SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Physical Science
Module 2
Title: Formation of Heavy
Elements in the Universe
Science – Grade 11
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter 1 – Module 2: Formation of Heavy Elements in the Universe

First Edition, 2020

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 11

Physical Science
Quarter 1 – Module 2:
Formation of Heavy Elements in
the Universe
Introductory Message
For the facilitator:

Welcome to the Physical Science Alternative Delivery Mode (ADM) Module on

Formation of heavy elements in the universe!

This module was collaboratively designed, developed and reviewed by educators both
from public and private institutions to assist you, the teacher or facilitator in helping
the learners meet the standards set by the K to 12 Curriculum while overcoming
their personal, social, and economic constraints in schooling.

This learning resource hopes to engage the learners into guided and independent
learning activities at their own pace and time. Furthermore, this also aims to help
learners acquire the needed 21st century skills while taking into consideration their
needs and circumstances.

In addition to the material in the main text, you will also see this box in the body of
the module:

Notes to the Teacher

This contains helpful tips or strategies that
will help you in guiding the learners.

As a facilitator you are expected to orient the learners on how to use this module.
You also need to keep track of the learners' progress while allowing them to manage
their own learning. Furthermore, you are expected to encourage and assist the
learners as they do the tasks included in the module.

2
For the learner:

Welcome to the Physical Science Alternative Delivery Mode (ADM) Module on

Formation of heavy elements in the universe!

The hand is one of the most symbolized part of the human body. It is often used to
depict skill, action and purpose. Through our hands we may learn, create and
accomplish. Hence, the hand in this learning resource signifies that you as a learner
is capable and empowered to successfully achieve the relevant competencies and
skills at your own pace and time. Your academic success lies in your own hands!

This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful opportunities for
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process the contents of the learning resource while being an active learner.

This module has the following parts and corresponding icons:

What I Need to Know This will give you an idea of the skills or
competencies you are expected to learn in the
module.

What I Know This part includes an activity that aims to

check what you already know about the
lesson to take. If you get all the answers
correct (100%), you may decide to skip this
module.

What’s In This is a brief drill or review to help you link

the current lesson with the previous one.

What’s New In this portion, the new lesson will be

introduced to you in various ways such as a
story, a song, a poem, a problem opener, an
activity or a situation.

What is It This section provides a brief discussion of the

lesson. This aims to help you discover and
understand new concepts and skills.

What’s More This comprises activities for independent

practice to solidify your understanding and
skills of the topic. You may check the
answers to the exercises using the Answer
Key at the end of the module.

What I Have Learned This includes questions or blank

sentence/paragraph to be filled in to process
what you learned from the lesson.

What I Can Do This section provides an activity which will

help you transfer your new knowledge or skill
into real life situations or concerns.

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 Assessment This is a task which aims to evaluate your
level of mastery in achieving the learning
competency.

Additional Activities In this portion, another activity will be given

to you to enrich your knowledge or skill of the
lesson learned. This also tends retention of
learned concepts.

Answer Key This contains answers to all activities in the

module.

At the end of this module you will also find:

References This is a list of all sources used in developing

this module.

The following are some reminders in using this module:

1. Use the module with care. Do not put unnecessary mark/s on any part of the
module. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises.
2. Don’t forget to answer What I Know before moving on to the other activities
included in the module.
3. Read the instruction carefully before doing each task.
4. Observe honesty and integrity in doing the tasks and checking your answers.
5. Finish the task at hand before proceeding to the next.
6. Return this module to your teacher/facilitator once you are through with it.
If you encounter any difficulty in answering the tasks in this module, do not
hesitate to consult your teacher or facilitator. Always bear in mind that you are
not alone.

We hope that through this material, you will experience meaningful learning and
gain deep understanding of the relevant competencies. You can do it!

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 What I Need to Know

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help understand
the formation of heavy elements in the universe. The scope of this module permits
it to be used in many different learning situations. The language used recognizes the
diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard
sequence of the course. But the order in which you read them can be changed to
correspond with the textbook you are now using.

The module is divided into three lessons, namely:

• Lesson 1 – Isotopes and element notation
• Lesson 2 – The stellar nucleosynthesis
• Lesson 3 – Different nuclear reaction process

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. give evidence for and describe the formation of heavier elements during star
formation and evolution.
2. explain other processes that led to other elements.
3. write out fusion reactions involve.
4. explain how heavier elements formed.

