B.

6 “GOOD” DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND WELDING PRACTICES TO

ENHANCE FATIGUE PERFORMANCE

B.6.1 Introduction
As stated in Section B.2, structural details that are non-critical need only be subject to
good design and fabrication practice to eliminate fatigue cracking. This section provides an
overview of such good practice. The reader is referred to standard ship design and construction
references [e.g., Ref. B.9, B.10] for further reading.
Fatigue cracks in steel ship structures are commonly initiated at weld toes. These cracks
are primarily due to the presence of an initial crack-like defect, a notch or flaw that is also subject
to stress concentrations due to the local weld, and the surrounding structural geometry. The
presence of welding and assembly residual stresses further promotes the initiation of fatigue
cracks. Accordingly, steps should be taken at both the design and construction stages to
minimize these influences, such measures being beneficial in enhancing the fatigue performance
of the affected welds and therefore, of the ship structure.

B.6.2 Detail Design

Because the structural designer responsible for the fatigue performance of a structure may
not be directly involved in the generation of the final fabrication structural drawings, the higher
level, or guidance, drawings must indicate clearly what the assumed or required fabrication
tolerances are. Failure to transmit the important fatigue design data to the fabricator will greatly
reduce the value of much of the process described herein.
An overall goal of good design practice is to minimize stress concentrations. Stress
concentrations occur at the intersection of primary structural members (deck, shell and
longitudinal girders) with other primary structural members, and with secondary structural
members (decks, bulkheads and their stiffeners, etc.). Primary members should be arranged to
ensure effective continuity of strength, and abrupt changes of depth or section should be avoided.
Where members abut on both sides of a bulkhead or other members, proper alignment should be
ensured. Members should have sufficient lateral stability and web stiffening and the structure
should be arranged to minimize “hard-spots” and other sources of stress concentrations.
Members should have sufficient end fixity, through end brackets or equivalent structure, in order
to provide sufficient restraint against rotation and displacement and to provide an effective load
transfer mechanism.
Secondary members are generally connected at their ends. Where a longitudinal
strength member is cut at a primary support and brackets provide the strength continuity, the
bracket scantlings are to be such that the section modulus and effective cross-sectional area are
not less than those of the strength member.
Where openings are to be used, a generous radius should be provided. For large hatch
openings, a corner radius equal to 1/24 of the hatch width, with a minimum radius of 300 mm,
should be used. If the radius must be minimized in order to reduce lost space, appropriate
compensation measures must be taken. Elliptical profiles are also being used more frequently for
hatch corners, large drain holes, etc., as they provide a more favourable stress flow pattern than
radial cuts. For small openings, a radius of 150 mm is generally used.

Fatigue-Resistant Detail Design Guide for Ship Structures B-89

 Since there are always stress concentrations around large discontinuities (doors or
hatchways), efforts should be made to avoid lower fatigue design category weld joints (insert
plates, fillet welds, drain holes, etc.) in the vicinity of large openings.
For openings in the webs of stiffeners, the depth of the opening should not exceed 25%
of the web depth. In addition, the opening should ideally be located such that the edges are not
less than 35-40% of the web depth from the face plate. The length of the opening should not
exceed the web depth or 60% of the secondary member spacing, whichever is greater, and the
ends of the openings should be equidistant from the corners of cut-outs for secondary members.
Cut-outs for the passage of secondary members should be designed to minimize stress
concentrations. The breadth of the cut-out should be kept as small as practicable and the top
edge should be rounded, or the corner radii made as large as possible. The direct connection of
the penetrated web plating, or the scantlings of lugs or collars, should be sufficient for the
transmission of lateral loads from the secondary member.
The exceptions to the above Guidelines are the cut-outs, or “ lightening holes”, in double
bottom floor plates and webs where the wide plate web with large cut-out is an improved
alternative to simple stiffeners on the two adjacent structures (e.g., inner and outer shell).
Insert plates, typically used as reinforcement at the corner of a large opening, should be
incorporated into the deck or shell plating. Thick insert plates should be avoided due to their
restraint against weld shrinkage that leads to weld cracks. If necessary, transition strakes should
be inserted to smooth the change in thickness. Doubler plates should be avoided.
Another form of restraint and discontinuity develops when a rigid member abruptly
terminates at the midspan of a flexible plate panel. This creates a hard spot (stress concentration)
in the plate panel, and it is recommended that the terminating rigid member be extended and
tapered to the end of the plate panel.
For the intersection of two planes (i.e., longitudinal bulkhead and deck) where a primary
stress is transferred from one plane to the other, long connection brackets are recommended to
ensure a smooth transfer of stress between the planes.
The toes of brackets, etc., should not land on unstiffened plate panels and the toes should
be concave or tapered.
The use of scallops should be avoided where possible. However, scallops are regularly
used where a groove weld of a stiffener or girder is made after the members have been assembled
in place. Scallops are not recommended for stiffening members, girders or bilge keels in way of
completed shell or deck butts; rather it is recommended that the weld reinforcement be removed
where crossed by the stiffener, girder or bilge keel.

