https://www.brighthubengineering.

com/hvac/41505-psychrometric-processes-cooling-heating-and-
dehumidification/

https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/cooling-dehumidifying-air-d_695.html

https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/absolute-humidity-air-d_681.html

https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/steam-humidifying-air-d_697.html

Mechanical Engineering
HVAC & Refrigeration
PE Exam Review Course
Principles
Psychrometrics
Heating/Cooling Processes 1
Psychrometrics is the study of the thermodynamic properties of moist air.

Atmospheric air – the air we breathe – consists of many different gases (primarily nitrogen and
oxygen), water vapor, and pollutants such as smoke and pollen.

Dry air is obtained by removing all water vapor and pollutants from Atmospheric air.

Moist air is a mixture of dry air and water vapor.

The majority of design situations in HVAC design will occur between -60°F and 120°F and at
standard atmospheric pressure so therefore, the perfect gas equations can be used to calculate
psychrometric properties.

Psychrometric Constants and Equations

 Molecular weight of dry air: 9645
 Molecular weight of water: 0153
 Universal gas constant: 32 ft-lbf/lbm-°R
 Gas constant for dry air:
1545.32 ÷ 28.9645 = 53.352 ft-lbf/lbm-°R
  Gas constant for water vapor:
1545.32 ÷ 18.0153 = 85.778 ft-lbf/lbm-°R

 Mixed air temperature (MAT):

MAT = [(outdoor air temperature x outdoor air cfm) + (return air temperature x return air cfm)]
÷ (total cfm)

 Sensible Heat Load = cfm x 1.08 x ΔT

 Latent Heat Load = cfm x 0.68 x Δw (Δw = humidity ratio difference
 Total Heat Load = Sensible Heat Load + Latent Heat Load
 Total Heat Load = cfm x 4.5 x Δh (Δh = enthalpy difference)

Key Terms
Dry-Bulb Temperature: air temperature measured by an ordinary thermometer

Wet-Bulb Temperature: air temperature measured by a psychrometer

Dewpoint Temperature: the air temperature where condensation begins as air is cooled

Thermodynamic Temperature Scale: uses degrees Rankine

°R = °F + 459.67

Humidity Ratio: the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the mass of dry air in a moist air sample

Specific Humidity: the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the total mass of the moist air sample

Specific Volume: the ratio of the volume (ft3) of a moist air sample to the mass (lb) of dry air

Psychrometric Chart: a graphic representation of thermodynamic properties of moist air used

as a tool in making HVAC calculations

Download the samples below:

 ASHRAE Psychrometric Chart

 Carrier Psychrometric Chart

Application
Psychrometrics and the psychrometric chart allow HVAC designers to calculate and graph air
conditioning processes.
For example, a given amount of outside air (calculated based on the desired building
pressurization, code-required ventilation, and possibly owner preferences) is brought into the air
conditioning system where it is mixed with return air from a conditioned space. This mixed air is
then circulated through air-handling equipment where it is filtered, heated or cooled, humidified
or de-humidified. The air is then supplied back to the space where it picks up the room loads
(building loads, people-generated heat, equipment heat, etc.) Some of the air is exhausted or
migrates to other parts of the building or outdoors. The remainder is returned back to the
equipment to be mixed with outdoor air and the process repeats.

By using psychrometric equations and the psychrometric chart, the designer can identify each
point in the process and size the equipment, ductwork, fans, intakes, etc. correctly.

Building Cooling Systems

The most common commercial and residential cooling systems in use today are designed around
the concept of the thermodynamic vapor compression cycle.

In the vapor compression cycle, a coolant (i.e. refrigerant) is converted from a liquid to a gas
(vapor) and back again through a series of temperature and pressure differences that absorb and
reject heat in an effort to provide mechanical cooling.
In the diagram (shown above), the low-pressure, cold liquid refrigerant picks up heat in the
evaporator (QL) and converts to a low-pressure, cool gas before being delivered to the
compressor (WIN). The compressor increases the pressure of the refrigerant causing it to become
a high-pressure, hot gas. This hot gas is then routed to the condenser (QH) where it releases its
heat to the outdoors (or to condenser water) and becomes a high-pressure, warm liquid. After
leaving the condenser, the warm refrigerant liquid is routed through an expansion device where
the refrigerant is converted back to a low pressure, cold liquid and the cycle is complete. In the
process, heat was transferred from one location to another.