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 What I Know

Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of
paper.

1. What is the term referred to the formation of heavy elements by fusion of

lighter nuclei in the interior of stars?
a. big bang nucleosynthesis
b. nuclear fusion
c. stellar nucleosynthesis
d. supernova nucleosynthesis

2. What is the term referred to the process when there is a fusion of proton
turning to neutron via beta-plus decay?
a. CNO
b. proton-proton chain
c. triple-alpha process
d. r-process

3. If an element is used by a star in fusion, it is sometimes called “burning” even

though no actual combustion occurs. Which of the following processes is likely
to involve “carbon burning.”?
a. alpha ladder
b. CNO cycle
c. triple-alpha process
d. s-process

4. Which of the following reactions is not a part of the alpha ladder?

a. 24
12Mg + 42He → 28
14Si c. 36
18Ar + 42He → 40
20Ca

31
b. 15P + 42He → 35
17Cl d. 44 4
22Ti + 2He → 48
24Cr

5. What is the process when alpha particle He-4 fused to heavy elements to form
heavier elements?
a. alpha ladder process
b. big bang nucleosynthesis
c. CNO cycle
d. r-process

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6. What is the reaction involve when 12C is used as a catalyst?
a. CNO cycle
b. fusion
c. r-process
d. triple-alpha process

7. Which is not a proton-proton chain reaction ?

a. 1H + 1H → 2 H + v + e+
b. 2 H + 1H → 3He + γ
c. 3He + 3He → 4 He + 2 1H
12Mg + 2He → 14Si
d. 24 4 28

8. The following is a part of CNO cycle except?

a. 12C + 1 H → 13N + γ
b. 13N → 13C + e+ + v
c. 13C + 1 H → 14N + γ
d. none of the above

9. Most of the heaviest element were formed in the ___________?

a. main sequence star
b. red giant star
c. sun
d. all of the above

10. The heavy elements in the star are found in its ___________?
a. core
b. middle
c. outer part
d. all of the above

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 Lesson
Formation of Heavy
1 Elements in the Universe
As discussed in module 1 light elements H, He, Be and Li were formed just after big
bang. These were formed through nucleosynthesis and nuclear fusion processes.

Once matter recombined which means lighter elements combined to other lighter
elements, forming another elements which is heavier, gravity and other forces
brought matter together and eventually form stars, 200 billion years after the big
bang.

What’s In

How were the element formed? How will you explain the big bang nucleosynthesis
and nuclear fusion ?

Notes to the Teacher

It is significant that learners had background on the big bang
model, its stages and big bang nucleosynthesis and nuclear fusion
processes particularly on the formation of light elements

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 What’s New

Writing notation for isotopes and atoms of an element

Recall on how symbols for an atom of an element or isotope are written?

Mass number or atomic mass of an element is the no. of protons plus the no. of
neutrons of an element while the atomic number is the number of protons or
electrons of an element. The element symbol, atomic mass and atomic no. of an
element can be found in the periodic table of elements. Let’s view a periodic table
and have an example.

Figure 2.1 Periodic Table of Elements

Source : http;//www.ptable.com.

Let’s isolate one element which serves as a legend. What is the atomic mass and
atomic number of iron or Fe?

The atomic mass of Fe is 55.845 rounded to 56, and the atomic number is 26. To
write this in a notation,

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 56
26𝐹𝑒

What is the number of protons (p)? And the number of neutrons(n)?

The no. of protons will be:
As defined atomic mass is the no. of p+ + n which is 56 , while atomic no is the no.
p+ , which is 26, in getting the no. of n, just subtract 26 from 56 (56-26) =30. (Do
Activity 1.1, 1.2)

Isotope Notation
For isotopes, same way of representing. Like for element hydrogen H. The isotopes
deuterium(D) tritium (T)
with 1p, 1n 1p, 2n
2 2 3 3
Isotope notation 1D or 1H 1T or 1H
Or H-2 H-3 , other ways of naming the
isotopes is by writing the symbol followed by the mass no.

Can you do it for carbon isotopes : carbon-12, carbon13 and carbon 14. Carbon has
an atomic no. of 6. Try it in activity 1.3 follow the format above.

