UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE

FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
Mathematical Discourse and Structures

Prof. A. G. R. Stewart/Mr. S. Y. Madanha

February 29, 2016

Course Outline

Course Title: Mathematical Discourse and Structures

Course Code: HMTH112
Contact Hours: 4 hours a week, being 3 hours Lectures and 1 hour Tutorial.
Assessment: 3 45 minute Class Tests in weeks 4, 7 and 10 averaged to give 25 percent of final mark and
Examination: 2 hour end of course examination to give 75 percent of the final mark.
Lecturer: Professor A. G. R. Stewart - 22 February to 3 June

Preamble Mathematical Discourse and Structures is a compulsory course for all Level 1 Second Semester
students registered for the BSc Honours Degree in Mathematics and an optional course for those Level 1
students registered for the BSc Honours Degree in Statistics.

Aims

• The course aims to help students get an idea of what mathematics as a discipline really is, its
language, structure and presentation.

• It also aims to help students to come to grips with abstract notions at an early stage in their university
level training.

• Finally it aims to provide the students with the foundations of advanced mathematics.

Objectives By the end of this course a student should:

Be able to understand sets and different types of relations on sets.

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Be able to construct proofs and to understand various types of proofs and how those proofs are applied.

Demonstrate a strong grasp of the language of mathematics through effective writing and reading of
mathematical arguments.

To understand different types of structures and operations, their interaction and applications.

Course Outline

1. Sets and Relations. Introduction to sets; set descriptions; the Russell Paradox; set operations;
relations; relation types(reflexive, symmetric, anti-symmetric, transitive, equivalence); equivalence
classes and partitions; revisiting functions as special relations. [9]

2. Logic. Introduction to mathematical statements and propositions, predicates, truth value; logical
operators and truth tables; tautologies, equivalent statements, contradictions, converse and contra-
positive statements; negations; quantifiers; mathematical statements with quantifiers, truth values
for quantifiers; methods of proofs; Comparison between the algebras of logic and sets. [9]

3. Operations and Structures. Binary operations, associative laws, commutative law; identity,
inverse and idempotent elements. Axioms of addition and multiplication on Q, R, C(including
distributive axiom). Use of the axioms to derive basic properties such as the cancellation laws and
to define mathematical structures: groups, rings, fields, vector spaces, posets, lattices, symmetry
groups. [9]

4. Numbers. Natural numbers N : the successor function and its properties, the principle of math-
ematical induction, the pigeon hole principle; Integers Z: closedness(under addition, multiplication
etc), ordering prime integers and prime factorizations; Rational numbers Q: closedness and order-
ing; irrationals; density of irrationals; some interesting number types: constructible, algebraic and
transcendental numbers; real numbers R; the real numbers R as a complete, ordered field. [9]

Recommended Reading

• Devlin, K., Sets, functions, and logic: an introduction to abstract mathematics, CRC Press, 2003.

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 • Stewart, I. and Tall, D.,The Foundations of Mathematics, Oxford University Press, 1977.

• Gerstein, L., Introduction to mathematical structures and proofs, Springer, 2012.

Additional Reading

• Smith, G., Introductory Mathematics: Algebra and Analysis, Springer, 1998.

• Allenby, R. B. J. T., Numbers and Proofs, London: Edward Arnold, 1997.

• Solow, D., How to Read and Do Proofs, AMC, 2012.

• Robinson, D. J. S., An introduction to abstract algebra, Walter de Gruyter, 2003.

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Chapter 1

Sets

The concepts introduced in this chapter are truly fundamental and underlie almost every branch of math-
ematics. The notion of a set is elementary to all mathematics.

1.1 Sets

Definition 1.1.1. (Set) A set is a well-defined collection of objects. Each of the objects in the set is called
a member or an element of the set.

Example 1.1.1. • the set of all students in this class.

• the set of all samples in an experiment.

• the set of all prime numbers.

• the set of all books in the library.

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1.1.1 Notation

Elements of a set are usually denoted by lower-case letters, while sets are denoted by capital letters.
The symbol ∈ indicates membership in a set.
If a is an element of a set A, this is written as a ∈ A.
The symbol ∈ is read ”is a member of” or ”is an element of”.
The symbol ∈
/ is used to indicate that an object is not an element of a given set.
If x is not an element of the set A, this is written as x ∈
/ A.

1.1.2 Specifying Sets

Sets are specified in two main ways.

(i) One method of specifying a set is to list all the members of the set between a pair of braces called the
Tabular Form of the set. Thus {1, 2, 3} represents the set whose members are the positive integers 1, 2, 3.
This method is usually used for small sets.

Example 1.1.2. (i) {3, 6, 9, 12, 15}

(ii) {a, b, c, e}.

(ii) Another method of specifying a set is to use some defining attribute or characteristic of the elements
of the set. This method is more general and precise and involves a description of the properties satisfied
by the elements of the set.

A = {x | x has the Property P }

This is read as ”the set A of all objects x such that x has the property P ”. This notation is called the
Set-Builder notation. The vertical bar is read as ”such that”.

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1.1.3 Special Sets

These sets, each denoted using special letters, called blackboard bold letters, occur frequently in mathe-
matics.
N = {1, 2, 3, ...}, the set of all natural numbers.
Z = {..., −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, ...}, the set of all integers.
Z+ = {1, 2, 3, ...}, the set of positive integers.
Q = { pq | p, q ∈ Z and q 6= 0}, the set of rational numbers.
R the set of real numbers.
R+ , the set of positive real numbers.
C = {a + bi | a, b ∈ R}, the set of complex numbers.

Definition 1.1.2. Equal Sets If A and B are sets such that every element of A is an element of B and
every element of B is an element of A, then A and B are equal.

Note that Z+ = {1, 2, 3, ...} = N.

1.2 Subsets

Definition 1.2.1. Subset A set A is a subset of the set B if and only if every element of A is also an
element of B. We also say that A is contained in B, and use the notation A ⊆ B.

If A ⊆ B, it is possible that A = B. This leads to the next definition.

Definition 1.2.2. Proper Subset A set A is a proper subset of the set B if

(i) A is a subset of B.
(ii) B is not a subset of A.

A is a proper subset of B if every element of A belongs to the set B, but there is at least one element
of B which is not in A. If A is a proper subset of B, then this is denoted by A ⊂ B.

Definition 1.2.3. If A is subset of B, then B is called a superset of A.

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Example 1.2.1. (i) If A = {0, 2, 9}, B = {0, 2, 7, 9, 11} then A ⊂ B (A is a proper subset of B).
(ii) If A = {a, a, b}, B = {a, b}, then A and B denote the same set, i.e., A = B. So in using the Tabular
Form of a set, members of the set should not be repeated. Similarly the order of writing down the members
of a set does not matter.
(iii) If A = {1, 2, 4}, B = {1, 2, 4, 6, 8}, A is proper subset of B and B is a superset of A.

Definition 1.2.4. Empty Set A set with no elements is called an empty set or a null set. An empty set
is denoted by ∅.

An empty set is a subset of every set, that is, if A is a set, then ∅ ⊆ A.

Example 1.2.2. (i) The set of real roots of the polynomial equation x2 + 4 = 0 is an empty set.
(ii) {x | x = x + 4} is an empty set.

Definition 1.2.5. A set that contains one element is called a singleton.

Example 1.2.3. (i) B = {2015}, (ii) {∅}.

Note that ∅ ∈ {∅}, ∅ ⊆ {∅}, ∅ 6= {∅}

The second example is the set whose only element is the empty set and, as it has one element it is not
an empty set. Although they may have different specifications, all empty sets are regarded as equal, by
convention. The uniqueness means that an empty set is described as THE empty set.

