension, and
wemory indicate that new information is perceived as most mean-
ingful and is best retained when it is related to prior learning. It is
essential to ask students to recall, articulate, and focus relevant pri-
or knowledge in order to enhance the meaningful acquisition and
retention of new knowledge. In the Unit Motivation, students re-
call and describe ways in which they have measured with and with-
out tools in order to identify and articulate general measurement
procedures known and used.
2. Facilitate purposive learning. Learning proceeds most effectively in
relation to a consciously held and ascribed-to goal. In the Unit Mo-
tivation, students measure with nonstandard tools in order to eval-
uate the utility and limitations of these tools, and to identify prob-
lems as well as the need for standard tools and their skilled use.

286
i
2S k" f
3. Invite and model the organization of information. Facilitate the
development of concepts and relationships. First, avoid instruction
of isolated facts; provide opportunities for connection - finding and
association-building. Think Metric's interdisciplinary approach fa-
cilitates this. Second, structure information. Develop cognitive
maps. When students have completed Acquaint Yourself activities,
they generate and evaluate a cognitive map with teacher direction,
such as the following:

Third, organize information that is not hierarchical. Develop

charts, graphs, and reference tools. Sec the Learn the Code chart.
Fourth, have students put concepts into their own words, orally or
in writing. See Develop Your Skill activities B, C, and D.
4. Facilitate image-building through visualization, drawing, develop-
ing models, and movements. See My Personal Metric Reference
Sheet and art objectives of the Unit Overview.
5. Facilitate the explicit use of critical evaluation procedures. Gener-
ate, select, and prioritize criteria and principles. Impartially and
systematically assess items against these procedures. Draw conclu-
sions and generalizations. Assess assumptions. Use critical writing
after such oral activities. Sec Develop Your Skill activities B2, B4,
and D.
6. Facilitate the development of executive processes and metacogni-
lion. These processes produce awareness and conscious control over
one's thought processes and over one's understanding or lack of it.
First, use "think out loud" activities (4). See Develop Your Skill
B2. Second, use double-entry journal writing with information
from texts, films, and other sources (5). (See reference for sample
form.) See Unit Motivation for example. Third, eventually, stu-
dents can monitor their thought processes to be aware of when
they arc beginning to lose comprehension of a problem procedure
or reading. (See Develop Your Skill C.)

287

283
 7. Accommodate learning style differences. Develop, apply, and prac-
tice concepts in all four learning modes (see, say/hear, move/write,
touch). See the variety in the learning center activities.
8. Focus on questions. First, use student-generated questions to struc-
ture inquiry and research, and discussion. See Unit Motivation and
Inquiry Structuring. Second, use student-generated questions to
promote student-led discussions of quality. Here students use
study skills (preview, question, read, study, test) when they read
on the history of measurement or other topics. See Science and So-
cial Studies objectives. Students write three questions on the read-
ing, beginning with How, Why, and What if. They write the an-
swer to each question, consulting the text, and circle the preferred
question. In a small group, each student takes a turn at leading
the discussion, using the preferred question. Compare, contrast,
and evaluate answers. Combine several answers into one fully elab-
orated answer alter practice with this procedure.
9. Facilitate transfer of learning to new contexts. First, request the
bridging of concepts and procedures to other subjects and settings.
For example, How can you use what you have learned about mea-
surement procedures to improve your work in English? Your life at
home?) Second, assign tasks that require the application of infor-
mation and the invention of new information. See Spread the
Word activities.

Social Context
Requesting and probing for complex ideation and independent risk-
taking action requires the support of a psychologically safe environment
with respect for persons, ideas, differences, and provocative questions
(6). Several specific recommendations are as follows:
1. Be sensitive to the threat and difficulty of the task. See failure as
part of the learning process. Reward honest effort, as well as suc-
cess in students and in yourself. With humor, build a sense of
community among students and for yourself with colleagues. Invite
peer coaching for both. The Unit includes extensive pairing and
cooperative work.
2. Alternate error tolerances. First, divergent thinking requires de-
ferred judgment or a high tolerance for error; elicit a quantity of
ideas including wild and silly ones. Apply and Invent activities as
well as Spread the Word activities practice divergent thinking. Sec-
ond, convergent thinking requires systematic and careful work. Be
precise when evaluating ideas against criteria; be consistent in ap-

I
288
 plying principles. Develop Your Skill B2, B4, C, and D focus on
convergent processes.
3. Have reasonable, high, positive expectations for all learners. Teach-
ing for thinking submits to the same influences as teaching for
other goals.
4. Invite active learning and varied responses to meaningful problems
to elicit and sustain motivation. For example, vary tone (playful/
purposeful), structure (teacher-directed/student-led), tasks (ques-
tion-generating/research), effort (short-range projects/projects re-
quiring sustained, immersive inquiry and invention), and out-
comes (evaluation of concepts/applications, invention with
concepts). The unit Is a whole attempts to demonstrate this
recommendation.
Teaching for critical and creative thinking, along with content knowl-
edge and skills, is demanding work. But it is also joyfu: and energizing
to watch students grow in competence, self-governance, and commit-
ment to complex problem solving. A growing body of empirical evidence
supports the belief that test score gains are produced by such instruction
(7). One recent example: Sadler and Whimbey report that in their holis-
tic, remedial mathematics program, founded on six strategies included in
this chapter's recommendations (teaching active learning, articulating
thinking, promoting intuitive understanding, structuring courses devel-
opmentally, motivating learning, and establishing a positive social cli-
mate for learning), students improve. In fact, their students, who initial-
ly score at about the seventh grade level on standardized math tests,
show an average improvement of about three years after only one semes-
ter's work (8). Take as a hypothesis, then, that teaching for critical and
creative thinking in the recommended ways produces joy and achieve-
ment, and test it with your class now.
The following section of this chapter 1,,esents a specific application of
incorporating thinking skills into a content area. I have chosen a unit on
the meuic system to show hew problem-solving skills can be enhanced
with appropriate instruction.

