Notes Ppe 16 17

UNIT 1
STEAM POWER PLANT

CONTENTS
1.1 Steam Power Plant

1.1.1 Fuel Handling System
1.1.2 pulverized Coal Storage
1.2 Ash Handling System:
1.3 Draught
1.4 Surface Condenser
1.5 Cooling Towers
Objectives:
 Basic knowledge of Different types of Power Plants, site selection criteria of each one of them.
 Understanding of Thermal Power Plant Operation, turbine governing, different types of high pressure
boilers including supercritical and supercharged boilers, Fluidized bed combustion systems.
 Design of chimney in thermal power plants, knowledge of cooling tower operation, numerical on surface
condenser design.
 Basic knowledge of Different types of Nuclear power plants including Pressurized water reactor, Boiling
water reactor, gas cooled reactor, liquid metal fast breeder reactor.
1.1 STEAM POWER PLANT
A thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam driven. Water is heated, turns
into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator. After it passes through the turbine, the
steam is condensed in a condenser and recycled to where it was heated; this is known as a Rankine cycle. The
greatest variation in the designs of thermal power stations is due to the different fuel sources. Some prefer to use
the term energy center because such facilities convert forms of heat energy into electricity. Some thermal power
plants also deliver heat energy for industrial purposes, for district heating, or for desalination of water as well as
delivering electric al power. A large proportion of CO2 is prod used by the worlds fossil fired thermal power
plants; efforts to reduce these outputs are various and widespread.
Coal needs to be stored at various stages of the preparation process, and conveyed around the CPP
facilities. Coal handling is part of the larger field of bulk
Material handling, and is a complex and vital part of the CPP.
1.1.1 FUEL HANDLING SYSTEM
Coal delivery equipment is one of the major components of plant cost. The various steps involved in
coal handling are as follows:
1. Coal delivery.
2. Unloading
3. Preparation
4. Transfer
5. Outdoor storage
6. Covered storage
7. Implant handling
8. Weighing and measuring
9. Feeding the coal into furnace
i) Coal delivery
The coal from supply points is delivered by ships or boats to power stations situated near to sea or
river whereas coal is supplied by rail or trucks to the power stations which are situated away from sea or
river. The transportation of coal by trucks is used if the railway facilities are not available.
ii) Unloading
The type of equipment to be used for unloading the coal received at the power station depends on
how coal is received at the power station. If coal delivered by trucks, there is no need of unloading device as
the trucks may dump the coal to the outdoor storage. Coal is easily handled if the lift trucks with scoop are
used. In case the coal is brought by railways wagons, ships or boats, the unloading may be done by car
shakes, rotary car dumpers, cranes, grab buckets and coal accelerators. Rotary car dumpers although costly
are quite efficient for unloading closed wagons.
(iii) Preparation
When the coal delivered is in the form of big lumps and it is not of proper size, the preparation
(sizing) of coal can be achieved by crushers, breakers, sizers, driers and magnetic separators.
iv)Transfer
After preparation coal is transferred to the dead storage by means of the following systems.
1. Belt conveyors
2. Screw conveyors
3. Bucket elevators
4. Grab bucket elevators
5. Skip hoists
6. Flight conveyor
Belt Conveyor
Figure shows a belt conveyor. It consists of an endless belt moving over a pair of end drums (rollers).
At some distance a supporting roller is provided at the centre. The belt is made up of rubber or canvas. Belt
conveyor is suitable for the transfer of coal over long distances. It is used in medium and large power plants.
The initial cost of system is not high and power consumption is also low. The inclination at which coal can
be successfully elevated by belt conveyor is about 20. Average speed preferred than other types.
2. Screw Conveyor
It consists of an endless helicoid screw fitted to a shaft (figure). The screw while rotating in a trough
transfers the coal from feeding end to the discharge end.
This system is suitable, where coal is to be transferred over shorter distance and space limitations
exist.The initial cost of the consumption is high and there is considerable wear o screw. Rotation of screw
varies between 75-125 r.p.m
3. Bucket elevator
It consists of buckets fixed to a chain (figure). The chain moves over two wheels. The coal is carried
by the bucket from bottom and discharged at the top.
4. Grab bucket elevator

It lifts and transfers coal on a single rail or track from one point to the other. The coal lifted by grab
buckets is transferred to overhead bunker or storage. This system requires less power for operation and
requires minimum maintenance.
The grab bucket conveyor can be used with crane or tower as shown in figure . Although the initial
cost of this system is high but operating cost is less.
Storage of Coal
It is desirable that sufficient quantity of coal should be stored.Storage of coal gives protection against
the interruption of coal supplies when there is delay in transportation of coal or due to strike in coal mines.
Also when the prices are low, the coal can be purchased and stored for future use.
The amount of coal to be stored depends on the availability of space for storage, transportation
facilities, the amount of coal that will whether away and nearness to coal mines of the power station. Usually
coal required for one month operation of power plant is stored in case of power stations is situated at longer
distance from the collieries whereas coal need for about 15 days is stored in case of power station situated
near to collieries. Storage of coal for longer periods is not advantageous because it blocks the capital and
results in deterioration of the quality of coal.
1.1.2PULVERIZED COAL STORAGE
Periodically a power plant may encounter the situation where coal must be stored for sometimes in a
bunker, for instance during a plant shut down. The bunker, fires can occur in dormant pulverized coal from
spontaneous heating within 6 day of loading. This time can be extended to 13 days when a blanket of CO2 is
piped into the top of the bunker. The perfect sealing of the bunker from air leakage can extend the storage
time as two months or more. The coal in the bunker can be stored as long as six months by expelling air from
above the coal with the use of CO2 and then blanketing of all sources of air. A control system used for
storing the pulverized fuel in bunker is shown in figure.
Pulverized Fuel Handling System:
Two methods are in general use to feed the pulverized fuel to the combustion chamber of the power
plant. First is ‘Unit System’ and second is ‘Central or Bin System ‘.
In unit system, each burner of the plant is fired by one or more pulverizers connected to the burners,
while in the central system, the fuel is pulverized in the central plant and then disturbed to each furnace with
the help of high pressure air current. Each type of fuel handling system consists of crushers, magnetic
separators, driers, pulverizing mills, storage bins, conveyors and feeders.
1.1.3 Ball Mill

A line diagram of ball mill using two classifiers is shown in figure. It consists of a slowly rotating
drum which is partly filled with steel balls. Raw coal from feeders is supplied to the classifiers from where it
moves to the drum by means of a screw conveyor. As the drum rotates the coal get pulverized due to the
combine impact between coal and steel balls. Hot air is introduced into the drum. The powdered coal is
picked up by the air and the coal air mixture enters the classifiers, where sharp changes in the direction of the
mixture throw out the oversized coal particles. The over-sized particles are returned to the drum. The coal air
mixture from the classifier moves to the exhauster fan and then it is supplied to the burners.
1.1.3 Ball And Race Mills
In this mill the coal passes between the rotating elements again and again until it has been pulverized
to desired degree of fineness. The coal is crushed between two moving surfaces, namely, balls and races. The
upper stationary race and lower rotating race driven by a worm and gear hold the balls between them. The
raw coal supplied falls on the inner side of the races. The moving balls and races catch coal between them to
crush it to a powder. The necessary force needed for crushing is applied with the help of springs. The hot air
supplied picks up the coal dust as it flows between the balls and races and then enters the classifier. Where
oversized coal particles are returned for further grinding.
1.2 ASH HANDLING SYSTEM:

Boilers burning pulverized coal (PC) have bottom furnaces. The large ash particles are
collected under the furnace in a water-filled ash hopper, Fly ash is collected in dust collectors with either an
electrostatic precipitator or a baghouse. A PC boiler generates approximately 80% fly ash and 20% bottom
ash. Ash must be collected and transported from various points of the plants as shown in figure. Pyrites,
which are the rejects from the pulverizers, are disposed of with the bottom ash system. Three major factors
should be considered for ash disposal systems.
1. Plant site
2. Fuel source
3. Environmental regulation
Needs for water and land are important considerations for many ash handling systems. Ash quantities to
be disposed of depend on the king of fuel source. Ash storage and disposal sites are guided by environmental
regulations.
1.2.1 Ash Handling Equipment:
Mechanical means are required for the disposal of ash. The handling equipment should perform the
following functions: 1. Capital investment, operating and maintenance charges of the equipment should be
low. 2. It should be able to handle large quantities of ash. 3. Clinkers, shoot, dust etc. create troubles.The
equipment should be able to handle them smoothly.4. The equipment used should remove the ash from the
furnace, load it to the conveying system to deliver the ash to dumping site or storage and finally it should
have means to dispose of the stored ash. 5. The equipment should be corrosion and wear resistant.
Hydraulic System
In this system, ash from the furnace grate falls into a system of water possessing high velocity and is
carried to the sumps. It is generally used in large power plants. Hydraulic system is of two types, namely,
low pressure hydraulic system used for intermittent ash disposal figure. Figure shows hydraulic system.
Water-Jetting System
Water jetting of ash is shown in figure. In this method a low pressure jet of water coming out of
quenching nozzle is used to cool the ash. The ash falls into trough and is then removed.
Pneumatic System
In this system ash from the boiler furnace outlet falls into a crusher where a lager ash particles are
crushed to small sizes. The ash is then carried by a high velocity air or steam to the point of delivery. Air
leaving the ash separator is passed through filter to remove dust etc. The exhauster handles clean air which
will protect the blades of the exhauster.
Mechanical system
Figure shows a mechanical ash handling system.

In this system ash cooled by water seal falls on the belt conveyor and is carried out
continuously to the bunker.
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru

LAYOUT OF STEAM POW ER PLANT:
Fig-1 Layout of Steam Power Plant
The four main circuits one would come across in any thermal power plant layout are
1. Coal and Ash Circuit

2. Air and Gas Circuit
3. Feed Water and Steam Circuit
4. Cooling Water Circuit

Coal and Ash circuit in a thermal power plant layout mainly takes care of feeding the
boiler with coal from the storage for combustion. The ash that is generated during combustion is
collected at the back of the boiler and removed to the ash storage by scrap conveyors. The
combustion in the Coal and Ash circuit is controlled by regulating the speed and the quality of
coal entering the grate and the damper openings.
Air from the atmosphere is directed into the furnace through the air preheated by the
action of a forced draught fan or induced draught fan. The dust from the air is removed before it
enters the combustion chamber of the thermal power plant layout. The exhaust gases from the
combustion heat the air, which goes through a heat exchanger and is finally let off into the
environment.
The steam produced in the boiler is supplied to the turbines to generate power. The steam
that is expelled by the prime mover in the thermal power plant layout is then condensed in a
condenser for re-use in the boiler. The condensed water is forced through a pump into the feed
water heaters where it is heated using the steam from different points in the turbine. To make up for
the lost steam and water while passing through the various components of the thermal power plant
layout, feed water is supplied through external sources. Feed water is purified in a purifying plant
to reduce the dissolve salts that could scale the boiler tubes.
4. Cooling Water Circuit
The quantity of cooling water required to cool the steam in a thermal power plant layout is
significantly high and hence it is supplied from a natural water source like a lake or a river. After
passing through screens that remove particles that can plug the condenser tubes in a thermal power
plant layout, it is passed through the condenser where the steam is condensed. The water is finally
discharged back into the water source after cooling. Cooling water circuit can also be a closed
system where the cooled water is sent through cooling towers for re-use in the power plant. The
cooling water circulation in the condenser of a thermal power plant layout helps in maintaining a
low pressure in the condenser all throughout.
All these circuits are integrated to form a thermal power plant layout that generates
electricity to meet our needs.
Functions of cooling towers:
Cooling Towers have one function:
Remove heat from the water discharged from the condenser so that the water can be
discharged to the river or recirculated and reused. 2.10.1 What is a Cooling Tower A cooling
tower extracts heat from water by evaporation. In an evaporative cooling tower, a small portion
of the water being cooled is allowed to evaporate into a moving air stream to provide significant
cooling to the rest of that water stream. Cooling Towers are commonly used to provide lower
than ambient water temperatures and are more cost effective and energy efficient than most
other alternatives. The smallest cooling towers are structured for only a few litres of water per
minute while the largest cooling towers may handle upwards of thousands of litres per minute.
The pipes are obviously much larger to accommodate this much water in the larger towers and
can range up to 12 inches in diameter. 2.10.2 How Cooling Towers Work When water is reused
in the process, it is pumped to the top of the cooling tower and will then flow down through
plastic or wood shells, much like a honeycomb found in a bee‟s nest. The water will emit heat
as it is downward flowing which mixes with the above air flow, which in turn cools the water.
Part of this water will also evaporate, causing it to lose even more heat. 68 Power Plant
Engineering 2.10.3 Types of Cooling Towers One way to distinguish between cooling towers is
how the air and water interact, open cooling towers or closed cooling towers. Open cooling
towers, also called direct cooling towers, allow the water to come into contact with outside air.
If cooled water is returned from the cooling tower to be used again, some water must be added
to replace the water that has been lost. Pollutants are able to enter into the water used in these
processes and must be filtered out. Another method of combating the excess minerals and
pollutants is some means of a dissolved solid control, such as a blow down. With this, a small
percentage of the flow is drained off to aid in the removal of these contaminants. This is fairly
effective, but not as efficient as filtration. Closed loop (or closed circuit) cooling tower systems,
also called indirect cooling tower systems, do not allow the water to come into contact with any
outside substance, therefore keeping the water more pure due to the lack of foreign particles
introduced. Another classification of cooling towers is made between field assembled towers
and factory assembled towers. Field assembled towers are shipped in pieces and assembled on
site by a highly qualified and certified installation team. Factory assembled towers typically
only require the fan motor to be mounted. 2.10.4 Natural Draft Towers Natural draft towers are

typically about 120 m high, depending on the differential pressure between the cold outside air
and the hot humid air on the inside of the tower as the driving force. No fans are used. Whether
the natural or mechanical draft towers are used depends on climatic and operating requirement
conditions. The green flow paths show how the warm water leaves the plant proper, is pumped
to the natural draft cooling tower and is distributed.
The cooled water, including makeup from the lake to account for evaporation losses to
the atmosphere, is returned to the condenser. Mechanical Draft Mechanical draft towers uses
fans (one or more) to move large quantities of air through the tower. They are two different
classes : (a) Forced draft cooling towers (b) Induced draft cooling towers The air flow in either
class may be cross flow or counter flow with respect to the falling water. Cross flow indicates
that the airflow is horizontal in the filled portion of the tower while counter flow means the air
flow is in the opposite direction of the falling water. The counter flow tower occupies less floor
space than a cross flow tower but is taller for a given capacity. The principle advantages of the
cross flow tower are the low pressure drop in relation to its capacity and lower fan power
requirement leading to lower energy costs. All mechanical towers must be located so that the
discharge air diffuses freely without recirculation through the tower, and so that air intakes are
not restricted. Cooling towers should be located as near as possible to the refrigeration systems
they serve, but should never be located below them so as to allow the condenser water to drain
out of the system through the tower basin when the system is shut down. Forced Draft The
forced draft tower, has the fan, basin, and piping located within the tower structure. In this
model, the fan is located at the base. There are no louvered exterior walls. Instead, the structural
steel or wood framing is covered with paneling made of aluminum, galvanized steel, or asbestos
cement boards. 69 Steam Power Plant Figure 2.37 : Mechanical Draft During operation, the fan
forces air at a low velocity horizontally through the packing and then vertically against the
downward flow of the water that occurs on either side of the fan. The drift eliminators located at
the top of the tower remove water entrained in the air. Vibration and noise are minimal since the
rotating equipment is built on a solid foundation. The fans handle mostly dry air, greatly
reducing erosion and water condensation problems. Induced Draft The induced draft tower
show in the following picture has one or more fans, located at the top of the tower, that draw air
upwards against the downward flow of water passing around the wooden decking or packing.
Since the airflow is counter to the water flow, the coolest water at the bottom is in contact with
the driest air while the warmest water at the top is in contact with the moist air, resulting in
increased heat transfer rate.

Advantages
1. Generation of power is continuous.
2. Initial cost low compared to hydel plant.
3. Less space required.
4. This can be located near the load centre so that the transmission losses are reduced.
5. It can respond to rapidly changing loads.
Disadvantages
1. Long time required for installation.
2. Transportation and handling of fuels major difficulty.
3. Efficiency of plant is less.
4. Power generation cost is high compared to hydel power plant.
5. Maintenance cost is high.
OUTCOMES
 Select the suitability of site for a power plant.

 Calculate performance of thermal power plant.
 Indicate safety aspects of power plants
SELF TEST QUESTIONS
 What is a super-heater? What are its types?

