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R.M.K COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY

OMD 551
BASICS OF
BIOMEDICAL
INSTRUMENTATION
Department : EEE

Batch/Year : 2018-2022 / III year

Created by : Mr. K.GUNALAN

Date : 25.8.2020
 Table of Contents
S. Contents Page
No Number

1 Course Objectives 7

2 Pre Requisites 8

3 Syllabus 9

4 Course outcomes 10

5 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 11

6 Unit 4 – Measurement of Non-Electrical Parameters 12

13
6.1 Lecture Plan
14
6.2 Activity based learning
16
6.3 Lecture Notes

 Temperature measurement 18

 Respiration rate measurement 19

 Pulse rate measurement 25

 Blood pressure measurement – Indirect method 27

 Blood pressure measurement – Direct method 29

 Blood flow measurement 31

 Ultrasound blood flow measurement 32

 Cardiac output measurement 39

5
S.No Contents Page
Number
44
6.4 video link & e-book link
45
6.5 Part A Q & A
49
6.6 Part B Questions
51
6.7 Supportive online Certification courses
52
6.8 Real time Applications in day to day life
and to Industry
53
6.9 Content beyond the Syllabus
7 Assessment Schedule 59

8 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 60

9 Mini Project suggestions 61

6
1. COURSE OBJECTIVES

OBJECTIVES:

1. To study about the different bio potential and its propagation

2. To understand the different types of electrodes and its placement for various
recording

3. To study the design of bio amplifier for various physiological recording

4. To learn the different measurement techniques for non-physiological parameters.
5. To learn the different bio-chemical electrodes.
6. To learn different biochemical measurements.
2. Pre Requisites

1. EE8451 – LINEAR INEGRATED CIRCUITS

By learning this course the student will have deep insight in to Operational
Amplifiers, Instrumentation Amplifiers
3. SYLLABUS

OMD551 BASICS OF BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION LTPC

3 003

UNIT I BIO POTENTIAL GENERATION AND ELECTRODES TYPES

9
Origin of bio potential and its propagation. Types of electrodes - surface, needle and
micro electrodes and their equivalent circuits. Recording problems - measurement with
two electrodes

UNIT II BIOSIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS AND ELECTRODE

CONFIGURATIONS 9
Biosignals characteristics – frequency and amplitude ranges. ECG – Einthoven‟s
triangle, standard 12 lead system. EEG – 10-20 electrode system, unipolar, bipolar and
average mode. EMG– unipolar and bipolar mode.

UNIT III SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS 9

Need for bio-amplifier - differential bio-amplifier, Impedance matching circuit, isolation
amplifiers, Power line interference, Right leg driven ECG amplifier, Band pass filtering

UNIT IV MEASUREMENT OF NON-ELECTRICALPARAMETERS 10

Temperature, respiration rate and pulse rate measurements. Blood Pressure: indirect
methods -Auscultatory method, direct methods: electronic manometer, Systolic,
diastolic pressure, Blood flow and cardiac output measurement: Indicator dilution, and
dye dilution method, ultrasound blood flow measurement.

UNIT V BIO-CHEMICAL MEASUREMENT 8

Blood gas analyzers and Non-Invasive monitoring, colorimeter, Sodium Potassium
Analyzer, spectrophotometer, blood cell counter, auto analyzer (simplified schematic
description).
4. COURSE OUTCOMES

COURSE OUTCOMES:

After successful completion of the course, the students should be able to

Highest
Course Outcomes Cognitive
Level
To Learn the different bio potential and its
CO 302.1 K2
propagation.
To get Familiarize the different electrode
CO 302.2 K2
placement for various physiological recording
Students will be able design bio amplifier for
CO 302.3 K2
various physiological recording
Students will understand various technique non
CO 302.4 K2
electrical physiological measurements
To learn the about different bio-chemical
CO 302.5 K2
electrodes
Understand the different biochemical K2
CO 302.6
measurements
5. CO- PO/PSO Mapping

MAPPING OF COURSE OUTCOMES WITH PROGRAM OUTCOMES:

Program
Program Outcomes Specific
Course Level
Outcom of
Outcomes
K3,
es CO
K3 K4 K4 K5 K5, A3 A2 A3 A3 A3 A3 A2 K5 K5 K3
K6
PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-9 PO-10 PO-11 PO-12 PSO-1 PSO-2 PSO-3
C302.1 K2 2 2 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - -
C302.2 K2 2 2 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - -
C302.3 K2 2 2 2 1 - - - - - - - - - 2 -
C302.4 K2 2 2 2 1 - - - - - - - - - 2 -
C302.5 K2 2 2 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - -
C302.6 K2 2 2 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - -
C302 K2 2 2 2 1 - - - - - - - - - 1 -

11
6 UNIT 4 – MEASUREMENT OF NON-ELECTRICAL
PARAMETERS

12
 6.1 LECTURE PLAN
UNIT IV – MEASUREMENT OF NON-ELECTRICAL
PARAMETERS

Mode of Delivery
Taxonomy level
Proposed Date
No. of Periods

Pertaining CO
Actual Date

Reason for
Deviation
S.No

Topic

PPT through
Temperature
1 1 CO4 K2 Online
measurement
K2 PPT through
Respiration rate
2 1 CO4 Online
measurement
K2 PPT through
Pulse rate
3 1 CO4 Online
measurement
K2 PPT through
Blood pressure Online
4 measurement – 1 CO4
Direct method
PPT through
Blood pressure
K2 Online
5 measurement – 1 CO4
Indirect method
PPT through
Blood flow
6 2 CO4 K2 Online
measurement
PPT through
Cardiac output
7 1 CO4 K2 Online
measurement
PPT through
Ultrasound blood
K2 Online
8 flow 2 CO4
measurement
Total No. of Periods : 10

13
 6.2 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING - QUIZ

1. The magnetic blood flow meters are based on the principle of ______________

2. In Transit time ultrasonic blood flow meter, when the blood flow is in the direction
of energy transmission, the transit time is ___________
(a) Short (b) long

3. Among Various types of indicators _______ and ________ are widely used

(a) Indocyanine dye and cardio green

(b) Radio isotopes and cardio green
(c) Indocyanine and Radio isotopes
(d) None of the above

4. The indicator dilution method helps in the determination of rate of blood flow and
not the _______________

(a) Velocity of the blood

(b) Volume of the blood

5. For normal adult, the cardiac output is ____________

(a) 4- 8 litres (b) 4-6 litres (c) 4 litres (d) 6 litres

6. In Fick‟s method, the cardiac output is determined by the analysis of

_______________ of the organism
(a) Gas keeping (b) volume keeping (c) velocity keeping (d) all the above

7. ____________ is the depth of breathing

(a) Functional residual capacity
(b) Tidal Volume
(c) Residual volume
(d) Inspiratory capacity

8. Total Lung Capacity is equal to ___________ and ___________

(a) IC + FRC (b) IC + VC (c) VC + FRC (d) FRC + TV
9. __________ is the ability of the alveoli and lung tissue to expand on inspiration.
(a) APNOA (b) Lung compliance

10. Korotkoff sound is disappeared at some point is known as _________

(a) Muffling (b) auscultation

11. The use of Korotkoff sound as the indirect indicator for blood pressure
measurement is known as _________________
(a) Muffling (b) auscultation
12. _________ is the normal value for diastolic pressure
(a) 150mmHg (b) 80mmHg (c) 120mmHg (d) 50 mmHg

13. ________ is the normal value for systolic pressure.