Theorem 1.2.1. Two sets A and B are equal if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.

Proof. If A = B, then every member of A is a member of B and every member of B is a member of A.

Hence A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.
Conversely suppose A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A. Then that means every member of A is a member of B and every
member of B is a member of A. From the definition of equal sets, A = B.

1.3 Finite and Infinite sets

Definition 1.3.1. A set is finite if it contains a finite number of elements.

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Example 1.3.1. (i) {1, 3, 5, 7}, (ii) {dog, cat, donkey}, (iii) The letters of English alphabet.

Definition 1.3.2. A set is infinite if it is not finite, that is, it contains an infinite number of elements.

Example 1.3.2. (i) R, the set of real numbers, (ii) The points in the interval [0, 1].

Definition 1.3.3. The cardinality of a finite set is the number of elements it contains, while that of an
infinite set will be defined later when the relevant concepts have been considered.

The cardinality of a set A is denoted by | A |.

1.4 Universal Set

Definition 1.4.1. A set which contains all the objects under consideration is called the universal set. This
set is usually denoted by U .

The universal set depends on situation and the sets being considered. Even then it is not unique as
any superset of a universal set is also a universal set.

Example 1.4.1. If A = {0, 2, 7}, B = {3, 5, 6}, C = {1, 8, 9, 10} then the universal set can be taken as the
set U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}. Note that 4 is included in the universal set even although it is not in
any one of the given sets.

1.5 Properties of Set Inclusion

Theorem 1.5.1. If A is any set, then A ⊆ A.

Proof. If x ∈ A, then x ∈ A. Hence A ⊆ A.

The result of this theorem is described by saying that ”set inclusion is reflexive”.

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Theorem 1.5.2. If A ⊆ B, and B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C where A, B and C are sets.

Proof. Let x ∈ A. Then

x∈A ⇒x∈B (since A ⊆ B)

⇒ x ∈ C. (since B ⊆ C)

Therefore A ⊆ C.

The result of this theorem is described by saying that ”set inclusion is transitive”.

1.6 Power Set

Definition 1.6.1. The set of all subsets of a set A is called the power set of A. The power set of A is
denoted by P (A).

In the Set-Builder notation, P (A) = {X | X ⊆ A}.

Example 1.6.1. (i) If A = {a, b}, then

P (A) = {∅, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}.

(ii) The only subset of the empty set is ∅, so P (∅) = {∅}.

Theorem 1.6.1. If a set A contains n elements, then P (A) has 2n elements.

Proof. Exercise.
Hint: Proof is by induction on n.

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1.7 Operation On Sets: Union of Sets

Definition 1.7.1. The union of two sets A and B is the set whose elements are all of the elements in A
or in B or in both.

The union of sets A and B is denoted by A ∪ B and is read as A union B.

Symbolically, A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.

Example 1.7.1. (i) If A = {5, 7, 8} , B = {2, 7, 9, 10, 11} then, A ∪ B = {2, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11},
(ii) If A = {x | x ∈ Z, and x ≥ 3} and B = {x | x ∈ Z , and x ≥ 8}, then A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ Z, x ≥ 3}.
Sn
Definition 1.7.2. If A1 , A2 , A3 , ..., An denote, sets then the union of these sets denoted by i=1 Ai is
defined as ni=1 Ai = {x | x ∈ Ai for at least one set Ai } .
S

1.8 Properties of Union Operation

Theorem 1.8.1. Let A and B be two sets. Then

(i) A ⊆ (A ∪ B),
(ii) B ⊆ (A ∪ B),
(iii) A ∪ U = U , where U is the universal set.

Proof. Let x ∈ A. Then

x∈A ⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B
⇒ x ∈ (A ∪ B).

Hence A ⊆ (A ∪ B). (ii) and (iii) are left as exercises.

Theorem 1.8.2. Let A be a set. Then

(i) A ∪ ∅ = A
(ii) A ∪ A = A.

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Proof. Clearly A ⊆ A ∪ ∅. (1)
Conversely, let x ∈ A ∪ ∅. Then

x∈A∪∅ ⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ ∅
⇒ x ∈ A.

Thus A ∪ ∅ ⊆ A. (2)
From (1) and (2), we have

A ∪ ∅ = A.

Theorem 1.8.3. (Commutative Law of ∪)

For all sets A and B, A ∪ B = B ∪ A.

Proof. Let x ∈ A ∪ B. Then

x∈A∪B ⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B
⇒ x ∈ B or x ∈ A.
⇒ x ∈ B ∪ A.

Hence A ∪ B ⊆ B ∪ A. (1)
Conversely, let y ∈ B ∪ A. Then

y ∈B∪A ⇒ y ∈ B or y ∈ A
⇒ y ∈ A or y ∈ B.
⇒ y ∈ A ∪ B.

Hence B ∪ A ⊆ A ∪ B. (2)
From (1) and (2) we have

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 A ∪ B = B ∪ A.

Theorem 1.8.4. (Associative Law of ∪)

For all sets A, B, C, (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C).

Proof. Let x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C). Then

x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C ⇒ x ∈ (A ∪ B) or x ∈ C
⇒ (x ∈ A or y ∈ B) or x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ A or (x ∈ B or x ∈ C)
⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ (B ∪ C)
⇒ x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C).

Thus (A ∪ B) ∪ C ⊆ A ∪ (B ∪ C). (1)

Conversely, let y ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C). Then

y ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C) ⇒ y ∈ A or x ∈ (B ∪ C)
⇒ x ∈ A or (y ∈ B or x ∈ C)
⇒ (x ∈ A or x ∈ B) or x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ A ∪ B or x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C.

Thus (A ∪ B) ∪ C ⊆ A ∪ B) ∪ C. (2)
From (1) and (2) we have

(A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C).

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1.9 Intersection of Sets

Definition 1.9.1. The intersection of two sets A and B is the set whose elements are all of the elements
common to both A and B.

Symbolically, A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}. For n sets we have

Tn
i=1 Ai = {x | x ∈ Ai for every i (i = 1, 2, ..., n)}.

Example 1.9.1. (i) Let A = {1, 2, 3, 8}, B = {5, 8, 9}. Then A ∩ B = {8}.
(ii) If A = {a, b, c, d}, B = {b, d, e, f, g} then A ∩ B = {b, d}.

1.10 Properties of Intersection

Theorem 1.10.1. Let A and B be any two sets. Then

(i) A ∩ B ⊆ A and (ii) A ∩ B ⊆ B.

Proof. Let x ∈ A ∩ B. Then

x∈A∩B ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B
⇒ x ∈ A.

Hence A ∩ B ⊆ A.

Theorem 1.10.2. For any set A,

(i) A ∩ ∅ = ∅, (ii) A ∩ A = A and (iii)A ∩ U = A where U is the universal set.

Proof. Exercise.

Theorem 1.10.3. (Commutative Law of ∩)

For all sets A and B, A ∩ B = B ∩ A

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Proof. Exercise.

Theorem 1.10.4. (Associative Law of ∩)

For all sets A, B, C, (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C).

Proof. Exercise.

1.11 Distributive Laws

Theorem 1.11.1. (Distributive Law of ∩ over ∪)

For all sets A, B and C, A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).

Proof. Let x ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C). Then

x ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C) ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B ∪ C
⇒ x ∈ A and (x ∈ B or x ∈ C)
⇒ (x ∈ A and x ∈ B) or (x ∈ A and x ∈ C)
⇒ x ∈ (A ∩ B) or x ∈ (A ∩ C)
⇒ x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).

