A deeper understanding:

Building trust in
business partnerships
WRITTEN BY
About the research

This report, written by Economist Impact and sponsored The report was produced by a team of Economist Impact
by Icertis, examines the concept of trust in business researchers, writers, editors and designers, including:
relationships and sheds light on what drives organisations
to build it, what challenges they face and what actions they • Yuxin Lin, project manager
have taken. Insights presented in the report were obtained
• Apurva Kothari, researcher
through a global survey that Economist Impact conducted
in November-December 2021 of 600 business executives, • Mike Jakeman, writer
as well as desk research and expert interviews.
• Amanda Simms, copy editor
We would like to thank the following experts for their time
and insights: • NWC Design, graphic design agency

• Allan Jorgensen, head, the OECD Centre Economist Impact bears sole responsibility for the content
for Responsible Business Conduct of this report. The findings and views expressed herein do
not necessarily reflect the views of our sponsor or partners.
• Isabel Cane, head, the OECD’s Trust in
Business Initiative

• Natalie Doyle Oldfield, president,

Success Through Trust

• Paul Zak, professor of neuroeconomics,

Claremont Graduate University

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Building trust in business partnerships
Executive summary

Trust is a vital component for keeping the global

economy growing. Every single transaction, from grabbing
a coffee to acquiring a multinational corporation, is
built on some level of trust: that the goods or services
offered serve their purpose or that the buyer can pay
for them. But trust does not just grease the wheels. It
enables firms from different cultures and separated by
continents to work together in a manner that benefits
all. It helps companies to set, follow and achieve targets
with a wider social or environmental purpose. It also
assists with hiring and keeping outstanding workers.

Customers all over the world are prioritising purchasing

from companies displaying trustworthy behaviour. And
firms are finding that making strategic decisions about their
operations during the pandemic is easier if there is a high
level of trust in their relationships with business partners.
In this paper, Economist Impact, sponsored by Icertis,
examines the concept of trust within relationships between
business partners. We consider not only what trust is
and how it is built, but also what challenges firms face.

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Building trust in business partnerships
What these firms have done to build and maintain
trust and where it has proven particularly beneficial
are also explored. We have used a combination of desk
research, expert interviews and an extensive survey
of 600 business executives working across industry
sectors in nine major economies in North America
(Canada and the US), Europe (France, Germany and the
UK) and Asia-Pacific (Australia, India, New Zealand and
Singapore). Some high-level key findings are as follows:

● Trust is an umbrella term for a group of behaviours that

encompass ability, benevolence and integrity. Firms
are likely to need to exhibit behaviours from each of
these areas to be considered highly trustworthy.

● Executives believe that high levels of trust can be

beneficial both to long-term revenue growth and
achieving sustainability goals. As they step up efforts
to fulfil environmental, social and governance (ESG)
commitments, ESG compliance is also emerging
as an area that helps deliver trust in business
relationships while building customer loyalty.

● To achieve sustainability targets, firms are looking

to increase the visibility and transparency of
their supply chains. Both of these attributes are
correlated with trustworthy business relationships.

● A gap remains between the measures that

executives believe will enhance the trust in
their business relationships and the steps that
their organisation has taken, in areas such
as employing dedicated staff to assess ESG
compliance and investing in new technology to
enable the fulfilment of contractual obligations. A deeper understanding:
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Building trust in business partnerships
 Section 01: What defines trust in business relationships?

What defines trust in

business relationships?