7HINK METRIC

Unit Overview
Think Metric is an interdisciplinary unit focusing on the development
of metric system content knowledge, skill in metric measurement, appli
cations and invention with metric system information, and, importantly,
enhanced reason and imagination.

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28u
 It begins with a whole-class, teacher-directed lesson to facilitate con-
ceptual preparation, to identify needs and goals, and to clarify the proce-
dures (9). Most of the work is done by students working in pairs, in
small groups, or independently at learning centers; it uses author-devel-
oped and commercial materials. The time required for implementation
depends on students' age, ability, motivation, and skill in self-directed
and contract-guided work (10).
The Learning Center work is organized into three general categories to
be approached sequentially: Acquaint Yourself, Develop Your Skill,
Spread the Word (11). Acquaint Yourself activities are designed to de-
velop intuitive knowledge, or personal body referents for metric mea-
sures of length, weight, and volume. Here students also make measuring
tools and assembL a recordkeeping book. In Develop Your Skill students
do extensive work in estimating and then measuring items in each cate-
gory, both in and Jut of class.
Mid-unit, working with a partner, each student does a content and
procedure self-assessment and plan for improvement. Students develop
and trade problems using metric measures, which require estimation be-
fore computation, thus producing their own practice problems (and an-
swer keys), while developing idea and problem-generation skills. (Text
problems can augment this practice if the teacher chooses.) Finally, with
Spread the Word activities, students apply and invent with their infor-
mation and skills. They develop imaginative ways to inform and educate
others through miring, drama, music, and visual responses. The unit
culminates with a whole-class, teacher-directed lesson in which students
practice and summarize sound estimation and measurement procedures.
They also share their new knowledge and skills, and imaginative prod-
ucts (problems, riddles, skits, writing, visual products, and work done
with other classes or out of class).

The Teacher's Role

Planning. In teaching for thinking, the structuring of information and
procedures to be learned is crucial, as is fostering motivated, self-directed
work. This role requires the teacher to-
1. Identify and prioritize content and process goals and objectives. Be
specific.
2. Identify the purpose of knowing these goals and objectives.
3. Distinguish between fact, concept, and procedure goals. Organize
hierarchically., Develop cognitive maps.
4. Develop diagnostic procedures or devices.
5. Identify and sequence reasonable clusters of goals.

290

..._-.....--
 6. Develop or modify activities to stimulate the development of con-
cepts, procedures.
7. Identify places where metacognitive, application, and invention ac-
tivities are appropriate. (Think Metric was planned using these
procedures.)
Implementation. While students are working in learning centers, the
teacher has several important functions as facilitator and model. This role
requires the teacher to-
1. Raise questions and encourage students to raise questions about
the content and process of the work (for example, How might the
way you are holding the tool be affecting your outcome?).
2. Use "wait time," several seconds of deliberate silence to encourage
reflection and discourage hasty responses.
3. Encourage students to verbalize and reflect on their thought pro-
cesses. Model discriminating listening and reflection.
4. Invite self-evaluation, and provide constructive evaluative feed-
back. Where needed, augment planned work with additional indi-
vidual tasks, or subtasks.
5. Promote cooperation and commitment; support a purposive or
playful tone, as appropriate to the task.

Learning Center Activities: Specific Guides

The Learning Center guides and worksheets are based on the unit ob-
jectives overview, or curriculum web.

Curriculum Web /Objectives Overview

Unit Motivation
Conceptual Preparation
Students recall, articulate, and assess prior successful and unsuccess-
ful experiences with measurements using both standard and non-
standard tools in teacher-led discussion. Problem Finding, Problem
Clarification (See Nonstandard Measurement Recordkeeping Tool)
Students
measure the length of items using nonstandard tools.
compare and contrast their results with those of a partner.
analyze procedures needed for precise measurement.
evaluate the utility and limitations of nonstandard tools; give
reasons.
 predict problems and causes of problems.
self-assess thought processes and procedures.
design a plan for improvement.
analyze the need for standard measurement devices and their
own needs.
generate questions about currently used tools and their
development.
Information Gathering
Students
view and analyze a filmstrip on the history of measurement, in-
duding the development of the English and metric systems.
summarize the development in a journal.
Inquiry Structuring
Students
generate and categorize questions under the headings:
What I Know About the Metric System
What I Think I Know
What I Need to Know.
combine questions and use them as the basis of Learning Center
activities, and to structure independent research and projects,
and final evaluation.

Math
1. Develop, compare, and contrast nonstandard systems of measurement.
2. Assess utility, limitations of nonstandard tools.
3. Develop intuitive knowledge of identified units of metric measurement
through -!irect sensory experience with measurements of length (millime-
ter, centimeter, meter), weight (gram, kilogram), and volume (milaiter,
Liter).
4. Generate and evaluate cognitive map to show the relationship of mea-
surement concepts.
5. Estimate the length, weight, volume, and temperature of items, accurately
using metric tools to measure and compare with estimates; identify prob-
lems, and revise procedures.
6. Estimate the solutions to metric number and word problems, compute so-
'utions, compare, draw conclusions about pers,nal skill growth in esti=
tion or math reasoning.
7. Generate number and word problems using metric measures, estimate
solutions, compute, compare, de:elop answer key for other students.
8. Self-assess math thinking and procedures after extended work.