(a) 150mmHg (b) 80mmHg (c) 120mmHg (d) 50 mmHg

14. In Pulse rate measurement under transmittance method, output voltage is

directly proportional to the ______________
(a) Blood flow in finger (b) blood flow in wrist (c) blood flow in leg (d) None

15. ____________ method is commonly employed to measure the pulse

(a) Mechanical method (b) impedance Change method (c) photo electric method
(d) All
 LECTURE NOTES:

UNIT IV

MEASUREMENT OF NON-
ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS
 UNIT IV MEASUREMENT OF NON-ELECTRICAL
PARAMETERS

Temperature measurement
Respiration rate measurement
Pulse rate measurement
Blood Pressure measurement
Blood flow measurement
Cardiac output measurement
Ultrasound blood flow measurement
4.1 Temperature measurement

Body temperature is one of the oldest known indicators of the general

well-being. Two basic types of temperature measurements can be obtained from the
body: systemic temperature and surface temperature.
Systemic temperature is the temperature of the internal regions of the
body. Usually, the heat is generated by the active tissues of the body and heat is lost
by the body to the environment. But the temperature of the body is maintained
carefully.
The normal mouth temperature is 37o C. The normal underarm
temperature is about 1o lower than above temperature. Systematic temperature is
measured accurately at tympanic membrane of ear. The brain contains the
temperature control center for the body.

4.1.1 Systemic body temperature measurement

Mercury thermometer is used to measure the systemic temperature. It is
inexpensive to use. When continuous temperature recording is necessary, then
thermocouple or thermo resistor can be used.
In thermocouple, a junction of two dissimilar metals produces an output
voltage. This is proportional to the temperature at that junction.
Thermistor is a temperature sensing device. Its resistance varies with the
temperature. This is mostly preferred in the biomedical field compared with
thermocouple. Thermistor can be manufactured in various shapes. In this thermistor,
the relationship between resistance change and temperature is non-linear. The
resistance of thermistor is given by using the expression.

Rt = Rr eβ(1/T1 - 1/T0) ---- (4.1)

Where
Rt = The temperature at temperature Tt
Rr = The resistance at temperature T0
T1 = Temperature at which measurement is taken
T0 = Reference temperature
β = Temperature coefficient
Special circuits are used to overcome the non-linear characteristics of
thermistors. This special circuit consists of 2 matched thermistors. Self-heating is
very important problem in measurement. The power dissipation of thermistor is to
be maintained in mill watts range to overcome this problem. Thermistor probe
should be chosen correctly based on Resistance range and sensitivity.
4.1.2 Skin temperature measurement

Skin temperature is not constant throughout the body. It varies from 30o C
to35o C. Various factors affecting the skin temperature are : fat over capillary area,
skin portion to be exposed to ambient temperature, blood circulation pattern
beneath the skin.
A small, flat thermistor probe is used to measure the skin temperature.
It is a device used to measure skin surface temperature. It is used to locate breast
cancer. It is also used to identify the spots in which blood circulation is occur.

4.2 Respiratory Rate Measurement

Respiration is the interchange of gases between an organism and the

living medium. Respiration system provides a means of acquiring oxygen and
eliminating carbon dioxide. Respiration parameters are used to indicate the state of
respiratory function, including long volumes and capacities.

Tidal Volume (TV): The volume of gas inspired or expired during normal quiet
breathing is known as tidal volume.

Residual Volume (RV): The volume of gas remaining in the lungs after a forced
expiration.
Functional Residual Capacity (FRC): The volume of gas remaining in the lungs
after normal expiration.

Vital Capacity (VC): The greatest volume of gas that can be inspired by voluntary
effort after maximum expiration.
Total Lung Capacity (TLC): The volume of gas in the lungs at the point of
maximal inspiration. TLC=VC+RV.

Lung Compliance: It is the ability of the alveoli and lung tissue to expand on
inspiration.
Lung Elasticity: It is the ability of lung‟s elastic tissues to recoil during expiration.
The primary function of the respiratory system is to supply oxygen and to
remove carbon-dioxide from the tissues. Various techniques used for the
measurement are discussed below.
4.2.1 Displacement method

As respiration takes place the thorax expands and comes back to normal
state. This change in thorax size can be deducted to find respiration rate. A
displacement transducer with strain gauge element is held around the chest by an
elastic band. As thorax size varies there is resistance change in the strain gauge
element. The strain gauge element connected to one arm of wheat stone bridge
gives output signal proportional to rate of respiration. The change in thorax size can
also deducted by having a rubber tube filled with mercury which is tied around the
chest. During inspiration the chest size increases, hence the rubber tube also
increases and thus resistance of mercury varies. This variation in resistance is
measured by sending a constant current through the mercury and sensing the
change in voltage which is proportional to respiration rate.
4.2.2 Thermistor method

By keeping a thermistor using suitable holding device near the nostril the
different of temperature between inspired and expired air is sensed. The resistance
change in synchronism with the respiration to corresponding to temperature
variation is found out. In case, the different in temperature of the outside air and
expired air is small the thermistor can be heated initially and then resistance
variation is measured. The thermistor is placed as a part of a voltage dividing circuit
or a bridge circuit whose unbalance signal is amplified to obtain respiratory activity.

4.2.3 Impedance pneumography

This is the indirect method of measurement. In this method, a high

frequency current is passed through appropriately placed electrode on the surface of
body. The ac impedance of the patient changes as respiration occurs.