The Cosmic Connection

Carl Sagan’s The Cosmic Connection (Sagan, 2000) find it out remarkable that the
elements we find on earth are also those we find among the stars. In addition the
most of what we know as matter was made by the processes inside the stars
themselves. We are as much a part of the universe as the stars.
He also stated that Big Bang nucleosynthesis in physical cosmology refers to the
production of nuclei other than H-1, the normal, light hydrogen, during the early
phases of the universe, shortly after the big bang.

Give your thoughts how we being made of stardust makes us cosmic (part of the
universe) and yet helps us realize that we are not the center of the universe.
________________________________________________________________________________
Star Formation

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 Figure 2.2
Source:https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/image_maps/50-universal-element-formation
What are the stages of the star?, How did a star formed (Recall your earth and life
science lecture).

Stellar Nucleosynthesis
Elements formed in big bang nucleosynthesis are only the light elements which are
H, He, Li and Be and very light isotopes. Elements formed then with five to eight
nucleons are very unstable (prone to change, give way) the main reason why Li and
Be occur only in trace amounts.
Heavy elements were formed only billions of years later, after the formation of stars
200 billion years after big bang. The density inside a star is great enough to sustain
fusion for the extended time periods required to synthesize heavy elements. Stars are
hot and dense enough to burn hydrogen-1(¹H) to helium-4 (4He). The formation of
heavy elements by fusion of lighter nuclei in the interior of stars is called Stellar
nucleosynthesis.
Hydrogen and helium atoms in stars began combining in nuclear fusion reactions
once hydrogen-helium stars had formed from the action of gravity. This releases a
tremendous amount of light, heat and radioactive energy. Fusion resulted in the
formation of nuclei of new elements. The first fusion process occurs in the hydrogen
core of stars such as the sun with a temperature of less than 15 million K. These
kind of stars are called main-sequence stars.

In figure 2 .3 below shows the equilibrium in main sequence stars including the sun.
That is the inward force of gravity, which tends to compress the star, is balanced by
the outward force due to pressure, outward radiation and gas pressure forces are
balanced by gravity forces.
Over time, the forces acting on the star become unbalanced. When the inward
gravitational forces are less then the outward radiation pressure forces, the star
swells and cools thus turning red we call red giant star a low-mass star. (see figure
2.2)

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 Figure 2.3. Equilibrium of the Sun and other main-sequence stars

Low mass star turns into planetary nebula towards the end of their red giant phase.
At that point the star becomes highly unstable and starts to pulsate. The outer layer
are ejected by the resulting stellar winds. Planetary nebula are short-lived and last
only for a few thousand of years.
There are three nuclear synthetic pathways or main branch of the process. These are
the proton-proton chain, triple alpha process and CNO (carbon-nitrogen-oxygen)
process.

Proton-proton chain is a reaction by which stars convert hydrogen to helium. The

conversion of hydrogen to helium is slow, the complete conversion of the hydrogen
in the core of the sun is calculated to take more than ten billion years. Refer to Fig.2.

The first reaction is the combination of proton (p) and neutron (n) produces
deuterium (D) nuclei and gamma (γ) rays.
1H + 1H → 2 H + v + e+ , proton fusion, with one proton turning into a

neutron via beta-plus decay, giving off a neutrino and a positron.

Figure 2.4 The main branch of the proton-proton chain reaction (p-p chain resulting
in the formation of 4He.

³He forms from deuterium and proton fusion, also known as deuterium burning.
This immediately consumes all deuterium produced.
²H + ¹H → ³He + γ
4He forms from ³He fusion,

³He + ³He → 4He + 2 ¹H

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Figure 2.5 A star with a very dense helium core and a hydrogen shell expands into
a red giant due to increased radiation pressure.

Triple alpha process is a set of nuclear fusion reactions by which three helium-4
nuclei (alpha particles ) are transformed into carbon.