292
 9. Record accurately all estimates, measurements, procedures, and evaluations.
10. Evaluate math problems against articulated criteria.
11. Categorize items by length, weight, and volume through estimation and
prediction.
12. Make and use two metric measuring devices.

Language Arts
Idea generating, evaluating, detailing a plan
Select two of the following activities:
1. Develop a maxim, slogan, riddle, rhyme, or joke and write it on the Metric
Graffiti Wall.
2. Write a poem, verse, limerick, lyric to a song, or prose piece (dialogue, sto
ry, vignette).
3. Develop a mime, improvisation, or skit (Metricmatics) to inform or instruct
about a fact or concept.
4. Invent or develop some new words to describe new concepts (Metricmatics)
or some fanciful definitions for existing words.
5. Read, analyze, and discuss hic.)graphies of persons who developed or helped
develop these and other measurement systems (Celsius, Fahrenheit).
6. Identify and use the prefixes milli, centi, and kilo.
7. Role-taking--develop a dialogue or skit that
a. presents at least three points of view on learning metrics.
b. presents some information on the metric system from the point of view
of an object (a meter stick, a calibrated beaker, a tree).
c. presents problem solving or the life of someone who has contributed to
the history of measurement.
8. Assess the characteristics of a good math problem; generate criteria and as-
sess against criteria. Write a paragraph taking and defending a position us-
ing evidence.

Science-Health
I. Measure height, weight, and body temperature in metrics.
2. Measure and record the temperature of the room, the hall, etc.; analyze and
predict the temperatures of other places.
3. Read and analyze an article on the use of the metric system in weather pre-
diction and relate it to the above. (Optional)
4. Identify and gather articles and cartoons on measurement, and the metric
system and its use; place in class scrapbook.

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294
 Social Studies (History)
1. View, analyze, and summarize a filmstrip on the history of measurement.
2. Generate questions, read, and discuss the origins of the different "stan-
dard" measurement syst,:rns around the world.
3. Predict future measurement needs and tools. (Optional)
4. Work cooperatively with ..ssmates in pairs, small groups, and whole
group.
5. Inform others outside the class about the metric system by wearing an ad-
vertisement (performing a social service).
6. Problem findingdevelop and implement a survey to assess parents' knowl-
edge of the metric system; summarize the results; generate ideas (brain-
storm) for possible graphs, graph results. (Optional)

Art-Music*
Idea generating, evaluating, detailing a plan
1. Design and make a cover for the Metric Recordkeeping Book using printing,
collage, tempera, or paper cutting.
2. Design and make one "adornment" (bracelet, headband, hat, vest, pen-
dant) or "advertisement" (poster, bumper sticker, pennant) to inform and
motivate others to learn metrics.
3. Design a cartoon and draw it on the Metric Graffiti Wall.
4. Listen to a record. Develop a nonstandard musical notation using metric
measures to describe the lengths of the different sounds in the music.
5. Sing into a tape recorder the song whose lyrics or music you have developed.
6. Design an informative musical display of metric products, locate a site out-
side school (such as a library or hardware store) and display the products.

Unit Culmination
Content Review
Each student
identifies an item that serves as a personal reference point for the
identified goal measures (mm, cm, m, gr, kgm, mL, L)
recalls own height, weight, and tempera-,ure.

*Items 1 and 2 are required.

294
 Problem-Solving ("Measuring Off" Contest)
Students
estimate measurements and categorize items into one of three
categories such as the following:
< .5 m .5m > .5 m
< 2 kg 2 kg > 2 kg
< 11. 11. > 11.
(Students can generate the categories.)
observe individual students measuring each item using the ap-
propriate tool.
summarize sound estimation procedures and accurate measure-
ment procedures.
Observation/Evaluation of Product Presentations
Students
present their imaginative products.
observe and evaluate presentations.
self-assess their own presentation, work, learning throughout the
unit by reviewing, evaluating their folders of work, and writing a
journal entry requiring assessment against criteria and planning
for future work.

Learning Center Guides and Worksheets (12)

Acquaint YourselfIntroductory activities of metric measurement
A. Introduce yourself to the metric system by doing activities E, F,
and G below using the materials provided.
B. Make two metric measuring devices: and (1) a 20-cm ruler, and (2)
any other, on Making a Tool Sheet.
C. Complete My Personal Metric Reference Sheet.
D. Assemble your recordkeeping book. Record all Develop Your Skill
measurements there.
E. Length
1. Hold a centimeter cube between your thumb and index finger.
Measure the first digit of your thumb and the nail on one fin-
ger, using the cube. How long is a cm? What part of your
body is 1 cm long?
2. Hold a decimeter, 10-cm rod, the orange rod, between your
thumb and index finger. Place the rod on different parts of