 Describe any one of them.
 What is a feed water heater? Explain its advantages.
 What is a furnace? What are its types?
 Explain advantages and disadvantages of different types of furnaces.
FURTHER READING
 Principles of Energy Conversion, A.W. Culp Jr., McGraw Hill. 1996

 Power Plant Technology, M.M. EL-Wakil, McGraw Hill, International. 1994
 Power Station Engg. Economics, Skrotizke and V opat. 1994
 Power Plant Engineering, Domakundawar, Dhanpath Rai sons.2003

UNIT - 2
COAL, ASH HANDLING AND DIFFERENT TYPES OF BOILERS
STRUCTURE
2.1 Coal and Ash handling
2.2 Generation of steam using forced circulation
3.3 High and supercritical pressures
3.4 A brief account of LaMount
3.5 Benson Boiler
3.6 Velox Boiler
3.7 Schmidt Boiler
3.8 Loeffer Boiler
3.9 Ramson steam generators
Objectives that students will meet at the end of the course

 Describe sources of energy and types of power plants.
 Analyze different types of steam cycles and estimate efficiencies in a steam power
plant.
 Describe basic working principles of gas turbine and diesel engine power plants.
 Define the performance characteristics and components of such power plant
Boiler is an apparatus to produce steam. Thermal energy released by combustion of fuel is

transferred to water, which vaporizes and gets converted into steam at the desired
temperature and pressure.
The steam produced is used for:
1. Producing mechanical work by expanding it in steam engine or steam turbine.
2. Heating the residential and industrial buildings.
3. Performing certain processes in the sugar mills, chemical and textile industries.
Boiler is a closed vessel in which water is converted into steam by the application of heat.
Usually boilers are coal or oil fired.
A boiler should fulfill the following requirements;

1. Safety. The boiler should be safe under operating conditions.
2. Accessibility. The various parts of the boiler should be accessible for repair and
maintenance.
3. Capacity. The boiler should be capable of supplying steam according to the
requirements.
4. Efficiency. To permit efficient operation, the boiler should be able to absorb a
maximum amount of heat produced due to burning of fuel in the furnace.
5. It should be simple in construction and its maintenance cost should be low.
6. Its initial cost should be low.
7. The boiler should have no joints exposed to flames.
8. The boiler should be capable of quick starting and loading.
2.1 Classification of Boilers

The boilers can be classified according to the following criteria.
According to the flow of water and hot gases.
1. Water tube.
2. Fire tube.
In water tube boilers, water circulates through the tubes and hot products of combustion
flow over these tubes. In fire tube boiler the hot products of combustion pass through the
tubes, which are surrounded, by water.
Fire tube boilers have low initial cost, and are more compacts. But they are more likely
to explosion, water volume is large and due to poor circulation they cannot meet quickly the
change in steam demand. For the same output the outer shell of fire tube boilers is much
larger than the shell of water-tube boiler. Water tube boilers require less weight of metal for a
given size, are less liable to explosion, produce higher pressure, are accessible and can
response quickly to change in steam demand.
Tubes and drums of water-tube boilers are smaller than that of fire-tube boilers and due
to smaller size of drum higher pressure can be used easily. Water-tube boilers require lesser
floor space. The efficiency of water-tube boilers is more.
According to position of furnace.
(i) Internally fired (ii) Externally fired
In internally fired boilers the grate combustion chamber are enclosed within the boiler shell
whereas in case of extremely fired boilers and furnace and grate are separated from the boiler
shell.
According to the position of principle axis.
(i) Vertical (ii) Horizontal (iii) Inclined.
According to application.
(i) Stationary (ii) Mobile, (Marine, Locomotive).
According to the circulating water.
(i) Natural circulation (ii) Forced circulation.
According to steam pressure.
(i) Low pressure (ii) Medium pressure (iii) Higher pressure.
2.2 HIGH PRESSURE BOILERS
A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. The heated or
vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications.
In all modern power plants, high pressure boilers (> 100 bar) are universally used as
they offer the following advantages. In order to obtain efficient operation and high capacity,
forced circulation of water through boiler tubes is found helpful.
1. The efficiency and the capacity of the plant can be increased as reduced quantity of steam
is required for the same power generation if high pressure steam is used.
2. The forced circulation of water through boiler tubes provides freedom in the arrangement
of furnace and water walls, in addition to the reduction in the heat exchange area.
3. The tendency of scale formation is reduced due to high velocity of water.
4. The danger of overheating is reduced as all the parts are uniformly heated.
5. The differential expansion is reduced due to uniform temperature and this reduces the
possibility of gas and air leakages.
Superheater operation is similar to that of the coils on an air conditioning unit, although
for a different purpose. The steam piping is directed through the flue gas path in the boiler
furnace. The temperature in this area is typically between 1,300–1,600 degrees Celsius. While
the temperature of the steam in the superheater rises, the pressure of the steam does not. Almost all
the steam superheater systems are designed to remove droplets entrained in the steam to
prevent damage to the turbine blading and associated piping.
2.3 LA-MONT BOILER

It is a forced circulation- water tube boiler which was first introduced in 1925 by La
Mont.
The feed water from hot well is supplied to a storage and separating drum (boiler) through the
economizer. Most of the sensible heat is supplied to the feed water passing through the
economizer
The feed water from hot well is supplied to a storage and separating drum (boiler)
through the economizer. Most of the sensible heat is supplied to the feed water passing
through the economizer. A pump circulates the water at a rate 8 to 10 times the mass of steam
evaporated. This water is circulated through the evaporator tubes and the part of the vapour is
separated in the separator drum. The large quantity of water circulated (10 times that of
evaporation) prevents the tubes from being overheated.
The centrifugal pump delivers the water to the headers at a pressure of 2.5 bar above
the drum pressure. The distribution headers distribute the water through the nozzle into the
evaporator. The steam separated in the boiler is further passed through the super-heater.
To secure a uniform flow of feed water through each of the parallel boiler circuits a
choke is fitted entrance to each circuit. These boilers have been built to generate 45 to 50 tons
of superheated steam at a pressure of 120 bar and temperature of 500°C.
Important Components
1. Steam separating drum – The feed water from the hot well is stored in the drum. The
steam is separated from water in the drum and the steam is usually collected at the top
of the drum.
2. Circulating pump – Water from the steam separating drum is drawn by a circulating
pump and it circulates water through the evaporator tubes. Pump circulates water at a
rate of 8-10 times the mass of steam evaporated. Forced circulation is necessary to
prevent the overheating of tubes.
3. Distribution header – The distribution header distributes the water through the nozzle
into the evaporator.
4. Radiant evaporator – Water from the drum first enters the radiant evaporator through the
pump and header. The water is heated by the radiation heat from the combustion chamber.
In radiant evaporator, the hot flue gases do not pass over the water tubes.
5. Convective evaporator – The mixture of water and steam coming out from the
radiant evaporator enters the convective evaporator tubes. The hot flue gases passing
over the evaporator tubes transfer a large portion of heat to the water by convection.
Thus, water becomes steam and the steam enters to the steam separating drum.
6. Super heater – The steam from the steam separating drum enters the superheater
tubes where it is superheated by the hot flue gases passing over them. The superheated
steam then enters the steam turbine to develop power.
7. Economizer – The waste hot flue gases pass through the economizer where feed water
is pre-heated. By pre-heating the feed water, the amount of fuel required to convert
water into steam is reduced.
8. Air pre-heater – The hot flue gases then passes through the air pre-heater where the
air required for combustion is pre-heated.
Advantages
1. La-Mont boilers can generate 45 to 50 tons of superheated steam at a pressure of 120
bar and temperature of 500°C.
2. Drum is of small size.
3. Tendency of scale formation is eliminated due to forced circulation of water.
Disadvantages
1. Bubbles are formed on the inside of the water tubes and these bubbles reduce the heat
transfer rate.
2. Initial and operating costs are high.
3. Maintenance costs are very high.
2.4 BENSON BOILER (SUPERCRITICAL BOILER)
The main difficulty experienced in the La Mont boiler is the formation and attachment of
bubbles on the inner surfaces of the heating tubes. The attached bubbles reduce the heat flow
and steam generation as it offers higher thermal resistance compared to water film. Benson of
siemens- West Germany in 1922 argued that if the boiler pressure was raised to critical
pressure (225 atm.), the steam and water would have the same density and therefore the
danger of bubble formation can be completely removed.
Important Components
1. Economiser – The feed water from the well passes through the economiser where it is
pre-heated by the pre-heat of exhaust hot flue gases.
2. Radiant evaporator – The feed water after circulation through the economiser flows
through the radiant evaporator tubes. Water is heated up by the radiation heat from the
combustion chamber. Here, part of the water is converted to steam directly.
3. Convective evaporator – The mixture of water and steam coming out from the
radiant evaporator enters the convective evaporator tubes. The hot flue gases passing
over the evaporator tubes transfer a large portion of heat to the water by convection.
Thus, water becomes steam in the convective evaporator.
4. Superheater – The steam from the convective evaporator enters the superheater tubes
where it is superheated by the hot flue gases passing over them. The superheated
steam then enters the steam turbine to develop power.
5. Air pre-heater – The hot flue gases then passes through the air pre-heater where the
air required for combustion is pre-heated.
Advantages
1. As there is no drum, the total weight of Benson boiler is 20% less than other boilers.
This reduces the cost of the boiler.
2. Floor space requirements of Benson boiler are very less.
3. Transportation of Benson boiler parts and its erection is very easy as there are no drums.
4. Natural circulation boilers require expansion joints in pipes but the pipes in Benson
boilers are welded.
Disadvantages
1. As the Benson boiler operates at high pressure and temperature, special alloy materials
are required.
2. Maintenance costs are very high.
3. This is more efficient, resulting in slightly less fuel use.
1.10. FLUIDISED BED COMBUSTION (FBC)

Burning of pulverised coal has some problems such as particle size of coal used in
pulverized firing is limited to 70-100 microns, the pulverised fuel fired furnances designed to
burn a particular cannot be used other type of coal with same efficiency, the generation of high
temp. about (1650 C)in the furnace creates number of problems like slag formation on super
heater, evaporation of alkali metals in ash and its deposition on heat transfer surfaces, formation
of SO2 and NOX in large amount.
Fluidised Bed combustion system can burn any fuel including low grade coals (even
containing 70% ash), oil, gas or municipal waste. Improved desulphurisation and low NOX
emission are its main characteristics. The fuel and inert material dolomite are fed on a
distribution plate and air is supplied from the bottom of distribution plate. The air is supplied
at high velocity so that solid feed material remains in suspension condition during burning.
The heat produced is used to heat water flowing through the tube and convert water into
steam. During burning SO2 formed is absorbed by the dolomite and thus prevents its escape
with the exhaust gases. The molten slag is tapped from the top surface of the bed. The bed
temperature is nearly 800-9000C which is ideal for sulphur retention addition of limestone or
dolomite to the bed brings down SO2 emission level to about 15% of that in conventional
firing methods.
Various advantages of FBC system are as follows:
1. FBC system can use any type of low grade fuel including municipal wastes and therefore is a
cheaper method of power generation.
2. It is easier to control the amount of SO2 and NOX, formed during burning. Low emission of SO2
and NOX will help in controlling the undesirable effects of SO2
and NOX. During combustion. SO2 emission is nearly 15% of that in conventional
firing methods.
3. There is a saving of about 10% in operating cost and 15% in the capital cost of the power plant.
4. The size of coal used has pronounced effect on the operation and performance of FBC system.
The particle size preferred is 6 to 13 mm but even 50 mm size coal can also be used in this
system.
The major portion of the coal available in India is of low quality, high ash content and low calorific
value. The traditional grate fuel firing systems have got limitations and are techno-economically unviable to
meet the challenges of future. Fluidized bed combustion has emerged as a viable alternative and has
significant advantages over conventional firing system and offers multiple benefits – compact boiler design,
fuel flexibility, higher combustion efficiency and reduced emission of noxious pollutants such as SOx and
NOx.
2.5 ASH HANDLING SYSTEM:
Boilers burning pulverized coal (PC) have bottom furnaces. The large ash particles are
collected under the furnace in a water-filled ash hopper, Fly ash is collected in dust collectors with either an
electrostatic precipitator or a baghouse. A PC boiler generates approximately 80% fly ash and 20% bottom
ash. Ash must be collected and transported from various points of the plants as shown in figure. Pyrites,
which are the rejects from the pulverizers, are disposed of with the bottom ash system. Three major factors
should be considered for ash disposal systems.
1. Plant site
2. Fuel source
3. Environmental regulation
Needs for water and land are important considerations for many ash handling systems. Ash quantities to
be disposed of depend on the king of fuel source. Ash storage and disposal sites are guided by environmental
regulation.
Ash Handling Equipment:
Mechanical means are required for the disposal of ash. The handling equipment should perform the
following functions: 1. Capital investment, operating and maintenance charges of the equipment should be
low. 2. It should be able to handle large quantities of ash. 3. Clinkers, shoot, dust etc. create troubles.The
equipment should be able to handle them smoothly.4. The equipment used should remove the ash from the
furnace, load it to the conveying system to deliver the ash to dumping site or storage and finally it should
have means to dispose of the stored ash. 5. The equipment should be corrosion and wear resistant.
Hydraulic System
In this system, ash from the furnace grate falls into a system of water possessing high velocity and is
carried to the sumps. It is generally used in large power plants. Hydraulic system is of two types, namely,
low pressure hydraulic system used for intermittent ash disposal figure. Figure shows hydraulic system.
Water-Jetting System
Water jetting of ash is shown in figure. In this method a low pressure jet of water coming out of
quenching nozzle is used to cool the ash. The ash falls into trough and is then removed.
Pneumatic System
In this system ash from the boiler furnace outlet falls into a crusher where a lager ash particles are
crushed to small sizes. The ash is then carried by a high velocity air or steam to the point of delivery. Air
leaving the ash separator is passed through filter to remove dust etc. The exhauster handles clean air which
will protect the blades of the exhauster.
Mechanical system
Figure shows a mechanical ash handling system.

In this system ash cooled by water seal falls on the belt conveyor and is carried out
continuously to the bunker.
LAYOUT OF STEAM POW ER PLANT:
Fig-1 Layout of Steam Power Plant

The four main circuits one would come across in any thermal power plant layout are

Cooling Water Circuit
OUTCOMES
After completion of this course, the students should be able to
 Discuss the energy resources and energy conversion methods available for the production
of electric power in India.
 Determine the efficiency and output of a modern Rankine cycle steam power plant from
given data, including superheat, reheat, regeneration, and irreversibility’s
 Calculate the heat rate, fan power consumption, flame temperature and combustion air
requirements of conventional steam generators (boilers).
 Select the heat transfer tubes needed for condensers and feed water heaters
SELF TEST QUESTIONS
 What is the concept of Power plant?

 Define the types of energy.
 What are the resources for power development in India?
 What is the present position of power in India?
 What is the future planning for power generation?
 Define different types of power cycle.
FURTHER READING

UNIT 3
Chimneys, Accessories for the Steam Generator Cooling Towers and Ponds
STRUCTURE
 3.1 Chimneys
 3.2 Accessories for the Steam Generator Cooling Towers And Ponds
 3.3 Natural, forced, induced and balanced draft
 3.4 Calculations involving height of chimney to produce a given draft.
 3.5 Accessories For The Steam Generator such as super-heaters,
 3.6 Desuperheater
 3.7 Control of super heaters,
 3.8 Economizers
 3.9 Air Pre-heaters Study of different types of cooling towers and ponds.
OBJECTIVES
 Design of chimney in thermal power plants, knowledge of cooling tower operation, numerical on
surface condenser design.
 Discussing environmental and safety aspects of power plant operation
 The students will be able to perform thermodynamic analysis on various air-breathing engines.
3.1 DRAUGHT:
Draught is defined as the difference between absolute gas pressure at any point in a gas flow passage
and the ambient (same elevation) atmospheric pressure. . Draught is achieved by small pressure difference
which causes the flow of air or gas to take place. It is measured in milimetre (mm) or water.
The purpose of draught is as follows:
i) To supply required amount of air to the furnace for the combustion of fuel
The amount of fuel that can be burnt per square root of grate area depends upon the quantity of air
circulated through fuel bed.
ii) To remove the gaseous products of combustion.

3.3.1 Classification of DRAUGHT
Artificial Draught
If the draught is produced by steam jet or fan it is known as artificial draught
Steam jet Draught:
It employs steam to produce the draught
Mechanical draught
It employs fan or blowers to produce the draught.
Induced draught
The flue is drawn (sucked) through the system by a fan or steam jet
Forced draught
The air is forced into system by a blower or steam jet.
Natural Draught:
Natural draught system employs a tall chimney as shown in figure. The chimney is a vertical tubular
masonry structure or reinforced concrete. It is constructed for enclosing a column of exhaust gases to
produce the draught. It discharges the gases high enough to prevent air pollution. The draught is produced by
this tall chimney due to temperature difference of hot gases in the chimney and cold external air outside the
chimney.
Artificial Draught
It has been seen that the draught produced by chimney is affected by the atmospheric conditions. It has no
flexibility, poor efficiency and tall chimney is required. In most of the modern power plants, the draught
used must be independence of atmospheric condition, and it must have greater
flexibility (control) to take the fluctuating loads on the plant.
Today’s large steam power plants requiring 20 thousand tons of steam per hour would be impossible
to run without the aid of draft fans. A chimney of an reasonable height would be incapable of developing
3 m3 to 3 m3 per
enough draft to remove the tremendous volume of air and gases (400 × 10 800 × 10
minutes). The further advantage of fans is to reduce the height of the chimney needed.
The draught required in actual power plant is sufficiently high (300 mm of water) and to meet high
draught requirements, some other system must be used, known as artificial draught. The artificial draught is
produced by a fan and it is known as fan (mechanical) draught. Mechanical draught is preferred for central
power stations.
Forced Draught
In a forced draught system, a blower is installed near the base of the boiler and air is forced to pass
through the furnace, flues, economizer, air-preheater and to the stack.
This draught system is known as positive draught system or forced draught system because the pressure and
air is forced to flow through the system.
The arrangement of the system is shown in figure. A stack or chimney is also in this system as shown in
figure but its function is to discharge gases high in the atmosphere to prevent the contamination. It is not
much significant for producing draught therefore height of the chimney may not be very much
Induced Draught:
In this system, the blower is located near the base of the chimney instead of near the grate. The air is
sucked in the system by reducing the pressure through the system below atmosphere. The induced draught
fan sucks the burned gases from the furnace and the pressure inside the furnace is reduced below
atmosphere and induces the atmospheric air to flow through the furnace. The action of the induced
draught is similar to the action of the chimney. The draught produced is independent of the temperature
of the hot gases therefore the gases may be discharged as cold as possible after recovering as
much heat as possible in air-preheater and economizer.
Balanced Draught:
It is always preferable to use a combination of forced draught and induced draught instead of forced
or induced draught alone. If the forced draught is used alone, then the furnace cannot be opened either for
firing or inspection because the high pressure air inside the furnace will try to blow out suddenly and there
is every chance of blowing out the fire completely and furnace stops.
If the induced draught is used alone, then also furnace cannot be opened either for firing or
inspection because the cold air will try to rush into the furnace as the pressure inside the furnace is below
atmospheric pressure. This reduces the effective draught and dilutes the combustion.
3.4 SURFACE CONDENSER:
In surface condensers there is no direct contact between the steam and cooling water and the
condensate can be re-used in the boiler. In such a condenser even impure water can be used for cooling
purpose whereas the cooling water must be pure in jet condensers.Although the capital cost and the space
needed is more in surface condensers but it is justified b the saving in running cost and increase in efficiency
of plant achieved by using this condenser.Depending upon the position of condensate extraction pump, flow
of condensate and arrangement of tubes the surface condensers may be classified as follows:
1. Down flow condenser