50-500 KHz ac signal is produced by oscillator circuit and it is given to the

chest of the patient through electrodes. The signal voltage applied to the differential
amplifier block is the voltage drop across the resistance.
V= I ( R ± ΔR ) ---- (4.2)

Where
V= Output voltage
I = Current through the chest
R = Chest impedance without respiration
ΔR = Change of chest impedance due to respiration.
 Fig 4.1 Impedance Pneumography

The demodulated signal is deducted after amplification and then recorded

in terms of respiration rate. Currents at higher frequencies are used in order to avoid
stimulation of sensory receptors, nerves and muscle. This type of system for
measuring respiration rate is used in patient monitoring system. The dynamic
measuring range of the amplifier is 0.1 to 3 W with frequency response of 0.2 to 3
Hz and respiration of 12 to 180/min.

4.2.4 CO2 method

Respiration can be measured by measuring CO2 in expired air. This CO2
method of measurement is based on the absorption property of infrared rays by
certain gases.
When infrared rays are passed through the expired air which contains
certain amount of CO2, some of the radiations are absorbed by it. So, there is a loss
of heat energy associated with the rays. The detector changes the loss in heating
effect of the rays into an electrical signal. It is used to get average respiration rate.
 Fig 4.2 CO2 method of respiratory rate measurement

In the diagram two infrared sources are available in this setup. The beam
from one infrared source falls on the test cuvette side. The beam from another
infrared source falls on the reference cuvette side. The detector has two identical
portions. These portions are separated by a thin, flexible metal diaphragm.
The detector is filled with a sample of pure CO2. Because of the
absorption of CO2 in the test cuvette, the beam falling on the test side of the
detector is weaker than that falling on the reference side. The gas in reference side
is heated more than that on the test side. So, diaphragm is pushed slightly to the
test side of the detector. This diaphragm forms one plate of a capacitor.
The a.c signal appears across the detector is amplified and recorded using
recorder. The amplified output is integrated and shown in this method. It is used for
continuous monitoring the respiration rate.
4.2.5 Apnoea detectors

Apnoea is the stoppage of breathing. It leads to the arrest of the

circulation. It can occur at the conditions like head injury, drug overdose, etc. It can
also occur in premature babies during first few weeks of life because of their
immature nervous system. If Apnoea persists for a prolonged period, then brain
functions can be severely damaged. So Apnoea patients are closely monitored.
Apnoea monitor is used to watch the apnoea‟s patient‟s respiration rate.

Fig 4.3 Block Diagram of apnoea monitor

Apnoea monitors give audio signal and visual signal when no inspiration
occurs for a particular period of time. Input from the sensor is connected with the
amplifier circuit having high input impedance. The output of the amplifier circuit is
connected with motion and respiration channel blocks.
Motion channel block differentiates motion and the respiration based on
the frequency. The frequency below 1.5Hz is identified as respiration. The frequency
above 1.5 Hz is identified as motion. High frequency signal above the threshold is
sensed by positive detector. The frequency below the threshold is sensed by
negative detector. The output of the motion channel is connected with comparator
circuit. It compares the motion of amplitude and respiration. Based on the output
corresponding lamp will glow.
 In the respiration channel, low pass filter is used to remove high
frequency signals. If there is no respiration, then Schmitt trigger circuit gives the
output to switch on the alarm. Apnoea period selector circuit contains low frequency
alarm oscillator, tone oscillator and audio amplifier. Apnoea period selector drives the
alarm circuit. The output of the alarm circuit is connected with the speaker. So,
when there is no respiration for a period of 10 or 20s, then audio signal through the
speaker and visual signal through the flash light is delivered.

4.2.6 Spirometer

Conventional spirometer is shown in figure below. This instrument uses a

bell jar, suspended from above, in a tank of water. An air hose leads from a
mouthpiece to the space inside of the bell above the water level. A weight is
suspended from the string that holds the bell in such a way that it places a tension
force on the string that exactly balances the weight of the bell at atmospheric
pressure. When no one is breathing into the mouthpiece, the bell will be at rest with
a fixed volume above the water level. When the patient exhales the pressure inside
the bell increases above atmospheric pressure which causes the bell to rise.
Similarly, when the patient inhales, the pressure inside the bell decreases. The bell
will rise when the pressure increases and drop when the pressure decreases. The
change in bell pressure changes the volume bell, which in turn changes the position
of the counterweight. We may record the volume changes on a piece of graph paper
by attaching a pen to the counterweight or tension string.

Fig 4.4 Spirometer

 The chart recorder is a rotary drum model called a kymograph. It rotates
slowly at speeds between 30 and 2000 mm/min. Some spirometers also offer an
electrical output that is the electrical analog of the respiration waveform. Most
frequently the electrical output is generated by connecting the pen and weight
assembly to a linear potentiometer. If precise positive and negative potentials are
connected to the ends of the potentiometer, then the electrical signal will represent
the same data as the pen. When no one is breathing into the mouthpiece, Eo will be
zero. But when a patient is breathing into the tube, Eo will take a value proportional
to the volume and a polarity that indicates inspiration or expiration.

4.3 Pulse Measurement

When the heart muscle contracts, blood is ejected from the ventricles and
a pulse of pressure is transmitted through the circulatory system. This pressure
pulse when travelling through the vessels causes vessel-wall displacement, which is
measurable at various points of the peripheral circulatory system. This pulse can be
measured at various points and we can sense the pulse by placing the fingertip over
the radial artery in the wrist. The pulse wave travels at 5 to 15 m/s, depending on
the size and rigidity of the arterial walls.
The most commonly used methods to measure pulsatile blood volume
changes is by the photoelectric method. Two methods are common: Reflectance
method and Transmittance method.

4.3.1 Transmittance method

LED and photo resistor are used in this method. They are mounted in an
enclosure that fits over the tip of the finger.
Light is produced by the LED and this light is passed through the finger.
For each heart pulse, blood is forced to the extremities and the amount of blood in
the finger is increased. So optical density is changed and light transmitted through
the finger is decreased. This light is received by the photoresistor.
This photoresistor is connected with the part of voltage divider circuit. The
voltage produced by this circuit is directly proportional to the amount of blood flow
in the finger. The output is recorded by using strip chart recorder.
 Fig 4.5 Transmittance method

4.3.2 Reflectance method

In reflectance method, LED is placed adjacent to the photoresistor. LED

emits the light and is reflected and scattered from the skin and tissues and falls on
the photoresistor. The reflected light varied depending upon the blood flow in the
finger.
The photoresistor is connected as a part of the voltage divider circuit. The
output will vary in proportion to the amount of blood in the finger. The output can
be recorded using strip chart recorder.