Building and maintaining trust is a business priority. Over The pandemic strains trust
three-quarters of the business executives that Economist between business partners
Impact surveyed said that identifying trustworthy business
The covid-19 pandemic is one of the most disruptive
partners was a high or business-critical priority for the
events to business operations within recent history.
senior leadership in their organisation. As a concept,
According to our survey responses, executives cited
trust is gaining momentum. The CEO of BlackRock,
making strategic decisions amid prolonged uncertainty
Larry Fink, began his annual letter to clients in 2022 by
(39%), ensuring the physical and mental health of
imploring them to define and promote their purpose
employees (38%), and unexpected changes in supply
and to hold to it steadfastly.1 This is simply another
and demand (34%) as the biggest challenges posed
way of referring to trust: by remaining consistent, even
to their operations by the pandemic. Others settled
in a tumultuous operating environment, fulfilling your
on new trade restrictions or regulations (29%) and
purpose helps others to trust you. The pandemic has
the uncertainty of suppliers delivering on agreements
exacerbated this trend: navigating the challenges of a
(28%). Indeed, economic volatility has made it more
global economic shutdown, followed by volatile swings
difficult for firms to make accurate product demand
in consumer demand and extensive disruption to global
forecasts, making negotiations with suppliers and
supply chains is more straightforward if there is a high
buyers tricky. Some firms have had to declare force
level of trust between business partners. But even where
majeure or other measures of last resort. Professional
firms are reporting high levels of trust, further steps can
relationships built on face-to-face contact have
be taken to make such relationships more resilient.
been forced online. All these factors have strained
existing levels of trust, driving firms to rethink and
rebuild trust in their business relationships.

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Building trust in business partnerships
 Section 01: What defines trust in business relationships?

But what does trust actually mean? What attributes do own model that has some strong similarities to the
businesses need to demonstrate to their partners to be findings of our survey and that of Mayer’s research.3
considered trustworthy? We asked business executives The company’s work has identified five “dimensions of
to select three qualities from a group of six that they trust”. Two of them—ability and integrity—are the same
considered to be the most important in building trust in as those spotted by Mayer. But it splits benevolence into
business relationships. Importantly, they believed that all three components: purpose (the individual or firm has

82
of them were necessary. Just over half picked transparency a positive impact on people and the planet), self (the
as one of their most important, but the remaining five— trustor resonates emotionally with its customers) and
collaboration, integrity, consistency, accountability dependability (the trustor delivers on its promises).
% and competency—were all selected by at least 40%.
Lastly, an expert on trust in business, Natalie Doyle Oldfield,
Interestingly, the quality of transparency has become more
of survey respondents pertinent today (selected by 56% of respondents) than argues that trust has three components: communication (that
believe that there prior to the start of the pandemic (when it was chosen by is clear, consistent and honest), behaviour (that is reliable,
cannot be trust 49% of respondents). In fact, 82% of survey respondents ethical and focused on motives to act in the customer’s best
without transparency. believe that there cannot be trust without transparency. interests) and service (that is empathetic and authentic).
She likens trust to a triangle: “You must have all three for
There are broad similarities between how executives in trust to be present. You can’t expect to be trusted with poor
our survey attempted to define trust and those of existing behaviour, regardless of how well you communicate.”4
academic research. In a widely cited paper, An Integrative
Model of Organisational Trust, from the mid-1990s, Mayer How executives define trust is reflected in what
et al identified three “factors of perceived trustworthiness”: attributes they consider the most important when
ability, benevolence and integrity.2 The researchers defined choosing a new business partner. Our survey respondents
ability as a group of skills that demonstrates expertise, identified seven such attributes: quality, financial
which in turn leads to the emergence of influence; stability and profitability fit with competence and
benevolence as the belief that an individual or firm wants consistency; willingness to share information pairs
to do good, even beyond where it rewards themselves; with transparency and collaboration; and shared values
and integrity, whereby trustees are expected to adhere and compliance with global and local standards match
to a code of behaviour that is acceptable to the trustor. with integrity and accountability (Figure 1). Furthermore,
an overwhelming majority of respondents (86%) said
Edelman, a global communications company that has that their organisation would be more likely to work with
studied trust for more than two decades, has built its a potential partner that demonstrated transparency,
accountability and integrity in its operations.

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Building trust in business partnerships
 Section 01: What defines trust in business relationships?

Figure 1.

There is a strong correlation between how executives

define trust and what they look for in a business partner.

Important attributes in defining Important considerations in

trust in business relationships choosing a new business partner

Competence Quality, financial stability

Consistency and profitability

Transparency Willingness to
Collaboration share information

Integrity Shared values and compliance

Accountability with global and local standards

Source: Economist Impact survey

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 Section 02: What drives organisations to build trust in business relationships?

What drives organisations to build

trust in business relationships?