2. Central flow condenser
3. Evaporative condenser
1. Down flow condenser
Figure shows a sectional view of down flow condenser. Steam enters at the top and flows downward.
The water flowing through the tubes in one direction lower half comes out in the opposite direction in the
upper half. In this type of condenser, the cooling water and exhaust steam do not come in direct contact with
each other as in case of jet condensers.
This is generally used where large quantities of inferior water are available and better quantity of
feed water to the boiler must be used most economically. The arrangement of the surface condenser is shown
in figure. It consists of cast iron air- tight cylindrical shell closed at each end as shown in figure. A number
of water tubes are fixed in the tube plates which are located between each cover head and shell.
2. Central flow condenser.
Figure shows a central flow condenser. In this condenser the steam passages are all around the
periphery of the shell. Air is pumped away from the centre of the condenser. The condensate moves radially
towards the centre of the tube next. Some of the exhaust steam which moving towards the centre meets the
under cooled condensate and pre-heats it thus reducing under cooling.
3. Evaporative condenser
In this condenser steam to be condensed in passed through a series of tubes and the cooling water
falls over these tubes in the form of spray. A steam of air flows over the tubes to increase evaporation of
cooling water which further increases the condensation of steam.
These condensers are more preferable where acute shortage of cooling water exists. The arrangement
of the condenser is shown in figure. Water is sprayed through the nozzles over the pipe carrying exhaust
steam and forms a thin film over it. The air is drawn over the surface of the
3.5 COOLING TOWERS
In the power industry, energy in the form of heat is transformed to energy in the form of electricity.
Unfortunately, t h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i s n o t a c c o m p l i s h e d o n a o n e -to-one ratio.
Although designers continuously seek newer and better ways to improve overall system efficiency,
considerably more units of heat must be input that are realized as equivalent units of electric output.
System equilibrium requires that this excess heat be dissipated ultimately to the atmosphere.
In an increasing number of cases, because of qualitative and quantitative restrictions
regarding the use of natural waterways, plant make use of a closed circuit system typical of
that depicted in figure. As shown, the system’s dependence on the river is limited to the
requirement for a supply of makeup water and, perhaps, as a point of discharge of blow
down. In these cases, the entire heat loads are dissipated by cooling towers, at the variety,
application
Superheaters and Reheaters

Superheaters and Reheaters Superheaters are one of the most important accessories of boiler
that improves the thermal efficiency. In super heaters there should not be any fins as it
increases the thermal stresses and carful should be taken when choosing the super-heater
material that is stand for high temp and corrosion resistance. Super-heater types 1.
Convection super-heater: it is the earliest type of super-heater and it is located above or
behind banks of water tubes to protect them from direct flam or fire
Parameters that increase the convection a. Increasing the fuel-and air flow (combustion gas
flow). b. Increasing the mass flow rate of the steam. Convection super-heaters are used for
low temperature. Radiant Super heater They are placed exposed to the heat source which
requires the improvement of metal temperatures. Radiation is proportional to T 4 f -T 4 w
where Tf and Tw are the flame and tube wall absolute temperature. Tf is greater than Tw so
radiation is mainly dependent on the flam temperature. As the steam flow rate increases the
exit temperature become lower as Tw goes up. Radiant and convective super-heaters and re-
heaters are used for high-temperature steam. 2 3 A super-heater unite A water tube boiler
with a super-heater Re-heaters They are the same as the super-heaters but as their exit
temperature is a little bite less than super-heaters and their pressure is 20%-25% less than the
super-heater, they can stand less quality material alloys.
ECONOMIZER The first successful design of economizer was used to increase the
steamraising efficiency of the boilers of stationary steam engines. It was patented by Edward
Green in 1845, and since then has been known as Green's economizer. Function: When the
combustion gases leave the boiler after giving most of their heat to evaporator tubes,
superheated tubes and reheater tubes, they still posses lot of heat, such heat used by this
device to increases the temperature of feed water. Economizers are so named because they
can make use of the enthalpy in fluid streams that are hot, but not hot enough to be used in a
boiler, thereby recovering more useful enthalpy and improving the boiler's efficiency
OUTCOMES
 Determine the efficiency and output of a modern Rankine cycle steam power plant
from given data, including superheat, reheat, regeneration, and irreversibility’s
 Calculate the heat rate, fan power consumption, flame temperature and combustion air
requirements of conventional steam generators (boilers).
 Explain the blade shapes, and calculate work output of typical turbine stages.
 Calculate the performance of gas turbines with reheat and regeneration, and discuss
the performance of combined cycle power plants
SELF TEST QUESTIONS
 What is a super-heater? What are its types?

 Describe any one of them.
 What is a feed water heater? Explain its advantages.
 What is a furnace? What are its types?
 Explain advantages and disadvantages of different types of furnaces.
FURTHER READING

UNIT 4
DIESEL ENGINE AND GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT
STRUCTURE:
 Method of starting diesel engines
 Cooling and lubrication system for the diesel engine
 Filters, centrifuges
 Oil heaters
 Intake and exhaust system
 Layout of a diesel power plant.
 Advantages and disadvantages of the gas turbine plant
 Open and closed cycle turbine plants with the accessories.
OBJECTIVE:
After studying this unit, students should be able to
 Understand the concepts of diesel power plant
 Understand the types of Engines used for power generation
 know the types of fuels used
 Describes the main components of diesel and gas turbine power plants.
LAYOUT OF DIESEL POWER PLANT:

Figure shows the arrangements of the engine and its auxiliaries in a diesel power
plant. The major components of the diesel power plant are:
1) Engine
Engine is the heart of a diesel power plant. Engine is directly connected through a gear box
to the generator. Generally two-stroke engines are used for power generation. Now a day,
advanced super & turbo charged high speed engines are available for power production.
2) Air supply system

Air inlet is arranged outside the engine room. Air from the atmosphere is filtered by air filter
and conveyed to the inlet manifold of engine. In large plants supercharger/turbocharger is
used for increasing the pressure of input air which increases the power output.
3) Exhaust System
This includes the silencers and connecting ducts. The heat content of the exhaust gas is
utilized in a turbine in a turbocharger to compress the air input to the engine.
4) Fuel System
Fuel is stored in a tank from where it flows to the fuel pump through a filter. Fuel is injected
to the engine as per the load requirement.
5) Cooling system
This system includes water circulating pumps, cooling towers, water filter etc. Cooling
water is circulated through the engine block to keep the temperature of the engine in the safe
range.
6) Lubricating system
Lubrication system includes the air pumps, oil tanks, filters, coolers and pipe lines.
Lubricant is given to reduce friction of moving parts and reduce the wear and tear of the
engine parts.
7) Starting System
There are three commonly used starting systems, they are;
1) A petrol driven auxiliary engine
2) Use of electric motors.
3) Use of compressed air from an air compressor at a pressure of 20 Kg/cm.
8) Governing system
The function of a governing system is to maintain the speed of the engine constant irrespective
of load on the plant. This is done by varying fuel supply to the engine according to load.
Advantages
1. Diesel power plants can be quickly installed and commissioned.
2. Quick starting.
3. Requires minimum labor.
4. Plant is smaller, operate at high efficiency and simple compared to steam power
plant.
5. It can be located near to load centers.
Disadvantages
1. Capacity of plant is low.
2. Fuel, repair and maintenance cost are high.
3. Life of plant is low compared to steam power plant.
4. Lubrication costs are very high.
5. Not guaranteed for operation under continuous overloads.
6. Noise is a serious problem in diesel power plant.
7. Diesel power plant cannot be constructed for large scale.
The oil engines and gas engines are called Internal Combustion Engines. In IC engines fuels
burn inside the engine and the products of combustion form the working fluid that generates
mechanical power. Whereas, in Gas Turbines the combustion occurs in another chamber and
hot working fluid containing thermal energy is admitted in turbine.
Reciprocating oil engines and gas engines are of the same family and have a strong
resemblance in principle of operation and construction.
The engines convert chemical energy in fuel in to mechanical energy.
A typical oil engine has:

1. Cylinder in which fuel and air are admitted and combustion occurs.
2. Piston, which receives high pressure of expanding hot products of combustion and the
piston, is forced to linear motion.
3. Connecting rod, crankshaft linkage to convert reciprocating motion into rotary motion of
shaft.
4. Connected Load, mechanical drive or electrical generator.
5. Suitable valves (ports) for control of flow of fuel, air, exhaust gases, fuel injection, and
ignition systems.
6. Lubricating system, cooling system In an engine-generator set, the generator shaft is
coupled to the Engine shaft.
The main differences between the gasoline engine and the diesel engine are:
• A gasoline engine intakes a mixture of gas and air, compresses it and ignites the mixture
witha spark. A diesel engine takes in just air, compresses it and then injects fuel into the
compressed air. The heat of the compressed air lights the fuel spontaneously.
• A gasoline engine compresses at a ratio of 8:1 to 12:1, while a diesel engine compresses at a
ratio of 14:1 to as high as 25:1. The higher compression ratio of the diesel engine leads to
better efficiency.
• Gasoline engines generally use either carburetion, in which the air and fuel is mixed long
before the air enters the cylinder, or port fuel injection, in which the fuel is injected just prior
to the intake stroke (outside the cylinder). Diesel engines use direct fuel injection to the diesel
fuel is injected directly into the cylinder.
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF DIESEL POWER PLANT
Fuel Supply System It consists of storage tank, strainers, fuel transfer pump and all
day fuel tank. The fuel oil is supplied at the plant site by rail or road. The oil is stored in the
storage tank. From the storage tank, oil is pumped to smaller all day tank at daily or short
intervals. From this tank, fuel oil is passed through strainers to remove suspended impurities.
The clean oil is injected into the engine by fuel injection pump. Air Intake System This
system supplies necessary air to the engine for fuel combustion. It consists of pipes for the
supply of fresh air to the engine manifold. Filters are provided to remove dust particles from
air which may act as abrasive in the engine cylinder. Because a diesel engine requires close
tolerances to achieve its compression ratio, and because most diesel engines are either
turbocharged or supercharged, the air entering the engine must be clean, free of debris, and
as cool as possible. Also, to improve a turbocharged or supercharged engine’s efficiency, the
compressed air must be cooled after being compressed. The air intake system is designed to
perform these tasks. Air intake systems are usually one of two types, wet or dry. In a wet
filter intake system, as shown in the Figure 4.1, the air is sucked or bubbled through a
housing that holds a bath of oil such that the dirt in the air is removed by the oil in the filter.
The air then flows through a screen-type material to ensure any entrained oil is removed
from the air. In a dry filter system, paper, cloth, or a metal screen material is used to catch
and trap dirt before it enters the engine. In addition to cleaning the air, the intake system is
usually designed to intake fresh air from as far away from the engine as practicable, usually
just outside of the engine’s building or enclosure. This provides the engine with a supply of
air that has not been heated by the engine’s own waste heat. The reason for ensuring that an
engine's air supply is as cool as possible is that cool air is denser than hot air. This means
that, per unit volume, cool air has more oxygen than hot air. Thus, cool air provides more
oxygen per cylinder charge than less dense, hot air. More oxygen means a more efficient
fuel burn and more power. 121 Diesel Engine Power Plant Figure 4.1 : Air Intake System
After being filtered, the air is routed by the intake system into the engine's intake manifold
or air box. The manifold or air box is the component that directs the fresh air to each of the
engine’s intake valves or ports. If the engine is turbocharged or supercharged, the fresh air
will be compressed with a blower and possibly cooled before entering the intake manifold or
air box. The intake system also serves to reduce the air flow noise. Exhaust System This
system leads the engine exhaust gas outside the building and discharges it into atmosphere.
A silencer is usually incorporated in the system to reduce the noise level. The exhaust
system of a diesel engine performs three functions. First, the exhaust system routes the spent
combustion gasses away from the engine, where they are diluted by the atmosphere. This
keeps the area around the engine habitable. Second, the exhaust system confines and routes
the gases to the turbocharger, if used. Third, the exhaust system allows mufflers to be used
to reduce the engine noise. Cooling System The heat released by the burning of fuel in the
engine cylinder is partially converted into work. The remainder part of the heat passes
through the cylinder wall, piston, rings etc. and may cause damage to system. In order to
keep the temperature of the engine parts within the safe operating limits, cooling is provided.
The cooling system consists of a water source, pump and cooling towers. The pump
circulates water through cylinder and head jacket. The water takes away heat form the
engine and it becomes hot. The hot water is cooled by cooling towers and re circulated for
cooling. Lubricating System The system minimises the wear of rubbing surfaces of the
engine. It comprises of lubricating oil tank, pump, filter and oil cooler. The lubrication oil is
drawn from the lubricating oil tank by the pump and is passed through filter to remove
impurities .The clean lubrication oil is delivered to the points which require lubrication. The
oil coolers incorporated in the system keep the temperature of the oil low. 122 Power Plant
Engineering An internal combustion engine would not run for even a few minutes if the
moving parts were allowed to make metal-to-metal contact. The heat generated due to the
tremendous amounts of friction would melt the metals, leading to the destruction of the
engine. To prevent this, all moving parts ride on a thin film of oil that is pumped between all
the moving parts of the engine. The oil serves two purposes. One purpose is to lubricate the
bearing surfaces. The other purpose is to cool the bearings by absorbing the friction-
generated heat. The flow of oil to the moving parts is accomplished by the engine's internal
lubricating system. Figure 4.2 : Lubricating System Oil is accumulated and stored in the
engine's oil pan where one or more oil pumps take suction and pump the oil through one or
more oil filters as shown in the figure. The filters clean the oil and remove any metal that the
oil has picked up due to wear. The cleaned oil then flows up into the engine's oil galleries. A
pressure relief valve(s) maintains oil pressure in the galleries and returns oil to the oil pan
upon high pressure. The oil galleries distribute the oil to all the bearing surfaces in the
engine. Once the oil has cooled and lubricated the bearing surfaces, it flows out of the
bearing and gravity-flows back into the oil pan. In medium to large diesel engines, the oil is
also cooled before being distributed into the block. This is accomplished by either internal or
external oil cooler. The lubrication system also supplies oil to the engine’s governor. Engine
Starting System This is an arrangement to rotate the engine initially, while starting, until
firing starts and the unit runs with its own power. Small sets are started manually by handles
but for larger units, compressed air is used for starting. In the latter case, air at high pressure
is admitted to a few of the cylinders, making them to act as reciprocating air motors to turn
over the engine shaft. The fuel is admitted to the remaining cylinders which makes the
engine to start under its own power. Starting Circuits Diesel engines have as many different
types of starting circuits as there are types, sizes, and manufacturers of diesel engines.
Commonly, they can be started by air motors, electric motors, hydraulic motors, and
manually. The 123 Diesel Engine Power Plant start circuit can be a simple manual start
pushbutton, or a complex auto-start circuit. But in almost all cases the following events must
occur for the starting engine to start. (a) The start signal is sent to the starting motor. The air,
electric, or hydraulic motor, will engage the engine’s flywheel. (b) The starting motor will
crank the engine. The starting motor will spin the engine at a high enough rpm to allow the
engine’s compression to ignite the fuel and start the engine running. (c) The engine will then
accelerate to idle speed. When the starter motor is overdriven by the running motor it will
disengage the flywheel. Because a diesel engine relies on compression heat to ignite the fuel,
a cold engine can rob enough heat from the gasses that the compressed air falls below the
ignition temperature of the fuel. To help overcome this condition, some engines (usually
small to medium sized engines) have glow plugs. Glow plugs are located in the cylinder
head of the combustion chamber and use electricity to heat up the electrode at the top of the
glow plug. The heat added by the glow plug is sufficient to help ignite the fuel in the cold
engine. Once the engine is running, the glow plugs are turned off and the heat of combustion
is sufficient to heat the block and keep the engine running. Larger engines usually heat the
block and/or have powerful starting motors that are able to spin the engine long enough to
allow the compression heat to fire the engine. Some large engines use air start manifolds that
inject compressed air into the cylinders which rotates the engine during the start sequence.
OUTCOMES
 Know percentages and have understanding for magnitudes of energy and resources
used
 Understand different types of dams, surge tanks and dam safety for smooth running of
power plant
 Be able to effectively use Hydro graphs and flow duration curves
 Understand the differences between large quantities of fuel and waste vs. minuscule
quantities of each, but with high potential for causing harm or inconvenience
Assignments that demonstrate accomplishment of this outcome
SELF TEST QUESTIONS
 Draw the layout of diesel power plant.

