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The air conditioning is that branch of engineering science which

deals with the study of conditioning of air i.e. supplying and maintaining
desirable internal atmospheric conditions for human comfort,
irrespective of external conditions. This subject, in its broad sense, also
deals with the conditioning of air for industrial purposes, food
processing, storage of food and other materials.

In another sense, the term can refer to any form of cooling,

heating, ventilation, or disinfection that modifies the condition of
air. An air conditioner (often referred to as AC) is an appliance, system,
or machine designed to stabilize the air temperature and humidity within
an area (used for cooling as well as heating depending on the air
properties at a given time), typically using a refrigeration cycle but
sometimes using evaporation, commonly for comfort cooling in buildings
and motor vehicles.

The concept of air conditioning is known to have been applied

in Ancient Rome, where aqueduct water was circulated through the walls
of certain houses to cool them. Similar techniques
in medieval Persia involved the use of cisterns and wind towers to cool
buildings during the hot season. Modern air conditioning emerged from
advances in chemistry during the 19th century, and the first large-scale
electrical air conditioning was invented and used in 1902 by Willis
Havilland Carrier.
This air conditioner has become one of the important items in the
home appliances which require high power to operate. This is the main
disadvantage with the air conditioners and has to be minimized. In order
to minimize this issue we are optimizing the design of the evaporator of
the air conditioner thermally and thus achieve higher efficiency.
The optimization technique used here is adopted from various
design techniques followed by different air conditioning units
The structural design of a tube and fin evaporator has been
modeled using the software
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Air-conditioning is a process that simultaneously conditions air;

distributes it combined with the outdoor air to the conditioned space;
and at the same time controls and maintains the required space·s
temperature, humidity, air movement, air cleanliness, sound level, and
pressure differential within predetermined limits for the health and
comfort of the occupants, for product processing, or both.

An air conditioner (often referred to as AC or air con.) is an

appliance, system, or machine designed to stabilize the air temperature
and humidity within an area (used for cooling as well as heating
depending on the air properties at a given time), typically using a
refrigeration cycle but sometimes using evaporation, commonly for
comfort cooling in buildings and motor vehicles.


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Refrigeration is the cooling effect of the process of extracting heat from a

lower temperature heat source, a substance or cooling medium, and
transferring it to a higher temperature heat sink, probably atmospheric
air and surface water, to maintain the temperature of the heat source
below that of the surroundings.
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The main difference between refrigeration and air conditioning is

that refrigeration deals with cooling only whereas air conditioning take
care of Humidity, Purity, Odour, Circulation and Temperature.

In many ways air conditioning and refrigeration systems are very

similar. Both use specially designed chemicals, the physical effects of the
compression and expansion of gases, and the conversion of gas to liquid
to reduce the temperature of air. The varying uses of these systems,
however, mean refrigeration and air conditioning systems have a handful
of key differences in the design and operation.


A major difference between refrigeration and air conditioning is the point
of supply for the gases. Refrigeration systems have gas installed in a
series of tubes. In old refrigerators, this gas was chloro-flouro-carbon, or
CFC, but this has harmful effects on people, so refrigerators not contain
HFC-134a. HFC-134a is the sole gas used as a coolant in refrigeration
systems. Air conditioning systems use built-in chemicals, but also air
from the room or rooms being heated. Gases built into air conditioning
units cool air that circulates through the unit; the unit then redistributes
the cooled air through the room.

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Air conditioners have circulation systems designed to project cool air
away from the units while refrigeration units have circulation systems
designed to retain coolant in a confined space. Refrigeration systems
circulate cool liquids and gases through a series of tubes and vents. Cool
air from within a refrigerator is sucked into a compressor that recycles
the gas through the tubes. Air conditioners, while also employing tubes
in the coolant system, have fans for the dispersal of air. Unlike
refrigeration systems, which keep gases contained to a pre-determined
space, air conditioning systems disperse cool air throughout areas of
unknown volume.
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Both air conditioning and refrigeration units depend on converting liquid
to gas in the cooling process, but the manner in which they achieve this
is different for each system. Air conditioners use something called an
evaporator to convert a liquid to a gas. An evaporator is a small, narrow
hole designed to change the pressure of a liquid so that it evaporates.
Refrigeration units, on the other hand, cycle HFC into a low-pressure
chamber designed to boil the gas. This boiling causes HFC to vaporize.
Vaporization is the process of converting a liquid to a gas and can be
accomplished one of two ways: boiling or evaporation. Thus air
conditioning units vaporize liquid through evaporation while refrigeration
systems do so through boiling.

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1)? cr
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r : The main function of this fan is to move air to
and from the room.

2)? rc  c
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: It is a unit, which consists of cooling

and dehumidifying processes for summer air conditioning or
heating and humidification processes for winter air conditioning.

3)?  
: It directs the conditioned air from the circulating
fan to the space to be air conditioned at proper point.

4)?  

: These are grills, which distribute the

conditioned air evenly in the room.

5)? 
  

: These are the openings in a room surface

which allow the room air to enter the return duct.

6)?
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 The main function of the filters is to remove dust, dirt
and other harmful bacteria·s from the air.


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1)?   the low pressure and temperature vapor

refrigerant from evaporator is drawn into the compressor through
the inlet or suction valve, where it is compressed to a high
pressure and temperature. The high pressure and temperature
vapor refrigerant is discharged into the condenser through the
delivery or discharge valve

2)?     the condenser or cooler consists of coils of pipes in

which the pressure and temperature vapor refrigerant is cooled
and condensed. The refrigerant, while passing through the
condenser, gives up its latent heat to the surrounding condensing
medium which is normally air or water.

3)? r c :r:  it is also called as throttle valve or refrigerant

control valve. The function of the expansion valve is to allow the
liquid under high pressure and temperature to pass at a controlled
rate after reducing its pressure and temperature. some of the
liquid refrigerant evaporates as it passes through the expansion
valve , but the greater portion is vaporized in the evaporator at low
pressure and temperature.

4)? :rr
 an evaporator consists of coils of pipes in which

the liquid refrigerant at low pressure and temperature is
evaporated and changed into vapor refrigerant at low pressure and
temperature. In evaporating, the liquid vapor refrigerant absorbs
its latent heat of vaporization from the medium (air) which is to be
cooled.



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The four factors affecting the air conditioning are:

1)? Temperature of air

2)? Humidity of air
3)? Purity of air
4)? Motion of air

1)


In air conditioning, the control of temperature means the maintenance of

any desired temperature within an enclosed space even though the
temperature of the outside air is above or below the desired room
temperature. This is accomplished either by the addition or removal of
heat from the enclosed space as and when demanded.

2) !"

The control of humidity of air means the decreasing or increasing of

moisture contents of air during summer or winter respectively in order to
produce comfortable and healthy conditions.

3) "

It is an important factor for the comfort of human body. It has important

that proper filtration, cleaning and purification of air are essential to
keep it free from dust and other impurities.

4) #

The motion or circulation of air is another important factor which should

be controlled, in order to keep constant temperature throughout the
conditioned space. It is therefore, necessary that there should be equal-
distribution of air throughout the space to be air conditioned.


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The air conditioning systems may be broadly classified as follows:

1)? According to the purpose

a)? Comfort air conditioning system
b)? Industrial air conditioning system
2)? According to season of the year
a)? Winter air conditioning system
b)? Summer air conditioning system
c)? Year round air conditioning system
3)? According to the arrangement of equipment
a)? Unitary air conditioning system
b)? Central air conditioning system

 
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—? Air conditioning systems are designed to allow the driver and or

passengers to feel more comfortable during uncomfortably warm,
humid, or hot trips in a vehicle.