295
2.13
 your body to find an equivalent you can remember. How long
is a decimeter?
3. Close your eyes and estimate the length of something placed in
your hand. Measure it. Do this three times.
4. Using a meter stick, cut a piece of string 1 meter long. How
long is it in relation to your arm, leg, torso? How long is 1
meter?
5. Estimate your height in meters and centimeters. Measure your-
self with a wall chart. How tall arc you? Record.
6. On a sheet of paper outline your shoe. Cut it out; fold length-
wise. Estimate the length of the fold or shoe in centimeters.
Measure the fold. Write the length in centimeters on the back
of the "foot." Place "foot" in the Metric Problems Box for fu-
ture use. (Optional)
F. Ireight
1. "Weigh" a paper clip (approximately 1 gram) in your palm.
Weigh 10 more the same way.
2. To get a sense of weight in metric terms, weigh in your hands
the items of stated weight in the Metric Center (soup, bread-
sticks, crackers). Close your eyes. Be able to distinguish new
items placed in your hands weighing 1 g, 100 g, 500 g, and 1
kg.
3. Estimate your weight in kilograms; weigh yourself.
G. Volume
1. Pour 10 mL of water. Drink. How much is 10 mL? In the cali-
brated beakers, look at, pour out, and fill up 50 mL, 100 mL,
500 mL (1/2 L), and 1 L of water.
2. Estimate the volume of the teacher's coffee cup, your drink
can, and three other items in mL. Measure the cup's volume
using the beakers. How much is 10 mL, 50 mL, 500 inL, and 1
L?

Develop Your Skill

A. Estimate and then measure these self-selected items:
1. The length of five itemsinclude something very large such as
the height of the room, the length of the hail, or the perimeter
of the elevator.
2. The weight of five itemsinclude some pumpkins.
3. The volume of five itemshow much water does our watering
can, urn, or soft drink can hold?

296
 4. Record your results in your record book as you work. Reduce to
state in simplest terms (for example, 1,002 cm = 10 m, 2 cm
or 500 mL = 1 / 2 L).
B. Develop your own metric problems working with a partner.
1. Develop five number problems (algorithms) using metric mea-
sures. Estimate the answers. Discuss your estimates, how you
got them, and why you think they are correct. Compute the
answers. See the teacher if you need help.
2. Compare your estimates and computations. Analyze why you
were correct. Analyze where, if anywhere, you went wrong.
How can you avoid making that error again? Record your plan.
3. Develop two metric word problems. Estimate, discuss (ana-
lyze), and compute as in #1. See the teacher if you need help.
4. Analyze and evaluate your work here by following the proce-
dures listed in #1.
5. Place your problems in the Metric Problems Box. File the an-
swer key.
C. Estimate and compute five problems from the Metric Problems
Box working alone; self-assess your progress in estimating. Ilecord.
Place in the teacher's "Today's Work" box.
D. Critique problems from the Metric Problems Box with a partner.
1. Develop a list of characteristics of "good" math problems.
Thcle are criteria.
2. Assess each of three problems from the Metric Problems Box
against this list of criteria. Which is the best/worst problem?
3. Write a paragraph on the characteristics of a good or bad math
problem. Explain (justify) the reasons you chose these charac-
teristics. Use examples of the problems you assessed.
E. Apply and inventDo at least one of the items below.
1. Metric MontageEstimate the dimensions and check your as-
sessments of three items on the self-correcting montage. Add
one or two items.
2. Metric GraffitiAdapt or invent a maxim, riddle, slogan, or
joke using metric measurements. Record it on the papered
graffiti wall.
3. Metric MusicListen to a record or recall a song you know
well. Develop a nonstandard musical notation using metric
measures to describe the lengths of the different sounds in the
music. Develop new lyrics.
 4. Metric Poetry or ProseUsing some of your experiences with
metrics as starting points (combined with the titles or first lines
posted if you like), write a poem, story, dialogue, or song.
5. MetricmaticsDevelop a mime, improvisation, dialogue, or
skit using one of your metric experiences as a starting puiht.
Spread the WordMake one item in order to encourage the people
you encounter to Think Metric, or to learn one metric fact or
measurement.
A. Adorn YourselfDesign and make a bracelet, headband, arm-
band, hat, vest, pennant, pin, ankle bracelet, or earring. Use any
procedure you know (sec, , braid, weave, model clay) or want to
learn. See books in the art corner.
B. AdvertiseDesign =id make a bumper sticker, window sign,
poster, pennant, banner, or transparency. Use any materials in the
art corner. See the teacher if you need help.
C. Wear A or advertise B for at least three days.
D. Present your products and projects after the "Metric Measure Off'
contest.

THINK METRIC! HAVE FUN!

Recordkceping Tools and Worksheets

Nonstandard Measurement Recordkeeping Tool (diagnostic)
Select a nonstandard measuring device for length.
Identify six items in the room to measure. Include something very
large and something very small.
Measure each one carefully, using the device selected.
Record the information requested below.
Do the above tasks with a partner using his /her own device and rec.
ordkeeping sheet.
Item Part Measured Tool Used Dimension
1

2.
3
4.
5

6.

298
 Reflect on Your Work 'X ,th your partner, discuss and record your
answers to the questions that follow.
1. Are your measurements precise? Why? Why not?
2. What procedures are needed to measure precisely? List. Be pre-
pared to explain.
3. Compare your measurement of one or more of the same items.
4. What problems arose in the measuring activity? List. Why?
Discuss.
5. What problems do you predict might arise from continued work
with this device? List. Why? Discuss.
6. What other problems do you predict? List. Why? Discuss.
7. Assess your measurement work.
List some ways in which you worked well in this activity.
List some ways you want to improve in doing similar activities.
How can you help yourself to make these improvements? How
can your partner help you? Make a plan listing three things you
can do. Circle the one you will do today.