 Write short notes on super charging.
 What are the basic types of I.C. Engine?
 Discuss the advantage and disadvantage of a diesel engine.
 State the applications of a diesel power plant?
 Write a note on fuel system of diesel power plant.
 Write a note on lubrication system of diesel power plant.
 How air intake and admission system of diesel power plant works?
 What are the advantages of supercharger?
 Write a note on exhaust system of diesel power plant.
 Write a note on cooling system of diesel power plant.
 Write a note on heat balance sheet.
 Name and explain various types of fuel injection systems.
FURTHER READING

UNIT - 5
Hydro-Electric Plants
CONTENTS
 5.1 Storage and pondage
 Flow duration and mass curves
 Hydrographs
 Low, medium and high head plants
 Pumped storage plants
 Penstock, water hammer
 Surge tanks, gates and valves
 Power house, general layout
 A brief description of some of the important Hydel Installations in India.
Hydroelectric power plants convert the hydraulic potential energy from water into
electrical energy. Such plants are suitable were water with suitable head are available. The
layout covered in this article is just a simple one and only cover the important parts of
hydroelectric plant.
5.1 LAYOUT OF HYDEL POWER PLANT:

(1) Dam
Dams are structures built over rivers to stop the water flow and form a reservoir. The
reservoir stores the water flowing down the river. This water is diverted to turbines in power
stations. The dams collect water during the rainy season and store it, thus allowing for a
steady flow through the turbines throughout the year. Dams are also used for controlling
floods and irrigation. The dams should be water-tight and should be able to withstand the
pressure exerted by the water on it. There are different types of dams such as arch dams,
gravity dams and buttress dams. The height of water in the dam is called head race.
(2) Spillway
A spillway as the name suggests could be called as a way for spilling of water from dams.
It is used to provide for the release of flood water from a dam. It is used to prevent over toping of
the dams which could result in damage or failure of dams. Spillways could be controlled type or
uncontrolled type. The uncontrolled types start releasing water upon water rising above a
particular level. But in case of the controlled type, regulation of flow is possible.
(3) Penstock and Tunnels

Penstocks are pipes which carry water from the reservoir to the turbines inside power
station. They are usually made of steel and are equipped with gate systems. Water under high
pressure flows through the penstock. A tunnel serves the same purpose as a penstock. It is
used when an obstruction is present between the dam and power station such as a mountain.
(4) Surge Tank

Surge tanks are tanks connected to the water conductor system. It serves the purpose
of reducing water hammering in pipes which can cause damage to pipes. The sudden surges of
water in penstock are taken by the surge tank, and when the water requirements increase, it
supplies the collected water thereby regulating water flow and pressure inside the penstock.
(5) Power Station

Power station contains a turbine coupled to a generator. The water brought to the
power station rotates the vanes of the turbine producing torque and rotation of turbine shaft.
This rotational torque is transferred to the generator and is converted into electricity.

The used water is released through the tail race. The difference between head race
and tail race is called gross head and by subtracting the frictional losses we get the net head
available to the turbine for generation of electricity.
Advantages
1. Water the working fluid is natural and available plenty.
2. Life of the plant is very long.
3. Running cost and maintenance are very low.
4. Highly reliable.
5. Running cost is low.
6. Maintenance and operation costs are very less.
7. No fuel transport problem.
8. No ash disposal problem.
Disadvantages
1. Initial cost of plant is very high.
2. Power generation depends on quantity of water available which depends on rainfall.
3. Transmission losses are very high.
4. More time is required for erection.
5.2 ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION FROM RENEWABLE ENERGY

SOURCES
Water energy has been the most widely used form of renewable energy for the
production of electricity. With today’s emphasis on environmental considerations and
conservation of fossil fuels, other renewable resources are being used to em- ploy the
energy sources of the sun and the earth for electricity generation. Some of these
resources that represent a viable alternative to fossil fuels are solar power, wind power,
geothermal, biomass, and tidal power. These resources, especially solar power and
wind power, have the capability to produce sustainable energy in- definitely with no
direct emission of pollutant and greenhouse gases. Power plants using these renewable
sources of energy are described in the following sections.
The aspiration for bulk generation of power in the future is nuclear fusion. If
nuclear fusion is harnessed economically, it would provide clean energy from an
abundant source of fuel, namely water.

5.3 HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS
Hydropower is considered to be a renewable energy source because it uses the con-

tenuous flow of water without using up the water resource. It is also nonpolluting, since
it does not rely on burning fossil fuels. Hydropower is currently the leading
renewable energy source in the United States. In 2009, it accounted for about 63
percent of all other renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar, and biomass.
Reclamation is the nation’s second largest producer of hydroelectric power, with 58
hydroelectric power plants and 194 generating units in operation and an installed
capacity of 14,693 MW. Almost all suitable sites for dams have already been de-
veloped, so there is not much scope for further growth in water power. However, there
are numerous areas where research can lead to increases in the efficiency and reliability
of hydroelectric plants and decreases in maintenance costs. Presently, wind and solar
energy are growing at a rapid rate, and in a near future they will be the major sources of
renewable energy for production of electric power.
The hydroelectric power plants usually require a dam to store water, a penstock
for delivering the falling water, electric generators, a valve house which contains the
main sluice valves, automatic isolating valves, and related control equipments. Also,
a surge tank is located just before the valve house to protect the penstock from a
pressure surge, called water hammer, in case the turbine gates are suddenly closed. In
addition to electric energy production, most dams in the United States are built for
other uses, including recreation, irrigation, flood control, and public water supply. A
schematic diagram of a hydroelectric power plant is shown in Figure 1.6.
The water from the dam is led to the water turbine through the penstock, and the
potential energy of the elevated water is transformed into kinetic energy. The water
turbine converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy, and the generator
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF UNDERGROUND POWER-HOUSE

Advantages
1. Under suitable geological conditions, the underground conduit may prove the shortest and
sometimes even straight. The power conduit may be much shorter than the length of power
canal used for underground power house as the power canal usually built to follow the
contours of the terrain. By locating the power house underground, the number of restrictions
as safe topographical and geological conditions along the penstock and sufficient space at
the foot of the hill for constructing the power house are completely eliminated.
2. The construction of underground conduit instead of penstock results in considerable
saving in steel, the internal pressure is carried partly by the rock if it is of good quality. In
sound high quality rock, the penstock is replaced by an inclined or vertical pressure shaft
excavated in
rock and provided with a steel lining of greatly reduced thickness in comparison with
exposed penstock ‘roe purpose’ of lining in such cases is protection against the seepage
losses.

3. The reduced length of the pressure conduit reduced the pressures developed due to
waterhammer. Therefore, smaller surge tank is also sufficient.
4. For the economical arrangement, the ratio of the pressure conduit to the tail-race tunnel is
also significant. The overall cost of the system is lower if the tail-race tunnel length is
relatively
large.
5. The construction work at underground power station can continue uninterrupted even
under severest winter conditions. The overall construction cost and period of construction is
reduced due to continuity of work.
6. Much care is devoted today in many countries to preserve landscape features such as
picturesque rock walls, canyons, valleys and river banks in their original beauty against
spoiling by exposed penstocks, canal basins and machine halls. There is less danger of
disturbance to amenities with an underground power house and pipelines. The other
advantages gained by constructing underground power house are listed below. The six
advantages mentioned above reduce the constructional difficulties and overall cost of the
plant and preserve the original beauty of landscape. The overall cost is further reduced by
the modern techniques in tunnel work and better excavation process.
7. The shorter power conduit of underground power house reduces the head losses.
8. The regular maintenance and repair costs are lower for underground stations as the
maintenance required for rock tunnels is less.
9. The power plant is free from landslides, avalanches, heavy snow and rainfall.
10. The useful life of the structures excavated in rock is considerably longer than that of
concrete and reinforced concrete structures.
11. It is possible to improve the governing of the turbines with the construction of
underground power house.
12. The construction period is reduced mainly due to the possibility of full-scale construction
Work in winter.
13. Underground power station is bomb-proof and may be preferred for military reasons:
They are perfectly protected against air-raids. The military considerations became more
predominant with the increased shadow of the war and the building of underground power
stations underwent a rapid evolution after second world war.
Disadvantages
1. The construction cost of the underground power house is more compared with the over
ground power house:
(a) The excavation of the caverns required for housing the turbine generator units and
auxiliary
equipments (machine hall of Koyna project is $00′ × 120′ × 60′ in dimensions) is very
expensive.
(b) The costs of access tunnels are considerable.
(c) The separate gallery excavated for the inlet valves adds the extra cost.
(d) The construction of air ducts and bus galleries also adds in total construction costs.

(e) Special ventilation and air-conditioning equipment required for underground adds in the
constructional costs.
(f) In some cases, the tailrace tunnel of an underground power house requires a more
elaborate solution than a tailrace tunnel designed for the surface arrangement. The advantage
gained by reducing the pressure conduit would be lost by extending the tailrace tunnel.
(The above-mentioned constructions increase the capital cost of the plant.
2. The operational cost of the power plant increases due to following reasons :
(a) The lighting cost.
(b) The running cost of air-conditioned plant.
FIGURE Schematic diagram of a hydroelectric power plant.
After passing through the turbine, the water reenters the river on the downstream
side of the dam. The most significant operating characteristics of hydropower plants
are rapid start-up and loading, long life, and low operating and maintenance costs.
Hydraulic turbines, particularly those operating with a low pressure, operate at low
speed. Their generators are usually salient-type rotor with many poles.

OUTCOMES
 Explain the major types of hydro-power and wind-power turbines and estimate
power generation potential
 Discuss the environmental impact of electric power production on air quality, climate
change, water, and land.
 Perform the preliminary design of the major components or systems of a
conventional or alternate power plant
SELF TEST QUESTIONS
 Draw a neat sketch of a power house and describe the main features of sub-structure
and superstructure.
 Describe the advantages and disadvantages of underground power stations compared
with over ground power stations.
 What topographical and other conditions decide the setting of turbine either vertical
or horizontal
(a) in case of reaction turbine (b) in case of Pelton wheel ?
 What do you understand by open flume setting ? Draw the neat sketches of horizontal
and vertical open flume setting for reaction turbines. When the open flume setting is
more preferable
 What are its disadvantages ? Which factors are considered in deciding the setting of
Pelton wheel (a) in horizontal plane (b) in vertical plane. Discuss the advantages of one
overthe other.

FURTHER READING


UNIT 7
CHOICE OF SITE
STRUCTURE:
 Choice of site for power station

 Load estimation
 Load duration curve, load factor, capacity factor, use factor, diversity
factor, demand factor,
 Effect of variable load on power plant, selection of the number and size of
units
OBJECTIVES:
 Design and planning of power plants, knowledge of cooling tower
operation, numerical on surface condenser design
 Basic knowledge of Different types of power plants including other types
of power plants such as tidal, ocean and geo thermal power plants
 Understanding of Power Plant Economics, Energy Storage including
compressed air energy and pumped hydro etc.
 Discussing environmental and safety aspects of power plant operation.
7.1 Introduction
A consumer will use electric power only if it is supplied at reasonable rate.
Therefore, power engineers have to find convenient methods to produce electric
power as cheap as possible so that consumers are tempted to use electrical
methods. Before passing on to the subject further, it is desirable that the readers
get themselves acquainted with the following terms much used in the economics
of power generation:
(i) Interest. The cost of use of money is known as interest.
A power station is constructed by investing a huge capital. This money is
generally borrowed from banks or other financial institutions and the supply
company has to pay the annual interest on this amount. Even if company has
spent out of its reserve funds, the interest must be still allowed for, since this
amount could have earned interest if deposited in a bank. Therefore, while
calculating the cost of production of electrical energy, the interest payable on the
capital investment must be in-cluded. The rate of interest depends upon market
position and other factors, and may vary from 4% to 8% per annum.
(ii) Depreciation. The decrease in the value of the power plant equipment and
building due to constant use is known as depreciation.
If the power station equipment were to last for ever, then interest on the
capital investment would have been the only charge to be made. However, in
actual practice, every power station has a useful life ranging from fifty to sixty
years. From the time the power station is installed, its equipment steadily
deteriorates due to wear and tear so that there is a gradual reduction in the value
of the plant. This reduction in the value of plant every year is known as annual
depreciation. Due to depreciation, the plant has to be replaced by the new one
after its useful life. Therefore, suitable amount must be set aside every year so that
by the time the plant retires, the collected amount by way of depreciation equals
the cost of replacement. It becomes obvious that while determining the cost of
production, annual depreciation charges must be included. There are several
methods of finding the annual depreciation charges and are discussed in Art. 4.4.
7.2 Cost of Electrical Energy
The total cost of electrical energy generated can be divided into three parts,
namely ;
Fixed (iii) Running or operating
(i) cost ; (ii) Semi-fixed cost ; cost.
Fixed It is the cost which is independent of maximum demand and
(i) cost. units generated.
The fixed cost is due to the annual cost of central organisation, interest on
capital cost of land and salaries of high officials. The annual expenditure on the
central organisation and salaries of high officials is fixed since it has to be met
whether the plant has high or low maximum demand or it generates less or more
units. Further, the capital investment on the land is fixed and hence the amount of
interest is also fixed.
(ii) Semi-fixed cost. It is the cost which depends upon maximum demand but
is independent of units generated.
The semi-fixed cost is directly proportional to the maximum demand on
power station and is on account of annual interest and depreciation on capital
investment of building and equipment, taxes, salaries of management and clerical
staff. The maximum demand on the power station determines its size and cost of
installation. The greater the maximum demand on a power station, the greater is
its size and cost of installation. Further, the taxes and clerical staff depend upon
the size of the plant and hence upon maximum demand.
(iii) Running cost. It is the cost which depends only upon the number of units
generated.
The running cost is on account of annual cost of fuel, lubricating oil,
maintenance, repairs and salaries of operating staff. Since these charges depend
upon the energy output, the running cost is directly proportional to the number of
units generated by the station. In other words, if the power station generates more
units, it will have higher running cost and vice-versa.
7.3 Expressions for Cost of Electrical Energy
The overall annual cost of electrical energy generated by a power station can be
expressed in two forms viz three part form and two part form.
(i) Three part form. In this method, the overall annual cost of electrical
energy generated is divided into three parts viz fixed cost, semi-fixed cost
and running cost i.e.
Total annual cost of
energy = Fixed cost + Semi-fixed cost + Running cost
Constant + Proportional to max. demand +
= Proportional to
kWh generated.
= Rs (a + b kW + c kWh)
wher annual fixed cost independent of maximum
e a = demand and en-
ergy output. It is on account of the costs mentioned
in Art. 4.2.
constant which when multiplied by maximum kW
b = demand on
the station gives the annual semi-fixed cost.
a constant which when multiplied by kWh output
c = per annum
gives the annual running cost.
(ii Two part form. It is sometimes convenient to give the annual cost of
) energy in two part
form. In this case, the annual cost of energy is divided into two parts viz., a
fixed sum per
kW of maximum demand plus a running charge per unit of energy. The
expression for the
annual cost of energy then becomes :
Total annual cost of
energy = Rs. (A kW + B kWh)
wher a constant which when multiplied by maximum
e A = kW demand
on the station gives the annual cost of the first
part.
a constant which when multiplied by the annual
B = kWh gener-
ated gives the annual running cost.
It is interesting to see here that two-part form is a simplification of three-part
form. A little reflection shows that constant “a” of the three part form has been
merged in fixed sum per kW maximum demand (i.e. constant A ) in the two-part
form.
7.4 Methods of Determining Depreciation
There is reduction in the value of the equipment and other property of the plant
every year due to depreciation. Therefore, a suitable amount (known as
depreciation charge) must be set aside annu-ally so that by the time the life span
of the plant is over, the collected amount equals the cost of replacement of the
plant.
The following are the commonly used methods for determining the annual depreciation
charge :
(i) Straight line method ;
(ii) Diminishing value method ;
(iii) Sinking fund method.
Straight line method. In this method, a constant depreciation charge is
(i) made every year on
the basis of total depreciation and the useful life of the property. Obviously,
annual depreciation charge will be equal to the total depreciation divided by the
useful life of the property. Thus, if the initial cost of equipment is Rs 1,00,000 and
its scrap value is Rs 10,000 after a useful life of 20 years, then,
Total 1,00,000 −
Annual depreciation depreciation 10,000 = Rs
charge = = 4,500
Useful life 20
In general, the annual depreciation charge on the straight line method may be expressed
as :
72 Principles of Power System