Thus A ∩ (B ∪ C) ⊆ A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C). (1)

Conversely, let y ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C). Then

y ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) ⇒ y ∈ (A ∩ B) or y ∈ (A ∩ C)
⇒ (y ∈ A and y ∈ B) or (y ∈ A and y ∈ C)
⇒ y ∈ A and (y ∈ B or y ∈ C)
⇒ y ∈ A and y ∈ B ∪ C
⇒ y ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C).

Hence (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) ⊆ A ∩ (B ∪ C). (2).

From (1) and (2) we have,

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 A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).

Theorem 1.11.2. (Distributive Law of ∪ over ∩)

For all sets A, B and C, A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).

Proof. Exercise.

The Russell Paradox

To be discussed in class.

1.12 Hasse Diagram

Before we talk about a Hasse Diagram we will mention a definition of a partial order(this will be explored
more in the chapter 5 of Structures).

Definition 1.12.1. A relation R on a set A is called a partial order relation on A if R is reflexive,

anti-symmetric and transitive.

Example 1.12.1. (i) If A is a non-empty set and P (A) denotes the power set of A, then the relation set
inclusion (⊆) on P (A) is a partial ordering.
(ii) Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 72} and R be a relation on A which is defined by ’a divides b’.
Then R is a partial order on A.

Definition 1.12.2. (Hasse Diagram) A Hasse diagram is a pictorial representation of a finite partial
order on a set. In this representation, the objects, that is, the elements are shown as vertices (or dots).

Example 1.12.2. In Example 1.12.1(i) let A = {a, b, c}. Then P (A) = {∅, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c
Then the diagram below is the Hasse diagram of the partial order on P (A).

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The Hasse Diagram for Example 1.12.1(ii) is also below:

1.13 Disjoint Sets

Definition 1.13.1. Two sets are said to be disjoint if they have no element in common.

Example 1.13.1. The sets, A = {0, 5, 8, 9} and B = {3, 4, 11} are disjoint.

1.14 Complement of a Set

Definition 1.14.1. (Relative Complement or (Difference of Sets))

Let A and B be subsets of the universal set U . Then the set difference of A and B(or the relative difference
of B in A) is defined by

A \ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B}.

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Example 1.14.1. Let A = {a, b, c} and B = {b, c, d, e, f, g}, then A \ B = {a}.

Definition 1.14.2. (Complement of a Set)

Let U be a universal set containing A. Then the complement of A,

Ac = U \ A = {x ∈ U | x ∈
/ A}.

1.15 Properties of Complementation

Theorem 1.15.1. If A and B are two subsets of the universal set U , then
(i) U c = ∅ (ii) ∅c = U (iii) A ∪ Ac = U (iv) A ∩ Ac = ∅
(v) (Ac )c = A (vi) A ⊆ B ⇒ B c ⊆ Ac

Theorem 1.15.2. (De Morgan’s Laws)

Let A and B be sets. Then
(i) (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c ,
(ii)(A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c .

Proof. Let x ∈ (A ∩ B)c . Then

x ∈ (A ∩ B)c ⇒x∈
/ A∩B
⇒x∈
/ A or x ∈
/B
⇒ x ∈ Ac or x ∈ B c
⇒ x ∈ Ac ∪ B c

Hence (A ∩ B)c ⊆ Ac ∪ B c . (1)

Conversely let y ∈ Ac ∪ B c . Then

y ∈ Ac ∪ B c ⇒ y ∈ Ac or y ∈ B c
⇒y∈
/ A or y ∈
/B
⇒y∈
/ A∩B
⇒ y ∈ (A ∩ B)c

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Thus Ac ∪ B c ⊆ (A ∩ B)c .
From (1) and (2) we have

Ac ∪ B c = (A ∩ B)c .

Part (ii) is left as an exercise.

1.16 Properties of Difference

Theorem 1.16.1. If A and B are two subsets of a universal set U , then

(i) A \ B = A ∩ B c (ii) Ac = U \ A (iii) A \ A = ∅

(iv) A \ ∅ = A (v) A \ B = B \ A, if and only if A = B
(vi) A \ B = A if and only if A ∩ B = ∅ (vii) A \ B = ∅ if and only if A ⊆ B.

Proof. (1) Let x ∈ A \ B. Then

x∈A\B ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈
/B
⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B c
⇒ x ∈ A ∩ Bc.

Hence A \ B ⊆ A ∩ B c . (1)
Conversely, let y ∈ A ∩ B c . Then

y ∈ x ∈ A ∩ Bc ⇒ y ∈ A and y ∈ B c
⇒ y ∈ A and y ∈
/B
⇒ y ∈ A \ B.

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Thus A ∩ B c ⊆ A \ B. (2).
From (1) and (2) we have A \ B = A ∩ B c .

1.17 Symmetric Difference

Definition 1.17.1. The symmetric difference of two sets A and B is defined as,

A 4 B = {x | x ∈ A ∪ B and x ∈
/ A ∩ B}.

Example 1.17.1. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, B = {3, 4, p, q, r, s}. Then, we have

A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, p, q, r, s} and A ∩ B = {3, 4}. We get A 4 B = {1, 2, 5, 6, 7, p, q, r, s}.

Theorem 1.17.1. (Properties of Symmetric Difference)

(i) A 4 A = ∅ (ii) A 4 B = B 4 A
(iii) A 4 ∅ = A (iv) (A 4 B) 4 C = A 4 (B 4 C)
(v) A 4 B = (A ∪ B) \ (A ∩ B) = (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A).

1.18 Cardinality of Sets

1.18.1 Cardinality of a Set

Definition 1.18.1. If A is finite set with n distinct elements, then n is called the cardinality of A. The
cardinality of A is denoted by |A|.

Example 1.18.1. Let A = {a, b, c, d}. Then A is a finite set and |A| = 4.

1.18.2 Cardinality of the Union of Sets

Definition 1.18.2. Let A, B and C be sets. Then

|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B|

19
and

|A ∪ B ∪ C| = |A| + |B| + |C| − |B ∩ C| − |C ∩ A| − |A ∩ B| + |A ∩ B ∩ C|.

1.19 Cartesian Product of Sets

Definition 1.19.1. If A and B are two non-empty sets, then the Cartesian product of A and B is the set
of all ordered pairs (a, b) where a ∈ A and b ∈ B. The Cartesian product of the sets A and B is denoted
by A × B.

So A × B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A and b ∈ B}.

Example 1.19.1. If A = {0, 1, 2}, B = {3, 5}, then A × B = {(0, 3), (0, 5), (1, 3), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 5)}.

Theorem 1.19.1. If A, B and C are sets, then

(i) A × (B ∪ C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C),
(ii) A × (B ∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C).

Proof. We prove part (i).

A × (B ∪ C) = {(x, y) | x ∈ A, y ∈ B ∪ C}
= {(x, y) | x ∈ A and y ∈ B or y ∈ C}
= {(x, y) | x ∈ A, y ∈ B or x ∈ A, y ∈ C}
= {(x, y) | (x, y) ∈ A × B or (x, y) ∈ A × C}
= (A × B) ∪ (A × C).

Theorem 1.19.2. If A, B and C are non-empty sets, then

A ⊆ B ⇒ A × C ⊆ B × C.

Proof. Exercise.

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Chapter 2

Relations

This chapter deals primarily with the concept of a Relation. The mathematical concept of a relation deals
with the way the variables are related or paired. In mathematics the expressions like, is less than, is greater
than, is perpendicular to, is parallel to are relations. In this chapter, we shall only consider relations called
binary relations. The equivalence relation in sets is also discussed.

2.1 The concept of a relation

Definition 2.1.1. Let A and B be non-empty sets, then any subset of R of the Cartesian product A × B
is called a relation from A to B.