My Persoiral Metric Reference Sheet

After doing the introductory activities, review your personal metric ref
erences by writing and drawing below.

Length Write or Trace Visualize and Draw

How long is a centimeter?
How long is a decimeter?
How long is a meter?
(You may attach something to the page here.)
My height is m and cm tall.
Weight
Visualize and draw a picture of an item to help you remember the
weight of
1 gram
1 kilogram
My weight is kg.

2993
Volume Write or Trace Visualize and Draw
Visualize and draw a picture of an item to help you remember the vol-
ume of
10 milliliters
A standard one-portion can or carton of my favorite drink is mL.
Draw and label in milliliters.
Other
My normal body temperature is Celsius.
The room temperature is Celsius. It feels (warm, tepid,
chilly).

Sample Recordkeeping Book

LINEAR MEASUREMENTS* MEASUREMENTS OF LENGTH

1. Record in this section all linear measurements as follows:

A. Write down the name of the item you are measuring.
B. Estimate the length. Record the estimate.
C. Measure the item. Record the results.
D. Express as meters. (Optional)

Example 1. The hall outside Room 116, from double door outer
frame to door frame of Room 116.
Estimate: 12 xi)
Measurement: 9 m, 50 cm =9.5 m

Develop a correlate for measures of weight and measures of volume wan a logo for each. Color
code (13).

300
 The Metric System

LEARN THE CODE

The Code
milli = 1 /1,000 kilo = 1,000
centi = 1/100 *hecto = 100
*deci = 1/10 *deca = 10
*The three important prefixes are milli, centi, and kilo. The other pre-
fixesdeci, deca, and hectoare used infrequently.

LENGTH: Fundamental Unit = meter

1 millimeter = 1/1000 of a meter 1 meter= 1,000

1 centimeter = 1/100 of a meter millimeters
1 kilometer = 1,000 meters 1 meter = 100 centimeters
1 meter= 1/1,000
of a kilometer

WEIGHT: Fundamental Unit = gram

1 milligram = 1/1,000 of a gram 1 gram = 1,000 milligrams

1 kilogram = 1,000 grams 1 gram = 1/1,000
1 metric ton = 1,000,000 grams of a kilogram
(1 metric ton= 1,000 kilograms) 1 gram = 1/1,000,000
of a metric ton
(1 kilo = 1/1,000
of a metric ton)

VOLUME: Fundamental Unit = Liter

1 milliliter = 1/1,000 of a Liter 1 Liter = 1,000 milliLiters

1 kiloLiter = 1,000 Liters 1 Liter = 1/100
of a kiloLiter
REFERENCES
1. Marilyn Burns, "Tezdang 'What to Do' in Arithmetic vs. Teaching 'What
to Do and Why'," Educational Leadership (April 1986): 34.
2. Ibid.
3. For a more comprehensive discussion of the concepts of critical and creative
thinking and their relationship, sec J. Passmore, "On Teaching to Be Criti-
cal," in The Philosophy of Teaching (Harvard University Press, 1980), and
D. Gallo, "Empathy, Imagination and Reasoned Judgment," in Thinking,
edited by J. Bishop, J. Lochhead, and D. Perkins (Hillsdale, NJ.: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, 1986).
4. One thinking out loud procedure: one partner listens, identifies, describes,
and records partner's strategies. Together they evaluate strategies, identify
patterns of strength and need, and make a plan. Reverse roles.
5. A double entry journal might look like this:
Observations on Item Evaluations, Questions, Responses
Quotations, precis Questions raised about text or
Interpretations one's understanding of text;
address of questions, indentification
of structure of work
6. For a fuller discussion of personal traits and attitudes, sec D. Gallo, "Edu-
cating for Creativity," in Thinking: The Expanding Frontier, edited by Wil-
liam Ma. well (Hillsdale, NJ.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1983).
7. William A. Sadler, Jr., and Arthur Whimbcy, "Teaching Cognitive Skills:
An Objective of Higher Education," National Forum (Fall 1980): 43-46.
See also a series of articles by Lillian C. McDermott, "Helping Minority
Students Succeed in Science" Journal of College Science (January, March,
May, 1980).
8. William A. Sadler, Jr., and Arthur Whimbcy, "A Holistic Approach to Im-
proving Thinking Skills, "Phi Delta Kappan (November 1985): 202.
9. Students not practiced at learning center work should participate in a sec-
ond whole-class lesson designed to develop specific procedures for center
work. A problem-solving approach should be used: "How can we help our-
selves to learn well using learning centers and concrete materials? What pro-
cedures and techniques will be useful? Why? What should be avoided?
Why?" Develop lists. Evaluate and prioritize items. Predict problems that
might still occur. Generate and select solutions. Develop final, revised lists:
"Working alone, I will...; working with a partner, I will... (I will
avoid...optional). Students copy procedures into math notebook and/or
make a class chart for reference.
10. For able, independent learners, the unit may take as little as two weeks of
daily classwork, with some activities done at home. For less skilled or less in-
dependent learners, for whom in-class work and teacher guidance are indis-
pensable, the unit may take four to six weeks to implement in its entirety.