Although the vapor compression cycle is fairly straight forward, an actual building cooling
system can take one of several forms. Based on the size of the building, the anticipated cooling
load, and the anticipated use of the building, systems can range from small, 2-ton direct-
expansion split-systems up to multi-cooling tower, multi-chiller systems providing many
thousands of tons of cooling.

Water-Cooled Chilled-Water System

Multi-story office buildings, retail malls, hotels, and large apartment complexes are typically
designed with water-cooled chilled-water systems. A machine called a chiller houses the
compressor, condenser, expansion valve and the evaporator. Pumps circulate chilled water
between the chiller and the cooling equipment within the building where heat is transferred to the
chilled water through coils. Condenser water is circulated from a cooling tower through the
condenser side of the chiller where heat is transferred from the chilled water via a refrigerant.
The condenser water then returns to the cooling tower where evaporative cooling occurs when
the condenser water is exposed to ambient air. A portion of the condenser water evaporates
which cools the remaining water. This remaining chilled water plus additional water (added to
make up for the evaporated water) is returned to the chiller.

In a water-cooled chilled-water system, building heat is first transferred the chilled water, then to
the refrigerant in the evaporator, then to the condenser, then to the condenser water and then to
the outside. These systems are very efficient due to the “free” cooling effect of evaporation.

Air-Cooled Chilled-Water System

An air-cooled chilled-water system replaces the cooling tower with an air-cooled condenser
section attached to a chiller. In an air-cooled chilled-water system (often referred to as an air-
cooled chiller), chilled water leaves the chiller and is pumped through the building to coils where
heat is transferred from the building air to the chilled water. The heated chilled water is then
routed back to the chiller’s evaporator section where the heat is transferred to refrigerant lines
within the air-cooled chiller. The refrigerant is then routed to the condenser section of the chiller
where the heat is rejected to the outdoors. Air-cooled chilled-water systems are less efficient than
water-cooled systems because there is no cooling effect of evaporating water.
Packaged Rooftop System
Small office buildings, retail stores, and other low-rise buildings are commonly provided with
packaged rooftop systems. Rooftop units provide cooling by blowing supply air over an
evaporator and then into the space. The entire vapor compression cycle (evaporator-compressor-
condenser-expansion valve) is self-contained within the packaged rooftop unit. Rooftop units are
air-cooled and therefore, not particularly efficient.

Direct-Expansion Split-System
In a direct-expansion split system, the expansion valve and the evaporator coil are located inside
the space to be cooled and the compressor/condenser are located outside the space (typically
outside) for heat rejection. The system uses refrigerant lines to transfer the refrigerant between
the inside and outside units. Direct-expansion, split systems are commonly found in single-
family homes, small office and retail buildings.
he diagram above shows the routing of refrigerant through a direct-expansion split-system.

Practice Problems

1. If 2,500 cfm of 97°F dry-bulb outside air (needed to make up for exhausted air from
the building) is mixed with 7,000 cfm of 72°F dry-bulb return air, what is the mixed
air temperature?
2. If the air in question 1 has a wet-bulb temperature of 80°F and the return air has a
wet-bulb temperature of 60°F, what is the wet-bulb temperature of the mixed air?
3. If the air temperature entering the coil is 78.6°F and the air leaving the coil is 52°F,
what is the sensible heat load?

Practice Problem Solutions

1. If 2,500 cfm of 97°F dry-bulb outside air (needed to make up for exhausted air from
the building) is mixed with 7,000 cfm of 72°F dry-bulb return air, what is the mixed
air temperature?
[(2500 x 97) + (7000 x 72)] ÷ [2500 + 7000] = 78.58°F

2. If the air in question 1 has a wet-bulb temperature of 80°F and the return air has a wet-
bulb temperature of 60°F, what is the wet-bulb temperature of the mixed air?
[(2500 x 80) + (7000 x 60)] ÷ [2500 + 7000] = 65.26°F

3. If the air temperature entering the coil is 78.6°F and the air leaving the coil is 52°F, what
is the sensible heat load?
Sensible Load = cfm x 1.08 x ΔT

Sensible Load = 9500 x 1.08 x (78.6 – 52.0) = 272,916 BTUh

Lesson 08 – Heating/Cooling
Processes 2
Mechanical Engineering
HVAC & Refrigeration
PE Exam Review Course
Principles
Psychrometrics

Heating/Cooling Processes 2
In addition to a building’s cooling requirements, there is typically a need to provide some type of
heating capability to maintain setpoint temperatures. This could be:

1. Upon building warmup after a period where the systems do not operate – i.e. on
Monday mornings after the systems have allowed the building to operate below
setpoint to save energy.
2. In areas of the world where outdoor temperatures are low enough to drop the
interior building temperature below setpoint.
3. In humid regions where the air handling systems are required to produce extremely
air temperatures for moisture control.