Fig 2.26 Reflectance method

Fig 4.6 Reflectance method

4.4 Blood Pressure Measurement
Pressure is defined as force per unit area. Pressure is increased by
increasing the applied force or by decreasing the area.
Hydrostatic pressure: Force in a system under pressure is not varied
Hydrodynamic pressure: Force in a system under pressure is varied.
Generally the physiological pressure is hydrodynamic pressure.
There are two types of BP measurement.
1. Indirect method using sphygmomanometer
2. Direct method

4.4.1 Indirect method of BP Measurement

In this method sphygmomanometer is used to measure blood

pressure indirectly. Sphygmomanometer consists of inflatable rubber bladder
which is known as cuff, rubber squeeze-ball pump and valve assembly.
Pressure is measured using manometer with mercury column.

4.4.1.1 Procedure

The cuff is wrapped around the patient‟s upper arm at a point about
midway between the elbow and shoulder.
The stethoscope is placed over an artery distal because brachial artery
comes close to the surface.
The cuff is inflated so that the pressure inside the inflated bladder is
increased to a point greater than the anticipated systolic pressure. This
pressure compresses the artery against the underlying bone. So, blood flow
is stopped in the vessel.
Then the doctor slowly reduces the pressure in the cuff and he watches the
mercury column when the systolic pressure exceeds the cuff pressure. Then
the doctor can hear some crashing, snapping sound through the
stethoscope. This sound is known as Korotkoff sound.
 This Korotkoff sound vanishes when the pressure drops below the diastolic
pressure.
The pressure reading in the mercury column during onset of Korotkoff sound is
noted as systolic pressure. It is usually 120 mm Hg.
The pressure reading in the mercury column at which Korotkoff sound is
disappeared is noted as diastolic pressure. It is usually 80 mm Hg.
Korotkoff sound disappears at some point and this is termed as muffling.
The use of Korotkoff sound as the indirect indicator for blood pressure
measurement is known as auscultation.

Fig 4.7 Pressure measurement with cuff placement

4.4.1.2 Advantage This method is simple and painless. There is no hazardous

surgical procedure involved.
4.4.1.3 Disadvantage The effective result depends on accuracy of the doctor
to read the values when the Korotkoff sound is heard.
4.4.2 Direct method of BP Measurement

Direct method is used when accurate blood pressure reading is necessary.

In this method catheter or needle type probe is inserted through a vein or artery.
In the tip of the probe sensor is mounted and the pressure exerted on it is
converted to the corresponding electrical signal. In fluid filled catheter type,
pressure exerted on the fluid filled column is transmitted to external transducer. This
transducer converts pressure into electrical signal.
Here fluid filled catheter is used. Before inserting the catheter in into the
blood vessel, fluid filled system should be completely flushed out. Usually, sterile
saline is used for this purpose which avoids blood clotting.

4.4.2.1 Working:

Blood is taken from the vessel using the catheter tip probe. Pressure
exerted is transmitted to the pressure transducer. The output of transducer is given
to pressure monitor and the output is displayed in the monitor as electrical signal.

Fig 4.8 Setup of a pressure monitoring system by direct method

Initially strain gauge pressure transducer is used. The change in pressure

is given to the amplifier circuit. Here isolation amplifier is used and two indicators
are available for systole display and diastole display.
If output of the amplifier is positive going pulse, then D3 will be ON, So,
capacitor C3 is charging up to the peak value. Here R3 and C3 combination is used to
set some time constant which is used for stable display.
Diastole circuit shows reading in indirect way.
Initially clamping circuit is available. C1 and D1 are used to develop
the voltage which is equal to the peak-to-peak value of the pressure pulse.

Fig 4.9 Circuit diagram to measure systolic and diastolic blood

pressure

This voltage appears across R1 resistor. Then D2 diode is ON. So C2 is

charged upto the peak value of the pulse signal. The diastolic pressure is
displayed using the indicator M2.
M2 Reading=Peak systolic value-Peak-to-peak pulse pressure value.
4.6 Blood flow meter

The circulatory system of human helps in the flow of blood throughout the
body. Adequate amount of blood flow should be supplied for the organs to perform
their function. Improper blood supply results in various diseases and diagnosis can
be done easily by measuring the rate of blood flow in the vessel.
The rate of flow of blood in a vessel is given as the volume of blood that
passes through the vessel in a given unit of time. The ancient methods like turbine
flow meter and rotameter are not suitable for measurement as they involve cutting
of blood vessels. Different methods used for flow measurement are explained as
follows.

4.6.1 Magnetic Blood flowmeter

The magnetic blood flowmeters are based on the principle of Faraday‟s

law of electromagnetic induction. This principle states that when an electrical
conductor is moved through a magnetic field a voltage is induced in the conductor
proportional to the velocity of its motion.
An electromagnetic assembly provides magnetic field at right angles to the
blood vessel. And the velocity of blood flow, i.e.
e=C H v d ---- (4.12)

Where
e= induced voltage
H=Strength of the magnetic field
v=velocity of blood flow
d=diameter of the blood vessel.
C=proportionality constant.

Fig 4.14 Magnetic Blood flowmeter

 The voltage induced in the moving blood column can be measured with
the stationary electrodes placed on the opposite sides of the blood vessel and
perpendicular to the magnetic field.
In the arrangement oscillator is used to drive the magnet and it provides
control signal for the gate. The gate detector reverses the polarity of output signal
when the flow of the blood is in reverse direction. The flow pulses can be easily
recorded from the frequency response of the system. The average flow of pulses
can be obtained with the help of a low-pass filter.

Fig 4.15 Block diagram of blood flowmeter

4.6.2 Ultrasonic blood flowmeter

In ultrasonic blood flowmeter, the velocity of the flowing blood can be

determined with a beam of ultrasonic energy. There are basically two types of
ultrasonic blood flow-velocity meters. The first type is the transit time velocity meter
and the second is the Doppler shift type.
In the transit time ultrasonic flowmeter a pulsed ultrasonic beam is
directed at a shallow angle through a blood vessel and its transit time is measured.
When the blood flow is in the direction of energy transmission, the transit time is
short and when the flow of blood is in the opposite direction, the transit time value
is greater. Let us discuss the Doppler type blood flow meter in detail.
4.6.3 Doppler shift flow velocity meter

It is based on the analysis of echo signals from the erythrocytes in the

vascular structures. Because of the Doppler effect, the frequency of these echo
signals changes relative to the frequency which the probe transmits.

Fig 4.16 Doppler type ultrasonic blood flowmeter

The incident ultrasound is scattered by the blood vessels and the

scattered wave is received by the second transducer. The frequency shift due to the
moving scatterers is proportional to the velocity of the scatterers. If the blood is
moving towards the transmitter, the apparent frequency f1 is given by

f1= (C-vcosθ)/C ---- (4.13)

Where f=transmitted frequency

C=velocity of sound in blood
θ=angle of inclination of the incident wave to the direction of blood flow.
v= velocity of blood cells.