302
 Modification is, of course, expected. Please be alert to retain all categories
of activity (e.g., intuitive knowledge, estimation, measurement, applica-
tion, and invention). Sec S. Kaplan and others, Change for Children (Glen-
view, Ill.: Scott Foresman, 1980), 22-24 for a "Step-by-Step Approach to
Creating Learning Centers."
11. Martin Simon, "The Teacher's Role in Increasing Student Understanding of
Mathematics," Educational Leadership (April 1986): 40-43.
12. (a) A Metric Learning Center Contract should be added as a cover sheet to
guides and worksheets that arc not included in the recordkeeping book. (b)
To assist students to work accurately at centers (Linear Measurement, Mea-
surement of V7eight, Measurement of Volume), I suggest that center
guides, etc., be color coded. Use one color for each kind of item; guides or
direction sheets (white), personal reference. sheet (green), linear measure-
ment recordkeeping sheets (blue), weight recordkeeping sheets (yellow),
volume recordkeeping sheets (pink). (c) Learning Center materials needed:
standard metric tools of length (Cuisenaire rods, meter sticks, and tapes);
weight (scales with 1 gr to 10 kg weights, metric body scale); volume (cali-
brated beakers, Liter bottles); temperature (Celsius body and room ther-
mometers); lots of realia (here I use 1-gr metal paper clips, styrofoam cups,
and soft drink cans; Liter soft drink and wine bottles; and apples, potatoes,
and pumpkins of various weights); a commercial or teacher-made box of
metric problem cards for evaluation.
13. Sec Note 12(b).

3033 O`2
THE ART OF SOCRATIC REASONING
by Er ling Skorpen

Erling Skorpen illustrates the process of instruction in dialectical reasoning. He pro-

vides a step-by-step analysis outlining the argument of Socrates' dialogue, Euthy-
phro, in contemporary terms. As be proceeds through the analysis, the reader it pre-
sented with a series of definitions that are crucial to the argument: real, essential, and
qualitative definitions. In each section, he explicates the text through a definition, a
rationale, and questions for the student. By the end of the exercise, students will be-
gin to reason both for and against a definitionthey will understand the use of dia-
lectical reasoning from both philosophical and pragmatic perspectives.
The author it Professor of Philosophy, University of Maine, Orono.

INTRODUCTION
A Socratic dialogue is a philosophical conversation between two or
more participants. It is related to dialectic defined as "the art of critical
examination into the truth of an opinion." Definitions mark the key
turns and transitions of such examination, and are prompted by the use
of the elenchus or cross-examination. For even good defmitions require
refutation to promote the search for better ones.
Definitions vary in kind and purpose. Dictionary defmitions are called
lexical, and record ordinary word usage. But they also preserve the out-
comes of critical inquiries termed theoretical definitions. The art of So-
cratic reasoning gathers ordinary into theoretical defmitions of great in-
sight each step of the way.
Like most ancient philosophers Socrates favored real definitions of nat-
ural objects and human activities, not verbal definitions of words we use
or nominal definitions of our ideas about the world. Real definition is
therefore the search also for essential definitions of the indispensable fea-
tures of things we are defining. If church-going more than arm-wrestling
illustrates religious conduct, for example, is it essential to religion? If
not, what defines its essence?
These distinctions bring us to the difference between qualitative and
quantitative definitions. F=MA and E=mc2 are quantitative but also
theoretical defmitions of a formal or abstract nature, and no one doubts
that such definitions are crucial to modern science.
Not all defmitions, however, need be numerical to have power. The
qualitative we seek through Socratic reasoning also have power. Again, if

304
3f:5
it should turn out to be more essential to religion's definition to treat
others justly than it is to go to church, temple, or mosque, this could
change the way we live. Qualitative definitions can also be preciring defi-
nitions, leaving the demand for exactness to quantitative formulas.
We use the example of defining religion because that is the question
of the Socratic dialogue called the Euthyphro. To exhibit the art of So-
cratic reasoning we shall outline the argument of this dialogue using
modern terms and illustrations and taking other appropriate liberties.
Yet we shall follow its pattern of definition faithfully throughout. The
pattern begins a definition by example, proceeds to a general definition,
and ends with a definition by genus and difference. It remains a classic
pattern of real, essential, and qualitative definition for students and
teachers alike. Professional philosophers still use it effectively.
For easy reference, in any deficit..vn what is to be defined is termed
the de, niendum, and what does defining the definiens. The symbol
" =df." is shorthand for "equals by definition." It differs from "=" in
numerical equations.

ME ARGUMENT
FIRST STEP: This is to raise the question or to state the problem for
critical examination.
The Question: WHAT IS RELIGION?
Note: Traditional religious practices include a host of related activities
from church, temple, or mosque attendance and ceremony to holy day
observances, parochial instruction, and political expression. The opening
question invites investigation of what is crucial to religion itself.
Questions for the Student
1. What does it say about us that we ask questions about the nature
of such things as religion?
2. Why do proper names like our own not lend themselves to ques-
tions of definition like "What is religion?"
3. If computers can be programmed to ask "What is religion?" would
they ask it with the intent we do?
4. Is there any mystery why religious terms like "piety" can corre-
spond to religious practices like prayer?

SECOND STEP: We begin with a definition of piety by example(s).