B.6.3 Construction and Welding Practice

Sound construction and welding practice encompasses various aspects such as control of
assembly and fabrication tolerances, selection of joint design, good workmanship, optimum
welding sequence, etc. The welded cruciform joint with load carrying fillet welds is frequently
required in ship fabrication. The fatigue life of such a joint can be drastically reduced by the
presence of misalignment between the load carrying members which are welded to the
continuous member of the joint.

Fatigue-Resistant Detail Design Guide for Ship Structures B-90

The fit-up tolerances typically limit the maximum allowable misalignment, Me, to ts/3 (max. 5
mm), where t is the continuous plate thickness and M is measured from the centrelines of the
intersecting plates (see Figure B.6.3.1). The decrease in fatigue life is proportional to M and
therefore, it is highly desirable to minimize the misalignment.

ts
Me

Continuous
Member

Figure B.6.3.1: Maximum Welded Cruciform Joint Misalignment

Misalignment between two groove-welded members is also detrimental to fatigue life.

Codes and Standards have recognized this and generally limit the maximum misalignment to
10% of the thickness of the thinner member, but no more than 3 mm. For the same reason,
where the difference in plate thickness is greater than 3 mm, the thicker plate should be tapered
(not exceeding 1 in 3) or bevelled to form the welded joint. Where the difference is less than 3
mm, the transition may be achieved within the width of the weld.
Lap connections are typically not used to connect plates that may be subjected to high
tensile or compressive loading. When lap connections are used, the width of the overlap is not to
exceed four times nor be less than three times the thickness of the thinner plate.
Fillet welds are typically used for T-connections and should be on both sides of the
abutting plate. Where the connection is highly stressed, deep penetration or full penetration
welds may be required.
As far as weld joint design is concerned, it is well recognised that fatigue cracks are
relatively easily initiated in transversely loaded partial penetration groove welds and therefore,
full penetration groove welds must be specified when cyclic loading is present. Similarly,
transversely loaded full penetration groove welds made from one side on to a steel backing strip
have a far lower fatigue performance compared to similar welds made from both sides.
However, the ad hoc use of a backing strip to address the problems associated with too large a
root gap during assembly may adversely affect the fatigue strength of the welded joint.
When it comes to member fit-up for fillet welds, it is customary to aim for as small a gap
as possible between the two members. For gaps exceeding 1.6 mm, the required fillet leg length
is increased to compensate for the increased gap. At the same time, there is some evidence that a
gap of 1.5 to 2 mm influences the weld residual stresses in such a way that fatigue performance is
enhanced, provided that the joint restraint is low, i.e., the attaching member is free to move in
response to weld shrinkage [Ref. B.11]. Under such circumstances, a 1.5 mm gap is ideal.

Fatigue-Resistant Detail Design Guide for Ship Structures B-91

 Weld shape is another important factor influencing the fatigue performance of the
welded joint. In fillet welds, a slightly convex or slightly concave weld profile is desired.
Excessive convexity is detrimental from a fatigue point of view and is limited in fabrication
codes.
In the case of butt joints, weld reinforcement and undercut are important
considerations. Excessive weld reinforcement increases the stress concentration at the weld toe
and therefore the maximum allowable reinforcement in fabrication codes is typically 3.2 mm
with the weld smoothly blending into the base metal. Undercut, which is defined as a groove or
notch formed in the base metal adjacent to the weld toe, can seriously reduce the fatigue life of
the welded joint. Formed as a result of incorrect selection of welding parameters or welding
consumables, or lack of welder skill, the fabrication codes generally specify smaller allowable
undercut for dynamically loaded structures. For example, Reference B.12 allows a maximum
undercut of 0.25 mm in critical members when the weld is transverse to the applied stress.
Otherwise, the maximum allowed undercut is 0.8 mm (1/32”). In comparison, for statically
loaded structures, the undercut is generally limited to a depth of 1 mm, and for short lengths, the
allowable undercut may be as high as 1.6 mm.
Longitudinal welds generally have good fatigue performance. However, the presence of
starts and stops which are not ground out, or breaks in the backing strip (unwelded joint in
backing strip) in the case of welds made from one side, significantly reduce the fatigue strength
of the weld.
Where stiffening members are continuously fillet welded across completely finished
butt or seam welds, the butt welds are to be made flush. Similarly for the butt welds in the webs
of stiffening members, the butt weld is to be completed and generally made flush with the
stiffening member before the fillet weld is made.
Other welding flaws such as hydrogen-induced cold cracks in the heat affected zone,
solidification cracks in the weld metal, incomplete root penetration in welds made from one side
but without a backing strip, etc., are other likely sites for fatigue crack initiation. Embedded
flaws such as slag inclusions and porosity are relatively benign for fatigue unless present in
excessive amounts.