Building Heat Load Calculation

Later in the course, we will be focused on building load calculations. For now, realize the several
factors impact the overall heating and cooling loads on a building. These are:

 Infiltration – air that comes into a building around doors and windows, and through
gaps in the construction.
 Outside air/ventilation air – outside ambient air needed to meet code requirements
and to maintain building pressurization.
 Fenestration/glass – glass in doors, windows, skylights, etc. can have a large impact
on a buildings heating and cooling requirements.
 Duct heat gain/heat loss – as ductwork passes through unconditioned spaces (i.e.
attics, plenums, equipment rooms), it tends to pick up or lose heat.
 Appliance heat gain – mechanical and electrical equipment within a building impacts
the heating and cooling loads by contributing to the overall heat load of the building.
  Occupant heat gain – people working in or visiting a building contribute to the heat
load. Even people sitting and not moving have an impact.
 Design temperatures – indoor and outdoor design temperatures for the building’s
location significantly impact the final heating and cooling heat load calculation and
the equipment installed to condition the air.

Impact of Geographic Location on HVAC Systems

Consider the following 2 scenarios.

Building 1

Located in a moderate climate zone where temperatures rarely drop below 45°F. Given this fact,
the cooling design will dictate the air handling unit sizes.

If the cooling load for this building is 2,000,000 BTUh with a design temperature difference of
20°F, the required airflow would be:

CFM = (cooling load) ÷ (1.08 x ΔT) = (2,000,000) ÷ (1.08 x 20)

CFM = 92,593 cfm

If the heating load for this building is only 1,000,000 BTUh, what is the heating airflow
required? (Assume a mixed air temperature of 67°F and a required heating coil leaving air
temperature of 95°F)

CFM = (heating load) ÷ (1.08 x ΔT) = (1,000,000) ÷ (1.08 x [95 – 67])

CFM = 33,069 cfm

That’s a difference of 59,524 cfm. This difference in airflow requirement for heating and cooling
would require a variable flow system or some other configuration to adequately heat and cool the
building.

Building 2

Identical to building 1 but is located in a cold climate zone where temperatures consistently drop
below 0°F.

If the cooling load for this building is 1,000,000 BTUh with a design temperature difference of
20°F, the required airflow would be:
CFM = (cooling load)÷(1.08 x ΔT) = (1,000,000)÷(1.08 x 20)

CFM = 46,296 cfm

The heating load for this building is 2,000,000 BTUh, what is the heating airflow required?
(Assume a mixed air temperature of 58°F and a required heating coil leaving air temperature of
95°F)

CFM = (heating load) ÷ (1.08 x ΔT) = (2,000,000) ÷ (1.08 x [95 – 58])

CFM = 50,050 cfm

That’s a difference of only 3,754 cfm. This system could be manipulated to a constant volume
system if necessary. But notice, although very close, the heating cfm dictates the air handling
unit size.

Download:

 Psychrometric Chart
Read:

 Air Conditioning Psychrometrics

 Psychrometric Processes: Sensible Cooling and Sensible Heating of Air
Be familiar with:

 The saturation line

 Lines of constant relative humidity
 Lines of constant wet bulb temperature
 Lines of constant specific volume
 Lines of constant enthalpy

Read:

 The Psychrometric Chart: Theory and Application

o This presentation is in metric but we will be using the concepts discussed
in the presentation.
Be familiar with all the parts of the Psychrometric Chart.
Lesson 09 – Heating/Cooling
Processes 3
Mechanical Engineering
HVAC & Refrigeration
PE Exam Review Course
Principles
Psychrometrics

Heating/Cooling Processes 3
Practice Problems
Problem 1

5,000 cfm of outside air at 98°Fdb/85°Fwb is mixed with 20,000 cfm of return air at
72°F/50%RH. What is the mixed air temperature and relative humidity?