The examples we choose should be familiar and not so
remote from the sphere of religion as to mislead us.
We do not need many to put us on track. If some do

305
3
 not come to mind right way, don't worry; it is part of
critical thinking.
Definition: RELIGION =df. WORSHIP AND PRAYER
Rationale: Worship and prayer are widespread practices in the
history of religious adoration and atonement for
wrong-doing the world over. Taking walks or seeing
films would not be obvious examples of religionun-
less it turned out that the walks were prayerful ,and the
films religious. Whatever else, it is hard to imagine
that religion could be religion without some form of
worship and prayer.
Refutation: Problems with the definition show up when we recall
that worship and prayer can be practiced by racketeers
whose criminal activities include extortion, drug -traf-
ficking, even murder. Not everyone who worships or
prays, therefore, may be duly religious. Another prob-
lem with this definition, however, is that it does not
explain what worship and prayer have in common.
Further, how do we tell them apart from such non-re-
ligious activities as playing the horses or the stock
market?
Questions for the Student
1. Are ancient acts such as Abraham's willingness to sacrifice his son
Isaac religious?
2. Why can't regular worship at a church, temple, or mosque make a
mobster religious?
3. Is someone who sings in a church or temple choir out of sheer love
of singing necessarily religious?
4. If someone goes to church, temple, or mosque services from habit
or fear, is he or she truly religious?
THIRD STEP: A general definition should hit upon what it is that all
religious practices have in common. Since all have his-
torical roots, this might be thought to be religious tra-
dition or custom. However, roots go back to divinely
inspired founders and scriptures like Moses and the
Old Testament. Should a general definition of religion
mention this particular source? What, then, of Chris-
tian, Muslim, Hindu, or some other source? To escape

306
 from such a predicament, we may assume that the di-
vine speaks with one logically consistent voice, not
many cerillicting tongues, and that the various reli-
gious traditions are fallible. Just the same, we may
have to explore more than one general definition.
Definition: RELIGION =df. ALL HUMAN PRACTICES PRIZED
BY DIVINE REASON
Rationale: "Prized by divine reason" should be a common de-
nominator of any religious practice we can rationally
conceive of. It postulates very strong interest by the di-
vine in at least some human affairs. In other words,
the divine may be neutral about our race, color, or
sex, but not about whether our different creeds cause
hostility, harm, or death to one another. Religion,
therefore, favors practices that enjoy the approval of
divine (and human) reason.
Refutation: But are practices prized by divine reason because they
are already religious, or do they become religious be-
cause they are prized by the divine? How does a friend
you prize become prized by you? Don't you find in
him or her qualities worth. prizing such as humor, pa-
tience, loyalty, and other prizable traits? And isn't it
only because of them that you prize your friend? Simi-
larly, the divine must find in our religious practices
yet-to-be-defined qualities that make them worth
prizing.
Questions for the Student:
1. How do practices like infant baptisms, bar mitzvahs, and alms giv-
ings tell different religions apart?
2. Why do prayers for divine forgiveness arouse more human emo-
tion than do studies of algebraic equations?
3. Does loving someone make him or her lovable, or is he or she lov-
able because of his or her traits?
4. If you think the divine prizes you, does it follow that the divine is
concerned about the way you live?
FOURTH STEP: Religious prohibitions from murder and adultery to
stealing and lying are very long-standing and make up
a sizable list of actions not prized at all by the divine.

307 ,1 r ,-,
a ti o
 So there is no question that religion is concerned with
justice and injustice or that this siould now be taken
into account.
Definition: RELIGION =df. ALL HUMAN PRACTICES THAT
ARE JUST
Rationale: A religious practice like worship is quite unlike mur-
der which is defined as unjustifiable homicide. If we
:cult someone's worship it may be that we take him or
her to be a hypocrite or some other insincere person,
not that worship itself is wrong. The same logic holds
for other religious practices such as good samaritanism.
Religious behavior always implies right conduct or just
behavior even if misguided, as with earlier human sac-
rifices or religious crusades.
Refutation: The problem is not relating religion to justice, but
that the class of just actions is larger than that of reli-
gious actions. Stopping for red lights and paying one's
bills are right things to do but not necessarily religious
obligations. How shoilld they be distinguished from
just obligations of a religious nature like good samari-
tanism? Religious actions are all meant to be just, but
surely not all just actions are meant to be religious.
Questions for the Student:
1. Is someone who obeys all traffic laws to avoid fines or jail terms
nevertheless justly motivated?
2. Can you be a good samaritan if you are helpful to others but still
do not pay back your student loans?
3. As a law-abiding citizen are you still able to approve of abortion
or euthanasia?
4. Can church schools consistently desire to be free of stare school
laws?
1.11.11i STEP: Defining the essence of religious practices must pro-
ceed beyond general definition to definition by genus
and difference. A genus (or class) contains more than
one species (or sub-class). What distinguishes the
members of these species (or sub-classes) from one an-
other are their differentiae (or differences). (What, for
example, distinguishes canines that arc wolves from ca-
nines that are Chihuahuas ?) For religious actions that

308
0n f;, /1J
 are just, there may be more :han one likely
differers,.14-:e).
Definition: RELIGION =df. JUST PRACTICES THAT FEATURE
SERVICZ TO THE DIVINE
Rationale: Church, synagogue, or mosque services pay homage to
the divine through readings of tribute, prayers of grat-
itude, hymns of praise, offerings of thanks, and the
like. These all show that worshippers care about the
divine. They also place worshippers in a subservient
position relative to the higher status of the divine. Our
precising definition of religion in tarliS of service to
the divine acknowledges all this.
Refutation: This differentia implies that the divice served by hu-
man worshippers is needy, as are employers who hire
servants or nations that draft their young. Does the di-
vine benefit from human service, or can religious ser-
vice transcend the idea that the divine has an ego in
need of tribute, gratitude, praise, or thanks from less-
er mortals?
Questions for the Student:
1. What kind of service is it if a male who can wash his own clothes
asks his girlfriend or wife to do it?
2. Is there an analogy between entering a nation's service and be-
coming a servant of God?
3. What kind of need do you have if you must surround yourself
with flatterers or yes-people?
4. Do church or temple services bear any analogy to the "service
charges" on a bank loan?