Companies seek to promote trust in their relationships as profit seeking, but now firms want to be considered
with business partners because its presence is beneficial as enterprises that bring social value, practise inclusive
for achieving financial success, as well as achieving growth and develop a responsible form of capitalism.
sustainability goals. As companies face growing pressure And one of the ways to demonstrate that is through
Two decades ago, to prioritise environmental, social and governance (ESG), who you partner with and who you cooperate with.”5
business was largely they also see ESG compliance as an area that helps
perceived as profit to deliver trust in business relationships while building Figure 2. Top five business areas that benefit the
seeking, but now customer loyalty, ultimately boosting the bottom line. most when business relationships are built on trust
firms want to be (% of respondents)
Pursuit of business and sustainability goals
considered as
enterprises that bring Our research and interviews have revealed a rich body of Customer satisfaction and loyalty
social value, practise evidence as to why organisations seek to build trust in 41
inclusive growth and their commercial relationships. Our survey respondents Sustainability goals
develop a responsible believe that the presence of trust boosts an organisation’s 36
form of capitalism. market competitiveness, raises productivity, aids the Operational efficiency
And one of the ways recruitment and retention of talent, and, ultimately,
36
to demonstrate that secures long-term revenue growth (Figure 2). There is
is through who you also a growing consensus that trust is built through
Employee satisfaction and loyalty
partner with and who meeting pre-agreed goals, such as sustainability targets. 35
you cooperate with. Indeed, trust is a useful lens through which to see how Long-term revenue growth
Dr Isabel Cane, head of the OECD’s the purpose of business itself is changing. According 35
Trust in Business initiative to Dr Isabel Cane, head of the OECD’s Trust in Business
initiative, “two decades ago, business was largely perceived Source: Economist Impact survey

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Building trust in business partnerships
 Section 02: What drives organisations to build trust in business relationships?

On market competitiveness, more than 40% of the surveyed levels of trust in business relationships. When supply chains
executives highlighted customer satisfaction and loyalty are assembled in a way that demonstrates transparency,
as one of the top five business areas that benefit when and therefore a commitment to integrity–one of the pillars
relationships with partners have a high level of trust. of trust–this will yield more sustainable behaviours.
Ms Doyle Oldfield remarked that “trust is the foundation
required to deliver an extraordinary customer experience,” and ESG compliance

73
found a statistically significant, positive correlation between
Alongside the group of traditional measures of business
trust and customer loyalty and commitment in her research.6
performance that benefit from high levels of trust, ESG
In addition, a study of consumers in eight countries by
% Edelman in 2019 found that more than 80% of respondents
compliance is emerging as an area that can deliver higher
levels of trust. Almost three-quarters (73%) of surveyed
said that trust in a company was a major consideration
executives said that making progress towards ESG
of survey respondents in buying their products. But it also revealed that only
commitments and goals was a high or business-critical
said that making around a third were able to say that they trusted most of
priority for their organisation’s senior leadership, and a
progress toward the companies from which they bought products. This
similarly large proportion (76%) said that ESG had become
ESG commitments means there is a huge opportunity for firms that can fill the
more important to their firm over the past two years.
and goals is a gap. The same survey found that more than 60% would
Likewise, almost half (47%) of the respondents said that their
high or business- remain loyal to a product that they trusted if a competitor
organisation had identified investing in or developing their ESG
critical priority for was launched, compared with less than 30% if they did
commitments as a top strategic priority in 2022-24, sitting
their organisation’s not trust the manufacturer. Building trust does not just
alongside cybersecurity (49%) and digital transformation (48%).
senior leadership. expand a customer base, but it also keeps them loyal.7
Business leaders are under pressure to prioritise ESG
Our survey also found that 36% of respondents chose
from several groups of stakeholders. First, our survey
operational efficiency, or productivity, as one of the biggest
showed that 74% of executives believed that consumers
beneficiaries of the presence of high levels of trust within
and customers are increasingly holding organisations to
business relationships. According to a study conducted
account for their ESG initiatives. And, second, an even greater
by Paul Zak, a professor of neuroeconomics at Claremont
proportion (86%) agreed that organisations would have
Graduate University, workers at firms rated as being in the
to work harder in the future to earn their trust. Ms Doyle
top quartile of companies by level of trust reported being
Oldfield concurred, saying that “organisations are facing
50% more productive than those in the bottom quartile.8
greater scrutiny from a more informed and critical customer
Lastly, among factors relating to internal company than ever before. The tolerance level of disingenuous
performance, 36% of executives believed that the boost to activity will continue to fall. Customers are paying more
sustainability goals was one of the biggest benefits of high attention and they are demanding more accountability