Assuming that the incident and scattered radiations are both inclined at θ
to the direction of flow
f2= f1[(C+vcosθ)/C] ---- (4.14)

The resultant Doppler shift is

Δf = f-f2 =f- f1[(C+vcosθ)/C] ---- (4.15)

On simplifying the above expression Δf = 2fvcosθ/C

=>v= Δf.C/2fcosθ ---- (4.16)

This relationship forms the basis of measuring blood velocity.

 Fig 4.17 Block diagram of Doppler shift Blood flowmeter

The peizo-electric crystal A is electrically excited to generate ultrasonic

waves, which enter the blood. Ultrasound scattered from the moving blood cells
excites the receiver crystal. The electrical signal received at B consists of a large
amplitude excitation frequency component which is directly coupled from the
transmitter to the receiver plus a very small Doppler shifted component. The
detector produces a sum of the difference of the frequencies at D. The low pass
filter selects the difference frequencies at E. Each time the audio wave crosses the
zero axis, a pulse appears at G. The filtered output level at H will be proportional to
the blood velocity.

4.6.4 Radiographic method

The flow of blood cannot be made visible with the help of X-rays due to
their same density as the surrounding tissues. Hence to make the blood flow visible
to a contrast medium like iodated organic compound is injected into the blood vessel
so that the circulation pattern can be visible. With the help of X-rays, the progress of
the contrast medium, the obstructions and the blood flow in the vessels can be
estimated. Sometimes radio isotopes are injected into the blood circulation which
helps in the detection of vascular obstruction. The nuclear radiation can be analyzed
with the help of imaging device like scanner or cameras. The vascular obstructions
can also be detected by measuring the difference in the skin temperature due to
improper and reduced circulation of blood.
4.6.5 Indicator dilution method
It helps in the determination of rate of blood flow and not the velocity of
blood. Indicator with no toxic side effects readily mixes with blood and its
concentration can be easily determined after mixing. The substance used should be
stable and should not be retained in the body. Indocyanide dye or cardiogreen is
used as indicator and most commonly used radioisotope is isotonic saline. There are
two types of measurements involved in this method: open circulation method and
closed circulation method.

4.6.5.1 Open circulation method:

In this method the measurement is made under the assumption that the
blood is not recirculated. The indicator is injected into the blood flow continuously at
the beginning time, ‟t‟ with a constant infusion rate of „I‟ grams per minute. A
detector measures the concentration of the downstream from the injection point.

Fig 4.18 Open Circulation Method

The output of the detector is connected to the recorder and here at

certain time after injection the concentration of the indicator increases and finally
reaches a constant value Co mgs per liter. The flow can be determined with the help
of injection rate „I‟ and the measured concentration Co.

Rate of flow (liters per minute) = I (mgs per minute)/Co(mgs per liter).
4.6.5.2 Closed circulation method:

This method states that when a dye or isotope is used as an indicator, the
concentration does not assume a steady-state instead increases in steps whenever
the recirculated indicator again passes the detector. This method is based on the
assumption that the blood is being recirculated.

Fig 4.19 Closed Circulation method

Here at first, the indicator is injected and its concentration is measured

with the help of detector and when the indicator is again recirculated the
concentration increases step by step as shown in the graph. The output of the
detector is connected to the recorder and the flow can be determined.

4.6.6 NMR Blood flow meter

In Nuclear magnetic resonance principle behavior of the two hydrogen

atoms of water is studied, since blood is approximately 83% water. The hydrogen
nuclei orient themselves to produce a net parallel alignment to a steady magnetic
field. The nuclear magnets move around the magnetic field lines until they become
aligned.
The blood vessel of interest is positioned in a uniform steady magnetic
field B0. Some begin to align parallel, whereas others commence to align anti-
parallel. This alignment occurs exponentially with a time constant T1 known as
longitudinal relaxation time.
 Fig 4.20 Arterial blood flow measurement using NMR
A crossed coil configuration is used to detect the level of magnetization in
the limb. Two magnets are used, a strong permanent magnet B0 for
premagnetisation and a weaker, homogeneous electromagnet BD for detection. A
graph plotted between the magnetization at the center of the receiver coil for typical
distances as a function of velocity and thus a measurement of the magnetization can
yield velocity information. The NMR signal voltage proportional to velocity v, and
multiplied by area A will give volumetric flow rate Q. NMR blood flow meters are
limited to their applications to the measurement of blood flow in limbs.

4.6.7 Laser Doppler Blood flow meter

When a laser beam is directed towards the tissue under study, absorption
and scattering takes place. Radiation scattered in movable structures such as red
cells is shifted in Doppler shift, while radiation in non-moving soft tissue is unshifted
in frequency. A part of the total scattered radiation is brought to fall on the surface
of a photodetector.
In principle light from a low power He-Ne laser is coupled into a quartz
fiber and transmitted to the skin. The light is reflected from both the non-moving
tissues (reference beam) and moving red blood cells (Doppler-shifted beam). The
two beams are received by a plastic fiber and transmitted back to a photodiode
where optical heterodyning takes place. This signal which is proportional to the
Doppler shift frequency is amplified and gives the output flow velocity.
 Fig 4.21 Block Diagram of Laser Doppler system

The laser output is coupled into the fiber using a converging lens, which
results in an increased power density at the skin surface and thus enables the
detection of flow in the more deeply seated veins and arteries. The receiving fiber is
coupled to the photodiode through a laser line filter. The light falling on the
photodetector is an optically mixed signal involving a Doppler-shifted signal
scattered from the moving red blood cells with the reference signal reflected from
the non-moving skin surface. The amplifier is constructed using a standard
operational amplifier and the system output is obtained by taking the RMS value of
the total signal and normalizing it for total back scattered light. An audio output of
the signal before RMS conversion is also produce to hear the flow pattern.
This device has light reproducibility and sensitivity. Disadvantages are poor
selectivity, base line instability and restriction in site of measurement.
4.5 Cardiac Output Measurement

Cardiac output is the quantity of blood delivered by the aorta per

minute. Problem occurs when the supply of blood from the heart is unable to
meet the demand. A fall in cardiac output may result in low blood pressure,
reduced tissue oxygenation, acidosis, and poor renal function. Stroke volume
of blood pumped from the heart with each beat at rest varies among adults
between 70 and 100 ml, while the cardiac output is 4 to 6 l/min.
Various methods to compute cardiac output are discussed below.