Example 2.1.1. Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 7, 8}. Then R = {(1, 7), (2, 2)(3, 8)(3, 7)} is a relation from
A to B.

If (a, b) ∈ R , we often write aRb and say a is related to b.

If R ⊆ A × A, then R is a relation on A.

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2.2 Properties of Relations

Definition 2.2.1. (Reflexive Relation)

Let R be a relation defined on a set A. Then R is reflexive if aRa holds for all a ∈ A, that is, if (a, a) ∈ R
for all a ∈ A .

Example 2.2.1. (i) Let A = {a, b, c, d} and R = {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (d, d)}, then R is a reflexive relation
on A.
(ii) ’Equality’ is a reflexive relation, since an element is always equal to itself.

Definition 2.2.2. (Symmetric Relation)

A relation R defined on a set A is symmetric if bRa holds whenever aRb holds for b ∈ A, that is, R is
symmetric on A if

(a, b) ∈ R ⇒ (b, a) ∈ R.

Example 2.2.2. Let A = {a, b, c, d, e} and R = {(a, a), (a, e), (c, d), (e, c), (e, a), (d, c), (c, e)}. Then R is
symmetric since (a, e), (e, a) ∈ R, (c, d), (d, c) ∈ R and (e, c), (c, e) ∈ R.

Definition 2.2.3. (Transitive Relation)

A relation R on set A is transitive if

(a, b) ∈ R, and (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R,

that is, if aRb and bRc ⇒ aRc for a, b, c ∈ A.

Example 2.2.3. Let A = {1, 2, 3} and R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2), (3, 3)} then R is transitive.

Definition 2.2.4. Equivalence Relation

A relation R on a set A is an equivalence relation on A, if R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

Example 2.2.4. Let A = {a, b, c}, and R = {(a, a), (a, b), (b, a), (b, b), (b, c), (c, a), (c, b), (c, c)}. Then R is
an equivalence relation on A.

Definition 2.2.5. Anti-Symmetric Relation

Let R be a relation on a set A, then R is called anti-symmetric if

22
 (a, b) ∈ R and (b, a) ∈ R ⇒ a = b for all a, b ∈ R,

that is, aRb and bRa ⇒ a = b.

Example 2.2.5. Define a relation R on N, the set of natural numbers, by

aRb if and only if a divides b.

Then R is anti-symmetric since if a divides b and b divides a , then a = b.

Example 2.2.6. Show that the relation ’=’ defined on a set A is an equivalence relation. Solution (i)
a = a for every a ∈ A Thus R is reflexive.
(ii) If a = b, then b = a for all a, b ∈ A.So R is symmetric.
(iii) If a = b and b = c, then a = c. Thus R is transitive.
Therefore R is an equivalence relation.

Example 2.2.7. Define a relation ∼ on R × R by :

(a, b) ∼ (c, d) ⇔ 3a − b = 3c − d.

Show that ∼ is an equivalence relation.

Solution
For all (a, b) ∈ R × R, (a, b) ∼ (a, b) since 3a − b = 3a − b.
Therefore ∼ is reflexive.
For (a, b), (c, d) such that (a, b) ∼ (c, d) we have,

(a, b) ∼ (c, d) ⇒ 3a − b = 3c − d
⇒ 3c − d = 3a − b (since = is symmetric)
⇒ (c, d) ∼ (a, b).

Hence ∼ is symmetric.
For (a, b), (c, d), (e, f ) such that (a, b) ∼ (c, d) and (c, d) ∼ (e, f ) we have,

23
 (a, b) ∼ (c, d) and (c, d) ∼ (e, f ) ⇒ 3a − b = 3c − d and 3c − d = 3e − f
⇒ 3c − d = 3e − f (since = is transitive)
⇒ (c, d) ∼ (e, f ).

Therefore ∼ is transitive.
Thus ∼ is an equivalence relation.

2.3 Equivalence Classes and Partitions

Definition 2.3.1. (Partition) Let A be a non-empty set. A partition F of A is a family F = {Ai }i∈I of
non-empty subsets of A satisfying these conditions:
S
(i) i∈I Ai = A,
(ii) Ai ∩ Aj = 1, if i 6= j.

Example 2.3.1. Let A = {1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, A1 = {1, 5, 7, 9}, A2 = {2, 4, 6} and A3 = {8, 10}. Then
F = {A1 , A2 , A3 } is a partition of A.

Definition 2.3.2. (Equivalence Class)

Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A and let a ∈ A. Then an equivalence class of a, denoted by [a],
is defined as

[a] = {b ∈ A | a ∼ b}.

Example 2.3.2. Consider the equivalence relation in Example 2.2.7. Then

[(2, 3)] = {(a, b) ∈ R × R | (2, 3) ∼ (a, b)}

= {(a, b) ∈ R × R | 6 − 3 = 3a − b}
= {(a, b) ∈ R × R | 3 = 3a − b}
= {(a, b) ∈ R × R | b = 3a − 3}
= {(a, 3a − 3) | a ∈ R}.

Theorem 2.3.1. Let ∼ be an equivalence relation on a set A.

(i) For all a ∈ A, a ∈ [a],

24
(ii) For all a, b ∈ A, a ∼ b if and only if [a] = [b],
(iii) For all a, b ∈ A, if a  b, then [a] ∩ [b] = ∅
(iv) Any two equivalence classes are either disjoint or equal.
Therefore the equivalence classes partition A.

2.4 Functions as special relations

The concept of a relation was defined very generally. In this section we shall now discuss a special relations
called functions. If f is a relation on a set A, then in this section we may write f (a) = b to mean (a, b) ∈ f

Definition 2.4.1. Domain and Co-domain

Let f : A → B be a relation from the set A to the set B. Then the
(i) domain of f is the set A.
(ii) co-domain or range of f is the set C = {c ∈ B | f (a) = c for some a ∈ A}

Definition 2.4.2. (Function) Let A and B be sets. Let f : A → B.

(i) Everywhere defined Then f is everywhere defined if for all a ∈ A, there exist at least one b ∈ B
such that f (a) = b, or (a, b) ∈ f .
(ii) Well-defined f is well-defined if for all a ∈ A, there exists at most one b ∈ B such that f (a) = b.
(iii) f is a function(or a mapping) if f is both everywhere defined and well-defined, that is, for all a ∈ A,
there is exactly one or a unique b ∈ B such that f (a) = b.

Example 2.4.1. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 5, 10, 18, 20}. Define a relation f by
f = {(1, 3), (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 10), (4, 5)}. Then f is everywhere defined but not well-defined.
if f = {(1, 5), (2, 4)}, then f is well-defined but everywhere defined.
Let f = {(1, 3), (2, 3), (3, 10), (4, 5). Then f is a function.

2.5 Injective and Surjective relations

Definition 2.5.1. (i) A relation f : A → B is injective(or one-to-one) if f (x) = f (y) ⇒ x = y for all
x, y ∈ A.

25
(ii) A relation f : A → B is surjective(or onto) if for all b ∈ B, there is an a ∈ A such that f (a) = b.
(iii) A relation ii bijective if it is injective and surjective.

A mapping which is injective is called an injection and a function which is surjective is called a
surjection.

Example 2.5.1. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 5, 10, 18, 20}. Let f = {(1, 5), (1, 20), (2, 3), (3, 10)}.
Then f is injective, not everywhere defined, not well-defined and not surjective.
If f = {(1, 3), (1, 5)(2, 5), (2, 10), (4, 18)(4, 20)}, then f is surjective, not everywhere defined, not well-
defined, not injective.

A function is a bijection if it is a surjection and an injection.