P −
Annual depreciationS
charge =
n
wher
e P = Initial cost of equipment
n = Useful life of equipment in years
S = Scrap or salvage value after the useful life of the plant.
The straight line method is extremely
simple and is easy to apply as the annual
depreciation charge can be readily calculated
from the total depreciation and useful life of
the equipment. Fig. 4.1 shows the graphical
repre-sentation of the method. It is clear that
initial value P of the equipment reduces
uniformly, through depreciation, to the scrap
value S in the useful life of the equipment.
The depreciation curve (PA ) follows a
straight line path, indicating constant annual
depreciation charge. However, this method
suffers from two defects. Firstly, the assump-
tion of constant depreciation charge every
year is not cor-rect. Secondly, it does not
account for the interest which may be drawn
during accumulation.
(ii) Diminishing value method. In this method,
depreciation charge is made every year at a fixed rate on
the diminished value of the equipment. In other words, depreciation charge is first
applied to the initial cost of equipment and then to its diminished value. As an
example, suppose the initial cost of equipment is Rs 10,000 and its scrap value
after the useful life is zero. If the annual rate of depreciation is 10%, then
depreciation charge for the first year will be 0·1 × 10,000 = Rs 1,000. The value
of the equipment is diminished by Rs 1,000 and becomes Rs 9,000. For the
second year, the depreciation charge will be made on the diminished value (i.e. Rs
9,000) and becomes 0·1 × 9,000 = Rs 900. The value of the equipment now
becomes 9000 − 900 = Rs 8100. For the third year, the depreciation
charge will be
0·1 × 8100 = Rs 810 and so on.
Mathematical treatment
Let P = Capital cost of equipment
Useful life of equipment in
n = years
Scrap value after useful
S = life
Suppose the annual unit* depreciation is x. It is desired to find the value of x in terms of
P, n and
S.
Value of equipment after one year
= P − Px = P (1 − x)
Value of equipment after 2 years
= Diminished value − Annual depreciation
= [P − Px] − [(P − Px)x]
= P − Px − Px + Px2
= P(x2 − 2x + 1)
= P(1 −
x)2 ∴ Value of equipment after n
years
= P(1 − x)n
* If annual depreciation is 10%, then we can say that annual unit depreciation is 0·1.
Economics of Power Generation 73
But the value of equipment after n years (i.e., useful life) is equal to the
scrap value S.
∴ S = P(1 − x)
n
or (1 − x)n = S/P
or 1 − x = (S/P)1/n
1/n
or x = 1 − (S/P) ...(i)
From exp. (i), the annual depreciation can be easily found. Thus depreciation
to be made for the first year is given by :
Depreciation for the first year = xP
= P[1 − (S/P)1/n]
Similarly, annual depreciation charge for the
subsequent
years can be calculated.
This method is more rational than the straight line method.
Fig. 4.2 shows the graphical representation of diminishing
value method. The initial value P of the
equipment reduces, through depreciation, to the
scrap value S over the useful life
of the equipment. The depreciation curve follows
the path PA . It is clear from the curve that
depreciation charges are heavy in the early years
but decrease to a low value in the later
years. This method has two drawbacks. Firstly, low depre-
ciation charges are made in the late years when the mainte-
nance and repair charges are quite heavy. Secondly, the de-
preciation charge is independent of the rate of interest which it may
draw during accumulation. Such interest moneys, if
earned, are to be treated as income.
(iii) Sinking fund method. In this method, a fixed depreciation charge is made
every year and interest compounded on it annually. The constant depreciation
charge is such that total of annual instalments plus the interest accumulations
equal to the cost of replacement of equipment after its useful life.
Let P = Initial value of equipment
n = Useful life of equipment in years
S = Scrap value after useful life
Annual rate of interest expressed as a
r = decimal
Cost of
replacement = P−S
Let us suppose that an amount of q is set aside as depreciation charge every
year and interest compounded on it so that an amount of P − S is available after n
years. An amount q at annual interest rate of r will become *q(1 + r)n at the end of
n years.
Now, the amount q deposited at the end of first year will earn compound
interest for n − 1 years and shall become q(1 + r)n − 1 i.e.,
Amount q deposited at the end of first year
becomes = q (1
+ r)n − 1
*This can be easily

proved.
At the end of first year, amount is = q + rq = q(1 + r)
(q + rq) + r(q + rq) = q + rq
At the end of second year, amount is = + rq + r2q
Similarly, at the end of n years,
amount is = q(1 + r)n
74 Principles of Power System

Amount q deposited at the end of 2nd year becomes
= q (1 + r)n − 2
Amount q deposited at the end of 3rd year becomes
= q (1 + r)n − 3
Similarly amount q deposited at the end of n − 1 year becomes
= q (1 + r)n − (n − 1)
= q (1 + r)
n − 1
Total fund after n = q (1 + r) + q (1 + r)n − 2 + .... + q
∴ years (1 + r)
= q [(1 + r)n − 1 + (1 + r)n − 2 + .... + (1
+ r)]
This is a G.P. series and its sum is given by :
q (1 + r)n − 1
Total fund =
r
This total fund must be equal to the cost of replacement of equipment i.e., P − S.
(1 + r)n −
P − S =1
∴ q ...(i)
r
Sinking fund, q (P − r The paraenthetical term in
or = S) L O eq. (i)
M P
1( +
N r) − 1Q
n
The value of q gives the uniform annual
depreciation charge. is frequently referred to as the
“sinking fund factor”.
Sinking fund factor r
∴ = + r)n −
(1 1
Though this method does not find very frequent application in practical depreciation accounting, it is
the fundamental method in making economy studies.
Example. A transformer costing Rs 90,000 has a useful life of 20 years. Determine the annual
depreciation charge using straight line method. Assume the salvage value of the equipment to be Rs
10,000.
Solution :
Initial cost of
transformer, P = Rs 90,000
Useful life, n = 20 years
Salvage value, S = Rs 10,000
Using straight line
method,
P − 90,000 −
Annual depreciation S = 10,000 = Rs
charge = Rs 4000
n 20
Example A distribution transformer costs Rs 2,00,000 and has a useful life of 20 years. If the
salvage value is Rs 10,000 and rate of annual compound interest is 8%, calculate the amount to be
saved annually for replacement of the transformer after the end of 20 years by sinking fund method.
Solution :
Initial cost of Rs
transformer, P = 2,00,000
Salvage value of Rs
transformer, S = 10,000
8% =
Annual interest rate, r = 0·08

q = (P − S) L r O
M
N (1 +
r) − 1PQ
n
(2,00,000 − 0 ⋅08
= 10,000) L O
M 2 P
(1 + 0 ⋅0
0 ⋅ 08 N 08) − 1Q
N
1,90,00 M 4 ⋅ 66 − O
L
= 0 1 QP = Rs 4153
Example 4.3. The equipment in a power station costs Rs 15,60,000 and has a
salvage value of Rs 60,000 at the end of 25 years. Determine the depreciated
value of the equipment at the end of 20 years on the following methods :
(i) Straight line method ;
(ii) Diminishing value method ;
(iii) Sinking fund method at 5% compound interest annually.
Solution :
Initial cost of
equipment, P = Rs 15,60,000
Salvage value of Rs
equipment, S = 60,000
(i) Straight line
method
P − 15,60,000 −
S = 60,000 = Rs
Annual depreciation = Rs 60,000
n 25
= P − Annual depreciation × 20
= 15,60,000 − 60,000 × 20 = Rs 3,60,000
(ii) Diminishing value
method
Annual unit depreciation, x 1/n
= 1 − (S/P)
1 /
F60,000 I25
15,60,00 = 1 − 0·878 =
= 1 − H0 K0·122
= P(1 − x)20
= 15,60,000 (1 − 0·122)20 = Rs 1,15,615
(iii) Sinking fund method
Rate of interest, r = 5% = 0·05
Annual deposit in the sinking fund is
(P − S)
L
q = r O
M +
r) − P
N(1 1Q
n
(15,60,000 − 0 ⋅ 05
= 60,000) L O
M 2 P
(1 + 0 05 5 −
N⋅ ) 1Q
= Rs
31,433 ∴ Sinking fund at the end of
20 years
(1 + r)20 − (1 + 0 ⋅ 05)20
1 = −1 = Rs
= q 31,433 10,39,362
r 0 ⋅ 05
Value of plant after 20
years = Rs (15,60,000 − 10,39,362) = Rs 5,20,638
The load factor plays a vital role in determining the cost of energy. Some
important advantages of high load factor are listed below :
(i) Reduces cost per unit generated : A high load factor reduces the overall
cost per unit generated. The higher the load factor, the lower is the
generation cost. It is because higher load factor means that for a given
maximum demand, the number of units generated is more. This reduces
the cost of generation.
(ii) Reduces variable load problems : A high load factor reduces the variable
load problems on the power station. A higher load factor means
comparatively less variations in the load demands at various times. This
avoids the frequent use of regulating devices installed to meet the variable
load on the station.
Example 4.4. A generating station has a maximum demand of 50,000 kW. Calculate the
cost
per unit generated from the following
data :
Capital cost = Rs 95 ×
106 ; Annual load factor = 40%
Annual cost of fuel and oil = Rs 9 Taxes, wages and salaries etc. = Rs 7·5 ×
× 106 ; 106
Interest and depreciation =
12%
Solution :
Max. demand × L.F. × Hours in a
Units generated/annum = year
(50,000) (0·4) × (8760) kWh =
= × 17·52 × 107 kWh
Annual fixed charges
Annual interest and
depreciation = 12% of capital cost
= Rs 0·12 × 95 × 106 = Rs 11·4
× 106
Annual Running
Charges
Total annual running
charges = Annual cost of fuel and oil + Taxes, wages etc.
Rs (9106 + 7·5 × 106) = Rs 16·5 ×
= × 106
6 6
Rs (11·410 + 16·5 × 10 ) = Rs
Total annual charges = × 27·9 × 106
27 ⋅ 9 × 106 = Re 0·16 = 16
∴Cost per unit = Rs 17 ⋅ 52 paise
7
× 10
Example 4.5. A generating station has an installed capacity of 50,000 kW and
delivers 220 × 106 units per annum. If the annual fixed charges are Rs 160 per
kW installed capacity and running charges are 4 paise per kWh, determine the
cost per unit generated.
Solution
:
Annual fixed charges = 160 × Plant capacity
Rs 160
= × 50,000 = Rs 80 × 105
Rs 0·04
Annual running charges = × 220 × 106 = Rs 88 × 105
5 5
Rs (80 10 + 88 × 10 ) = Rs 168 ×
5
Total annual charges = × 10
16 5 = Re 0·0764 = 7·64
Cost per unit = Rs 8 × 10 paise
22 6
0 × 10
Example 4.6. A generating plant has a maximum capacity of 100 kW and
costs Rs 1,60,000. The annual fixed charges are 12% consisting of 5% intererst,
5% depreciation and 2% taxes. Find the fixed charges per kWh if the load factor
is (i) 100% and (ii) 50%.
Solution :
Maximum demand = 100 kW

(i) When load factor is 100%
Units generated/annum = Max. demand × L.F. × Hours in a year
= 100 × 1 × 8760 = 8,76,000 kWh
19,200
Fixed charges/kWh = Rs = Rs 0·0219 = 2·19 paise
8,76,00
0
(ii) When load factor is 50%
100 × 0·5
Units generated/annum = × 8760 = 4,38,000 kWh
19,200
Fixed charges/kWh = Rs = Re 0·0438 = 4·38 paise
4,38,00
0
It is interesting to note that by decreasing the load factor from 100% to 50%,
the fixed charges/ kWh have increased two-fold. Incidentally, this illustrates the
utility of high load factor.
Example 4.7. Estimate the generating cost per kWh delivered from a
generating station from the following data :
Plant capacity = 50 MW ;Annual load factor = 40%
Capital cost = 1·2 crores ; annual cost of wages, taxation etc. = Rs 4 lakhs ;
cost of fuel, lubrication, maintenance etc. = 1·0 paise/kWh generated. Interest 5%
per annum, depreciation 6% per annum of initial value.
Solution : The maximum demand on the station may be assumed equal to the
plant capacity i.e., 50 MW.
5
Interest and Rs 120 × 10 (5 5+ 6)/100 = Rs 13·2 ×
depreciation = × 10
Rs 4 ×
5
Wages and taxation = 10
5 5
Total annual fixed Rs (13·2 105 + 4 × 10 ) = Rs 17·2 ×
charges = × 10
Annual running charges
Max.
Units generated/annum = demand × L.F. × Hours in a year
3
= (50 × 10 ) × (0·4) × (8760) kWh
= 1752 × 105 kWh
5
Cost of fuel, lubrication Rs 175210
etc. = × × 0·01 = Rs 17·52 × 105
5 5
Rs (17·2 10 + 17·52 × 10 ) = Rs 34·72
5
Total annual charges = × × 10
34 ⋅ 72 10
5
R×
∴Cost per kWh = s = Re 0·02 = 2 paise
1752 × 105
Example 4.8. A generating station has the following data :
Installed capacity = 300 MW ; Capacity factor = 50% ; Annual load factor = 60%
Annual cost of fuel, oil etc. = Rs 9 × 107 ; capital cost = Rs 109 ; annual
interest and deprecia-tion = 10%. Calculate (i) the minimum reserve capacity of
the station and (ii) the cost per kWh generated.
Solution :
Average
demand
Capacity factor, Installed
(i) C.F. = capacity ...(i)
Average
demand
Load factor, L.F. = ...(ii)
Dividing (i) by (ii), we Max. demand
get,
C. F. Max. demand
Installed
L. F. = capacity
C. F.
Installed capacity × =
0
or Max. demand = 300 × ⋅5 = 250 MW
L. F. 0 ⋅6
300 − 250 = 50
∴ Reserve capacity = MW
Units Max. demand ×
(ii) generated/annum = L.F. × Hours in a year
(250 × 103) ×
= (0·6) × 8760 kWh = 1314 × 106 kWh
Annual interest and
Annual fixed charges = depreciation
= Rs 0·1 × 109 = Rs 108
Annual running= Rs 9 × 107
charges
Rs (108 + 9 × 107) = Rs 19 ×
∴ Total annual charges = 107
19 × 107
1314 ×
∴ Cost per kWh = Rs 10
6
= Re 0·14 = 14 paise
Example 4.9. The capital cost of a hydro-power station of 50 MW capacity is
Rs 1,000 per kW. The annual depreciation charges are 10% of the capital cost. A
royalty of Re 1 per kW per year and Re 0·01 per kWh generated is to be paid for
using the river water for generation of power. The maximum demand on the
power station is 40 MW and annual load factor is 60%. Annual cost of salaries,
maintenance charges etc. is Rs 7,00,000. If 20% of this expense is also
chargeable as fixed charges, calculate the generation cost in two part form.
Solution :
(40 × 103) × (0·6) × 8760 =
Units generated/annum = 210·24 × 106 kWh
Rs 50 1000 = Rs 50 ×
3
Capital cost of plant = × 10 × 106
Rs 0·1 50
Depreciation =× × 106 = Rs 5 × 106
Rs 0·2 7,00,000 = Rs 1·4 ×
Salaries, maintenance etc. = × 105
6 5
Rs (5 10 + 1·4 × 10 ) = Rs
Total annual fixed charges = × 51·4 × 105
Cost per kW due to fixed charges +
Cost per kW = Royalty
51⋅ 4 + Re 1 = Rs 128·5 + Re 1 = Rs
= Rs × 105 129·5
40
× 103
Annual running charges
Rs 0·8 7,00,000 = Rs 5·6 ×
Salaries, maintenance etc. = × 105
Cost/kWh due to running charges +
Cost per kWh = Royalty
5 ⋅ 6 × 105
= 210 ⋅ 24
Rs × 106 + Re 0 ⋅01
= Re 0·0027 + Re 0·01 = Re
0·0127 ∴ Total generation cost in two part form is given
by ;
Rs (129· 5 × kW + 0·0127 × kWh)
Example 4.10. The annual working cost of a power station is represented by
the formula Rs (a + b kW + c kWh) where the various terms have their usual
meaning. Determine the values of a, b and c for a 60 MW station operating at
annual load factor of 50% from the following data :
(i) capital cost of building and equipment is Rs 5 × 106
(ii) the annual cost of fuel, oil, taxation and wages of operating staff is Rs 9,00,000
(iii) the interest and depreciation on building and equipment are 10% per annum
(iv) annual cost of organisation and interest on cost of site etc. is Rs 5,00,000.

Solution :
Max. demand ×Hours in a
Units generated/annum = L.F. × year
(60 × 10 )(0·5) × (8760) kWh = 262·8 × 106
3
= × kWh
Rs (a + b kW + c
Annual operating cost = × × kWh)
where a = annual fixed cost
b
× kW = annual semi-fixed cost
c annual running
× kWh= cost
Annual fixed cost. The annual fixed cost is due to the annual cost of organisation and
interest on
the cost of site.
a = Rs 5,00,000
Annual semi-fixed cost. This is on account of annual interest and
depreciation on building and equipment.
Annual semi-fixed cost = Rs 0·1 × 5 × 106 = Rs 5,00,000
But annual semi-fixed cost is equal to b × kW where b is the cost per kW of maximum
demand.
Rs
∴ b × 60 × 103 = 5,00,000
5,00,00
0 = Rs
or b = Rs 8·34
60 × 103
Annual running cost. This is due to the annual cost of fuel, oil, taxation, salaries of
operating
staff.
∴ c × kWh generated = Rs 9,00,000
or c × 262·8 × 106 = Rs 9,00,000
9,00,000
= 262 ⋅ 8 × = Re
∴ c Rs 10
6
0·0034
Example 4.11. A hydro-electric plant costs Rs 3000 per kW of installed
capacity. The total annual charges consist of 5% as interest ; depreciation at 2%,
operation and maintenance at 2% and insurance, rent etc. 1·5%. Determine a
suitable two-part tariff if the losses in transmission and distribution are 12·5%
and diversity of load is 1·25. Assume that maximum demand on the station is 80%
of the capacity and annual load factor is 40%. What is the overall cost of
generation per kWh?
Solution : Let the installed capacity of the station
be 100 kW. Maximum demand = 100 ×
0·8 = 80 kW
Average demand = 80 × 0·4 = 32 kW
Capital cost of plant = Rs 100 × 3000 = Rs 3 × 105
Annual fixed charges. The annual fixed charges are due to interest (5%) and
depreciation
(2%)
.
5
Rs × 10 × (5 + 2))100 = Rs
∴ Annual fixed charges = 3 21000
Aggregate of max. 80
demand = × 1·25 = 100 kW
∴Annual fixed charges = Rs 21000)100 = Rs 210 per kW of max. demand
Annual running charges. The annual running charges are due to operation and
maintenance
(2%) and insurance, rent
(1·5%) etc.
Rs 3 × 105 (2 + 1·5))100 = Rs
Annual running charges = × 10,500
Average demand × Hours in a
Units generated/annum = year
= 32 × 8760 = 2,80,320 kWh
Units reaching the 2,80,320 × 0·875 = 2,45,280
consumer = kWh
10,500
∴Annual running charge = Rs = Re 0·043 per kWh
2,45,280
Example 4.12. Compare the annual cost of supplying a factory load having a
maximum de-mand of 1 MW and a load factor of 50% by energy obtained from (i)
a private oil engine generating plant and (ii) public supply.
(i) Private oil engine generating unit :
Capital cost = Rs 12 × 105 ; Cost of repair and maintenance = Rs 0·005 per kWh
generated
Cost of fuel = Rs 1600 per 1000 kg ; Interest and depreciation = 10% per annum
Fuel consumption = 0·3 kg/kWh generated ; Wages = Rs 50,000 per annum
(ii) Public supply company :
Rs 150 per kW of maximum demand plus 15 paise per kWh
Solution :
Units (1000)
generated/annum = × (0·5) × 8760 = 438 × 104 kWh
Private oil engine generating
(i) plant
0·3 × 438
Annual fuel consumption =× 104 = 13·14 × 105 kg
Rs 13·14 105 1600)1000 = Rs
Annual cost of fuel = × × 21,02,400
Annual cost of repair and Rs 0·005 438
maintenance = × × 104 = Rs 21,900
Rs
Annual wages = 50,000
Annual interest and 5
depreciation = Rs 0·1 × 12 × 10 = Rs 1,20,000
Rs (21,02,400 + 21,900 + 50,000 +
∴ Total annual charges = 1,20,000)
= Rs 22,94,300
(ii) Public supply
Rs 150
Annual fixed charges = × 1000 = Rs 1,50,000
Annual running Rs 0·15
charges = × 438 × 104 = Rs 6,57,000
Total annual charges = Rs (1,50,000 + 6,57,000) = Rs 8,07,000
Example 4.13. A power station having a maximum demand of 100 MW has a

load factor of 30% and is to be supplied by one of the following schemes :
(i) a steam station in conjunction with a hydro-electric station, the latter
supplying 100 × 106 kWh per annum with a maximum output of 40 MW.
(ii) a steam station capable of supplying the whole load.
(iii) a hydro-station capable of supplying the whole load.
Compare the overall cost per kWh generated, assuming the following data :
Steam Hydro
Rs
(a) Capital cost)kW installed Rs 1250 2500
(b) Interest and depreciation on capital
investment 12% 10%
1·5
(c) Operating cost)kWh 5 paise paise
0·2
(d) Transmission cost)kWh negligible paise
Solution
:
Max. demand ×
Units generated/annum = L.F. × Hours in a year
(100 × 103) ×(8760) = 262·8 × 106
= (0·3) × kWh
(i) Steam sation in conjunction with hydro station