4.5.1 Indicator Dilution Method

Indicator dilution method principle states that if we introduce into a

stream of fluid a known amount of indicator and measure the concentration
difference between upstream and downstream of the injection site, we can
estimate the volume flow of the liquid. Bolus method is deployed in which a
small but known quantity of an indicator as a dye or radioisotope is
administered into the circulation. It is injected into a large vein and after
passing through the right heart, lungs and the left heart, the indicator
appears in the arterial circulation.

Let an increment of volume dV pass the sampling site in time dt.

Let the mass of the indicator in dV= dM
Therefore the concentration of indicator C = dM/ dV ---- (4.3)
dM/dt= C dV /dt ---- (4.4)
But dV/dt= Q, the cardiac output
dM= Q C dt ---- (4.5)
Integrating over time we can compute Q , the cardiac output
𝑡
Integrating over time, 𝑀= 0
𝑄. 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 ---- (4.6)
Considering the flow as constant,
𝑡 𝑀
𝑀=𝑄 0
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑄 = 𝑡 ---- (4.7)
0 𝐶 𝑑𝑡
Concentration of the indicator „C‟ is a function of time. By drawing a curve
between concentration and time, the area of the curve gives directly the value
𝑡
of 0 𝐶 𝑑𝑡
𝑴
𝑸=
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆

Fig 4.10 Indicator dilution curve

4.5.2 Fick’s method

Fick‟s method is based on the determination of cardiac output by the analysis

of gas keeping of the organism. Cardiac output is calculated by continuously
infusing oxygen in to the blood or removing it from the blood and measuring
the amount of oxygen in the blood before and after its passage.
Let I – amount of oxygen infused or removed by unit time. And it is given by,
I = CAQ – CVQ
𝐼
∴𝑄=C ---- (4.8)
𝐴 −𝐶𝑉

Where
Q – Cardiac output in lit/min.
CA– Concentration of oxygen (ml) in arterial blood (outgoing blood).
CV– Concentration of oxygen (ml) in mixed Venus blood (incoming
blood).
 Fig 4.11 Fick’s method

Oxygen consumption is determined by analyzing the exhaled air collected

in a bag during 10min.Oxygen concentration of mixed Venus blood is measured by
taking sample from a central vein through a cardiac catheter. For analysis of arterial
blood samples are taken from an artery in the forearm. This method is complicated,
difficult but it is practice in some places.

4.5.3 Thermo dilution method

Fig 4.12 Block diagram of Thermo dilution method

 10 milliliters of 5% dextrose in water at room temperature is injected as a
thermal indicator into the right atrium. After mixing, it is detected in the pulmonary
artery by a thermistor, placed at the tip of miniature catheter probe. The
temperature difference between the injectate temperature and the circulating blood
temperature in the pulmonary artery is measured. The reduction in temperature is
integrated with respect to time. It is displayed in output time. After applying
correction, the cardiac output is displayed in litres/minute. Amplifier block is used to
remove non-linearity of the thermistor.
The electronic computation is relatively simple, because there is no
significant recirculation of the indicator in man. The calculation rests upon the
integral of the inscribed curve, the resting temperature in the pulmonary artery and
the temperature of the injectate.

2.7.4 Impedance change

The cardiac output can be determined electronically by the impedance
method. Four electrodes are placed, surrounding the thorax. Electrodes pair 1 and 4
used as current electrodes. Electrodes pair 2 and 3 used to pick up the voltage
across the thorax.
Let 𝜌 - resistivity of the patient‟s hematocrit, which is about 1500Ωm.
A - Cross – sectional area of the thorax,
L - Separation between the potential electrodes 2 and 3.
V - Volume of the thorax.

Then resistance of thorax is given by,

𝜌𝐿 𝜌𝐿2 𝜌𝐿2 𝜌𝐿2
𝑅= = = 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = ---- (4.9)
𝐴 𝐴𝐿 𝑉 𝑅
During ejection of stroke volume, the change in volume is dV and the corresponding
decrease in resistance is dR.
Differentiating the above expression for V,
𝐿2
𝑑𝑉 = −𝜌 𝑅2 . 𝑑𝑅 ---- (4.10)
Since a.c excitation current is used, R should be replaced by impedance Z.
𝐿2
∴ 𝑑𝑉 = −𝜌 𝑍 2 . 𝑑𝑍 ---- (4.11)
𝑑𝑍
Taking 𝑑𝑍 = 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝑍
Where – peak negative value of dZ/dt found during systole.
𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥
 𝐿2 𝑑𝑍
Thus 𝑑𝑉 = −𝜌 𝑍 2 . 𝑡 ---- (4.12)
𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥

The impedance of the basal is found to be 25Ω when a constant current at

100kHz is applied between 1 and 4 and diminishes to 0.1Ω with each systole. The
voltage signal due to changes in impedance is amplified and demodulated to obtain
impedance „Z‟ of the thorax. The value of (dZ/dt) is calculated using a differentiator
and its output is recorded on a recorder. From (dZ/dt)max can be noted. By
determining dV, the cardiac output can be measured by multiplying dV with heart
beat rate per minute.

Fig 4.13 Cardiac output measurement by impedance method

 VIDEO LINK & e BOOK LINK
PPT links
Non electrical parameter measurement
https://www.slideshare.net/MariaRominaAngustia/measurement-and-control-of-
nonelectrical-quantities
Blood flow meter
https://www.slideshare.net/abhijithprabha1/blood-flow-measurement
Cardiac output measurement
https://www.slideshare.net/nileshkate79/cardiac-output-1

Video links
Ultrasonic blood flow measurement
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bx2RnrfLkQg
Cardiac output
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UAWlqp011_Y
Determination of cardiac output
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0EJLyz2VfLs
Temperature Measurement
https://youtu.be/Zd1sYdvZmbM
Pulse Measurement
https://youtu.be/WSy4JUhQYIc
Respiration Measurement
https://youtu.be/GwH5-PW4B4Q
Blood pressure measurement
https://youtu.be/NHb0P5tDr-k
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rc4vipEx__U
SLIDE SHARE LINKS

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
https://www.slideshare.net/BharathasreejaG/temperature-measurement-238296122
PULSE MEASUREMENT
https://www.slideshare.net/BharathasreejaG/pulse-rate-measurement-111-copy
RESPIRATION MEASUREMENT
https://www.slideshare.net/BharathasreejaG/respiration-rate-measurement-
238296192
BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
https://www.slideshare.net/BharathasreejaG/blood-pressure-measurement-
238296214