2.6 Composition of functions

Definition 2.6.1. Let f : A → B, and g : B → C be two mappings. Then the composition of two mappings
f and g denoted by g ◦ f is the mapping from A into C defined by

(g ◦ f )(a) = g(f (a)) where a ∈ A.

Example 2.6.1. Let f : R → R, g : R → R be defined by

f (x) = x + 1, g(x) = 2x2 + 3.

Then (g◦f )(x) = g[f (x)] = g[(x+1)] = 2(x+1)2 +3, (f ◦g)(x) = f [g(x)] = f (2x2 +3) = 2x2 +3+1 = 2x2 +4.
g ◦ f and f ◦ g are both defined but g ◦ f 6= f ◦ g.

Definition 2.6.2. Let f : A → B, be a one-one, onto mapping (bijection), then f −1 : B → A is called the
inverse mapping of f . f 1 is the set defined as

f 1 = {(b, a) | (a, b) ∈ f }

26
Example 2.6.2. Let R be a set of real numbers and f : R → R be given by

f (x) = x + 5 for all x ∈ R , that is, f = {(x, x + 5) | x ∈ R}

then f −1 = {(x + 5, x) | x ∈ R} is a function from R to R.

27
Chapter 3

Logic

3.1 Introduction

In this chapter we shall study mathematical logic, which is concerned with all kinds of reasoning. Math-
ematical logic has two aspects. On one hand it is analytical theory of art of reasoning whose goal is to
systematize and codify principles of valid reasoning. It may be used to judge the correctness of statements
which make up the chain.
Principles of logic are valuable to problem analysis, programming and logic design.
A statement is a sentence that is true or false but not both. Distinguishing what is true from what is not
true is fundamental in mathematics. So in order to establish this we need have some rules. Firstly, we
need to agree that to recognize certain kinds of expressions as statements in our mathematical language.
Secondly, we agree to classify a given collection of one or more mathematical statements as true; these
statements are called axioms. Thirdly, we adopt a system of rules by which we can label certain new
statements as ‘true’; these statements will be related in carefully specified ways to statements that we
already accept as true. These rules of truth assignment are called our laws of logic, deduction, inference,
or proof. A proof is a chain of statements leading, implicitly or explicitly, from the axioms to a statement
under consideration, compelling us to declare that that statement, too, is true. A statement that has been
proved is called theorem. Accepting a list of axioms as an initial mathematical act may not be easy; the
axioms may be in conflict with our intuitions, if ‘true’ has its usual meaning.

28
Note that there is some flexibility in the use of this terminology. Rather than call every proven result a
theorem, for variety it is often the custom to reserve the word theorem for proven results of major impor-
tance, to call a theorem of slightly less importance a proposition, to label a theorem of interest primarily
for its use in proving a more important result a lemma, and to call a theorem that follows quickly as a
consequence of a previous theorem a corollary.

3.2 Logical Connectives and Compound Statements

Statements can be connected by words like ‘not’, ‘and’, ‘or’, etc. These words are known as logical
connectives. The statements which do not contain any of the connectives are called atomic statements or
simple statements.
The common connectives used are: negation (¬), and ∧, or (∨), if ... then (→), if and only if ←→,
equivalence (⇔). We will use these connectives along with symbols to combine various simple statements.

3.2.1 Compound Statements

A statement that is formed from simple statements through the use of sentential connectives is called a
compound statement.

3.2.2 Truth Table

The table showing the Truth values of a statement formula is called ‘Truth Table’.

3.2.3 Conjunction

A compound statement obtained by combining two simple statements say p and q, by using the connective
‘and’ is called conjunction, i.e., the conjunction of two statements p and q is the statement p ∧ q. It is read
as ‘p and q’.

29
The statement p ∧ q has the truth value T , whenever both p and q have the truth value T , otherwise p ∧ q
has the truth value F . The above property can also be written in the form of the table below, which we
regard as defining p ∧ q:

p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

The truth value of p ∧ q depends only on the truth values of p and q, and there need be no connection
between the subject matter of p and that of q. Let p be ‘students who are registered for this class are
science students’ and q be ‘3 + 5 = 8’. Thus the conjunction of p and q is a true proposition, although the
occasion may seldom arise when we might wish to state it. The symbolic expression p ∧ q is not in itself a
statement, but it becomes a statement when the letters p and q are replaced by statements.

Example 3.2.1. Form the conjunction of

p: Delhi is in India.
q: 5 + 7 = 12.
Solution p ∧ q is the statement:
‘Delhi is in India and 5 + 7 = 12’.

3.2.4 Disjunction

The word ‘or’ has at least two meanings in standard English, as the following examples illustrate:
(1) At the airport while waiting to board our plane we hear, ‘Parties with young children or physically
handicapped individuals will be seated first’.
(2) At the restaurant we learn that ‘the price of dinner includes soup or salad’.
In example (1) we understand that if our party satisfies at least one of the specified conditions, then we
will be seated first; in particular, if our party includes both a physically handicapped person and a child,
or if it includes a physically handicapped child, we will still qualify to be seated first. This ‘or’ is called

30
inclusive, since our fulfilment of one condition includes the possibility that we may also fulfill the other.
In example (2) we understand that we are entitled to exactly one of the two possibilities; hence this ‘or’
is called exclusive. In mathematics the convention is to use ‘or’ in the inclusive sense unless we explicitly
state otherwise; thus ‘p or q’ is true if p is true, q is true, or both are true.
Any two simple statements can be combined by the connective ‘or’ to form a statement called the disjunction
of the statements; i.e., if p and q are simple statements, the sentence ‘p or q’ is the disjunction of p and q.
The disjunction of p and q is denoted symbolically by p ∨ q.
p ∨ q is read as ‘p or q’
The truth table of p ∨ q is given below:

p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Example 3.2.2. Let p: Roses are red q: Violets are blue, then, p ∨ q: Roses are red or violets are blue

3.2.5 Negation

We form the negation of a statement by using the logical term ‘not’, symbolically denoted by ¬. If p
is a statement, then ¬p (verbalized as ‘not p’) denotes its negation. If p is ‘Mark is smiling’, then ¬p is
‘Mark is not smiling’. There are variations on the ways to phrase a negation, due to the complexities of
our language; for example, the negation of ‘No man is an island’ is ‘At least one man is an island’ or ‘Some
man is an island’. A safe way to negate p is to precede p by ‘It is not the case that’. The effect of negation
on the truth values of propositions is summarized in the following table, called the truth table for ¬.

p ¬p
T F
F T

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The bottom row of the table above tells us that when p is true, then ¬p is false.
So far we have talked about two logical connectives, namely ¬ and ∧.
If a statement form S has three variables p, q, and r, then the left part of the truth table will look like this:

p q r
T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F

3.3 Proposition

If p, q, r, s, ... are simple statements, then the Compound Statement P (p, q, r, s, ...) is called a Proposition.
The statement p, q, r, ... are called the sub-statements or variables of P .
The truth value of proposition P depends on the truth values of the variables, p, q, r, .... If the truth values
of the variables are known to us, then we can find the truth value of the proposition P . A truth table is a
simple way to show this relationship.

Example 3.3.1. Find the truth table of the proposition ¬p ∧ q.

Solution

p q ¬p ¬p ∧ q
T T F F
T F F F
F T T T
F F T F

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3.4 Conditional Statements

3.4.1 Conditional

Definition 3.4.1. Conditional Statement

If p and q are any two statements, then the statement p −→ q which is read as ‘if p, then q’ is called a
conditional statement.