Units supplied by hydro-station = 100 × 106 kWh
∴Units supplied by steam station = (262·8 − 100) × 106 = 162·8 × 106 kWh
Since the maximum output of hydro station is 40 MW, the balance 100 − 40 =
60 MW shall be supplied by steam station.
(a) Steam Station
Rs 60 × 103 × 1250 = Rs 75 ×
6
Capital Cost = 10
Annual interest and Rs 0·12 75
depreciation = × × 106 = Rs 9 × 106
6
Rs 0·05 162·8 × 10 = Rs 8·14 ×
Operating Cost = × 106
negligib
Transmission cost = le
6
Rs (9 + 10 = Rs 17·14 ×
∴ Total annual cost = 8·14) × 106
Hydro
(b)station
Capital Cost = Rs 2500 × 40 × 103 = Rs 100 × 106
Annual interest and depreciation = Rs 0·1 × 100 × 106 = Rs 10 × 106
Operating cost = Rs 0·015 × 100 × 106 = Rs 1·5 × 106
Transmission cost = Rs 0·002 × 100 × 106 = Rs 0·2 × 106
Total annual cost = Rs (10 + 1·5 + 0·2) × 106 = Rs 11·7 × 106
Total annual charges for both steam and hydro stations
= Rs (17·14 + 11·7) × 106 = Rs 28·84 × 106
28 ⋅ 84
× 106 = Re 0·1097 = 10·97
∴ Overall cost)kWh = Rs 262 ⋅ 8 paise
6
Steam × 10
(ii)station
Rs 1250100
Capital cost = × × 103 = Rs 125 × 106
Annual interest and Rs 0·12 125
depreciation = × × 106 = Rs 15 × 106
15
× 106
262 ⋅ 8 = Re 0·0571 = 5·71

Fixed charges)kWh = Rs × 106 paise
Operating cost)kWh = 5 paise
negligib
Transmission cost)kWh = le
∴ Overall cost)kWh = 5·71 + 5 = 10·71 paise
Hydro
(iii)station
Rs 2500100
Capital cost = × × 103 = Rs 250 × 106
Annual interest and 6 6
depreciation = Rs 0·1 × 250 × 10 = Rs 25 × 10
25 × 106
262 ⋅ 8 = Re 0·0951 = 9·51

∴ Fixed charges)kWh = Rs × 106 paise
Adding the operating cost)unit and transmission cost per unit, we
get,
Overall cost)kWh = 9·51 + 1·5 + 0·2 = 11·21 paise
Example 4.14. A load having a maximum value of 150 MW can be supplied either by a
hydro-
electric station or steam power plant. The costs are as follows :
Capital cost per kW Interes
Plant installed Operating cost per kWh t
Steam
Plant Rs 1600 Re 0·06 7%
Hydro
Plant Rs 3000 Re 0·03 7%
Calculate the minimum load factor above which the hydro-electric plant will be more
economical-
Solution :
Maximum demand = 150 MW = 150 × 103 kW
Let the total number of units generated per annum be x.
Steam plant
Capital cost = Rs 1600 × 150 × 103 = Rs 240 × 106
106 = Rs 16·8 × 106
Annual interest = Rs 0·07
× 240 ×
16 ⋅ 8
Fixed cost)unit = Rs I
× 106 + 0 ⋅ 06JK
x ...(i
Running cost)unit = Re 0·06 )
(given)
⋅
6
F 16 8 × 10
∴ Total cost)unit = Rs G
H x
Hydro plant
Rs 3000150 103 = Rs 450
Capital cost = × × × 106
6
0·07 450 × 10 = Rs 31·5 ×
6
Annual interest = × 10
31 ⋅ 5 ×106
Fixed cost)unit = Re
x
Re 0·03
Running cost)unit = (given)
F 31⋅ 5
× 106 I
∴ Total cost)unit = Rs
G +
⋅03J 0 ...(ii)
Hx K
The overall cost per unit of steam plant will be equal to hydro plant if exp. (i) = exp (ii) i.e.,
16 ⋅ 8 × 31 ⋅ 5 ×
6
10 106
+ 0 ⋅ 06 = + 0 ⋅ 03
x x
31·5 × 106 + 0·03
or 16·8 × 106 + 0·06 x = x
14 ⋅ 7 ×
106 = 490 × 106
∴ x = kWh
0 ⋅ 03
It follows, therefore, that if the units generated per annum are more than 490 ×
106, the hydro
plant will be more
economical.
490 × 106 × 100 =
∴ Load factor = (150 × 37·3%
103)× 8760
Therefore, the minimum load factor above which the hydro plant will be economical is 37·3%.
Example 4.15. A particular area can be supplied either by hydro station or steam station. The
following data is available :
Hydro Steam
Rs
Capital cost)kW Rs 2100 1200
5
Running cost)kWh 3·2 paise paise
Interest and depreciation 7·5% 9%
Reserve capacity 33% 25%
(i) At what load factor would the overall cost be the same in
both cases ?
(ii) What would be the cost of
generating 40 × 106 units at this load factor ?
Solution : Let x kW be the maximum demand. Let y be the annual load factor at which cost)unit of
steam and hydro stations is the same.
Units generated)annum = x × y × 8760 = 8760 xy kWh
(i) The installed capacity of steam station will be 1·25x kW (keeping 25% as reserve capacity),
whereas the installed capacity of hydro station would be 1·33x kW (keeping 33% as reserve capacity).

Steam station
Rs 12001·25x = Rs
Capital cost = × 1500x
Interest and Rs 0·091500x = Rs
depreciation = × 135x
Running cost)annum = Rs 0·05 × 8760x y = Rs 438x y
(135x + 438
xy)
∴ Overall cost)kWh = Re ...(i)
8760 xy
Hydro station
Rs 21001·33x = Rs
Capital cost = × 2793x
Interest and Rs 0·0752793x = Rs
depreciation = × 210x
Rs 0·0328760x y = Rs
Running cost)kWh = × 280x y
(210x + 280
xy)
∴ Overall cost)kWh = Re ...(ii)
8760 xy
As the overall cost per unit is the same in each case, therefore, equating exps. (i) and (ii),
we get,
(135x + 438 (210x + 280
xy) xy)
=
8760 xy 8760 xy
158 x
or 75 x = y
Load factor,
∴ y = 75 x)158 x = 0·4746 = 47·46%
Units
(ii) generated/annum = 8760 x y
8760 x ×
6
or 40 × 10 = × 0·4746
Max. 40 × 106 = 9·62 × 103
∴ demand, x = 8760 0⋅ kW
× 4746
∴ Cost of generation = Rs (135 x + 438 x y)
Rs (135 ×103 + 438 × 9·62 × 103 ×
= 9·62 × 0·4746)
Rs (1298·7 × 103 + 2000 × 103) = Rs
3
= 3298·7 × 10
Example 4.16. The load duration curve of a system for the whole year of 8760
hours is as shown in Fig. 4.3. The system is supplied by two stations A and B
having the following annual costs:
Station A = Rs (75,000 + 80 × kW + 0·02 × kWh)
Station B = Rs (50,000 + 50 × kW + 0·03 × kWh)
Determine the installed capacity required for each station and for how many
hours per year peak load station should be operated to give the minimum cost per
unit generated.
Solution : Fig. 4.3 shows the annual load duration curve of the system. As
station A has the lower operating cost, it should be used as the base load station.
On the other hand, station B should be used as the peak load station.
Le
t x = Installed capacity of station B in kW
y = Hours of operation of station B
∴ Installed capacity of station A= (50,000 − x) kW
1 8760 *
xy = 1 × x
Units generated)annum by
station B = x× = 0·0876 x2
22 50,000
× 50,000
Unit generated)annum by station A = 1× 8760 − 0·0876 x2
2
6 2
= 219 × 10 − 0·0876 x
2
Annual cost of station B, CB = Rs (50,000 + 50 x + 0·03 × 0·0876 x )
2
= Rs (50,000 + 50 x + 0·00262 x )
6 2
Annual cost of station A , CA = Rs (75,000 + 80 (50,000 − x) + 0·02 (219 × 10 − 0·0876 x )
Rs (8·455
= × 106 − 80 x − 0·00175 x2)
Total annual operating cost of stations A
∴ and B
C = CA + CB
= Rs (50,000 + 50 x + 0·00262 x2) + (8·455 × 106 − 80 x − 0·00175 x2)
= Rs (85,05,000 − 30 x + 0·00087 x2)
COURSE OUTCOMES
After taking this course the students should be able to
 Select the suitability of site for a power plant.
 Calculate performance of thermal power plant.
 Propose ash handling, coal handling method in a thermal power plant.
 Explain working principle of different types of power plant.
 Calculate load factor, capacity factor, average load and peak load on a power plant.
 Indicate safety aspects of power plants
ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST
1. (i) decrease, wear and tear, (ii) fixed, semi-fixed, running cost, (iii) more, (iv)
maximum demand
(v) units generated, (vi) early, (vii) smaller.
2. (i) does not depend upon, (ii) increased, (iii) increased, (iv) running.
CHAPTER REVIEW TOPICS

1. Explain the terms interest and depreciation as applied to economics of power
generation.
2. Discuss the different classifications of costs of electrical energy.
3. Give the basis for expressing the cost of electrical energy as a + b kW + c
kWh and explain the factors on which a, b and c depend.
4. Discuss the various methods of determining the depreciation of the equipment.
5. Enlist the effects of high load factor on the operation of power plants.
6. Write short notes on the following :
(i) Advantages of high load factor.
(ii) Sinking fund method of depreciation.
(iii) Three-part form of cost of electrical energy.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What is the importance of interest on capital investment in calculating the
cost of electrical energy ?
2. What is the significance of depreciation in the economics of power generation ?
3. Why is fixed cost independent of maximum demand and units generated ?
4. How does high load factor reduce the variable load problems on the power station ?
UNIT - 8
Economic Analysis of power plant
STRUCTURE
7.1 Introduction
Objectives
7.2 Terms and Definitions
7.3 Fixed Cost
7.4 Methods of Depreciation
7.4.1 Straight-line Depreciation
7.4.2 Sinking Fund Method
7.4.3 Declining Balance/Reducing Balance
7.4.4 Activity Depreciation
7.5 Operational Cost
7.5.1 Cost of Fuels
7.5.2 Labour Cost
7.5.3 Cost of Maintenance and Repairs
7.5.4 Cost of Stores
7.5.5 Supervision
7.5.6 Taxes
7.6 Economics in Plant Selection
7.7 Factors Affecting Economics of Generation and Distribution of Power
Objectives that students will meet at the end of the course

 List types, principles of operations, components and applications of steam turbines, steam
generators, condensers, feed water and circulating water systems.
 Estimate different efficiencies associated with such systems.
 Define terms and factors associated with power plant economics.
 Calculate present worth depreciation and cost of different types of power plants.
 Estimate the cost of producing power per kW.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In all fields of industry economics plays an important role. In power plant engineering economics of power system
use certain well established techniques for choosing the most suitable system. The power plant design must be made
on the basis of most economical condition and not on the most efficient condition as the profit is the main basis in
the design of the plant and its effectiveness is measured financially. The main purpose of design and operation of the
plant is to bring the cost of energy produced to minimum. Among many factors, the efficiency of the plant is one of
the factors that determines the energy cost. In majority of cases, unfortunately, the most thermally efficient plant is
not economic one.
Objectives
After the studying of this unit, you should be able to
 know the costs associated with power generation,
 describe the fixed and operational costs,
 explain the economics of plant selection, and
 explain the economics of plant operation.

7.2 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Connected Load
The connected load on any system, or part of a system, is the combined continuous rating of all
the receiving apparatus on consumers’ premises, which is connected to the system, or part of
the system, under consideration.
Demand
The demand of an installation or system is the load that is drawn from the source of supply at
the receiving terminals averaged over a suitable and specified interval of time. Demand is
expressed in kilowatts (kW), kilovolt-amperes (kVA), amperes (A), or other suitable units.
Maximum Demand or Peak Load
The maximum demand of an installation or system is the greatest of all the demands that
have occurred during a given period. It is determined by measurement, according to
specifications, over a prescribed interval of time.
Demand Factor
The demand factor of any system, or part of a system, is the ratio of maximum demand of the
system, a part of the system, to the total connected load of the system, or of the part of the
system, under consideration. Expressing the definition mathematically,
Demand factor = Maximum demand . . . (7.1)

Connected load
Land Factor
The load factor is the ratio of the average power to the maximum demand. In each case, the
interval of maximum load and the period over which the average is taken should be definitely
specified, such as a “half-hour monthly” load factor. The proper interval and period are usually
dependent upon local conditions and upon the purpose for which the load factor is to be used.
Expressing the definition mathematically,
Average load
Load factor = Maximum demand . . . (7.2)
Diversity Factor
The diversity factor of any system, or part of a system, is the ratio of the maximum power
demands of the subdivisions of the system, or part of a system, to the maximum demand of the
whole system, or part of the system, under consideration, measured at the point of supply.
Expressing the definition mathematically,
Diversity factor = Sum of individual maximum demands . . . (7.3)

Maximum demand of entire group
Utilisation Factor
The utilisation factor is defined as the ratio of the maximum generator demand to the
generator capacity.
Plant Capacity Factor
It is defined as the ratio of actual energy produced in kilowatt hours (kWh) to the maximum
possible energy that could have been produced during the same period. Expressing the
definition mathematically,
E
Plant capacity factor = C t . . . (7.4)
where, E = Energy produced (kWh) in a given period,
C = Capacity of the plant in kW, and
t = Total number of hours in the given period.
Plant Use Factor
It is defined as the ratio of energy produced in a given time to the maximum
possible energy that could have been produced during the actual number of hours
the plant was in operation. Expressing the definition mathematically,
E
Plant use factor = C t . . . (7.5)
where, t= Actual number of hours the plant has been in operation.
Types of Loads
Residential Load
This type of load includes domestic lights, power needed for domestic
appliances such as radios, television, water heaters, refrigerators, electric
cookers and small motors for pumping water.
Commercial Load
It includes lighting for shops, advertisements and electrical appliances used
in shops and restaurants, etc.
Industrial Load
It consists of load demand of various industries.
Municipal Load
It consists of street lighting, power required for water supply and drainage
purposes.
Irrigation Load
This type of load includes electrical power needed for pumps driven by
electric motors to supply water to fields.
Traction Load
It includes terms, cars, trolley, buses and railways.
Load Curve
A load curve (or load graph) is a graphic record showing the power demands for
every instant during a certain time interval. Such a record may cover 1 hour, in
which case it would be an hourly load graph; 24 hours, in which case it would be
a daily load graph; a month in which case it would be a monthly load graph; or a
year (7860 hours), in which case it would be a yearly load graph. The following
points are worth noting :
(i) The area under the load curve represents the energy generated in the
period considered.
(ii) The area under the curve divided by the total number of hours gives
the average load on the power station.
(iii) The peak load indicated by the load curve/graph represents the
maximum demand of the power station.
Significance of Load Curves
 Load curves give full information about the incoming and help to
decide the installed capacity of the power station and to decide the
economical sizes of various generating units. 165
These curves also help to estimate the generating cost and to decide the operating
schedule of the power station, i.e. the sequence in which different units should be
run.
(kW
Power demand )
Peak
Average load
load
Base load
Time (hours)
Figure 7.1 : Load Curve
Load Duration Curve
A load duration curve represents re-arrangements of all the load elements of

chronological load curve in order of descending magnitude. This curve is derived
from the chronological load curve.
Figure 7.2 shows a typical daily load curve for a power station. It may be observed
that the maximum load on power station is 35 kW from 8 AM to 2 PM. This is
plotted in Figure 7.3. Similarly, other loads of the load curve are plotted in
descending order in the same figure. This is called load duration curve
(Figure 7.3).
35 kW
30 kW
24
kW
3 kW
6 A.M. 8 A.M. 2 P.M. 3 P.M. 6 P.M. 6 A.M.