Figure 2.6 The triple alpha process resulting in the formation of 12C(Elert,2015b)

The entire three-step process releases about 26.7 MeV (megaelectron volts of energy.
Energy released is responsible for the thermal pressure that pushes against gravity.
It is also responsible for the light , heat and radiation emitted by the star. A different
process facilitates hydrogen fusion in main sequence stars with temperature greater
than 15 million K.
The core of a star becomes comprised of He as H is depleted, while H fusion only
occurs in a shell around it. Due to this process, the temperature and density the core
of the star increase up to 100 million K. The star’s thermal pressure causes it to
push out H gas. The star balloons into a red giant.
Several nuclear fusion processes occur in a red giant aside from hydrogen fusion.
The first is the triple alpha process. Alpha particles refer to 4He. This reaction
involves the fusion of three 4He atoms in the following steps:

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 4He + 4 He → 8Be
8Be + 4He → 12C +γ

Note that the 8Be intermediate is unstable, so either it decays or forms 12 C. The
star can keep growing into supergiant as it accumulates mass. Alpha fusion process
continue in the core via the alpha ladder.
In alpha ladder process more and more alpha particles are fused to create heavier
elements all the way to iron, making the core and the star itself more massive. In
figure 2.7 below , an alpha particle 42He is added to an atomic nucleus (such as
carbon) to form oxygen. The addition of the alpha particle to an atom add 2 protons
and therefore the atomic number of the product is a larger than the original.

Figure 2.7 Alpha Process

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/alpha_process

CNO cycle
The main sequence star hotter than 15 million K could facilitate the production of
helium once carbon was present from alpha processes. This happens through a
process where 12C is uses as a catalyst known as the carbon fusion cycle or the CNO
cycle. This process involves repeated proton capture and beta-plus decay.

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Figure 2.8 The CNO cycle, which uses 12C as a catalyst to form more 4He in larger
or hotter main - sequence stars.
This is the way to account for the number of proton and neutrons in each step:

Carbon nuclei captures a p+ → N-13

N-13 unstable decay to C-13
C-13 captures p+, becomes N-14
N-14 captures another p to O-15
O captures p+
N-15 capture a p+ forming
Carbon and
Helium

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 What is It

The formation of heavy elements can be summarized in a concept map below.

Disregard first the supernova nucleosynthesis as this will be discussed in the next
modules. Stellar nucleosynthesis is the formation of heavy elements in the interior
of the star particularly main sequence star. The sun is a main sequence star.

A star formed from a nebula is composed primarily of 75%H and 23%He. When a
star reaches a certain size it generates vast energy and nuclear fusion ignites . The
first fusion process forces Hydrogen together forming Helium, 4He. This main
branch is called proton-proton chain reaction. As the core of the star is becoming
helium filled as hydrogen depletes, its temperature increases to 100m K, its thermal
pressure pushes out the H gases the star becomes bigger to be red giant star.

Several nuclear fusion occurred in the red giant star. The main branch is the triple
alpha process which involves 3 He atoms to combine to produce carbon. Once
carbon is produced there’s a continuation of fusing to He atoms producing heavier
element we call it the alpha ladder process.

Other main sequence star with a temperature of more than 15M K could facilitate
the production of helium once carbon is present in the alpha process.12C serves
only as a catalyst. This fusion is known as the CNO cycle.

Figure 2.9 Concept map

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Another process is the s-process which occur in red giant star where there is a slow
neutron capture in red giant stars. In this process a nucleus captures neutron to
form isotopes with higher atomic mass. If new isotope is stable, increase in mass can
occur. If unstable, then beta decay can occur producing element with a higher atomic
no.

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 What’s More

Activity 1.1 - Complete the table

Activity 1- Fill in the Table (see reference of elements)

Element Symbol Atomic Mass Atomic No.
Hydrogen 1 2 3
Lithium 4 5 6
Sodium 7 8 9

Activity 1.2- write the notation for the ff: elements

1. Hydrogen - _______
2. Lithium - _______
3. Sodium - _______

Activity 1.3 – Fill in the Table

Can you do it for carbon isotopes: carbon-12, carbon13 and carbon 14. Carbon has
an atomic no. of 6. Try it.

Name of isotopes 1 2 3

With # of p, n 4 5 6

Isotope notation 7 8 9

Or, other way 10 11 12

Activity 1.4 – Answer the following questions

1.What is the process of formation of heavy elements by the fusion of lighter nuclei
in the interior of stars? _______________________________________________

2.What is the process of converting hydrogen to helium.

______________________________________________________________________

3.What is the process of producing heavy elements wherein carbon is used as a

catalyst?