—? Factors such as wind resistance, aerodynamics and engine power

and weight have to be factored into finding the true variance
between using the air conditioning system and not using it when
figuring out difference in actual gas mileage. Other factors on the
impact on the engine and an overall engine heat increase can have
an impact on the cooling system of the vehicle.
 _%?
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—? A portable air conditioner is one on wheels that can be easily

transported inside a home or office. They are currently available
with capacities of about 6,000-60,000 BTU/h (1,800-18,000 W
output) and with and without electric resistance heaters. Portable
air conditioners are either evaporative or refrigerative.

—? Portable refrigerative air conditioners come in two forms, split and

hose.

—? A portable split system has an indoor unit on wheels connected to

an outdoor unit via flexible pipes, similar to a permanently fixed
installed unit.

—? Hose systems, which can be air-to-air or monoblock, are vented to

the outside via air ducts. The monoblock type collects the water in
a bucket or tray and stops when full. The air-to-air type re-
evaporates the water and discharges it through the ducted hose,
and can run continuously.


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—? A specific type of air conditioner that is used only for

dehumidifying is called a dehumidifier.

—? A dehumidifier is different from a regular air conditioner in that

both the evaporator and condenser coils are placed in the same air
path, and the entire unit is placed in the environment that is
intended to be conditioned (in this case dehumidified), rather than
requiring the condenser coil to be outdoors.

—? Having the condenser coil in the same air path as the evaporator
coil produces warm, dehumidified air.

—? The evaporator (cold) coil is placed first in the air path,

dehumidifying the air exactly as a regular air conditioner does. The
air next passes over the condenser coil re-warming the now
dehumidified air.

—? The terms "condenser coil" and "evaporator coil" do not refer to the
behavior of water in the air as it passes over each coil; instead they
refer to the phases of the refrigeration cycle.

—? Having the condenser coil in the main air path rather than in a
separate, outdoor air path (as in a regular air conditioner) results
in two consequences³the output air is warm rather than cold, and
the unit is able to be placed anywhere in the environment to be
conditioned, without a need to have the condenser outdoors.

Dehumidifiers are commonly used in cold, damp climates to prevent

mold growth indoors, especially in basements. They are also sometimes
used in hot, humid climates for comfort because they reduce the
humidity which causes discomfort (just as a regular air conditioner, but
without cooling the room). They are also used to protect sensitive
equipment from the adverse effects of excessive humidity in tropical
countries.
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1.? The compressor compresses cool refrigerant gas, causing it to

become hot, high-pressure refrigerant gas

2.? This hot gas runs through a set of coils so it can dissipate its heat, and it
condenses into a liquid.

3.? The Freon liquid runs through an expansion valve, and in the process it
evaporates to become cold, low-pressure refrigerant gas

4.? This cold gas runs through a set of coils that allow the gas to absorb heat
and cool down the air inside the building.

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—? Refrigeration air conditioning equipment usually reduces the

humidity of the air processed by the system.
—? The relatively cold (below the dew point) evaporator coil condenses
water vapor from the processed air (much like an ice-cold drink
—? Will condense water on the outside of a glass), sending the water to
a drain and removing water vapor from the cooled space and
lowering the relative humidity.
—? Since humans perspire to provide natural cooling by the
evaporation of perspiration from the skin, drier air (up to a point)
improves the comfort provided.
—? The comfort air conditioner is designed to create a 40% to 60%
relative humidity in the occupied space. In food retailing
establishments, large open chiller cabinets act as highly effective
air dehumidifying units.


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AN AIR CONDITIONER

Air conditioning engineers broadly divide air conditioning applications

into comfort and process.

Comfort applications aim to provide a building indoor environment that

remains relatively constant in a range preferred by humans despite
changes in external weather conditions or in internal heat loads.

In addition to buildings, air conditioning can be used for many Air

conditioning makes deep plan buildings feasible, for otherwise they'd
have to be built narrower or with light wells so that inner spaces receive
sufficient outdoor air via natural ventilation. Air conditioning also allows
buildings to be taller since wind speed increases significantly with
altitude making natural ventilation impractical for very tall buildings.
Comfort applications for various building types are quite different and
may be categorized as

—? ßow-Rise Residential buildings, including single family houses,

duplexes, and small apartment buildings.
—? High-Rise Residential buildings, such as tall dormitories and
apartment blocks
—? Commercial buildings, which are built for commerce, including
offices, malls, shopping centers, restaurants, etc.
—? Institutional buildings, which includes hospitals, governmental,
academic, and so on.
—? Industrial spaces where thermal comfort of workers is desired.
 —? Sports Stadiums
—? Types of transportation ³ motor-cars and other land vehicles,
trains, ships, aircraft, and spacecraft.

Process applications aim to provide a suitable environment for a process

being carried out, regardless of internal heat and humidity loads and
external weather conditions. Although often in the comfort range, it is
the needs of the process that determine conditions, not human
preference. Process applications include these:

—? Hospital operating theatres, in which air is filtered to high levels to

reduce infection risk and the humidity controlled to limit patient
dehydration.
—? Clean rooms for the production of integrated circuits,
pharmaceuticals, and the like, in which very high levels of air
cleanliness and control of temperature and humidity are required
for the success of the process.
—? Facilities for breeding laboratory animals. Since many animals
normally only reproduce in spring, holding them in rooms at which
conditions mirror spring all year can cause them to reproduce
year-round.
—? Aircraft air conditioning. Although nominally aimed at providing
comfort for passengers and cooling of equipment, aircraft air
conditioning presents a special challenge because of the changing
density associated with changes in altitude, humidity and
temperature of the outside air.
—? Data centers
—? Textile factories
—? Physical testing facilities
—? Plants and farm growing areas
—? Nuclear facilities
—? Chemical and biological laboratories
—? Mines
—? Industrial environments
—? Food cooking and processing areas

In both comfort and process applications, the objective may be to not

only control temperature, but also humidity, air quality and air
movement from space to space.
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—? Air-conditioning system can promote the growth and spread of

microorganisms, such as ßegionella pneumophila, the infectious
agent responsible for ßegionnaires' disease, or thermophilic
actinomycetes, but as long as the air conditioner is kept clean
these health hazards can be avoided.

—? Conversely, air conditioning, including filtration, humidification,

cooling, disinfection, etc., can be used to provide a clean, safe,
hypoallergenic atmosphere in hospital operating rooms and other
environments where an appropriate atmosphere is critical to
patient safety and well-being. Air conditioning can have a positive
effect on sufferers of allergies and asthma.

 

—? In a thermodynamically closed system, any energy input into the

system that is being maintained at a set temperature (which is a
standard mode of operation for modern air conditioners) requires
that the energy removal rate from the air conditioner increases.
—? This increase has the effect that for each unit of energy input into
the system (say to power a light bulb in the closed system) this
requires the air conditioner to remove that energy.
—? In order to do that the air conditioner must increase its
consumption by the inverse of its efficiency times the input of
energy.



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Any substance, which absorbs heat through vaporization or

expansion, is called a refrigerant. In broader sense, the term refrigerant
is also applied to such cooling systems as cold water or brine solutions.
As commonly interpreted, refrigerants include those working mediums
that pass through the cycle of evaporation, recovery, compression and
condensation. Thus, circulating cold mediums are not primary
refrigerants, nor are cooling systems such as ice and solid carbon
dioxide.

()*(+#(

Desirable refrigerants are those which possess chemical, physical, and

thermodynamic properties that permit their efficient application and
service, in practical designs of refrigerating equipment. In addition, if the
volume of charge is large, there should be no danger to health and
property in case of its escape. A great variety of substances, such as
butane, carbon tetrachloride, ethane, and hexane have been applied to
refrigeration systems, but found to have little practical use. These
materials are either highly explosive or flammable, or possess other
combinations of undesirable properties.