Time (hours)
Figure 7.2 : Typical Daily Load Curve
35 kW
30 kW
Load (kW)
24 kW
18 kW
3 kW
0 6 9 10 12 24
Time (hours)
Figure 7.3 : Load Duration Curve

The following points are worth noting :
(a) The area under the load duration curve and the corresponding
chronological load curve is equal and represents total energy
delivered by the generating station.
(b) Load duration curve gives a clear analysis of generating power
economically. Proper selection of base load power plants and peak
load power plants becomes easier.
Dump Power
This term is used in hydroplants and it shows the power in excess of the load
requirements and it is made available by surplus water.
Firm Power
It is the power which should always be available even under emergency
conditions.
Prime Power
It is the power which may be mechanical, hydraulic or thermal that is always
available for conversion into electric power.
Cold Reserve
It is that reverse generating capacity which is not in operation but can be made
available for service.
Hot Reserve
It is that reserve generating capacity which is in operation but not in service.
Spinning Reserve
It is that reserve generating capacity which is connected to the bus and is ready to
take the load.
7.3 FIXED COST

Initial Cost of the Plant
Initial cost of the plant, which includes :
(a) Land cost
(b) Building cost
(c) Equipment cost
(d) Installation cost
(e) Overhead charges
Rate of Interest
It is the difference between the money obtained and the money returned and may
be charged as simple interest or compound interest.
Depreciation Cost
It takes into account the deterioration of the component over a period of time.
7.4 METHODS OF DEPRECIATION

There are several methods for calculating depreciation, generally based on either the
passage of time or the level of activity (or use) of the asset. 167
7.4.1 Straight-line Depreciation
Straight-line depreciation is the simplest and most-often-used technique, in which the
company estimates the salvage value of the asset at the end of the period during which it
will be used to generate revenues (useful life) and will expense a portion of original cost
in equal increments over that period. The salvage value is an estimate of the value of the
asset at the time it will be sold or disposed of; it may be zero or even negative. Salvage
value is also known as scrap value or residual value.
Annual Depreciation Expense = Cost of Fixed Assed Residual

Value Useful Life of Asset (Years)
7.4.2 Sinking Fund Method

The sinking fund technique of calculating depreciation sets the depreciation expense as a
particular amount of an annuity. The depreciation is calculated so that at the end of the
useful life of the annuity, the amount of the annuity equals the acquisition cost. The
sinking fund method calculates more depreciation closer to the end of the useful life of
the asset, and isn’t used very often.
7.4.3 Declining Balance/Reducing Balance
This way of calculating depreciation falls under the accelerated depreciation category.
This means that it sets depreciation expenses as higher earlier on, more realistically
reflecting the current resale value of an asset.
The way that declining-balance depreciation is calculated is by taking the net book value
from the previous year, and multiplying it by a factor (usually 2) which has been divided
by the useful life of the asset.
7.4.4 Activity Depreciation
This way of calculating depreciation bases the depreciation expense on the activity of an
asset, like a machine. Multiplying the rate by the actual activity level of the asset will
give depreciation expense for the year.
7.4.5 Sum of Years Digits
This way of calculating depreciation is given by the following formula :
Sum = N (N 
1) 2
D (t) = (N  t  1)  (B
S) Sum
where, N = Depreciable life,
B = Cost basis,
S = Salvage value, and
D (t) = Depreciation charge for year t.
Taxes and Insurance.
7.5 OPERATIONAL COST

The elements that make up the operating expenditure of a power plant include the
following costs :
(a) Cost of fuels.
(b) Labour cost.
(c) Cost of maintenance and repairs.
(d) Cost of stores (other than fuel).
(e) Supervision.
(f) Taxes.
7.5.1 Cost of Fuels

In a thermal station fuel is the heaviest item of operating cost. The selection of the fuel
and the maximum economy in it use are, therefore, very important considerations in
thermal plant design. It is desirable to achieve the highest thermal efficiency for the plant
so that fuel charges are reduced. The cost of fuel includes not only its price at the site of
purchase but its transportation and handling costs also. In the hydroplants the absence of
fuel factor in cost is responsible for lowering the operating cost. Plant heat rate can be
improved by the use of better quality of fuel or by employing better thermodynamic
conditions in the plant design.
The cost of fuel varies with the following :
(a) Unit price of the fuel.
(b) Amount of energy produced.
(c) Efficiency of the plant.
7.5.2 Labour Cost

For plant operation labour cost is another item of operating cost. Maximum labour is
needed in a thermal power plant using coal as a fuel. A hydraulic power plant or a diesel
power plant of equal capacity require a lesser number of persons. In case of automatic
power station the cost of labour is reduced to a great extent. However, labour cost cannot
be completely eliminated even with fully automatic station as they will still require some
manpower for periodic inspection, etc.
7.5.3 Cost of Maintenance and Repairs

In order to avoid plant breakdowns maintenance is necessary. Maintenance includes
periodic cleaning, greasing, adjustments and overhauling of equipment. The material
used for maintenance is also charged under this head. Sometimes an arbitrary percentage
is assumed as maintenance cost. A good plan of maintenance would keep the sets in
dependable condition and avoid the necessity of too many stand-by plants.
Repairs are necessitated when the plant breaks down or stops due to faults developing in
the mechanism. The repairs may be minor, major or periodic overhauls and are charged
to the depreciation fund of the equipment. This item of cost is higher for thermal plants
than for hydro-plants due to complex nature of principal equipment and auxiliaries in the
former.
7.5.4 Cost of Stores (Other Than Fuel)

The items of consumable stores other than fuel include such articles as lubricating oil
and greases, cotton waste, small tools, chemicals, paints and such other things. The
incidence of this cost is also higher in thermal stations than in hydro-electric power
stations.
7.5.5 Supervisions
In this head the salary of supervising staff is included. A good supervision is reflected in
lesser breakdowns and extended plant life. The supervising staff includes the station
superintendent, chief engineer, chemist, engineers, supervisors, stores incharges,
purchase officer and other establishment. Again, thermal stations, particularly coal fed,
have a greater incidence of this cost than the hydro-electric power stations.
7.5.6 Taxes
The taxes under operating head includes the following :
(a) Income tax
(b) Sales tax
(c) Social security and employee’s security, etc.
7.6 ECONOMICS IN PLANT SELECTION

After selection of type of drive (such as steam, gas diesel or water power) which depends
on availability of cheap fuels or water resources, further selection of the design and size
of the equipment is primarily based upon economic consideration and a plant that gives
the lowest unit cost of production is usually chosen. In case of all types of equipment the
working efficiency is generally higher with larger sizes of plants and with high load
factor operation. Also, the capital cost per unit installation reduces as the plant is
increased in size. However, a bigger size of plant would require greater investment and
possibilities of lower than optimum, load factor usually increase with larger size of the
plant.
Steam Power Plants
In case of steam power plants the choice of steam conditions such as throttle
pressure and temperature, is an important factor affecting operating costs and is,
therefore, very carefully made. As throttle pressure and temperature are raised
the capital cost increases but the cycle efficiency is increased. The advantages of
higher pressures and temperatures is generally not apparent below capacity of
10,000 kW unless fuel cost is very high.
Heat rates may be improved further through reheating and regeneration, but again
the capital cost of additional equipment has to be balanced against gain in
operating cost.
The use of heat reclaiming devices, such as air pre-heaters and economisers, has to
be considered from the point of economy in the consumption of fuel.
Internal Combustion Engine Plants
In this case also the selection of I.C. engines also depends on thermodynamic
considerations. The efficiency of the engine improves with compression ratio but
high pressures necessitate heavier construction of equipment which increases
cost.
The choice may also have to be made between four-stroke and two-stroke engines,
the former having higher thermal efficiency and the latter lower weight and cost.
The cost of the supercharger may be justified if there is a substantial gain in

engine power which may balance the additional supercharger cost.
Gas Turbine Power Plant
The cost of the gas turbine power plant increases as the simple plant is modified
by inclusion of other equipment such as intercooler, regenerator, re-heater, etc.
but the gain in thermal efficiency and thereby a reduction in operating cost may
justify this additional expense in first cost.
Hydro-electric Power Plant
As compared with thermal stations an hydro-electric power plant has little

operating cost and if sufficient water is available to cater to peak loads and special
conditions for application of these plants justify, power can be produced at a
small cost.
The capital cost per unit installed is higher if the quantity of water is small. Also,
the unit cost of conveying water to the power house is greater if the quantity of
water is small. The cost of storage per unit is also lower if the quantity of water
stored is large.
An existing plant capacity may be increased by storing additional water through
increasing the height of dam or by diverting water from other streams into the
head reservoir. However, again it would be an economic study whether this
additional cost of civil works would guarantee sufficient returns.
Some hydro-power plants may be made automatic or remote controlled to reduce
the operating cost further, but the cost of automation has to be balanced against
the saving effected in the unit cost of generation.
Interconnected Hydro-steam System
In such a system where peak loads are taken up by steam units, the capacity of
water turbine may be kept somewhat higher than the water flow capacity at peak
loads, and lesser than or equal to maximum flow of river. This would make it
possible for the water turbine to generate adequate energy at low cost during
sufficient water flow.
Some of the principal characteristics of hydro-electric, steam and diesel power
plants are listed below :
Sl.
Characteristics Hydro-plant Steam Plant Diesel Plant
No.
1. Planning and construction Difficult and Easier than Easiest
takes long time hydro-plant
2. Civil works cost Highest Lower than Lowest
hydro-plant
3. Running and maintenance 1 1 1
cost (as a fraction of total
10 7 6
generation cost)
4. Overall generation cost Lowest Lower than for Highest
diesel plant
5. Reliability Good Good Excellent
Advantages of Interconnection
Major advantages of interconnecting various power stations are :
(a) Increased reliability of supply.
(b) Reduction in total installed capacity.
(c) Economic operation.
(d) Operating savings.
(e) Low capital and maintenance costs.
(f) Peak loads of combined system can be carried at a much lower cost
than what is possible with small individual system.
7.7 FACTORS AFFECTING ECONOMICS OF

GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF POWER
The economics of power plant operation is greatly influenced by :
(a) Load factor
(b) Demand factor
(c) Utilisation factor
In a hydro-electric power station with water available and a fixed staff for maximum output, the
cost per unit generated at 100% load factor would be half the cost per unit at 50% load factor. In a
steam power station the difference would not be so pronounced since fuel cost constitutes the major
item in operating costs and does not vary in the same proportion as load factor. The cost at 100%
load factor in case of this station may, therefore, be about 2/3rd of the cost 50% load factor. For a
diesel station the cost per unit generated at 100% load factor may be about 3/4th of the same cost at
50% load factor. From the above discussion it follows that :
 Hydro-electric power station should be run at its maximum load continuously on all
units.
 Steam power station should be run in such a way that all its running units are
economically loaded.
 Diesel power station should be worked for fluctuating loads or as a stand by.
Demand Factor and Utilisation Factor
A higher efficient station, if worked at low utilisation factor, may produce power at high unit cost.
The time of maximum demand occurring in a system is also important. In an interconnected

system, a study of the curves of all stations is necessary to plan most economical operations.
The endeavour should be to load the most efficient and cheapest power producing stations to the
greatest extent possible. Such stations, called “base load stations” carry full load over 24 hours, i.e.
for three shifts of 8 hours.
The stations in the medium range of efficiency are operated only during the two shifts of 8
hours during 16 hours of average load.
The older or less efficient stations are used as peak or standby stations only, and are operated
rarely or for short periods of time.
Presently there is a tendency to use units of large capacities to reduce space costs and to handle larger
loads. However, the maximum economic benefit of large sets occurs only when these are run
continuously at near full load. Running of large sets for long periods at lower than maximum
continuous rating increase cost of unit generated.
OUTCOMES
 Discuss the control methods of major pollutants emitted from fossil-fuel power plants.
 Discuss the environmental impact of electric power production on air quality, climate change,
water, and land.
 Perform the preliminary design of the major components or systems of a conventional or
alternate power plant
 Explain the blade shapes, and calculate work output of typical turbine stages.
 Calculate the performance of gas turbines with reheat and regeneration, and discuss
the performance of combined cycle power plants
SELF TEST QUESTIONS
 Describe the various costs associated with power plants.
 Explain the economics in plant selection.
 Describe the factors affecting economics of generation and distribution of power.
FURTHER READING

UNIT - 6
Nuclear Power Plant
STRUCTURE
6.1 Nuclear And Hydel Power Plants

6.1.1Fission Energy
6.1.2 Chain Reaction
6.1.3 Main Components Of Nuclear Power Plants
6.2 Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
6.3 CANDU Type Reactor
6.4 Fast Breeder Reactor
6.5 Waste Disposal
6.6 HYDEL Power Plant
6..6.1. Classification Of Hydro-Power Plants
OBJECTIVES:
 Understand the sources of energy and their contributions to the energy and power needs of
the nation and the world.
 Understand the special engineering challenges of using each of these sources of energy
efficiently and environmentally effectively.
 Understand the energy conversion systems for nuclear power plants, the
advantages/disadvantages (including overall environmental effects) of each type of present
plants, and those of the new Generation IV concepts.
Nuclear power is the use of sustained or controlled nuclear fission to generate heat and
do useful work. Nuclear Electric Plants, Nuclear Ships and Submarines use controlled nuclear
energy to heat water and produce steam, while in space, nuclear energy decays naturally
in a radioisotope thermoelectric generator. Scientists are experimenting with fusion energy for
Future generation, but these experiments do not currently generate useful energy.
Nuclear power provides about 6% of the world's energy and 13–14% of the world's
electricity, with the U.S., France, and Japan together accounting for about 50% of nuclear
generated electricity.
Also, more than 150 naval vessels using nuclear propulsion have been built. Just as
many conventional thermal power stations generate electricity by harnessing the thermal
energy released from burning fossil fuels, nuclear power plants convert the energy released
from the nucleus of an atom, typically via nuclear fission.
6.1 LAYOUT OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT:
6.2 ADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

The various advantages of a nuclear power plant are as follows:
1. Space requirement of a nuclear power plant is less as compared to other conventional power
plants are of equal size.
2. A nuclear power plant consumes very small quantity of fuel. Thus fuel transportation cost is
less and large fuel storage facilities are not needed Further the nuclear power plants will
conserve the fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas etc.) for other energy need.
3. There is increased reliability of operation.
4. Nuclear power plants are not effected by adverse weather conditions.
5. Nuclear power plants are well suited to meet large power demands. They give better
performance
at higher load factors (80 to 90%).
6. Materials expenditure on metal structures, piping, storage mechanisms are much lower for a
nuclear power plant than a coal burning power plant.
For example for a 100 mW nuclear power plant the weight of machines and mechanisms,
weight of metal structures, weight of pipes and fittings and weight of masonry and bricking
up required are nearly 700 tonnes, 900 tonnes, 200 tonnes and 500 tonnes respectively whereas
6.3 NUCLEAR REACTOR
A nuclear reactor is an apparatus in which heat is produced due to nuclear fission chain
reaction. Fig. shows the various parts of reactor, which are as follows:
1. Nuclear Fuel
2. Moderator
3. Control Rods
4. Reflector
5. Reactors Vessel
6. Biological Shielding
7. Coolant.
Nuclear reactor
1. Nuclear Fuel
Fuel of a nuclear reactor should be fissionable material which can be defined as an
element or isotope whose nuclei can be caused to undergo nuclear fission by nuclear
bombardment and to produce a fission chain reaction. It can be one or all of the following
233 235 239
U ,U and Pu .
234 35
Natural uranium found in earth crust contains three isotopes namely U , U2 and
238
U and their average percentage is as follows:
238
U - 99.3%
235
U - 0.7%
234
U - Trace
2. Moderator
In the chain reaction the neutrons produced are fast moving neutrons. These fast moving
neutrons are far less effective in causing the fission of U235 and try to escape from the
reactor. To improve the utilization of these neutrons their speed is reduced. It is done by
colliding them with the nuclei of other material which is lighter, does not capture the neutrons
but scatters them. Each such collision causes loss of energy, and the speed of the fast moving
neutrons is reduced. Such material is called Moderator. The slow neutrons (Thermal
Neutrons) so produced are easily captured by the nuclear fuel and the chain reaction proceeds
smoothly. Graphite, heavy water and beryllium are generally used as moderator
3. Control Rods
The Control and operation of a nuclear reactor is quite different from a fossil fuelled (coal or
oil fired) furnace. The energy produced in the reactor due to fission of nuclear fuel during
chain reaction is so much that if it is not controlled properly the entire core and surrounding
structure may melt and radioactive fission products may come out of the reactor thus making
it uninhabitable. This implies that we should have some means to control the power of reactor.
This is done by means of control rods.
Control rods in the cylindrical or sheet form are made of boron or cadmium. These rods
can be moved in and out of the holes in the reactor core assembly. Their insertion absorbs more
neutrons and damps down the reaction and their withdrawal absorbs less neutrons. Thus power of
reaction is controlled by shifting control rods which may be done manually or automatically.
4. Reflector
The neutrons produced during the fission process will be partly absorbed by the fuel
rods, moderator, coolant or structural material etc. Neutrons left unabsorbed will try to leave
the reactor core never to return to it and will be lost. Such losses should be minimized. It is
done by surrounding the reactor core by a material called reflector which will send the
neutrons back into the core. The returned neutrons can then cause more fission and improve
the neutrons economy of' the reactor.
Generally the reflector is made up of graphite and beryllium.
5. Reactor Vessel
It is a. strong walled container housing the cure of the power reactor. It contains
moderator, reflector, thermal shielding and control rods.
6. Biological Shielding
Shielding the radioactive zones in the reactor roan possible radiation hazard is essential
to protect, the operating men from the harmful effects. During fission of nuclear fuel, alpha
particles, beta particles, deadly gamma rays and neutrons are produced. Out of these gamma
rays are of main significance. A protection must be provided against them. Thick layers of
lead or concrete are provided round the reactor for stopping the gamma rays. Thick layers of
metals or plastics are sufficient to stop the alpha and beta particles.
7. Coolant
Coolant flows through and around the reactor core. It is used to transfer the large
amount of heat produced in the reactor due to fission of the nuclear fuel during chain reaction.
The coolant either transfers its heat to another medium or if the coolant used is water it takes up
the heat and gets converted into steam in the reactor which is directly sent to the turbine.
Advantages
1. Need less space.
2. Fuel consumption is less and hence transportation and storage charges are low.
3. Well suited for large power demands.
4. Less work men required.
Disadvantages
1. Capital cost is very high.
2. Radioactive wastes, if not disposed properly have adverse effect on environment.
3. Maintenance cost high.
6.4GAS TURBINE POWER PLANTS