The symbol −→ is used to denote connective ‘If ... then’

The conditional p −→ q can also be read:
(a) p only if q (b) p implies q (c) p is sufficient for q (d ) q if p
The conditional p −→ q has two simple statements p and q connected by ‘if ... then’.
The truth values of p −→ q are below.

p q p −→ q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Example 3.4.1. Let p: He is a graduate

q: He is a lawyer then,
p −→ q: If he is a graduate, then he is a lawyer.

The conditional, if p then q, can be expressed in any of the following nine equivalent ways :
p −→ q, q if p, p only if q, p is sufficient for q, q is necessary for p, q provided p, q when p, q whenever p.
You must know all these.

33
3.4.2 Biconditional

Definition 3.4.2. A statement of the form ‘p if and only if q’ is called a biconditional statement. It is
denoted by p ←→ q.

The truth values p ←→ q are given in below.

p q p ←→ q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Definition 3.4.3. (i) Bangalore is in India, if and only if 4 + 4 = 8.

(ii) 3 + 3 = 6 if and only if 4 + 3 = 7.

3.4.3 Converse and Contrapositive Propositions

If p → q, is a conditional statement, then

(a) q −→ p is called its converse, and
(b) ¬q −→ ¬p is called its contrapositive.
The truth values of the are converse proposition is given below.

p q p −→ q q −→ p
T T T T
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T

The truth values of the are contrapositive proposition is given below.

34
 p q ¬p ¬q ¬q −→ ¬p
T T F F T
T F F T F
F T T F T
F F T T T

Example 3.4.2. Write the contrapositive of the implication

‘if it is raining, then I get wet’
Solution: let p: It is raining
q: I get wet
then the contrapositive is
¬q −→ ¬p: If I do not get wet, then it is not raining.

3.4.4 Tautology

A statement formula that is true for all possible values of its propositional variables is called a tautology.

Example 3.4.3. (i) (p ∨ q) ←→ (q ∨ p) is a tautology.

(ii) p ∨ ¬p is a tautology.

3.4.5 Contradiction

A statement formula that is always false is called a contradiction.

Example 3.4.4. p ∧ ¬p is a contradiction.

3.4.6 Logical Equivalence

Two propositions p and q are said to be logically equivalent or simply equivalent if p → q is a tautology.

Example 3.4.5. ¬(p ∧ q) and ¬p ∨ ¬q are logically equivalent.

35
 Two formulas may be equivalent, even if they do not contain the same variables. Two statement
formulas p and q are equivalent if p ⇐⇒ q is a tautology and conversely, if p ⇐⇒ q is a tautology then p
and q are equivalent.

3.5 Laws for the Algebra of Propositional Calculus

Let B be the set of statements and binary operations:

(∨) : B × B −→ B ∧ : B × B −→ B.

be defined on B. Then the following laws are satisfied:

CLOSURE LAWS

(∨) : (∀p, q ∈ B)[p ∨ q] ∈ B, (∧) : (∀p, q ∈ B)[p ∧ q ∈ B].

COMMUTATIVE LAWS

(∨) : (∀p, q ∈ B)[p ∨ q ⇔ q ∨ p], (∧) : (∀p, q ∈ B)[p ∧ q ⇔ q ∧ p].

ASSOCIATIVE LAWS

(∨) : (∀p, q, r ∈ B)[(p ∨ q) ∨ r ⇔ p ∨ (q ∨ r)], (∧) : (∀p, q, r ∈ B)[(p ∧ q) ∧ r ⇔ p ∧ (q ∧ r)].

DISTRIBUTIVE LAWS

(∀p, q, r ∈ B)[(p ∧ q) ∨ r ⇔ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r)], (∀p, q, r ∈ B)[p ∨ (q ∧ r) ⇔ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r)].

IDEMPOTENT LAWS

36
 (∨) : (∀p ∈ B)[p ∨ p ⇔ p], (∧) : (∀p ∈ B)[p ∧ p ⇔ p].

IDENTITY LAWS
(∃0, 1 ∈ B) such that
(a) (∀p ∈ B)[p ∨ 1 ⇔ 1, p ∧ 1 ⇔ p].
(b) (∀p ∈ B)[p ∨ 0 ⇔ p, p ∧ 0 ⇔ 0].
COMPLEMENT LAWS
(∀p ∈ B)(∃¬p ∈ B) such that
(a) (∀p ∈ B)[p ∨ (¬p) ⇔ 1, p ∧ (¬p) ⇔ 0].
(b) [¬1 ⇔ 0, ¬0 ⇔ 1].
(c) (∀p ∈ B)[¬(¬p) ⇔ p].

3.5.1 Results from the algebra of propositional calculus

TAUTOLOGY SYMBOLIC FORM

1. Law of contradiction 1. ¬(p ∧ (¬p)).
2. Law of implication and disjunction 2. (p −→ q) ⇔ (¬p ∨ q).
3. Absorption or reduction law 3. (p ∨ (p ∧ q)) ⇔ p.
4. Absorption or reduction law 4. (p ∧ (p ∨ q)) ⇔ p.
5. De Morgan’s Law 5. ¬(p ∧ q) ⇔ (¬p ∨ (¬q)).
6. De Morgan’s Law 6. ¬(p ∨ q) ⇔ (¬p ∧ (¬q)).

Proof. Exercise

3.6 Quantifiers

In this section we introduce, two logical notions called quantifiers. So far we have discussed the proposi-
tions in which each statement has been about a particular object. In this section we shall see how to write
propositions that are about whole classes of objects.
In grammar a predicate is the word in a sentence which expresses what is said of the object. It is a part of a

37
declarative sentence describing the properties of an object or relation among objects (The word ‘Predicate’
and property will be used to mean the same thing) for example ‘is a cricket player’, ‘is a teacher’ ‘is short’
are predicates. In logic the word predicate has a broader role than in grammar. The basis for this is the
observation that a predicate is supplemented by, including a variable x as a place holder, for the intended
subject, the result behaves as ‘a statement function’, in the sense that for each value of x a statement
results. Consider the statement

p : x is an even number

The truth value of p depends on the value of x. p is true when x = 4, and false when x = 11. The
statement p is not a proposition. In this section we extend the system of logic to include such statements.
In grammar ‘Rajan loves’ is not a predicate. If ‘x’ is introduced as a place holder for the object, then we
get the result as

‘Rajan loves x’.

which is a statement function. Thus we can define, a predicate p(x) as an expression having the quality
that on an assignment of values to the variable x, from an appropriate domain, a statement results.

3.6.1 Universal Quantifiers

Consider the proposition

‘All odd prime numbers are greater than 2’. The word ‘all’ in this proposition is a logical quantifier. The
proposition can be translated as follows:
‘For every x, if x is an odd prime, then x is greater than 2’
Similarly, the proposition:
‘Every rational number is a real number’ may be translated as
For every x, if x is a rational and number, then x is a real number.
The phrase ‘for every x’ is called a universal quantifier. In symbols it is denoted by ∀x.

38
The phrases ‘for every x’, ‘for all x’ and ‘for each x’, have the same meaning and we can symbolize each
by ∀x.
If P (x) denotes a predicate (propositional function), then the universal quantification for P (x), is the
statement.
‘For all values of x, P (x) is true’.

Example 3.6.1. Let A = {x : x is a natural number less than 9}.

Here P (x) is the sentence ‘x is a natural number less than 9’.
The common property is ‘is a natural number less than 9’.
P (1) is true, therefore, 1 ∈ A.
P (12) is not true, therefore 12 ∈
/ A.

3.6.2 Existential Quantifier

In some situations we only require that there be at least one value for each the predicate is true. This can
be done by prefixing P (x) with the phrase ‘there exists an x’. The phrase ‘there exists an x’. is called an
existential quantifier.
The existential quantification for a predicate is the statement ‘There exists a value of x’ for which P (x).
The symbol ∃, is used to denote the logical quantifier ‘there exists’ the phrases ‘There exists an x’,
‘There is a x’, for some ‘x and ‘for at least one x’ have the same meaning.
The existential quantifier for P (x) is denoted by ∃x P (x).