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Building trust in business partnerships
 Section 02: What drives organisations to build trust in business relationships?

and transparency. They want to see a social conscience.”9 a documented ESG strategy”. Research by Jarvinen et al
A firm’s own employees may also be becoming a loud argues that the existence of contracts in the trust-building
voice. Research has shown that Millennials put a greater phase is valuable because they create a framework within
emphasis on their employers’ ESG commitments than which trust can grow.12 Contracts also set a base level of
previous generations and they are more likely to want behaviour and offer both parties the opportunity to go
Organisations are
to work for firms that demonstrate similar values.10 above and beyond, building more trust in the process.
facing greater scrutiny
from a more informed Furthermore, leaders are coming under pressure from There is also a third group pushing businesses towards
and critical customer shareholders and business partners. As many as 37% of our ESG compliance: government regulators. This group was
than ever before.... respondents picked investors or shareholders as the group only cited by a quarter of our respondents as a driving
Customers are paying pushing for greater progress on ESG commitments, ahead force, but our research has found several notable examples
more attention and of their partners, at 34%. A 2021 research paper by Dai et al of regulators using the possibility of financial, criminal
they are demanding found that not only do firms tend to opt to establish supply- and reputational penalties to encourage compliance. Of
more accountability chain relationships with others that are “inclined to engage” particular note is Germany’s Supply Chain Due Diligence Act,
and transparency. in responsible social and environmental behaviours, but which requires companies with 3,000 or more employees
They want to see a that pressure from buyers also regularly forces suppliers to establish mechanisms to “identify, assess, prevent and
social conscience. to improve their own conduct. The researchers discovered remedy” risks to the environment and human rights from
Natalie Doyle Oldfield, president, that a “one-standard-deviation change in the customer CSR both their own, direct operations and within their supply
Success Through Trust
[corporate social responsibility] rating will generate about an chains. It also mandates that indirect suppliers (those
8% aggregate increase in [the] future CSR performance of [its] without a direct commercial relationship) must have a
suppliers.”11 This academic finding is supported by our survey way of issuing complaints relating to human rights or
results, in which our respondents identified their business environmental violations.13 Other jurisdictions have also
partners as the group most likely to drive improvements passed legislation mandating some form of ESG compliance
in both supply-chain visibility and transparency. for companies, including the EU, India and Singapore.14,15,16
Allan Jorgensen, head of the OECD Centre for Responsible
Notably, the new focus on trust, transparency and ESG Business Conduct, notes that in addition to regulation, firms
compliance among business partners is manifesting in the operating in the same space are increasingly willing to form
documents that define these relationships: contracts. In voluntary collective initiatives to drive up standards. Such
fact, companies have been using contractual obligation as a initiatives are only possible when participants trust that each
tool for ensuring ESG compliance. According to our survey, member will adhere to a minimum standard of behaviour.17
embedding ESG obligations in supplier and other partner
contracts is the most common ESG strategy adopted by
business organisations today, second to only “developing

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Building trust in business partnerships
 Section 03: What challenges do companies face when building trust?

What challenges do companies

face when building trust?

Business executives in our survey identified limited supply- cross-functional collaboration were highlighted as the
chain visibility—defined as the ability of an organisation to most common internal barriers. Outdated technology,
identify and collect data from all the links in their supply unclear requirements and an inability to effectively
chain at any given time or location—as the most significant track commitments were also cited. Perhaps most
challenge preventing organisations from establishing concerning was the fact that the vast majority of the
and maintaining trust in their business relationships. executives (77%) agreed that a lack of standardised
reporting processes or key performance indicators
Full visibility over supply chains can both help a made it challenging to demonstrate transparency.
firm get its products to market and fulfil its ESG
commitments. Similarly, firms are only able to report Among external relationships, the most common factor
accurately on the environmental or social impact of for incomplete supply-chain visibility, identified by 32% of
their production if they have visibility over the actions respondents, was a belief that partners were unwilling or
and performance of the companies that extract or unable to share the required data. This could be because
manufacture their components. It is much easier to their organisation faced some or all the internal reasons
build or maintain trust if a firm has confidence that its identified above, which inhibit such information sharing.
partners are working to fulfil their commitments. Or, if they were unwilling, it may be because of a lack of
trust in their business partners to handle sensitive data
Our survey respondents suggested that there is a range competently. (Cybersecurity and data privacy was cited as
of internal and external factors that contribute to the the most common strategic priority for executives over the
problem of limited supply-chain visibility. Within firms, next two years, demonstrating that it is already a concern.)
a lack of employee skills and expertise and a lack of