#+#(

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Air is one of the earliest refrigerants and was widely used in World War I
whenever a completely nontoxic material was required. Although air is
free of cost and completely safe, its low coefficient of performance makes
it unable to compete with the modern nontoxic refrigerants.
r#

Ammonia is one of the oldest and widely used of all refrigerants. It is

flammable and highly toxic. It is widely used in commercial and large
industrial reciprocating compression systems where high toxicity is
secondary.

)#,!

It is a colorless and odorless gas, which is heavier than air. It is nontoxic

and nonflammable but has extremely high operating pressures. In former
years it was used for marine refrigeration, theatre air conditioning
systems, and for hotel refrigeration systems.

#+#(

These refrigerants use ethane and methane as bases, and are the most
important group of refrigerants being used in modern technology. These
are used in a variety of applications, such as reciprocating compression
refrigeration, and rotary compressors.

-(

Other refrigerants are methyl chloride, sulphur dioxide, hydrocarbon

refrigerants, methyl chloride, and azeotropes.

*'#+#(

No substance has proved to be the ideal working medium, under all

operating conditions. The characteristics of some refrigerants make them
desirable for use with reciprocating compressors. In some applications
toxicity is of negligible importance, whereas in others, such as comfort
cooling, a nontoxic and nonflammable refrigerant is essential. Therefore,
in selecting the correct refrigerant, it is necessary to determine those
properties which are most suitable, and to choose the most closely
approaching ideal for the particular application.
  
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Ozone (O3) is a gas with molecules made of three atoms of oxygen. This is
different from the oxygen we breathe (O2), which has two atoms of oxygen
and makes up 21% of the Earth's atmosphere. Ozone is found throughout
the Earth's atmosphere in minute quantities (about 0.6 parts per million,
on average). Ozone is found in higher concentrations in pollution, and can
be a health risk.

 
The ozone depletions process begins when CFCs and other ozone
depleting substances are emitted into the atmosphere. The winds then
mix the troposphere and evenly distribute the gases. CFCs are extremely
stable and do not dissolve in rain. After several years, the ODS molecules
reach the stratosphere, about 10 km above Earth's surface.
Strong UV lights break apart the ODS molecules. CFCs, HCFCs, carbon
tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, and other gases release chlorine atoms.
These are the atoms that actually destroy the ozone, not the intact ODS
molecule. It's estimated that one chlorine atom can destroy over 100,000
ozone molecules before it is finally removed from the stratosphere.

Ozone depletion mechanism

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Ozone in the upper atmosphere is important to health. In the
stratosphere, the region of the atmosphere about 12 to 45 km above the
surface of the Earth, ozone exists in larger amounts. Between 20 and 40
km high, ozone makes up about 6 parts per million of the air. This higher
concentration of ozone, called the ozone layer, absorbs much ultraviolet
light from the Sun.

The ozone layer exists because it is routinely created from oxygen by

solar ultraviolet light. Ultraviolet (UV) light is higher energy light than
visible light. The ozone concentrations in the stratosphere represent
equilibrium between creation of ozone and the ozone destruction that
results when it absorbs UV. The stratosphere is warmer than the air
above and below it as a result of these processes.




If the ozone were to totally deplete then the risk of skin cancer would be
of great danger. The main skin cancers are non-melanoma skin cancers
that are commonly found in the white population. There are two major
forms of non-melanoma skin tumors and they are basal cell carcinoma
(BCC) and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). However the incidence of
basal cell carcinoma is generally several times greater than the incidence
of squamous cell carcinoma. Squamous cell carcinomas account for as
much as 4/5s of all non-melanoma skin cancer deaths (NAS, 1984).
Prolonged sunlight exposure is considered to be the dominant risk factor
for non-melanoma skin tumors.

The potential effects on humans and the environment have led to

international resolutions designed to gradually phase out production of
ozone-depleting substances. As a result, the scientific and industrial
communities have collaborated to find safe and economical
replacements.
An increase of UV radiation would be expected to affect crops. A number
of economically important species of plants, such as rice, depend on
Cyan bacteria residing on their roots for the retention of nitrogen. Cyan
bacteria are sensitive to UV light and they would be affected by its
increase
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), the manmade chemicals implicated in ozone
loss.
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The most important thing to look for with an air conditioner is the star
rating. You need to work out what size you require for the task and then
choose the most efficient model that will perform the task.

There are three kinds of Energy rating labels for air conditioners. The one
for cooling-only models has a blue band of stars and a blue box for the
energy consumption figure. As the name implies, these air conditioners
only have a cooling mode. The label for reverse-cycle models has two
bands of stars. The blue band shows the efficiency when cooling, and the
red band shows the efficiency when heating. There are also two energy
consumption figures - blue for cooling and red for heating. As the name
implies, the term reverse cycle means that the operation of the air
conditioner can be internally reversed to provide indoor heating or
cooling as required - the principle used for both modes is the same.

The two main types of air conditioners for household use are window-
wall systems and split systems. While both can be equally efficient, split
systems tend to be more efficient for a particular size range as their
components are generally less constrained by size (although this is not
always true). Split systems have the advantage of being quieter indoors
during operation but they are also more expensive.

A new innovation in air conditioner technology is the use of an inverter

or variable speed drive in the motor system that drives the compressor.
While these systems tend to look less efficient at full load (i.e. their star
rating at rated capacity is not always as high as conventional air
conditioners), they tend to be very efficient at part load operation, which
is a more common mode in a typical household.

.#+#'#!#

The output capacity is a measure of the amount of heat that will be

removed (cooling) or added (heating) to the room/s in your house by the
air conditioner. The output range you need will depend upon your
particular requirements. Air conditioner outputs are measured in
kilowatts (kW). As an approximate guide for sizing room units allow:

—? 125watts (0.125kW) per square meter of floor area to be cooled in

living areas;
—? 80 watts (0.080kW) per square meter of floor area in bedrooms.

These estimates depend on the climate and the efficiency of your house
design (orientation, glazing and insulation levels).
 /'#!#(#+('*'*!0

/c#1*('**!2 #+"#(# %

The energy consumption or power input of an air conditioner is

measured under conditions specified. Because the heating and cooling
requirement is affected by climate, air conditioner use is not shown on
the energy label. Instead, the cooling and/or heating Output and the
Power Input is shown on the energy label at rated capacity (the units on
the label are in kW which is the same as kWh/hour). To work out the
likely annual energy use will require information on the climate and
other factors such as occupancy (hours that cooling is required) and
building shell performance (insulation, glazing, orientation etc). It is
important to note that under normal usage, the air conditioner will
spend a significant amount of time at less than its rated capacity - in
terms of efficiency this is really only important for variable output models
which can have higher efficiency under part load conditions.

'"

The measure of energy service for an air conditioner is the rated cooling
and/or heating capacity of the air conditioner, usually specified in
kilowatts (kW) (some product brochures use BTUs (British Thermal
Units), although this is now unusual and some retailers use compressor
"horsepower", although this has no meaning in terms of the units
capability). These rated values are as declared by the manufacturer and
under the test conditions based on the international standard. The
heating capacity of a reverse cycle air conditioner is the heat that can be
put into a room. Similarly, the cooling capacity is the heat that can be
removed from a room. The cooling capacity is made up of the sensible
component (usually the majority of the capacity) which relates to the
actual temperature reduction (cooling) of the air, plus the latent
component, which is a measure of the dehumidification effect of the
indoor air. ßatent cooling capacity is sometimes expressed as moisture
removal capacity in liters or kg of water per hour (1 kg per hour of
moisture removal is equal to 683 Watts latent capacity).