B.6.4 Residual Stresses

Residual stresses in steel ships can be considered to be composed of two components:
short range weld thermal residual stresses and long range assembly and restraint stresses. The
short range weld thermal residual stresses result in high levels of tensile stresses that approach
the yield strength of the base metal. These residual stresses, which are always present and are
difficult to control or modify, can reduce the fatigue strength of the welded joint. However,
through careful attention to fit-up tolerances and welding sequences, the long range assembly and
restraint stresses can be reduced. If the members to be welded need to be jacked or bent in order
to achieve the correct alignment, bending stresses will be introduced into the structure and these
can contribute to fatigue crack initiation. Once cracking is initiated, these stresses tend to relax.
In terms of welding sequence, it should be so arranged that as welding progresses, the members
retain as much freedom to move as possible.

Fatigue-Resistant Detail Design Guide for Ship Structures B-92

Reference B.9 provides recommendations for welding sequence for butts and seams, with and
without internal framing, and for large sub-assembled plate panels. Another approach is to
commence welding in the deck and bottom regions and progress towards the neutral axis of the
ship. The restraint stresses will then be high near the neutral axis where the applied stresses are
lower.

B.6.5 Weld Toe Dressing Treatments

Finally, it should be added, that in certain situations it may not be possible to avoid
relatively inferior fatigue design details, or the structural detail may involve high stress
concentrations. In these situations, fatigue crack initiation is deemed unavoidable at the design
stage. In such circumstances, one could consider weld toe dressing treatments such as hammer
or shot peening, toe grinding, TIG remelting, etc. Further information on the benefits and costs
of such techniques are covered in Reference B.13.

Fatigue-Resistant Detail Design Guide for Ship Structures B-93

B.8 REFERENCES
[B.1] Ma, K-T., “Tanker Inspection and a Risk-Based approach”, Proceedings of the 8th ISOPE,
Montreal, 1998.
[B.2] Ma, K-T., and Bea, R. G., “Ship Maintenance Project, Phases II and III, Vol. 3, Repair
Management System for Critical Structural Details in Ships”, SSC 395, 1997.
[B.2] “ShipRight - Fatigue Design Assessment Procedure - Structural Detail Design Guide”,
January 1996: Lloyd's Register of Shipping, London.
[B.3] “Guidelines for Surveys, Assessment and Repair of Hull Structure - Bulk Carriers”, IACS,
1994.
[B.4] “Structural Practices Standard for Canadian Forces - Steel Surface Ships”, D-03-002-
008/SG-003, Canadian Department of National Defense DSE, 1993.
[B.5] Germanischer Lloyd, “Rules and Regulations, 1 - Ship Technology, Part 1 - Seagoing
Ships, Chapter 1 - Hull Structures, Hamburg, 1992.
[B.6] Det Norske Veritas, “Rules for Classification of Steel Ships”, DnV Classification A/S,
Norway, 1991.
[B.7] Lloyd’s Register, “Rules and Regulations for the Classification of Ships: Part 3 - Ship
Structure”, 1996.
[B.8] American Bureau of Shipping, Rules for Building and Classing Steel Vessels, 1996.
[B.9] “Guide for Steel Hull Welding”: American Welding Society ANSI/AWS D3.5
[B.10] “Ship Design and Construction”: Taggart: SNAME 1980
[B.11] Johansson, B.G., Kjellander, S.L., and Leide, N.G., “Is it good enough? A study of
tolerances for welded ship structures”, Fitness for Purpose Validation of Welded
Constructions, International Conference, London, UK, 17-19 November, 1981, pp6-1 to
pp6-11.
[B.12] AASHTO 1994. LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, SI Units, First Edition, American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC
[B.13] Kirkhope, K.J., Bell, R., Caron, L, and Basu, R.I., “Weld Detail Fatigue Life
Improvement Techniques”, SSC Report 400, Ship Structure Committee, 1997.

Fatigue-Resistant Detail Design Guide for Ship Structures B-94