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Building trust in business partnerships
 Section 03: What challenges do companies face when building trust?

77
It is quite clear from our survey that most firms can do
much more in the interconnected areas of information

% sharing and data privacy. Only 16% of our respondents

reported that their organisation exchanged data and
information with their partners on a real-time, continuous
of surveyed executives agreed that a
basis and only another 25% did it on a regular basis
lack of standardised reporting processes
(Figure 3). This means that most firms share data
or key performance indicators made it
only when needed or have never done it. Given the
challenging to demonstrate transparency.
importance that firms ascribe to transparency in enabling
trust in their relationships, this would seem to be an
area where major improvements could be made.

Figure 3. The extent to which organisation exchange

data and/or information with business partners to
improve supply-chain visibility and transparency
(% of respondents)

43 As needed

25 On a regular basis

In real time on a
16 continuous basis

15 Never

1 Not sure

Source: Economist Impact survey

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Building trust in business partnerships
 Section 04: What progress have companies made on building trust?

What progress have

companies made on
building trust?

Companies are not coming to the issue of improving

trust from a standing start. We found widespread
awareness of several strategies that were commonly
understood to bolster trust and many executives had
already engaged in deepening relationships with business
partners: adopting new technology to facilitate data
and information sharing, increasing the evaluation and
monitoring of business partners, and adopting new
technology to facilitate contractual obligation fulfilment
are the top three most popular practices (Figure 4).
Given the adoption of concepts such as just-in-time
manufacturing and holding low levels of inventory, firms
recognise that the efficiency savings offered by these
processes are only realised if their partners along the
supply chain are committed and trustworthy. Those
that emerged in the strongest shape from the acute
phase of the pandemic, for example, are often those
that had put a prior emphasis on developing trust.

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5 Economist Impact interview with Isabel Cane, January 2022 Building trust in business partnerships
 Section 04

Figure 4. Company practices to establish trust and eliminate uncertainty in business relationships
(% of respondents)

Adopt new technology to facilitate data and information exchange with external partners
53
Increase evaluation and monitoring of business partners (eg, suppliers, vendors)
49

Adopt new technology to facilitate contractual obligation fulfillment

44

Include strategic partners in long-term planning

39

Establish a dedicated team or resources responsible for regulatory reporting

39

Align sustainability targets and goals with overall business strategy

39

Require business partners to undergo third-party evaluation to assess compliance

36

Develop standard criteria for evaluating suppliers and vendors

34

Hire employees with the relevant skillset/experience

27
Adopt or update supply chain management technology
27
Adopt new technology to increase automation
26

Source: Economist Impact survey

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Building trust in business partnerships
 Section 04: What progress have companies made on building trust?

Firms are already aware of the need to build trust with Other firms are taking steps to strengthen the visibility they
their business partners through improving their supply- have over their supply chains so that they can be more
chain visibility and transparency. (We define transparency confident in the promises they make to their customers.
as the ability and willingness to share supply-chain data Almost half (49%) of respondents said that they had increased
with partners, shareholders and consumers.) Seventy assessments of business partners. Meanwhile, 36% had
percent of our survey respondents had identified improving required their partners to undergo third-party evaluation to
supply-chain transparency as a high or business-critical measure their compliance and a similar proportion (34%)
priority for their organisation, while almost three-quarters had developed standard criteria for analysing partners.
(73%) believed that it had become even more important A US technology firm, Hewlett Packard, has responded
to their senior leadership over the past two years. to growing concerns about cybersecurity by tightening
both the security of the plants in which its servers are
Respondents confirmed that many have already begun manufactured, through steps such as background checks for
measures to improve their oversight. More than half (53%) employees, and its requirements for component suppliers.19
told us that their organisation had adopted new technology
Companies are also working to improve organisational
or digital tools to enable the greater sharing of data and
management, which our survey reveals is another
information with external partners. When deployed securely—
influential factor in building and maintaining levels of
enabling high levels of trust—it can be an effective tool.
trust. Around 40% of respondents said that their company
One example of how this can work in practice comes from
had aligned their approach to sustainability within
the food industry, where sharing real-time data about fresh
their overall business strategy, included their business
produce can help each member of the supply chain track