/'#-'")+-#-/c#0

Refrigerative air conditioners (the only type covered by energy labeling

evaporative units are not included) use a technique called the vapor
compression cycle to "move" energy in the form of heat from one space to
another. This is generally a very efficient process and the amount of low
grade heat that can be moved is typically 3 to 5 times (or more) the
energy required to run the compressor system. This ratio is called the
Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER), used for cooling, or Coefficient of
Performance (COP), for heating, and is used as the basis for determining
the star rating of an air conditioner . A refrigeration heat pump collects
internal heat and moves it outside when in cooling mode, or collects
ambient heat from outside and moves it inside when in heating mode.

#'

To be eligible for an energy label (and to comply with MEPS), an air

conditioner must meet the maximum cooling test. This ensures that the
air conditioner is capable of operating under extreme conditions. The air
conditioner also has to have a tested capacity of not less than 95% of the
rated value and a tested energy consumption of not more than 105% of
the rated value.

#+

The star rating for air conditioners is determined differently to other

appliances. For air conditioners, the measure of energy efficiency is the
Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) for cooling and the Coefficient of
Performance (COP) for heating. The EER and COP are defined as the
capacity output divided by the power input. The Star Rating Index is
calculated on the measured values for energy and capacity during a
rating test, rather than the nameplate or rated values.

The original star rating equations for air conditioners were developed in
1987. These were revised (re-graded) in 2000 and again in 2010 to take
account of the substantial improvement in the energy efficiency of
products over this period. Until 2010, all energy labels showed possible
star ratings from a minimum of 1 star to a maximum of 6 stars. In 2010,
the star rating system for refrigerators and air conditioners was
expanded to show up to 10 stars for products that have exceptional
energy efficiency. Products that achieve up to 5 stars continue to use a
normal 5 star energy label.

r'#!##+"*)*

The star rating for air conditioners is determined from the measured EER
and COP. From 2010, for cooling, 1 star is equal to an EER of 2.75 with
an extra star for an increase in EER of 0.5. For heating, 1 star is also
equal to a COP of 2.75 with an extra star for an increase in COP of 0.5
Importantly, the 2010 star rating system is based on an annual efficiency
calculation which includes any non-operational energy consumption
such as standby and power consumption of crank case heaters (where
present).

Bee star rating for air conditioners













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A thermodynamic cycle consists of a series of thermodynamic
processes transferring heat and work, while varying pressure,
temperature, and other state variables, eventually returning a system to
its initial state. In the process of going through this cycle, the system
may perform work on its surroundings, thereby acting as a heat engine.

State quantities depend only on the thermodynamic state, and

cumulative variation of such properties adds up to zero during a
cycle. Process quantities (or path quantities), such as heat and work are
process dependent, and cumulative heat and work are non-zero. The first
law of thermodynamics dictates that the net heat input is equal to the
net work output over any cycle. The repeating nature of the process path
allows for continuous operation, making the cycle an important concept
in thermodynamics. Thermodynamic cycles often use quasistatic
processes to model the workings of actual devices.

The air conditioner mainly consists of vapor cycles, refrigerant circulate

in the air conditioner according these cycle itself

Vapor cycle can further be classified as:

1. Vapor-compression cycle
2. Vapor-absorption cycle

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The vapor-compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators as
well as in many large commercial and industrial refrigeration systems.
Figure below provides a schematic diagram of the processes of a typical
vapor-compression cycle
P²h diagram for refrigerant flow in air conditioning system

The thermodynamics of the cycle can be analyzed on a diagram as shown

in the above figure . In this cycle, a circulating refrigerant such as Freon
enters the compressor as a vapor. From point 1 to point 2, the vapor is
compressed at constant entropy and exits the compressor as a vapor at a
higher temperature, but still below the vapor pressure at that
temperature. From point 2 to point 3 and on to point 4, the vapor travels
through the condenser which cools the vapor until it starts condensing,
and then condenses the vapor into a liquid by removing additional heat
at constant pressure and temperature. Between points 4 And 5, the
liquid refrigerant goes through the expansion valve (also called a throttle
valve) where its pressure abruptly decreases, causing flash evaporation
and auto-refrigeration of, typically, less than half of the liquid.

That results in a mixture of liquid and vapor at a lower temperature and

pressure as shown at point 5. The cold liquid-vapor mixture then travels
through the evaporator coil or tubes and is completely vaporized by
cooling the warm air (from the space being refrigerated) being blown by a
fan across the evaporator coil or tubes. The resulting refrigerant vapor
returns to the compressor inlet at point 1 to complete the
thermodynamic cycle.

The above discussion is based on the ideal vapor-compression

refrigeration cycle, and does not take into account real-world effects like
frictional pressure drop in the system, slight thermodynamic
irreversibility during the compression of the refrigerant vapor, or non-
ideal gas behavior (if any).

The thermodynamic cycles for various refrigerants are shown on the

vapor dome of the particular refrigerant which depends upon various
factors such as saturation temperature, boiling temperature and freezing
temperature, etc.

The different vapor domes for the refrigerant R-22 are been generated by
using the software cool pack are shown below

P-h diagram for R-22 refrigerant

T-s diagram for R-22 refrigerant

H-s diagram for R-22 refrigerant

 :rr


The evaporator is an important device used in the low pressure side of a

refrigeration system. The liquid refrigerant from the expansion valve
enters into the evaporator where it boils and changes into the evaporator
where it boils and changes into vapor.

The function of an evaporator is to absorb heat from the surrounding

location or medium which is to be cooled, by means of a refrigerant.

The temperature of the boiling refrigerant in the evaporator must always

be less than that of the surrounding medium so that the heat flows to
the refrigerant.

The evaporator becomes cold and remains cold due to the following two
reasons:

—? The temperature of the evaporator coil is low due to the low

temperature of the refrigerant inside the coil.
—? The low temperature of the refrigerant remains unchanged because
any heat it absorbs is converted to latent heat as boiling proceeds.

Within a downstream processing system, several stages are used to

further isolate and purify the desired product. The overall structure of
the process includes pre-treatment, solid-liquid separation,
concentration, and purification and formulation.

Evaporation falls into the concentration stage of downstream processing

and is widely used to concentrate foods, chemicals, and salvage solvents.

The goal of evaporation is to vaporize most of the water from a solution

containing a desired product. After initial pre-treatment and separation,
a solution often contains over 85% water.

This is not suitable for industry usage because of the cost associated
with processing such a large quantity of solution, such as the need for
larger equipment.
 
c

Water can be removed from solutions in ways other than evaporation,

including membrane processes, liquid-liquid extractions, crystallization,
and precipitation.

Evaporation can be distinguished from some other drying methods in

that the final product of evaporation is a concentrated liquid, not a solid.
It is also relatively simple to use and understand since it has been widely
used on a large scale.

In order to concentrate a product by water removal, an auxiliary phase is

used which allows for easy transport of the solvent (water) rather than
the solute.

Water vapor is used as the auxiliary phase when concentrating non-

volatile components, such as proteins and sugars.

Heat is added to the solution and part of the solvent is converted into
vapor. Heat is the main tool in evaporation, and the process occurs more
readily at high temperature and low pressures.

Heat is needed to provide enough energy for the molecules of the solvent
to leave the solution and move into the air surrounding the solution.

The energy needed can be expressed as an excess thermodynamic

potential of the water in the solution.

ßeading to one of the biggest problems in industrial evaporation, the

process requires enough energy to remove the water from the solution
and to supply the heat of evaporation. When removing the water, more
than 99% of the energy needed goes towards supplying the heat of
evaporation.

The need to overcome the surface tension of the solution also requires
energy. The energy requirement of this process is very high because a
phase transition must be caused; the water must go from a liquid to a
vapor.
 When designing evaporators, engineers must quantify the amount of
steam needed for every mass unit of water removed when a concentration
is given.