______________________________________________________________________

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4.What is a process where three alpha particles fused to produce carbon?

______________________________________________________________________

5. What is a process wherein more and more particles are fused helium to create
heavier elements all the way to iron.

______________________________________________________________________

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 What I Have Learned

Complete the sentence

1. Stellar nucleosynthesis is the formation of heavy elements in the _________

of a star.
2. The main component element of a star is ___________ and ___________ .
3. There are three main process in stellar nucleosynthesis_ proton-proton
chain, CNO cycle and the ___________.
4. Alpha particles refers to _________.
5. Proton-proton chain is a process of converting hydrogen to ____________ .
6. Triple alpha process is the formation of carbon elements from the fusion of
three ____________ .
7. CNO cycle is the process of producing heavy elements where _______ is used
as a catalyst.
8. ________________star fuse hydrogen atoms to form helium. About 90% of the
stars in the universe including the sun are main sequence star.
9. After carbon is produced there is a continuation of fusion of helium to
elements forming heavier ones. This process is called _____________ .
10. Big bang nucleosynthesis is the process of _________________________ while
stellar nucleosynthesis is ________________________________________ .

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 What I Can Do

What is the important of stars to us?

Why heavy elements did not form in big bang nucleosynthesis?

Assessment

Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a
separate sheet of paper.
1. What is the term referred to the formation of heavy elements by fusion of
lighter nuclei in the interior of stars?
a. big bang nucleosynthesis
b. nuclear fusion
c. stellar nucleosynthesis
d. supernova nucleosynthesis

2. What is the term referred to the process when there is a fusion of proton
turning to neutron via beta-plus decay?
a. CNO
b. proton-proton chain
c. triple-alpha process
d. r-process

3. If an element is used by a star in fusion, it is sometimes called “burning” even

though no actual combustion occurs. Which of the following processes is likely
to involve “carbon burning”?
a. alpha ladder
b. CNO cycle
c. s- process
d. triple-alpha-process

4. Which part of the following reactions is not a part of the alpha ladder?
12Mg + 2He → 14S𝑖
a. 24 4 28

31
b. 15P + 4
2He →
35
17Cl

c. 36
18Ar + 4
2He → 40
20Ca

d. 44
22T𝑖 + 42He → 48
24Cr

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5. What is the process when alpha particle He-4 fused to heavy elements to form
heavier elements?
a. alpha ladder process
b. big bang nucleosynthesis
c. CNO cycle
d. r-process

6. What is the reaction involve when 12C is used as a catalyst?

a. CNO cycle
b. fusion
c. r-process
d. triple-alpha process

7. Which is not a proton-proton chain reaction?

a. 1H + 1H → 2H + v + e+
b. 2H + 1H → 3He +γ
c. 3He + 3He → 4He + 21H
d. 24 4 28
12Mg + 2He → 14Si

8. The following is a CNO cycle except

a. 12C + 1H → 13N +γ
b. 13N → 13C + e+ + γ
c. 13C + 1H →14N +γ
d. none of the above

9. Most of the heaviest elements were formed in ______________?

a. main sequence star
b. red giant star
c. sun
d. all of the above

10. The heavy elements in the star are found in its ______?
a. core
b. middle
c. outer part
d. all of the above

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 Additional Activities

Research on manmade elements.

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 24
What's More
What I Know Act.1.1 Assessment
1. H
1. c 2. 1 1. c
2. b 3. 1 2. b
3. a 4. Li 3. a
4. b 5. 7 4. b
5. a 6. 3 5. a
6. a 7. Na 6. a
7. d 8. 23 7. d
8. d 9. 11 8. d
9. b Act.1.2 9. b
1
10.a 1. 1𝐻 10.a
7
2. 3𝐿𝑖
11
3. 23𝑁𝑎
Act.1.3
1.carbon-12
2.carbon-13
3.carbon-14
4. 6,6
5. 6,7
6. 6,8
7. 126𝐶
8. 136𝐶
9. 146𝐶
10. C-12
11. C-13
12. C-14
Act.1.4
1.stellar
nucleosynthesis
2.proton-proton chain
3.CNO cycle
4. Triple alpha process
5.alpha ladder process
Answer Key
References
Teaching Guide for senior high school Physical Science Published by the
Commission on Higher Education, 2016

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