Example 3.6.2. (i) The proposition:

There is a dog without a tail can be written as
(∃ a dog) (the dog without tail).
(ii) The proposition:
There is an integer between 2 and 8 inclusive may be written as
(∃ an integer) (the integer is between 2 and 8)
The propositions which include quantifiers may be negated as follows:
Negate the proposition
All integers are greater than 8.
Solution: We can write the given proposition as
(∀ integers x) (x > 8) The negation is

39
(∃ an integer x) (x ≤ 8)
i.e., the negated proposition is: There is an integer less than or equal to 8.
(iii) The negated proposition of
(∃ an integer x) (0 ≤ x ≤ 8) is
(∀ integers x) (x < 0 or x > 8)

3.7 Methods of Proof

In this section, we discuss different types of Proof: Direct Proof, Proof by Contradiction, Indirect Proof
e.t.c

3.7.1 Direct Proof

We assume that p is true, and from the available information the conclusion q is shown to be true by valid
reference. In this method of proof we construct a chain of statements p, p1 , p2 , p3 , ..., pn , ..., q, where p is
either a hypothesis of the theorem or an axiom and each of the implications p ⇒ p1 , p1 ⇒ p2 , ..., pn ⇒ q
is either an axiom or is implied by the implication preceding it.

Example 3.7.1. If x is an even integer, then x2 is an even integer.

Solution: Direct Proof

Let p: x is an even integer

q: x2 is an even integer.
Consider, the hypothesis p. If x is an even integer, then by the definition of an even integer, x = 2m for
some integer m. Hence
x2 = (2m)2 ⇒ x2 = 4m2

x2 = 4m2 is clearly divisible by 2. Therefore x2 is an even integer. Thus p ⇒ q.

40
3.7.2 Method of Contraposition

Indirect Proof : This method of proof is very useful and is powerful at all levels of the subject mathematics.
Indirect method follows from the tautology (p −→ q) ⇔ ((¬q) −→ (¬p)). This states that the implication
p =⇒ q is equivalent to ¬q =⇒ ¬p. To prove p =⇒ q indirectly, we assume that q is false and then show
that p is false.

Example 3.7.2. For any integer n > 2, prove that n prime =⇒ n odd.
SolutionLet
p: α2 is an even integer
q: α is an even integer
let ¬q be true, then α is not an even integer therefore α must be odd. α is of the form α = 2m + 1 for
some integer m.

α = 2m + 1
=⇒ α2 = (2m + 1)2
= 4m2 + 4m + 1
= 2(2m2 + 2m) + 1

α2 is of the form α2 = 2n + 1 where n = (2m2 + 2m)

i.e., α2 is odd.
Thus, we have ¬q =⇒ ¬p.
Hence by contraposition α is even.

3.7.3 Proof by Contradiction

In this method of proof, we assume the opposite of what we are trying to prove and get a logical contra-
diction. Hence our assumption must have been false. Therefore what we were originally required to prove
must be true. To prove p −→ q is true, in this the proof can be constructed as follows:
(i) Assume p ∧ (¬q) is true.
(ii) On the basis of the assumption find some conclusion that is false.

41
(iii) Then the contradiction discovered in step (ii) leads us to the conclusion that p ∧ (¬q) is false which
powers that p −→ q is true.

Example 3.7.3. Show that 2 is not a rational number.

√
Solution: Let us assume that 2 is rational. Then we can find p, q ∈ Z, p 6= 0 such that

√ p
2=
q

where p and q have no common factor. After cancelling the common factors squaring on both sides, we get

p2
2=
q2
⇒ p2 = 2q 2
⇒ p2 is even
⇒ p is even
⇒ p = 2m for some integer m
⇒ (2m)2 = 2q 2
⇒ 4m2 = 2q 2
⇒ q 2 = 2m2
⇒ q is even

Hence p and q have common factor of 2, which is a contradiction to the statement that p and q have no
common factors.
√ √
Hence our assumption that 2 is rational leads to a contradiction. Thus 2 is irrational.

3.7.4 Proof by Induction

Theorem 3.7.1. Principle of Mathematical Induction Let S be a set of natural numbers with the
following properties:
(a) The integer 1 belongs to S
(b) Whenever the integer k is in S, the next integer k + 1 must also be in S.
Then S is the set of all positive integers.

42
Example 3.7.4. Prove that:
n2 + n
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = for all n ∈ N.
2

n2 + n
Proof. Let P (n) be the statement 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = for n ∈ N.
2
Initial Step
For P (1) we have
12 + 1
LHS = 1 and RHS = = 1. Hence LHS = RHS and so P (1) is true.
2
Inductive Assumption(Hypothesis)
Assume that P (k) is true, that is,
k2 + k
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k = for k ∈ N.
2
Inductive Step We want to show that P (k + 1) is true, that is,
(k + 1)2 + (k + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k + 1 = .
2
Now
LHS of P (k + 1) = 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k + 1
= (1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k) + (k + 1)
k2 + k
= + (k + 1) (Inductive Assumption)
2
2
k + k + 2k + 2
=
2
(k 2 + 2k + 1) + (k + 1)
=
2
(k + 1)2 + (k + 1)
=
2
= RHS of P (k + 1)
n2 + n
Hence P (k + 1) is true and by the Principle of Mathematical Induction, 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = for
2
all n ∈ N.

Below is another form of induction which is equivalent to the one used above.

Theorem 3.7.2. The Principle of Strong Mathematical Induction Let S be a set of natural numbers
with the following properties:
(a) The integer 1 belongs to S
(b) If k is a positive integer such that 1, 2, ..., k belong to S, then k + 1 must also be in S.
Then S is the set of all positive integers.

Example 3.7.5. If the numbers an are defined by a1 = 11, a2 = 21 and an = 3an−1 − 2an−2 for n ≥ 3,

43
prove that

an = 5.2n + 1, n ≥ 1.

Proof. Let P (n) be the statement an = 5.2n + 1, n ≥ 1.

Initial Step
For P (1) we have a1 = 5.21 + 1 = 10 + 1 = 11. Hence P (1) is true.
Inductive Assumption(Hypothesis)
Assume that P (1), P (2), ..., P (k − 1), P (k) are true, that is,
ak−1 = 5.2k−1 + 1, k − 1 ≥ 1,
ak = 5.2k + 1, k ≥ 1.
Inductive Step We want to show that P (k + 1) is true, that is, ak+1 = 5.2k+1 + 1, k + 1 ≥ 1
Now
ak+1 = 3ak − 2ak−1
= 3(5.2k + 1) − 2(5.2k−1 + 1) (Inductive Assumption)
= 3(5.2k ) + 3 − 5.2k − 2
= 2(5.2k ) + 1
= 5.2k+1 + 1
Hence P (k + 1) is true and by the Principle of Mathematical Induction, an = 5.2n + 1 for all n ≥ 1.

3.8 Axioms for a Boolean Algebra

A Boolean algebra is a set B with two binary operations:

⊕ : B × B −→ B ⊗ : B × B −→ B.

which satisfies the axioms listed below:

CLOSURE LAWS

44
 (⊕) : (∀a, b ∈ B)[a ⊕ b] ∈ B, (⊗) : (∀a, b ∈ B)[a ⊗ b ∈ B].

COMMUTATIVE LAWS

(⊕) : (∀a, b ∈ B)[a⊕ ≡ b ⊕ a], (⊗) : (∀a, b ∈ B)[a ⊗ b ≡ b ⊗ a].