An energy balance must be used based on an assumption that a

negligible amount of heat is lost to the system·s surroundings. The heat
that needs to be supplied by the condensing steam will approximately
equal the heat needed to heat and vaporize the water. Another
consideration is the size of the heat exchanger which affects the heat
transfer rate.

&c 
r  :rr


The solution containing the desired product is fed into the evaporator
and passes a heat source. The applied heat converts the water in the
solution into vapor.

The vapor is removed from the rest of the solution and is condensed
while the now concentrated solution is either fed into a second
evaporator or is removed.

The evaporator as a machine generally consists of four sections. The

heating section contains the heating medium, which can vary. Steam is
fed into this section.

The most common medium consists of parallel tubes but others have
plates or coils. The concentrating and separating section removes the
vapor being produced from the solution. The condenser condenses the
separated vapor, then the vacuum or pump provides pressure to increase
circulation.


 '-(-2)"--!(-#(

1.?
-*#!'# is the flow of thermal energy through Substance

molecule to molecule from a higher to a lower temperature region.

2.?
-* #2'#: is the transfer of thermal energy by actual

physical movement from one location to another of a substance such as
air or water which thermal energy is stored.

34
-* !# is the energy radiated by solids, liquid and gas in
the form of electromagnetic waves, which transfer energy because of their
temperature. This energy transfer heat through a space without heating
the space but is absorbed by objects that it reaches.

Most of the heat in air-cooling applications is carried to the evaporator by

Thermal convection currents. The Thermal convection currents set up in
the refrigerant space either by action of a fan or by gravity circulation
resulting from the difference in temperature between the evaporator and
the space. In addition, some heat is Thermal radiated directly to the
evaporator from the product and from the walls of the space. When the
product is in thermal contact with the outer surface of the evaporator,
heat is transferred from the product to the evaporator by direct Thermal
conduction. For a liquid cooling application, where the liquid is being
cooled, there must always be contact with the evaporator surface and
some circulation of the cooled fluid either by gravity or by action of a
pump.

Regardless of how the heat reaches the outside surface of the evaporator,
it must pass through the wall of the evaporator to the refrigerant inside
by conduction. Therefore, the capacity of the evaporator (the rate at
which heat passes through the walls) is determined by the same factors
that governing the rate of heat flow by Thermal conduction through any
heat transfer surface
*(('#2(3
$4? r''!#+-"'#('#
(a)? Bare tube coil evaporator
(b)?Finned tube evaporator
(c)? Plate evaporator
(d)?Shell and tube evaporator
(e)? Shell and coil evaporator
(f)? Tube in tube evaporator

_4? r''!#+-###/-'-*5!+#(!
(a)? Flooded evaporator
(b)?Dry expansion evaporator

s4? r''!#+-!-#(
(a)? Natural convection evaporator
(b)?Forced convection evaporator

4? r''!#+#+'#!#(
(a)? Frosting evaporator
(b)? Non frosting evaporator
(c)? Defrosting evaporator

)'*2

The bare tube evaporator is also known as prime surface evaporator.

Because of simple in construction and easy to clean. In this evaporator the
contact surface area is less compare to other evaporators. The amount of
surface area increases by extending the tube length. The effective length of
tube proportional to the capacity of expansion valve. The long tubes will
also cause considerably greater pressure drop between inlet and out let of
evaporator. The diameter of tube in relation to tube length may also be
critical. The tube diameter is too large, the refrigerant velocity will be too
low and the volume of refrigerant will be too great in relation to surface
area of tube to complete vaporization.
 ?

Bare tube & finned tube evaporator

##!2(3

It consists of bare tubes or coils over which the metal plates or fins are
fastened. The metal fins are constructed of thin sheet of metal having good
thermal conductivity. In this type of evaporators have high contact surface
area and good heat transfer rate. This is also called as extended surface
evaporators.

-**#!)2(3

This evaporator is similar to shell and tube condenser. It consists of

number of horizontal tubes enclosed in a cylindrical shell. The inlet and
outlet headers with perforated metal tube sheets are connected at each of
the tubes. These are generally used chilled water or brine solutions. The
dry expansion shell and tube evaporator used for refrigerating units of 2 to
20 TR. The flooded type shell and tube evaporator used for refrigerating
units of 10 to 5000TR.
-**#!'*23

This type of evaporators is generally dry expansion evaporators to chill

water. The shell is May open or sealed. The sealed shells are usually found
in shell and coil evaporators used to cool drinking water. The evaporators
having flanged shells are often used to chill water in secondary
refrigeration system.

)#)23

The tube in tube evaporator consists of one tube inside another tube.
The liquid to be cooled flows through the inner tube while the primary
refrigerant or secondary refrigerant circulates in the space between the
two tubes. The tube in tube evaporator provides high heat transfer rates.
However they require more space than shell and tube evaporators of the
same capacity. These evaporators are used for wine cooling and in
petroleum industry for chilling of oil.

*!!"2:-

It is constant liquid refrigerant level maintained and in this the float

control valve used as an expansion valve to maintain constant liquid level
in evaporator. The liquid refrigerant flow through the low side of the
evaporator and the accumulator before entering to the evaporator. The
accumulator is also known as surge drawn or surge tank. It maintains the
constant liquid level to separate the liquid refrigerant to the vapor
returning to the compressor. Since the evaporator is almost completely
filled with liquid refrigerant, therefore the vapor refrigerant from the
evaporator is not super heated but it is in a saturated condition. In order
to prevent liquid refrigerant to enter into the compressor, accumulator is
generally used with the flooded evaporator. The liquid refrigerant trapped
in the accumulator is re circulated through the evaporator. The evaporator
coil is connected to the accumulator and the liquid flow from the
accumulator to the evaporator coil is generally by gravity. The vapor
formed by vaporizing the liquid in the coil being lighter, rises passes
through top of accumulator from when is supplied to the suction side of
the compressor. The baffle plate arrests any liquid present in the vapor.
The advantage of the evaporator is whole surface is contact with the
refrigerant in the evaporator. Then it gives high rate of heat transfer rate.
The flooded evaporator more expensive to operate because it required more
refrigerant. It applicable for industries mostly it used at chemical and food
processing industries.

",#(#23

The dry expansion evaporator not really dry at all. They simply used
relatively little refrigerant as compared to flooded evaporator having the
same coil volume. The dry expansion evaporators are usually only one
forth or one third filled with liquid refrigerant. The simple bare tube dry
expansion evaporator. The finned coil expansion evaporator also available.
The rate at which the liquid refrigerant is fed to the evaporator generally
depends upon the rate of vaporization and increases or decreases as the
load on the evaporator increases or decreases. When the liquid refrigerant
passes through the expansion valve, some vapour is formed. The flash gas
causes bubbles can cause dry areas on the interior walls of the coil. The
dry areas reduced the rate of heat transfer. Thus, the evaporator efficiency
decreases as dry areas increases that when the load on the evaporator is
light. If the cooling lad on the evaporator is heavy, the expansion valve
allows the large volume of liquid refrigerant into the coil in order to
accommodate the heavy load.

*'#2'#2:-

The natural convection evaporator·s arte used where air velocity low and
minimum hydration of the product is desired. The domestic refrigerator,
water cooler and small freezer have natural convection evaporators. The
evaporator coil should be placed as high as possible in the refrigerant is
because the cold air falls down as it leaves the evaporator. The velocity of
air over the evaporator coil considerably affects the capacity. The velocity
of air depends on the temperature of outside and inside of evaporator. The
circulation of air around the coil depends its size, shape and location.