E-Book references
1) Biomedical Instrumentation and Measurements, „Leslie Cromwell‟
https://www.pdfdrive.com/biomedical-instrumentation-and-measurements-
e186986101.html
2) Handbook of Biomedical Instrumentation , „R.S.Khandpur‟
http://93.174.95.29/main/500B8254ABD9AA4BCB05713A5C2C0316
11. PART A Q & A (with K
level & CO)
 PART A CO’S Blooms
Level

1. Define cardiac output. CO4 K1

Cardiac output is defined as the amount of blood delivered by the heart to

the aorta per minute. For normal adults the cardiac output is about 4- 6
litres/ minute.
2. What is blood pressure? State the normal value of blood pressure. CO4 K1

Blood pressure is a measure of the force being exerted on the walls of

arteries as blood is pumped out of the heart.
Systolic (maximum) blood pressure in the normal adult is in the range of
95 to145 mm Hg, with 120 mm Hg being average.
Diastolic (lowest pressure between beats) blood pressure ranges from60 to
90 mm Hg, 80 mm Hg being average.
3. Find the cardiac output of a person if his heart rate is 70bpm and stroke CO4 K3
volume is 70 ml.

Cardiac output = heart rate x stroke volume

=70 bpm x 70 ml
=4900 ml/minutes.

4. What are Korotkoff sounds? CO4 K1

In the Blood pressure (BP) measurement, when the systolic pressure

exceeds the cutoff pressure, then the doctor can hear some crashing,
snapping sounds through the stethoscope. These sounds are called as
Korotkoff sounds
5. What is residual volume and Tidal Volume? CO4 K1

The Residual Volume (RV) is the volume of gas remaining in the lungs at
the end of maximal expiration. Tidal Volume (TV) is also called as normal
depth volume of breathing or is the volume of gas inspired or expired
during each respiratory cycle.

6. What is a colorimeter? CO4 K1

The Colorimeter is used to measure the transmitted and absorbed light as

it passes through a sample. The colorimeter uses light absorption to
determine blood proteins and iron levels.
 PART A CO’S Blooms
Level

7. What is Fick‟ s Principle? Give its disadvantages. CO4 K1

The Fick‟s method is based on the determination of cardiac output by the

analysis of the gas keeping of the organism. Thus the cardiac output can
be calculated by continuously infusing oxygen in to the blood or removing
it from the blood and measuring the amount of the oxygen in the blood
before and after its passage. This method is difficult to repeat,
necessitates cathertization

8. What is electrophoresis? CO4 K1

Electrophoresis is a method for separating and analysing macromolecular

substances such as plasma proteins. The method is based on the fact
that, the molecules carry electric charges and therefore migrate in an
electric field.

9. What is the principle behind electromagnetic blood flowmeters? CO4 K2

The principle behind electromagnetic blood flow meter is Faraday‟s law of

induced emf. When a magnetic field is applied to a blood vessel, the
blood flow in the vessel causes an electrical field to be induced in a
direction mutually perpendicular to the direction of the applied magnetic
field and the blood velocity

10. What are the components of blood? CO4 K1

The red blood cell is used for the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
The white blood cells are part of the body‟s defence against infections
and foreign substances. The platelets are involved in the clotting of
blood.

11. Mention the application of flame photometer. CO4 K2

A flame photometer is used to analyse blood or urine in order to

determine the concentration of potassium, sodium, Calcium and Lithium.

12. What is Stroke volume? CO4 K1

Stroke volume is the volume of blood pumped from one ventricle of the
heart with each beat.
 PART A CO’S Blooms
Level

13. State Beer‟s law. ( Level 1- Remembering) CO4 K1

By Beer‟s law absorbance can be measured as

A=a C L
Where L= Light path length of the cuvette.
C= Concentration of the absorbing substance in the cuvette.
a= Absorbivity.

14. State the principle behind indicator dilution method. CO4 K2

The indicator dilution method id based on the principle that a known

amount of dye or radio isotope as an indicator is introduced with respect
to time at the measurement site so that the volume of flow of the blood
can be estimated.

15. What is the purpose of pO2 electrode? CO4 K2

pO2 electrode is used to determine the oxygen tension in the blood. It is

a piece of wire embedded in an insulating glass holder with the end of
wire exposed to the electrolyte into which the oxygen from the solution
under measurement is allowed to diffuse through the membrane.

16. What are the different types of blood flowmeters? CO4 K1

The different types of blood flowmeters are magnetic blood flowmeter,

ultrasonic blood flowmeter, radiographic method and indicator dilution
method.

17. What are the various methods to measure cardiac output? CO4 K1

The different types of cardiac output measurement are Indicator dilution

method, Fick‟s method, Thermo dilution method and impedance change
method

18. What are the different types of respiration rate measurement? CO4 K1

The different types of respiration rate measurement are displacement

method, thermistor method, impedance pneumography, CO2 method,
apnoea detectors and spirometer.
12. PART B Qs (with K
level & CO)
 UNIT II - PART B CO’S Blooms
Level

1. Explain the techniques used in the measurement of temperature. CO4 K2

2. Explain the techniques used in the measurement of respiration. CO4 K2

3. Discuss about the measurement of blood pressure using direct CO4 K2

method.

4. Discuss about the measurement of blood pressure using indirect CO4 K2

method.

5. Interpret the working principle of electromagnetic blood flowmeter and CO4 K2

ultrasonic blood flowmeter.

6. Explain the techniques used in the measurement of pulse rate. CO4 K2

7. Describe in detail the principle of calorimeter with neat diagram. CO4 K2

8. Explain the principle of ultrasound blood flow measurement. CO4 K2

9. Classify and discuss the temperature measurement methods. CO4 K2

10. Explain Fick‟s method and impedance change method for cardiac CO4 K2
output measurement.

11. Explain any two methods to measure lung capacity and volume with CO4 K2
neat diagrams.

12. Explain with relevant diagrams the two methods used for blood CO4 K2
pressure measurements.
 13. SUPORTIVE ON LINE CERTIFCATION COURSES

Title : Bio-medical nano technology

Duration: 4 weeks
Course provided by : NPTEL
Course link:https://swayam.gov.in/explorer?searchText=biomedical

Title : Introduction to Biomedical engineering

Duration : 4 weeks
Course provided by : Coursera
Course link: https://www.coursera.org/learn/bioengineering

Title : Health Information Literacy for Data Analytics Specialization

Duration : 4 weeks
Course provided by : Coursera
Course link: https://www.coursera.org/specializations/healthcare-
information-literacy-data-analytics
REAL TIME APPLICATIONS IN DAY
TO DAY LIFE AND TO INDUSTRY

Highest Related Field

SI. Pertaining
Topic Cognitive
No. CO(s)
Level
1 Pulse oximeter CO2 K3 Medical

2 Non-touch infrared CO2 K3 medical

thermometers
CONTENT BEYOND THE SYLLABUS
PHONOCARDIOGRAM
The graphical record of heart sound is known as Phonocardiogram. Here cardio
means heart. The device which is used to measure heart sound is known as
phonocardiograph.
Ausculation: The technique of listening sounds are measured. These heart
sounds are due to the vibrations set up in the blood inside the heart by the
sudden closure of valves
In PCG, different types of heart sounds are measured. These heart sounds are
due to the vibrations set up in the blood inside the heart by the sudden closure of
valves.
In abnormal heart, additional sounds are heard between the normal heart sound.
These additional sounds are known as murmurs.
Murmurs are generally caused by improper opening of the valves or by
regurgitation.