A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of internal combustion
engine. It has an upstream rotating compressor coupled to a downstream turbine, and a
combustion chamber in-between.
Energy is added to the gas stream in the combustor, where fuel is mixed with air and
ignited. In the high pressure environment of the combustor, combustion of the fuel increases
the temperature. The products of the combustion are forced into the turbine section. There, the
high velocity and volume of the gas flow is directed through a nozzle over the turbine's
blades, spinning the turbine which powers the compressor and, for some turbines, drives their
mechanical output. The energy given up to the turbine comes from the reduction in the
temperature and pressure of the exhaust gas.
LAYOUT OF GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT
The gas turbine power plants which are used in electric power industry are classified into two
groups as per the cycle of operation.
(1) Open cycle gas turbine.
(2) Closed cycle gas turbine.
Open cycle gas turbine
1- Atmospheric Air
2- Compressed Atmospheric Air
3- Fuel air mixture after compression
4- Exhaust gases.
The heated gases coming out of combustion chamber are then passed to the turbine where
it expands doing mechanical work. Part of the power developed by the turbine is utilized in
driving the compressor and other accessories and remaining is used for power generation.
Since ambient air enters into the compressor and gases coming out of turbine are
exhausted into the atmosphere, the working medium must be replaced continuously. This type
of cycle is known as open cycle gas turbine plant and is mainly used in majority of gas turbine
power plants as it has many inherent advantages.
Advantages
1. Warm-up time is very less.
2. Low weight and size.
3. Almost any hydrocarbon fuels can be used.
4. Open cycle plants occupy comparatively little space.
6. Very economical when compared to other plants.
7. Independent of separate cooling medium.
Disadvantages
1. The part load efficiency of the open cycle plant decreases rapidly as the considerable
percentage of power developed by the turbine is used to drive the compressor.
2. The system is sensitive to the component efficiency; particularly that of compressor.
3. The open cycle plant is sensitive to changes in the atmospheric air temperature, pressure
and humidity.
3. The open-cycle gas turbine plant has high air rate compared to the other cycles.
4. It is essential that the dust should be prevented from entering into the compressor.
5. The deposition of the carbon and ash on the turbine blades is not at all desirable as it also
reduces the efficiency of the turbine.
Closed cycle gas turbine
1- Low Pressure Working Fluid @ Low temperature

2- High Pressure Working Fluid
3- Fuel + Working Fluid mixture @ High Pressure and Temperature 4-
Low Pressure Working Fluid @ Temperature T4 < Temperature T3
In closed cycle gas turbine plant, the working fluid (air or any other suitable gas) coming
out from compressor is heated in a heater by an external source at constant pressure.
The high temperature and high-pressure air coming out from the external heater is passed
through the gas turbine. The fluid coming out from the turbine is cooled to its original
temperature in the cooler using external cooling source before passing to the compressor.
The working fluid is continuously used in the system without its change of phase and the
required heat is given to the working fluid in the heat exchanger.
Advantages
1. The closed cycle plant is not sensitive to changes in the atmospheric air temperature,
pressure and humidity.
2. The closed cycle avoids erosion of the turbine blades due to the contaminated gases and
fouling of compressor blades due to dust.
3. The need for filtration of the incoming air which is a severe problem in open cycle plant is
completely eliminated.
4. Load variation is usually obtained by varying the absolute pressure and mass flow of the
circulating medium, while the pressure ratio, the temperatures and the air velocities remain
almost constant.
5. The density of the working medium can be maintained high by increasing internal pressure
range; therefore, the compressor and turbine are smaller for their rated output. The high density of
the working fluid further increases the heat transfer properties in the heat exchanger.
6. As indirect heating is used in closed cycle plant, the inferior oil or solid fuel can be used in
the furnace and these fuels can be used more economically because these are available in
abundance.
8. The maintenance cost is low and reliability is high due to longer useful life.
Disadvantages
1. The system is dependent on external means as considerable quantity of cooling water
is required in the pre-cooler.
2. Higher internal pressures involve complicated design of all components and high quality
material is required which increases the cost of the plant.
3. The response to the load variations is poor compared to the open-cycle plant.
4. It requires very big heat-exchangers as the heating of workings fluid is done indirectly.
6.6 MAGNETO HYDR O DYNAMIC (MHD) POWER PLANTS
MHD power generation is a new system of electric power generation which is said to
be of high efficiency and low pollution. In advanced countries MHD generator are widely
used but in developing countries li ke India it is still under construction. This construction
work is in progress at Tiruchirapalli in Tamilnadu under joint efforts of BARC (Bhabha
Atomic Research Centre), BHEL, Associated Cement Corporation and Russian technologist s.
As its name implies, magneto-hydro-dynamic (MHD) is concerned with the flow of
conducting fluid in presence of magnetic and electric field. This fluid may be gas at elevated
temperature or liquid metal like sodium or potassium.
A MHD generator is a device for converting heat energy of fuel directly into electric
energy without a conventional electric generator. The basic difference between conventional
generator and MHD generator is in the nature of conductor.
Principle of MHD Power Generation
When an electric conductor moves across a magnetic field; an e mf is induced in it,

which produced an electric current. This is the principle of the conventional generator also,
where the conductors consists of copper strips.
In MHD generator the solid conductors are replaced by a gaseous conductor; i.e.an
ionized gas. If such gas is passed at high velocity through a powerful magnetic field, a current
is generated and can extract b y placing electrodes in a suitable position in the stream.
LAYOUT OF MHD POWER PLANT
A MHD conversion is known as direct energy conversion because it produces

electricity directly from heat source without the necessity of the additional stage of steam
generation as in a steam power plant. An ionized gas is employed as a conducting field.
Ionization is produced either by thermal means i.e. by an elevated temperature or by seeding
with substance like cesium or potassium vapour which ionize at relatively low temperature.
The atom of seed element split off electrons. The presences of negatively charge
electrons make the carrier gas an electrical conductor.
Advantages
1. Large amount of power is generated.
2. No moving parts, so more reliable.
3. Closed cycle system produces power, free of pollution.
4. Ability to reach its full power as soon as started.
5. Size of the plant is considerably small.
6. Low overall operation cost.
7. Better utilization of fuel.
Disadvantages
1. Needs very large magnets (high expensive).
2. Very high friction and heat transfer losses.
3. It suffers from the reverse flow of electrons through the conducting fluid s around the ends
Of the magnetic field.
6.7 COMBINED POWER CYCLES
In electric power generation a combined cycle is an assembly of heat engines that
work in tandem off the same source of heat, converting it into mechanical energy, which in
turn usually drives electrical generators. The principle is that the exhaust of one heat engine is
used as the heat source for another, thus extracting more useful energy from the heat,
increasing the system's overall efficiency. This works because heat engines are only able to
use a portion of the energy their fuel generates (usually less than 50%).
The objective of this approach is to use all of the heat energy in a power system at the
different temperature levels at which it becomes available to produce work, or steam, or the
heating of air or water, thereby rejecting a minimum of energy waste. The best approach is the
use of combined cycles. There may be various combinations of the combined cycles
depending upon the place or country requirements. Even nuclear power plant may be used in
the combined cycles.
GT-ST Combined Power plants
It has been found that a considerable amount of heat energy goes as a waste with the
exhaust of the gas turbine. This energy must be utilized. The complete use of the energy
available to a system is called the total energy approach. The remaining heat (e.g., hot exhaust
fumes) from combustion is generally wasted. Combining two or more thermodynamic cycle
results in improved overall efficiency there by reducing fuel costs. In stationary power plants,
a successful, common combination is the Brayton cycle (in the form of a turbine burning
natural gas or synthesis gas from coal) and the Rankine cycle (in the form of a steam power
plant). Multiple stage turbine or steam cylinders are also common.
ST-MHD Combined Power plants
1.8 LOAD DURATION CURVE

The load demand on a power system is governed by the consumers and for a system
supplying industrial and domestic consumers, it varies within wide limits. This variation of
load can be considered as daily, weekly, monthly or yearly. Such load curves are termed as
“Chronological load Curves”.
If the ordinates of the chronological load curves are arranged in the descending order
of magnitude with the highest ordinates on left, a new type of load curve known as “load
duration curve” is obtained. If any point is taken on this curve then the abscissa of this point
will show the number of hours per year during which the load exceeds the value denoted by
its ordinate.
The lower part of the curve consisting of the loads which are to be supplied for almost
the whole number of hours in a year, represents the “Base Load”, while the upper part,
comprising loads which are required for relatively few hours per year, represents the “Peak
Load”.
OUTCOMES
 Know percentages and have understanding for magnitudes of energy and resources
used
 Be able to effectively use Rankine Cycle analysis
 Understand the differences between large quantities of fuel and waste vs. minuscule
quantities of each, but with high potential for causing harm or inconvenience
Assignments that demonstrate accomplishment of this outcome:
a) Problems assigned from text, with emphasis on the environmental effects
b) Special problems assigned regarding current events in the energy field
SELF TEST QUESTIONS
 Evaluate cycle efficiency and performance of a gas cooled reactor power plant.
 Classify different types of coupled vapor cycles and list the advantages of combined
cycles power plant.
 List different types of fuels used in power plants and estimate their heating values
FURTHER READING

POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
10ME833
ATME COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
VISION
Development of academically excellent, culturally vibrant, socially responsible and globally
competent human resources.
MISSION
 To keep pace with advancements in knowledge and make the students competitive
and capable at the global level.
 To create an environment for the students to acquire the right physical, intellectual,
emotional and moral foundations and shine as torch bearers of tomorrow's society.
 To strive to attain ever-higher benchmarks of educational excellence.
DEPARTMENT OFMECHANICAL ENGINEERING
VISION
To impart excellent technical education in mechanical engineering to develop technically

competent, morally upright and socially responsible mechanical engineering professionals.
MISSION:
 To provide an ambience to impart excellent technical education in mechanical

engineering.
 To ensure state of-the- art facility for learning, skill development and research in
mechanical engineering.
 To engage students in co-curricular and extra-curricular activities to impart social &

ethical values and imbibe leadership quality.
PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEO’S)
After successful completion of program, the graduates will be
PEO 1: Graduates will be able to have successful professional career in the allied
areas and be proficient to perceive higher education.
PEO 2: Graduates will attain the technical ability to understand the need analysis,
design, manufacturing, quality changing and analysis of the product.
PEO 3: Work effectively, ethically and socially responsible in allied fields of

mechanical engineering.
PEO 4: Work in a team to meet personal and organizational objectives and to

contribute to the development of the society in large.
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (PO’S)
The Mechanical engineering program students will attain:
PO1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems
PO2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences
PO3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering

problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs
with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural,
societal, and environmental considerations
PO4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and

research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data,
and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions
PO5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations
PO6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge
to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice
PO7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional

engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development
PO8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice
PO9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member
or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings
PO10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with

the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective
presentations, and give and receive clear instructions
PO11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of

the engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary
environments
PO12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSO’S)
After successful completion of program, the graduates will be
PSO 1: To comprehend the knowledge of mechanical engineering and apply them to

identify, formulate and address the mechanical engineering problems using latest
technology in a effective manner.
PSO 2: To work successfully as a mechanical engineer in team, exhibit leadership quality

and provide viable solution to industrial and societal problems.
PSO 3: To apply modern management techniques and manufacturing techniques to produce

products of high quality at optimal cost.
PSO 4: To exhibit honesty, integrity, and conduct oneself responsibly, ethically and legally,
holding the safety and welfare of the society paramount.
COURSE SYLLABUS
VIII SEM
POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
Subject Code: 10ME833 IA Marks: 25

Hours/Week: 04 Exam Hours: 03
Total Hours: 52 Exam Marks:
100
PART – A
UNIT - 1
Steam Power Plant:
Different types of fuels used for steam generation, Equipment for burning coal in lump form,
strokers, different types, Oil burners, Advantages and Disadvantages of using pulverised fuel,
Equipment for preparation and burning of pulverised coal, unit system and bin system.
Pulverised fuel furnaces, cyclone furnace. 7 Hours
UNIT - 2
Coal, Ash Handling and Different Types of Boilers :
Coal and Ash handling, Generation of steam using forced circulation, high and supercritical
pressures, A brief account of LaMount, Benson, Velox, Schmidt, Loeffer and Ramson steam
generators. 6 Hours
UNIT - 3
Chimneys, Accessories for the Steam Generator Cooling Towers And Ponds: Natural,
forced, induced and balanced draft, Calculations involving height of chimney to produce a
given draft. Accessories For The Steam Generator such as super-heaters, desuperheater,
control of super heaters, Economisers, Air Pre-heaters Study of different types of cooling
towers and ponds. 6 Hours
UNIT - 4
Diesel Engine and Gas Turbine Power Plant:
Method of starting diesel engines, Cooling and lubrication system for the diesel engine.
Filters, centrifuges, Oil heaters, Intake and exhaust system, Layout of a diesel power
plant.Advantages and disadvantages of the gas turbine plant, Open and closed cycle turbine
plants with the accessories. 7 Hours
PART – B
UNIT - 5
Hydro-Electric Plants: Storage and pondage, flow duration and mass curves, hydrographs,
Low, medium and high head plants, pumped storage plants, Penstock, water hammer, surge
tanks, gates and valves, power house, general layout. A brief description of some of the
important Hydel Installations in India. 7 Hours
UNIT - 6
Nuclear Power Plant: Principles of release of nuclear energy Fusion and fission reactions.
Nuclear fuels used in the reactors. Multiplication and thermal utilization factors. Elements of
the Nuclear reactor, Moderator, control rod, fuel rods, coolants. Brief description of reactors
of the following types - Pressurized water reactor, Boiling water reactor, Sodium graphite
reactor, Homogeneous graphite reactor and gas cooled reactor, Radiation hazards,
Radioactive waste disposal. 7 Hours
UNIT - 7
Choice of site for power station, load estimation, load duration curve, load factor, capacity
factor, use factor, diversity factor, demand factor, Effect of variable load on power plant,
selection of the number and size of units. 6 Hours
UNIT - 8
Economic Analysis of power plant: Cost of energy production, selection of plant and
generating equipment, performance and operating characteristics of power plants, tariffs for
electrical energy. 6 Hours
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Power Plant Engineering, P.K Nag, 3rd Ed. Tata McGraw Hill2nd ed 2001,
2. Power Plant Engineering. Morse F.T., Van Nstrand.1998
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Water Power Engg., Edition 3, Barrows, TMH, New Delhi. 1998
2. Plant Engg. Hand Book, Stanier, McGraw Hill. 1998
3. Hydraulic Machines, Jagadish Lal, Metropollitan Co 1996.
4. Principles of Energy Conversion, A.W. Culp Jr., McGraw Hill. 1996
5. Power Plant Technology, M.M. EL-Wakil, McGraw Hill, International. 1994
6. Power Station Engg. Economics, Skrotizke and V opat. 1994
7. Power Plant Engineering, Domakundawar, Dhanpath Rai sons.2003

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UNIT 1

STEAM POWER PLANT

1.1 Steam Power Plant

1.1.1 FUEL HANDLING SYSTEM

4. Grab bucket elevator

1.1.2PULVERIZED COAL STORAGE

1.1.3 Ball Mill

1.2 ASH HANDLING SYSTEM:

Figure shows a mechanical ash handling system.

1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru

Fig-1 Layout of Steam Power Plant

1. Coal and Ash Circuit

2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru

4 Department of Mechanical Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru

6 Department of Mechanical Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru

 Select the suitability of site for a power plant.

SELF TEST QUESTIONS

 What is a super-heater? What are its types?

 Principles of Energy Conversion, A.W. Culp Jr., McGraw Hill. 1996

7 Department of Mechanical Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru

Objectives that students will meet at the end of the course

Boiler is an apparatus to produce steam. Thermal energy released by combustion of fuel is

A boiler should fulfill the following requirements;

2.1 Classification of Boilers

2.3 LA-MONT BOILER

1.10. FLUIDISED BED COMBUSTION (FBC)

Ash Handling Equipment:

Figure shows a mechanical ash handling system.

LAYOUT OF STEAM POW ER PLANT:

Fig-1 Layout of Steam Power Plant

1. Coal and Ash Circuit

After completion of this course, the students should be able to

SELF TEST QUESTIONS

 What is the concept of Power plant?

 Principles of Energy Conversion, A.W. Culp Jr., McGraw Hill. 1996

ii) To remove the gaseous products of combustion.

If the draught is produced by steam jet or fan it is known as artificial draught

Steam jet Draught:

It employs steam to produce the draught

It employs fan or blowers to produce the draught.

The air is forced into system by a blower or steam jet.

1. Down flow condenser

1. Down flow condenser

2. Central flow condenser.

Superheaters and Reheaters

SELF TEST QUESTIONS

 What is a super-heater? What are its types?

 Principles of Energy Conversion, A.W. Culp Jr., McGraw Hill. 1996

LAYOUT OF DIESEL POWER PLANT:

2) Air supply system

A typical oil engine has:

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF DIESEL POWER PLANT

SELF TEST QUESTIONS

 Draw the layout of diesel power plant.

 Principles of Energy Conversion, A.W. Culp Jr., McGraw Hill. 1996

5.1 LAYOUT OF HYDEL POWER PLANT:

1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru

(3) Penstock and Tunnels

(4) Surge Tank