'!'#2'#2:-

In this evaporator s, the air is forced over the refrigerant cooled coils and
fins. This done by fan driven by an electric motor. The fins are provided to
increases the heat transfer rate. It is more efficient to compare to natural
convection evaporator because they required less cooling surface and high
evaporator pressure can be used which save considerable power input to
the compressor. These are mainly used for cooling units as well as for
refrigerator cabinets used for store bottled beverage or foods in sealed
containers.

(#+2:-

This evaporator operates at 0°c temperature. This means that the coil
frosts continually when in use and it must be removed at regular intervals
either manually or automatically for most efficient operation. The frost
which forms on the evaporator comes from the moisture in the air. The coil
or cooling efficiency decreases until the ice and frost is removed. The
evaporators fall under the frosting evaporators.

#(#+2:-

It operates above the 0°c a all times. Therefore frost does not on the
evaporator. The evaporator builds up a light coat of frost just before the
compressor shuts off. This frost immediately melts on the off cycle. The
advantages of a non frosting evaporator are its operation at a temperature
close to freezing. This maintained a relative humidity from 75 to 85% in
the cabinet.

*2

Plate evaporators have a relatively large surface area. The plates are
usually corrugated and are supported by frame. During evaporation,
steam flows through the channels formed by the free spaces between the
plates. The steam alternately climbs and falls parallel to the concentrated
liquid. The steam follows a co-current, counter-current path in relation
to the liquid. The concentrate and the vapor are both fed into the
separation stage where the vapor is sent to a condenser.

Plate evaporators are frequently applied in the dairy and fermentation

industries since they have spatial flexibility. A negative point of this type
of evaporator is that it is limited in its ability to treat viscous or solid-
containing products. Pillow plate from Daussiny can be used for bulk
heating or cooling of solids.

**'2(

Unlike single-stage evaporators, these evaporators can be made of up to

seven evaporator stages or effects. The energy consumption for single-
effect evaporators is very high and makes up most of the cost for an
evaporation system. Putting together evaporators saves heat and thus
requires less energy. Adding one evaporator to the original decreases the
energy consumption to 50% of the original amount. Adding another effect
reduces it to 33% and so on. A heat saving % equation can be used to
estimate how much one will save by adding a certain amount of effects.

The number of effects in a multiple-effect evaporator is usually restricted

to seven because after that, the equipment cost starts catching up to the
money saved from the energy requirement drop. There are two types of
feeding that can be used when dealing with multiple-effect evaporators.

Forward feeding takes place when the product enters the system through
the first effect, which is at the highest temperature. The product is then
partially concentrated as some of the water is transformed into vapor and
carried away. It is then fed into the second effect which is a little lower in
temperature. The second effect uses the heated vapor created in the first
stage as its heating source (hence the saving in energy expenditure).

The combination of lower temperatures and higher viscosities in

subsequent effects provides good conditions for treating heat-sensitive
products like enzymes and proteins. In using this system, an increase in
the heating surface area of subsequent effects is required.

Another way to proceed is by using backward feeding. In this process,

the dilute products is fed into the last effect with has the lowest
temperature and is transferred from effect to effect with the temperature
increasing.

The final concentrate is collected in the hottest effect which provides an

advantage in that the product is highly viscous in the last stages so the
heat transfer is considerably better.

rcr
c 

The goal of evaporation is to concentrate a target liquid, and this needs

to be achieved for many different targets today.

One of the most important applications of evaporation is that on the food

and drink industry. Many foods that are made to last for a considerable
amount of time or food that needs a certain consistency, like coffee, need
to go through an evaporation step during processing.
It is also used as a drying process and can be applied in this way to
laboratories where preservation of long-term activity or stabilization is
needed (for enzymes for example).

Evaporation is also used in order to recover expensive solvents such as

hexane which would otherwise be wasted.

Another example of evaporation is in the recovery of sodium hydroxide in

Kraft pulping.

Cutting down waste handling cost is another major application of

evaporation for large companies. ßegally, all producers of waste must
dispose of the waste in methods that abides by environmental guidelines;
these methods are costly. If up to 98% of wastes can be vaporized,
industry can greatly reduce the amount of money that would otherwise
be allocated towards waste handling.

 r  :rr


Technical problems can arise during evaporations, especially when the

process is applied to the food industry.

Some evaporators are sensitive to differences in viscosity and consistency

of the dilute solution. These evaporators could work inefficiently because
of a loss of circulation.

The pump of an evaporator may need to be changed if the evaporator

needs to be used to concentrate a highly viscous solution.

Fouling also occurs when hard deposits form on the surfaces of the
heating mediums in the evaporators. In foods, proteins and
polysaccharides can create such deposits that reduce the efficiency of
heat transfer.

Foaming can also create a problem since dealing with the excess foam
can be costly in time and efficiency. Antifoam agents are to be used, but
only a few can be used when food is being processed.
Corrosion can also occur when acidic solutions such as citrus juices are
concentrated. The surface damage caused can shorten the long-life of
evaporators. Quality and flavor of food can also suffer during
evaporation.

Overall, when choosing an evaporator, the qualities of the product

solution need to be taken into heavy consideration.

r
 r


c 
 r

r 

 rrc
 
 r 
:rr


The following are the important factors

1)? r
cr: In order to have rapid heat transfer in an evaporator,

the material used for the construction of an evaporator coil should
be a good conductor of heat. The material which is not affected by
the refrigerant must also be selected. Since metals are best
conductors of heat, therefore they are always used for evaporators.
Iron and steel can be used with all common refrigerants. Brass and
copper are used with all refrigerants except ammonia. Aluminum
should not be used with Freon.

2)?
 r
  c

   The temperature difference

between the refrigerant within the evaporator and the product to
be cooled plays an important role in the heat transfer capacity of
an evaporator. Too low temperature difference may cause slime on
meat or poultry. Too high temperature difference cause excessive
dehydration.

3)? : c
 
 
c r
 The velocity of refrigerant also
affects the heat transfer capacity of an evaporator. If the velocity of
refrigerant flowing through the evaporator increases, the overall
heat transfer coefficient also increases. But this increased velocity
will cause greater pressure loss in the evaporator. Thus the only
 recommended velocities for different refrigerants which give high
heat transfer rates and allowable pressure loss should be used.
4)?
c&  

 :rr
 c r The thickness
of the evaporator coil wall also affects the heat transfer capacity of
the evaporator. In general, the thicker the wall, the slower is the
rate of heat transfer. Since the refrigerant in the evaporator coils is
under pressure, therefore the evaporator walls are thick enough to
withstand the effects of that pressure. It may be noted that the
thickness has only a slight effect on total heat transfer capacity
because the evaporators are usually made from highly conductive
materials.

5)? 
r
 
r  r r An important factor affecting the
evaporator capacity is the contact surface available between the
walls of evaporator coil and the medium being cooled. The amount
of contact surface, in turn, depends basically on the physical size
and shape of the evaporator coil.

6)?   r
 Superheat is the measurement of how full the

evaporator is of liquid refrigerant. High superheat means the
evaporator is empty. ßow superheat means the evaporator is full.
Superheat should never fall below 6°F at the evaporator leaving
suction line or 12°F at the compressor in inlet of a split system
with 30 feet of suction line, or compressor failure will occur

Schematic diagram of a simple refrigerating system



 

The psychrometry is that branch of engineering science, which deals with
the study of moist air i.e. dry air mixed with water vapor or humidity. It
also includes the study of behavior of dry air and water vapor under
various sets of conditions.

 
c


$%? rc The pure dry air is a mixture of a number of gases such
as nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, argon, neon, helium
etc. But the nitrogen and oxygen have the major portion of the
combination.

_%? c
rc It is a mixture of dry air and water vapor. The amount
of water vapor present in air depends upon the absolute pressure
and temperature of the mixture.

s%? r
r
rc It is a mixture of dry air and water vapor, when
the air has diffused the maximum amount of water vapor into it.
The water vapors usually occur in the form of superheated steam
as an invisible gas.