89
partners in their long-term planning and established a
its progress from farm to distributor, retailer and consumer. dedicated team for regulatory compliance (Figure 4).
It can also provide information on the producer’s location, Accordingly, 89% believed that it was important that their
% certification and temperature. A giant US retailer, Walmart,
ran a pilot programme in 2017 with IBM’s Food Trust Solution
business partners share their organisation’s values.

of surveyed to use blockchain to follow the progress of mangoes sold

executives believed in its stores along the supply chain. Noting the efficiency
that it was important of real-time information sharing, Walmart reported that
that their business “it took seven days for employees to locate the farm in
partners share their Mexico that grew the fruit… [but] with the blockchain the
organisation’s values. mangoes could be tracked in a matter of seconds.”18

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Building trust in business partnerships
 Section 05: How can firms do even better?

How can firms

do even better?

69
Executives in our survey reported that they feel their Similarly, business executives have yet to fully leverage
organisations are faring well on the issues that determine the power of contractual obligations for building and

% trust with their business partners. Around two-thirds

(64%) said they believed they were ahead of their peers
maintaining business trust. Among survey respondents,
83% agreed that setting contractual terms and
on supply-chain transparency. A similar figure reported conditions when entering a new partnership created
of surveyed the same for supply-chain visibility and 57% said trust between business partners, while 69% agreed that
executives agreed they were stronger than their rivals on ESG strategy. embedding ESG obligations into contracts with their
that embedding However, there is also widespread recognition that partners would be beneficial in supporting progress
ESG obligations into more could be done, especially on ESG compliance. towards their commitments in this area. Likewise,
contracts with their around two-thirds believed in terminating contracts
business partners Our survey identified a range of measures that most with suppliers that had differing views on ESG.
will be beneficial of our respondents believed were highly effective in
in supporting ESG supporting their organisation’s progress towards ESG goals Although there is consensus in these views, they are not
commitments. and commitments. Yet there was a wide gap between matched with action. Just a third had embedded ESG
the proportion that thought these measures would be obligations into contracts with their partners, while those
helpful and the proportion that had taken these steps. who had pulled the plug on a contract with a business
Seventy-five percent of respondents recommended partner over a lack of alignment on ESG was fractional, at
employing dedicated staff but only 15% had done so. 5%. That said, a Swedish-founded furniture manufacturer
Similarly, 72% thought of adopting new technology to and retailer, IKEA, demonstrates how companies can put
track progress or enable reporting processes, yet this their beliefs into practice. It has had a code of conduct,
was only used in 22% of the firms of the executives we known as IWAY, in place since 2000, which sets minimum
surveyed. Lastly, 70% believed in aligning ESG goals with standards for the firms that it works with across its value
overall business strategy, but only 43% had done so. chain, from supplying raw materials to building its stores
to delivering its products.20 The firm monitors compliance
with IWAY through a range of audits, outlined in contracts
with their suppliers, and conducted by IKEA or third parties.

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 Section 06: Conclusion

Conclusion
Trust is becoming an increasingly valued attribute
among businesses. The pandemic has served to
increase the importance of trust within close working
relationships because of the level of unpredictability
in the global economy and volatile changes to supply
and demand. Meanwhile, ESG compliance is emerging
as an area that builds customer loyalty while delivering
trust in business relationships, ultimately boosting the
bottom line. Companies are therefore doing more to
cultivate how their partners and customers perceive
the trustworthiness of their brand and, at the same
time, putting more attention towards working with
other firms considered to be similarly trustworthy.