LAST STEP If not demeaning to religion or the divine, should

(continued): the essential differentia explore the contractual nature
of this relationship further?
Definition: RELIGION =df. JUST PRACTICES THAT FEATURE
AN EXCHANGE BETWEEN HUMAN BEINGS AND
THE DIVINE
Rationale: From time immemorial, religious practices depict the
divine as responsive to human petitions and offerings.
Devout prayers invoke blessings from the divine, and

309
 penitent wrong-doers are forgiven, redeemed, or in
other ways saved from their injustices or trespasses.
Such transactions between religious people and the di-
vine make them different from just people who ignore
the divine and face only human judges and
judgments.
Refutation: Religious exchanges between just human beings and
the divine are often crass. Examples include not only
pious people who think their wealth is reward for their
righteousness, but even those who expect paradise. in
return for their pious existence. This does little justice
to the human beings involved, and casts discredit
upon divine intent. It also directs reason away from
the rewards inherent in human lives well spent.
Questions for the Student:
I. Should good fortune in life be taken as a sign that one is on the
good side of the divine?
2. Should the divine feel any obligation to reciprocate the good in-
tentions of ordinary mortals?
3. If someone is just but not particularly religious, should he or she
expect harsh judgment from the divine?
4. Why might a relationship to the divine enrich the life of an other-
wise decent human being?
THE NEXT
STEP: We have learned a lot about being religious, but still
miss the precise differentia that distinguishes just peo-
ple who are religious from just people who are not.
Plato who wrote the Euthyphro means for us to study
Socrates' life to find the answer. When we ponder the
Apology, Crito, and Phaeck.:, we disco7cr that 5'crates
devoted himself to a just life by refusing, for example,
to take part in any political wrong-doing. But he also
devoted himself to the pursuit of self-knowledge by
living an examined life at what he could do best. This
was to encourage his fellow citizens to engage with
him in dialectical inquiry into the truth of everyday
opinions such as what religion really means. This got
him into trouble, of course, but Socrates believed that
he was following a divine imperative, and that if he
did so justly, no real harm would come to him.

n,, 310
0 1 .2.
 So if we define religion in the following genus and difference terms:
Definition: RELIGION =df. LIVING JUSTLY IN PURSUIT OF I
SELF-KNOWLEDGE

we perhaps arrive at a precise and essential definition of what we started

out to define. For any thinking person can agree that the divine would
prize people who fit the definition, and that those who fit do serve di-
vine reason in a rational exchange. Anyone who lives justly in pursuit of
self-knowledge, whether as a philosopher, as a plumber, or as something
else, knows that this is all that the divine can ask of him or her, and that
in return divine reason reassures that the only real harm that can befall
him or her is his or her own injustice. Thus does our beginning attempt
to define religion end in a theory of what life may be all about.
Questions for the Student:
1. Why may someone who steals money from you be hurting himself
or herself more than you?
2. If you live honestly as a skilled worker always trying to become
bette7 at what you do, can the divine ask more of you?
3. Do you have to attend church in order to live with integrity and
explore the talents you have?
4. Can Jews, Christians, Moslems, and others agree on the definition
of religion as the just pursuit of self-knowledge?

AN EXERCISE
To help a student overcome his or her stage-fright in using the pattern
of definition illustrated above, the following is offered.
The Question: WHAT IS LOVE?

Definition: LOVE =df. PUPPY LOVE AND PARENTAL LOVE

Rationale: Puppy love and parental love arc recognized examples
of love. The affection of puppies for one another origi-
nated in instinct and is reinforced by playfulness.
Analogies allow the extension of "puppy love" to hu-
man adolescents. Parental love is also rooted in pater-
nal and maternal protectiveness of progeny for most
species. Among human beings, it is reinforced by mu-
tual pleasure and long years of dependency until chil-
dren are ready to "leave the nest."

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Refutation: A disanalogy exists between the shorter-term puppy
love and the longer-term parental love. However, it
can be admitted that even brief romantic involvements
mn be intense, intimate, and genuine. More relevant
is '':at the two examples may not illuminate other
sorts of love such as marriage, friendship, or even the
love human beings have for their gods, relatives,
teachers, fellow men and women, pets, and their
homes. What do all such examples have in common?
Definition: LOVE = ac AN ATTACHMENT OF SOME DURA-
TION BETWL3EN LIVING BEINGS FOR ONE AN-
OTHER AND THEIR THINGS
Rationale: Here the student may begin to reason both for and
against the definition. Perhaps a different and more
suggestive general definition will occur to him or her
for scrutiny. The dialectic may then proceed to defini-
tions by genus and difference, perhaps to distinguish
loving from non-loving bondse.g., mercenary or
conspiratorialso that the essential difference can be
identified.
Refutation: (The student should remember that dialectical reason-
ing is an art, not a rote. Many hypotheses may there-
fore be considered and rejected before hitting on the
most promising ones. Quite possibly several session:,
may be necessary to make further progress, as befits
any art.)

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