%?   
r
r
c  It is the ratio of actual mass of water
vapor in a unit mass of dry air to the mass of water vapor in the
same mass of dry air when it is saturated at the same temperature.

å%? cc
 It is the mass of water vapor present in 1 kg of dry air.

It is also called specific humidity or humidity ratio.

ü%? r
 cc
 It is the mass of water vapor present in 1

m3 of dry air.

m%?  r
c:  cc
 It is the ratio of actual mass of water vapor

in a given volume of moist air to the mass of water vapor in the
same volume of saturated air at the same temperature and
pressure. It is briefly written as RH.
 o%?  
 r
  It is the air recorded by a
thermometer, when it is not affected by the moisture present in the
air. The dry bulb temperature is generally denoted by td or tdb.

Ä%?
 
 r
  It is the temperature of air recorded

by a thermometer, when its bulb is surrounded by a wet cloth
exposed to the air. Such a thermometer is called ´Wet bulb
thermometerµ. It is generally denoted by tw or twb.

$6%?
    c  It is the difference between dry

bulb temperature and wet bulb temperature at any point. The wet
bulb depression indicates relative humidity of air.

$$%?   c

 r
  it is the temperature of air

recorded by a thermometer, when the moisture present in it begins
to condense. In other words, the dew point temperature is the
saturation temperature (t sat) corresponding to the partial
pressure of water vapor (pv). It is usually denoted by tdb.
$_%?   c
   c  It is the difference between the
dry bulb temperature and dew point temperature of air.

 
c r


It is a graphical representation of the various thermodynamic properties

of moist air. The psychrometric chart is very useful for finding out the
properties of air (which are required in the field of air conditioning) and
eliminate lot of calculations.

In a psychrometric chart, dry bulb temperature is taken as abscissa

and specific humidity i.e. moisture contents as ordinate. Now the
saturation curve is drawn by plotting the various saturation points at
corresponding dry bulb temperatures. The saturation curve represents
100% relative humidity at various dry bulb temperatures. It also
represents the wet bulb and dew point temperatures.
 PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

The important lines in psychrometric chart are:

$%?  
 r
  c  The dry bulb temperature lines

are vertical i.e. parallel to the ordinate and uniformly spaced.
Generally the temperature range of these lines on psychrometric chart
is from -6 C to 45 C. The dry bulb temperature lines are drawn with
difference of every 5 C and up to the saturation curve. The values of
dry bulb temperatures are also shown on the saturation curve.

_%?  c
c cc
c
 

c  The specific
humidity (moisture content) lines are horizontal i.e. parallel to the
abscissa and are also uniformly spaced. Generally, moisture content
range of these lines on psyshrometric chart is from 0 to 30 g / kg of
dry air. The moisture content lines are drawn with the difference of
every 1 g (or 0.001kg) and up to the saturation curve.

s%?   c

 r
  c  The dew point temperature

lines are horizontal i.e. parallel to the abscissa and non-uniformly
spaced. At point on the saturation curve, the dry bulb temperature
and dew point temperature are equal. The values of dew point
 temperatures are generally given along the saturation curve of the
chart.

%?
 
 r
  c  The wet bulb temperature lines

are inclined straight lines and non-uniformly spaced. At any point on
the saturation curve, the dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures are
equal.

å%?
r 1

r r
% c  The enthalpy (or total heat) lines
are inclined straight lines and uniformly spaced. These lines are
parallel to the wet bulb temperature lines, and are drawn up to the
saturation curve. Some of these lines coincide with the wet bulb
temperature lines also.

ü%?  c
c :  c  The specific volume lines are obliquely
inclined straight lines and uniformly spaced. These lines are drawn
up to the saturation curve.

m%? :r    c  The vapor pressure lines are horizontal

and uniformly spaced. Generally, the vapor pressure lines are not
drawn in the main chart. But a scale showing vapor pressure in mm
of Hg is given on the extreme left side of the chart.

o%?  r
c:  cc
c  The relative humidity lines are curved

lines and follow the saturation curve. Generally, these lines are drawn
with the values 10%, 20%, 30%, etc. and up to 100%. The saturation
curve represents 100% relative humidity.
 r&

c

c 

Coolpack is a collection of simulation models for refrigeration systems.

The models each have a specific purpose e.g. cycle analysis,
dimensioning of main components, energy analysis and -optimization.

Coolpack is developed by the department of mechanical engineering

(mek), section of energy engineering (et)at the technical university of
Denmark (dtu).

The development of coolpack has until version 1.33 been financed by

the Danish energy agency.

The development of coolpack started in spring of 1998 as a part of a

research project. The objective of this project was to develop simulation
models to be used for energy optimization of refrigeration systems. the
users of these models would be refrigeration technicians, engineers,
students etc. in short all the persons with influence on the present and
future energy consumption of refrigeration systems.

The first idea was to make a general and comprehensive simulation

program that would give the user all the flexibility he/she could wish for
in terms of handling many different system designs and investigation
purposes. Some of the characteristics of very general and flexible
programs are that they require many user inputs/selections and that
their numerical robustness is rather low. Experience with this type of
programs has shown that this type of simulation programs is far from
ideal for the main part of the users mentioned above. since most of these
Users have limited time for carrying out the investigation, general and
comprehensive programs will in many cases be very ineffective to use
and they are therefore often discarded by the users.

The idea behind the development of coolpack is different from the idea
described above. Instead of creating a large, general and comprehensive
simulation program we have chosen to create a collection of small, easy
to use, and numerically robust simulation programs. the typical
simulation program in coolpack deals with only on type of refrigeration
system and has a specific investigation purpose. it therefore only
requires the user inputs/selections necessary to describe operating
conditions etc. and not any inputs for describing the system design or for
specifying the input/output structure associated with the simulation
purpose.

When developing the programs for coolpack we have focused on making

the underlying system models as simple, relevant and numerically robust
as possible. we have preserved some flexibility in that the user can select
refrigerant and also specify inputs (like pressure) in more than one way
(saturation temperature or pressure).

The program in coolpack covers the following simulation purposes:

‡ Calculation of refrigerant properties (property plots, thermodynamic &

thermo physical data, refrigerant comparisons)
‡ Cycle analysis ² e.g. comparison of one- and two-stage cycles
‡ System dimensioning ² calculation of component sizes from general
dimensioning criteria
‡ System simulation ² calculation of operating conditions in a system
with known components evaluation of operation ² evaluation of system
efficiency and suggestions for reducing the energy consumption
‡ Component calculations ² calculation of component efficiencies
‡ Transient simulation of cooling of an object ² e.g. for evaluation of
cooling down periods

To make it easier to get an overview of the programs in coolpack we have

chosen to divide the programs into three main groups (refrigeration
utilities, EESCoolTools and dynamic).

The group refrigeration utilities consist of 3 refrigerant oriented

programs, primarily used for calculating the properties of primary and
secondary refrigerants, creating property plots for primary refrigerants
(like p-h, t-s and h-s diagrams) and for calculating the pressure drop for
Flow of secondary refrigerants in pipes. Furthermore, it is possible to
create property plots for humid air (psychrometric charts).

The group EESCoolTools contains a large collection of programs for both

refrigeration Systems and components. We have chosen to divide this
group into four subgroups. The groups also represent the four phases of
designing a refrigeration system. The programs in these four groups have
almost the same type of user interface, making it easier to combine their
use and also use them for comparisons. The name EESCoolTools
consists of the three words EES, cool and tools:
‡ "EES" refers to the name of the program we have implemented our
simulation models in (engineering equation solver - EES). EES is
developed by S.A. Klein and F.ß. Alvarado, and is sold by f-chart software
in Wisconsin, USA. You can get more information about EES and fchart
Software on the internet
‡ "cool" refers to the fact, that the simulation models are related to the
area of refrigeration.
‡ "tools" refers to that the programs are thought to be tools enabling you
to make faster and more consistent (energy) design and analysis.