Several areas have emerged in which firms are

concentrating their efforts. These include improving the
visibility and transparency of their supply chain, embedding
ESG requirements into contracts with their partners and
hiring dedicated staff to ensure their own ESG compliance.
These steps will enhance reported levels of trust, but
only if intention is followed by action. Considerable
gaps remain between organisations acknowledging
the importance of these areas and those going ahead
and investing in them. By closing these caps, firms will
become more resilient when the next crisis hits.

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Building trust in business partnerships
Endnotes
1. Fink, Larry, “The Power of Capitalism”, BlackRock, January 2022, https://www.blackrock.com/corporate/investor-relations/larry-fink-ceo-letter
2. Mayer, Roger C, et al, “An Integrative Model of Organizational Trust”, The Academy of Management Review, vol. 20, no. 3,
Academy of Management, 1995, pp. 709–34, https://doi.org/10.2307/258792
3. “Edelman Trust Barometer 2020”, Edelman, June 2021,
https://www.edelman.com/sites/g/files/aatuss191/files/2020-01/2020%20Edelman%20Trust%20Barometer%20Global%20Report_LIVE.pdf
4. Economist Impact interview with Natalie Doyle Oldfield, December 2021
5. Economist Impact interview with Isabel Cane, January 2022
6. Economist Impact interview with Natalie Doyle Oldfield, December 2021
7. “Edelman Trust Barometer Special Report: In Brands We Trust?”, Edelman, June 2019,
https://www.edelman.com/research/trust-barometer-special-report-in-brands-we-trust
8. Zak, Paul J, “The Neuroscience of Trust”, Harvard Business Review, 31st August 2021, https://hbr.org/2017/01/the-neuroscience-of-trust
9. Economist Impact interview with Natalie Doyle Oldfield, December 2021
10. Bailey, Robert, and Angela Ferguson, “ESG as a Workforce Strategy”, Marsh McLennan, 2020,
https://www.marshmclennan.com/insights/publications/2020/may/esg-as-a-workforce-strategy.html
11. Dai, Rui, et al, “Socially Responsible Corporate Customers.” ScienceDirect, January 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfineco.2020.01.003
12. Järvinen, Markus, and Minna Branders. “Contracts As Trust Builders”. Journal Of Trust Research, vol 10, no. 1, 2020, pp. 46-65. Informa UK Limited,
https://doi.org/10.1080/21515581.2019.1705844.
13. Thomson, Olivia, “Germany’s New Supply Chain Due Diligence Act: What You Need to Know”, Sedex, July 2021,
https://www.sedex.com/germanys-new-supply-chain-due-diligence-act-what-you-need-to-know/
14. “Corporate Sustainability Reporting”, European Commission, September 2021,
https://ec.europa.eu/info/business-economy-euro/company-reporting-and-auditing/company-reporting/corporate-sustainability-reporting_en
15. Uhrynuk, Mark, et al, “India Imposes New ESG Reporting Requirements on Top 1,000 Listed Companies”, Eye on ESG, June 2021,
https://www.eyeonesg.com/2021/06/india-imposes-new-esg-reporting-requirements-on-top-1000-listed-companies/
16. Kathpalia, Vivek, “ESG, a New Value Creator”, The National Law Review, July 2021, https://www.natlawreview.com/article/esg-new-value-creator
17. Economist Impact interview with Allan Jorgensen, December 2021
18. Corkery, Michael, and Nathaniel Popper, “From Farm to Blockchain: Walmart Tracks Its Lettuce”, The New York Times, 24th September 2018,
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/24/business/walmart-blockchain-lettuce.html.
19. Strategy, Moor Insights, “Digging Deeper on HPE’s Latest Security Announcements”, Forbes Magazine, 1st October 2020,
https://www.forbes.com/sites/moorinsights/2020/10/01/digging-deeper-on-hpes-latest-security-announcements/?sh=49bed9854832
20. IKEA, IWAY – IKEA Supplier Requirements, September 2020, https://about.ikea.com/en/work-with-us/for-suppliers/iway-our-supplier-code--of-conduct

A deeper understanding:
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Building trust in business partnerships