CLASSIFICATION OF HEART SOUND

Heart sound is divided in to four types.
Valve closure sound
Ventricular filling sound
Valve opening sound
Extra cardiac sound

Valve closure sound:

This sound occur at the beginning of systole and at the beginning of diastole.
Ventricular filling sound:
This sound is occurred at the time of filling of the ventricles
Valve opening sound:
This sound occurs at the time of opening of atrio-ventricular valves and semilunar
valves
Extra cardiac sound:
This sound occur in mid systole (or) late systole (or)early diastole.

.
 Systole: The contraction of the heart muscle. The systolic pressure is 120mm of Hg.
Diastole: The relaxation of the heart muscle. The diastolic pressure is 80mm of Hg

ORIGIN OF HEART SOUNDS

Name of the Frequency Duration Asculatory Reason for

Heart sound area(Best producing
heard area) sound

First heart 30 – 50 Hz 0.1 to 0.12 sec At apex of mid It is due to

sound pericardium sudden closure
of mitral and
tricuspid vlave
Second heart Up to 250Hz 0.08 to 0.14 sec At aortic and It is due to
sound pulmonary area vibration set up
by closure of
semilunar
valves
Third heart 10 to 100Hz 0.04 to 0.08 sec At apex and left Occur when
sound lateral position ventricle
after lifting the relaxed
legs
Fourth heart 10 to 50Hz 0.03 to 0.06sec Usually this It is due to
sound sound is not accelerated
audible in any flow of blood in
area to ventricles.
PCG RECORDING SYSTEM

Microphone is used to convert heart sound in to the electrical signals. Certain

positions are recommended to pick up heart sound by using microphone.

The electrical signal picked by the microphone is amplified by the amplifier block.

The amplified output is given to filter block. Here high pass filter used. Its cut off
frequency is 1 KHz.

Here, ECG electrode system and ECG Amplifiers are used for reference for PCG.
So, ECG and PCG outputs are connected to FM tape recorder and output display
unit.

TYPES OF MICROPHONES USED IN PCG

Air-coupled microphone: Movement of the chest is transferred through the air

cushion. It provide low mechanical impedance to the chest.

Contact microphone: It is directly coupled to the chest walled and provide high
impedance, high sensitivity , low noise, Its light weight is also one of the
advantageous factor.

Figure.1 PCG recording waveform

REALATIONSHIP BETWEEN HEART SOUNDS AND
FUNCTION OF CARDIO VASCULAR SYTEM

Figure.2 Relationship between blood pressure and heart sound and ECG waveform

The above figure shows that the relationship between blood pressure , heart
sounds and ECG waveforms. The first heart sound is developed during the
opening of aortic valve and during the closing of mitral valve.
Second heart sound is developed during the closing of aortic valve and during the
opening of mitral valve.
PCG WAVEFORM

PCG WAVEFORM

Figure.3 PCG waveform

Frequency of First heart sound consists of 30 to 45 Hz.

Second heart sound is usually higher in pitch than the first. Its frequency range is
50Hz to 70Hz.
Third heart sound is extremely weak vibration. Its frequency is below 30Hz.
Murmur produce much high pitch sounds. Sometimes its frequency range is
100Hz to 600Hz.
Aortic stenosis murmur occurred when the blood is ejected from the left ventricle
through aortic valve due to the resistance to ejection, the pressure in the left
ventricle
increased. (up to 350mm Hg). So, turbulent blood flow occurs. This turbulent
blood impinging the aortic valve. So intense vibration is produced. It produces
loud murmur.
Mitral regurgitation murmur: In this murmur, blood flows in backward
direction through the mitral valve during systole.
Aortic regurgitation murmur: During diastole, sound is heard. In diastole,
blood flows in the backward direction from aorta to left ventricles when valves are
damaged, then this sound is heard.
Mitral stenosis murmur: This murmur is produced when blood is passed from
left atrium to left ventricle. This sound is very weak.
 7. Assessment Schedule ( Proposed Date &
Actual Date)

Assessment test Proposed Date Actual Date

Unit test 1 18.07.2020 18.07.2020

Internal Assessment test 1 07.08.2020 07.08.2020

Unit test 2

Internal Assessment test 2

Model Examination
 8. Text Books & Reference Books

TEXT BOOKS:

1. Leslie Cromwell, “Biomedical Instrumentation and measurement”, Prentice hall

of India, New Delhi, 2007.
2. John G. Webster, “Medical Instrumentation Application and Design”,
John Wiley and sons, New York, 2004. (Units I, II & V)

REFERENCES:

1. Myer Kutz, “Standard Handbook of Biomedical Engineering and Design”,

McGraw Hill Publisher, 2003.

2. Khandpur R.S, “Handbook of Biomedical Instrumentation”, Tata McGraw-

Hill, New Delhi, 2003.(Units II & IV)

3. Joseph J. Carr and John M. Brown, “Introduction to Biomedical Equipment

Technology”, Pearson Education, 2004.
9. Mini Project suggestions

BMI MINI PROJECTS LIST

S.No Name of The Project

1. Electronic Library Management System Using Finger Print Sensor

2. Patient Medical Information System Using Finger Print

3. High Protection Security System With Biometric And Video Transmission

4. Design A Bio amplifier With High CMRR

5 High Protection ATM System With Finger Print Identification Technology

With Image Record And GSM
6. Ebadge using RFID with Biometrics

7. Digital pulmonary function test using Micro controller (DPFT)

8. Monitoring system for premature babies

9. Automatic Medicine Announcement System

10. Multi-parameter physiologic monitoring

11. Bio Feed Back System

12. Human Gait Analyzer and Recognition

13. 4-Channel Temperature Scanning for Cardiac Surgery

14. Micro controller-based human brain hypothermia system

15. Programmable apnea monitoring system

16. A versatile drop foot stimulator for research applications

62
 Thank you

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