The group named dynamic contains the dynamic programs in coolpack.

So far only a single program is available. with this program it is possible
to simulate the cooling down of an object/room under various conditions
and with on/off-capacity control of the compressor.

The dynamic element is modeled and solved using a DAE solver

application called windali. Windali is based on the Dali-program
developed in 1985, at what at that time was called the refrigeration
laboratory at the technical university of Denmark (now a part of
department of energy engineering).

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This model can be used to calculate the thermodynamic and thermo

physical (transport) properties for refrigerants. The properties for both
saturated liquid and gas at the same pressure as specified are also
calculated.

Since many of the routines for transport properties are only valid for a
more narrow interval than the thermodynamic properties, it is sometimes
necessary to omit (select NO) the calculations of the transport properties.

NOTE: The user MUST specify a single phase state - two phase states
cannot be used as input.
 Calculation of the properties of R-22

Calculation of the properties of R-134a

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a) Introduction

The model is used for calculating the cooling demand for an air-
conditioned room in a steady state condition. The cooling demand
consists of several individual cooling demands which will be described in
the following.

b) Heat transfer through building parts

The heat load from heat transfer through building parts is calculated for
all 4 walls, roof and ceiling individually. The heat transfer is calculated
as follows

Q = k A (T - T_ROOM)

Where Q is the heat transfer in [W], A is the area of the building part



[m ], k is heat transfer coefficient [W/ (m K)], T_ROOM is the
temperature in the room in [°C] and T is the temperature on the hot side
of the building part in [°C].

The heat transfer coefficient (k-value) of each building part depends on

the insulation material (foam or mineral wool), how the building part is
constructed and the thickness of the insulating layer of air on both sides
of the building. In air-conditioned rooms there is usually a significant air
movement (due to the fans) and the thickness of the air layer close to the
wall is very thin. This means that the air layer (and thermal resistance of
the layer) on the inside of the refrigerated room can be ignored. In most
cases this is also true for on the outside of the wall. In both cases the
thermal conductivity of the air layer should be taken into account if there
is no air movement.

If you want to include the thermal resistance of the air layer you should
use the following equation for calculating the heat transfer coefficient:


Where m_INNER is the thermal resistance [(m K)/W] of the air layer on
the inside of the wall, m_WAßß is the thermal resistance of the wall and
m_OUT is the insulation property on the outside of the wall.


Typical values of m_INNER and m_OUTER are 0.04 (m K)/W if there is a


good air movement (thin layer) and 0.08 (m K)/W with none or low air
movement (thick layer). The insulation property of the wall can be
calculated as follows

Solar radiation through windows can be specified as heat load per area
 
[W/m (window area)] and the window area [m ].

c) Air change (infiltration) and SHR

Due to opening of doors and leaks in the building parts warm and humid
air flows into the room. This air has to be cooled and maybe also
dehumidified. The flow of air infiltrating the room can be specified either

directly by the flow in [m /h] or indirectly by the Air Change Factor (ACF)
specifying the flow of air as number of times the total room volume is
changed per 24 hours.

d) Auxiliary loads

A part of the heat load in an air-conditioned room is caused by persons

working in the room or from heat developing equipment in the room.
These loads can be specified individually.

1) Persons

The heat load from persons working in the room is based on the maximal
number of persons that are in the room at the same time.

There are three different types of work.

ßight - typically inspection of goods

Medium - typically handling of goods using equipment

Heavy - typically manual handling of goods

The calculations are based on the assumption that there is a linear

relation between the heat developed by a person and the room
temperature. See H. Drees "Kühlanlagen", Table 12.18, page 376, 14.
Edition, VEB Verlag Technik, Berlin 1987.

2) ßighting

The heat load from lighting equipment corresponds to the electrical

power consumption of the lighting equipment .The heat load can be

specified per m or as a total heat load.
3) Fans

All of the electrical power consumption for evaporator fans is converted

to heat. The heat load from this equipment is specified as the power
consumption in [W].

4) other equipment

If other power consuming equipment in placed in the room the heat load
of this equipment has to be estimated. Normally, the heat developed
corresponds to the electrical power consumption of the equipment.

e) Total cooling demand

The total cooling demand is the sum of all the individual heat loads
described. The SHR for the evaporator is calculated based on the
humidity of the infiltrating air.

Cooling demand for an air conditioned room

 THERMAß DESIGN OF EVAPORATOR

The phase-out of CFCs by the year 1995 and the impending phase-out of
HCFCs in the future have created a need for redesigning new
refrigerators and retrofitting old ones with new refrigerants. This report
describes an extensive experimental and analytical effort aimed at
predicting the performance of evaporators and condensers using
alternative refrigerants. Heat exchanger models are also expressed in a
form where heat exchanger tube diameters and lengths are explicitly
specified to help analyze new configurations.

Existing refrigerator models often use a constant conductance modeling

approach (e.g.ADß (Merriam et. aI., 1992), Porter and Bullard (1993)).
These models are better than the single-zone constant-UA model used by
the Y
 Department of Energy to set the 1993 energy standards (ADß,
1982). However, they fail to account for changes in heat transfer
resistance due to changes in refrigerant flow characteristics.
Characteristics that may affect the resistance to heat transfer include
refrigerant mass flow rate and refrigerant properties. For instance, in our
refrigerator overall heat transfer resistance may change more than 10
percent in the two-phase region of the evaporator and more than 20
percent in the superheated region.

In addition to being more accurate than the constant conductance

model, the variable Conductance model is also more flexible. When the
constant conductance model is used a Conductance is determined for
each zone of both the evaporator and the condenser. The Conductance·s
that are determined are only useful for the refrigerant that was used in
the system at the time when the conductances were determined. This is
because conductances are dependent on the properties of the refrigerant
in the system. The variable conductance model takes the properties of
the refrigerant into account. The coefficients of the variable conductance
model need to be determined once; after that the model can be used for
different operating conditions, tube diameters, and refrigerants.

Finally, the model will be useful for assessing the applicability of

refrigerant heat transfer Correlations to refrigerator models. The
correlations that are used in our models were developed under ideal
conditions in long straight tubes. The accuracy of our models will provide
insight into how well the heat transfer correlations work in actual
modeling applications.
2*#-2)*'#!'#'!*
The overall heat transfer equation for a heat exchanger must be written
so that the Variable conductance model can be investigated. The
equation is developed by identifying each component of the resistance to
heat transfer between the two working fluids of the heat Exchanger. For
the case of an evaporator or a condenser there are three components of
heat Transfer resistance between the air and the refrigerant. The
important components are the Convective resistance of the air, the
conductive resistance of the heat exchanger, and the convective
resistance of the refrigerant. The overall heat transfer resistance of the
heat exchanger is shown below as a function of the three resistance
components.

#('*#(
Two-phase correlations
Both the BoPierre correlation (Pierre, 1956) and a correlation developed
by Chato and Wattelet (Smith et. aI., 1992) have been investigated for
calculating the two-phase heat transfer coefficient. Parameter estimation
models have been developed using both correlations so that the two heat
transfer coefficients could be compared. The BoPierre correlation was
designed for use with higher Reynolds numbers. The Chatol Wattelet
correlation, on the other hand, was developed for use with lower
refrigerant mass flow rates. Domestic refrigeration systems have low
mass flow rates, so it is likely that the Chatol Wattelet correlation will
better suit our purposes.

Problem
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