Solution:

1. Find the specific volumes:

o At 98°Fdb/85°Fwb, SpV = 14.59 ft3/lb of dry air
o At 72°F/50%RH, SpV = 13.59 ft3/lb of dry air
2. Convert CFM to pounds of air:
o 5,000 cfm ÷ 14.59 ft3/lb = 342.70 lbs/min
o 20,000 cfm ÷ 13.59 ft3/lb = 1471.67 lbs/min
3. Find the total weight of the mixed air:
o 342.70 lbs/min + 1471.67 lbs/min = 1814.37 lbs/min
4. Calculate the dry bulb temperature:
o Tdb O/A = (342.70 ÷ 1814.37) x 98°Fdb = 18.51°Fdb
o Tdb R/A = (1471.67 ÷ 1814.37) x 72°Fdb = 58.40°Fdb
o Tdb mixed air = 18.51 + 58.40 = 76.91°Fdb
5. Draw a line between the 2 points (98°Fdb/85°Fwb & 72°F/50%RH.) Locate the
intersection of this line and 76.91°Fdb. Determine the relative humidity.
o RH = 58%
 6. Determine the wet bulb temperature
o Twb = 66.2°Fwb

Problem 2

Determine the specific humidity, the enthalpy, the dew point temperature, and the specific
volume of the mixed air in problem 1.

Solution:

1. Specific humidity:
o Draw a horizontal line to the right through the point 76.91°Fdb &
66.2°Fwb. Determine where this horizontal line intersects the
Humidity Ratio/Specific Humidity scale.
o Specific humidity (or Humidity ratio) = 78.2 grains/lbdry air
2. Enthalpy:
o Draw a line through the point 76.91°Fdb & 66.2°Fwb that intersects
the 2 enthalpy scales (1 along the left side of the psychrometric chart
and 1 along the bottom of the psychrometric chart) at the same
number. (Refer to sketch.)
o Enthalpy = 30.7 Btu/lbdry air
3. Dewpoint temperature:
o Extend the horizontal line (drawn to determine specific humidity) to
the right to intersect the Dewpoint Temperature scale.
o Dewpoint temperature = 60.5°F
4. Specific volume:
o Determine Specific Volume from location of point 76.91°Fdb &
66.2°Fwb on the psychrometric chart.
o SpV = 13.78 ft3/lbdry air
Problem 3

3,000 cfm of outside air at 65°Fdb/40%RH is mixed with 3,000 cfm of return air at
75°F/50%RH. What is the mixed air temperature and relative humidity?

Solution:

1. Find the specific volumes:

o At 65°Fdb/40%RH, SpV = 13.33 ft3/lb of dry air
o At 75°F/50%RH, SpV = 13.68 ft3/lb of dry air
2. Convert CFM to pounds of air:
o 3,000 cfm ÷ 13.33 ft3/lb = 225.06 lbs/min
o 3,000 cfm ÷ 13.68 ft3/lb = 219.30 lbs/min
3. Find the total weight of the mixed air:
o 225.06 lbs/min + 219.30 lbs/min = 444.36 lbs/min
4. Calculate the dry bulb temperature:
o Tdb O/A = (225.06 ÷ 444.36) x 65°Fdb = 32.92°Fdb
o Tdb R/A = (219.30 ÷ 444.36) x 75°Fdb = 37.01°Fdb
o Tdb mixed air = 32.92 + 37.01 = 69.93°Fdb
5. Draw a line between the 2 points (65°Fdb/40%RH & 75°F/50%RH.) Locate the
intersection of this line and 69.93°Fdb. Determine the relative humidity.
o RH = 46%

Problem 4

If the air streams from problem 3 are serving a space that requires a constant temperature of
72°Fdb and a relative humidity of 60%RH, how much heat (BTUh) must be added to the supply
air? How much moisture (water, gal/hr)?

Solution:

1. Find the enthalpies:

o For 69.93°Fdb/46%RH, h1 = 24.6 Btu/lbdry air
o For 72°Fdb/60%RH, h2 = 28.2 Btu/lbdry air
2. Total heat required:
o Qh = h2 – h1 = 28.2 Btu/lbdry air – 24.6 Btu/lbdry air = 3.6 Btu/lbdry air
o Qh = (3.6 Btu/lbdry air)x(444.36 lbs/min)x(60 min/hr) = 95,982 BTUh
3. Find the Specific Humidities:
o For 69.93°Fdb/46%RH, specific humidity = 50 grains/lbdry air
o For 72°Fdb/60%RH, specific humidity = 71 grains/lbdry air
4. Total moisture required = 71 grains/lbdry air – 50 grains/lbdry air
o (21 grains/lbdry air)x(444.36 lbs/min)x(60 min/hr) = 559,894 grains/hr
5. Convert grains/hr to lbs/hr:
o 559,894 grains/hr ÷ 7000 grains/lb = 80 lbs/hr
6. Convert lbs/hr to gallons/hr:
o 80 lbs/hr ÷ 8.33 lbs/gal = 9.6 gal/hr