ASSOCIATIVE LAWS

(⊕) : (∀a, b, c ∈ B)[(a ⊕ b) ⊕ c ≡ a ⊕ (b ⊕ c)], (⊗) : (∀a, b, c ∈ B)[(a ⊗ b) ⊗ c ≡ a ⊗ (a ⊗ c)].

DISTRIBUTIVE LAWS

(∀a, b, c ∈ B)[(a ⊗ b) ⊕ c ≡ (a ⊗ b) ⊕ (b ⊗ c)], (∀a, b, c ∈ B)[a ⊕ (b ⊗ c) ≡ (a ⊕ b) ⊗ (a ⊕ c)].

IDEMPOTENT LAWS

(⊕) : (∀a ∈ B)[a ⊕ a ≡ p], (⊗) : (∀a ∈ B)[a ⊗ a ≡ a].

IDENTITY LAWS
(∃z, e ∈ B) such that
(a) (∀a ∈ B)[a ⊕ e ≡ e, a ⊗ e ≡ e].
(b) (∀a ∈ B)[a ⊕ z ≡ a, a ⊗ z ≡ z].
COMPLEMENT LAWS
(∀a ∈ B)(∃a0 ∈ B) such that
(a) (∀a ∈ B)[a ⊕ a0 ≡ e, a ⊗ a0 ≡ z].
(b) [e0 ≡ z, z 0 ≡ e].
(c) (∀a ∈ B)[(a0 )0 ≡ a].
Note this definition and the set of all subsets of a universal set U is a Boolean algebra with ⊕ being ∩ and
⊗ being ∪, and that the set B of statements is a Boolean algebra ⊕ being ∨ and ⊗ being ∧.

45
Chapter 4

Operations and Structures

4.1 Operations

When you went from primary school to secondary school you were introduced to your first level of abstrac-
tion, the introduction of algebra where instead of working entirely with numbers you were introduced to
using symbols, the letters of various alphabets, to represent numbers and to manipulate those symbols to
obtain general results and to set up and solve equations. This you have continued to do with more and
more sophistication throughout your secondary school days and early days at university. You have mainly
used symbols to represent numbers and arrays of numbers (matrices, determinants etc) and functions.
You have added and multiplied them together or composed them but basically you have dealt with sets
based on the number sets N, Z, Q, R, C. Earlier in this course you have been introduced to arbitrary set
and looked at some of these ides in various contexts. The next step is to abstract from various sets of
numbers with +, · and to see how these ideas can be abstracted to introduce structures which generalize
these number structures so that you work with symbols to solve problems for infinitely many situations at
once. Can you do the same for structures as you did for number sets with the operations of addition and
multiplication?

One way to approach this is to “see” what properties are used in the definitions of addition and
multiplication of numbers and abstract these to arbitrary sets.

46
 For instance for every pair of numbers a, b there are unique numbers a + b and a · b, their sum and
product. However, since for matrix multiplication on the set M = Mn×n (Q) of all n × n matrices with
rational entries , the ordered pairs (A, B) and (B, A) give possibly different products A · B and B · A, the
abstract notion should deal with ordered pairs (a, b), that is members of the Cartesian Product set A × A.

Moreover if the ordered pair (a, b) ∈ Q × Q, then a + b, a · b are unique rational numbers in Q. This is
described by saying that Q is closed under addition and multiplication so this concept of closure also needs
to appear in the definition of the abstract concept of a binary operation. The situation of associating an
ordered pair of elements of a set with an everywhere defined and unique element of the same set is precisely
that of a function from
A × A −→ A

. Thus the following definition is arrived at by the process of abstraction.

Definition 4.1.1. Binary Operation A binary operation on a set A is a function ∗ : A × A −→ A.

It is usual to denote ∗(a, b) by a ∗ b, based on the normal practice of putting the operation between the
elements.

For examples of binary operations, the above are given: the addition and multiplication of numbers on
each of the sets N, Z, Q, R, C., and matrix addition and multiplication on M .

For later work it is useful to note that number multiplication is also a binary operation on Q0 = Q \ {0}
since if a, b ∈ Q0 , then a, b 6= 0 so ab is an everywhere and well defined non-zero rational number so number
multiplication is a function from Q0 × Q0 to Q0 .

Another example of a binary operation is given by the following. This example is very important in
the Theory of Groups.

Let A be a set (any set). Define the set SA to be the set of all bijective functions on A

θ ∈ SA ⇔ θ : A → A is a bijective function.

Because of the importance of this concept to future work such functions are given the special name of

47
PERMUTATION on A and the set SA of all permutations on A is (called) the SYMMETRIC GROUP
ON A. As an exercise for tomorrow, you are asked to prove that if σ, τ are permutations on a set A then
the composition σ ◦ τ of σ and τ is an everywhere defined and well defined permutation on A and so
composition of functions is a binary operation on SA .

48
Chapter 5

The Number Systems

5.1 The Natural Numbers and Induction

This section closely follows the book The Foundations of Mathematics by Stewart and Tall.

The object of the section is to give an axiomatic foundation to the natural numbers based on the
successor function, otherwise known as the Peano Axioms for the natural numbers. As with the previous
example of an axiomatic system this is derived by abstracting the properties of the natural numbers and
giving it a basis in set theory.

Looking closely at the succession of the integers 1, 2 = 1 + 1, 3 = 1 + 2, 4 = 1 + 3, · · · leads eventually

to the The existence axiom for the natural numbers. There exists a set N0 and a function s : N0 → N0
satisfying the following axioms:

N1 s is not surjective: there exists 0 ∈ N0 such that s(n) 6= 0 for any n ∈ N0 .

N2 s is injective: if s(m) = s(n), then m = n.

N3 If S ⊆ N0 is such that 0 ∈ S; and n ∈ S ⇒ s(n) ∈ S for all n ∈ N0 , then S = N0 .

49
 These axioms are enough to develop all the properties of the natural numbers. It should be noted that
N = N0 \ {0} is the set of all natural numbers since 0 is generally not regarded as a natural number. That
N3 enshrines the idea of proof by induction is shown in the following proposition.

Theorem 5.1.1. If n ∈ N0 , n 6= 0, then there exists a unique m ∈ N0 such that n = s(m).

Proof: Let S = {n ∈ N0 |n = 0 or n = s(m) for some m ∈ N0 }. Then 0 ∈ S. If n ∈ S, then either

n = 0, in which case s(n) = s(0) ∈ S, or n = s(m) and s(n) = s(s(m)) with s(m) ∈ N0 , so s(n) ∈ S. Hence
by axiom N3, S = N0 . This shows that the required m exists and the uniqueness follows from N2.

This result shows that 0 is the only element that is not a successor, a property that distinguishes it
from all other elements of N0 . Its successor, s(0) will be denoted by 1. Proof by induction will always take
the format outlined in the above proof: define a set S, show that 0 ∈ S and that if n ∈ S, then s(n) ∈ S.
Then invoke N3 to deduce that S = N0 .

Thinking of S as
S = {n ∈ N0 |P (n)}

for some proposition P yields the more usual form of proof by induction: Prove that P (0) is true, show
that if P (n) is true, then P (s(n)) is true and deduce that P (n) is true for all n ∈ N0 .

The successor s(0) of 0 will be denoted by 1. Thus 1 has a very special place in the set of natural
numbers.

Addition and multiplication of the elements in N0 will now be defined using induction or recursion.
This process needs to be carefully justified but it will be taken for granted in the present course. The
justification has to be based on a set theoretical format.

A1 (∀m ∈ N0 ) m + 0 = m.

A2 (∀m, n ∈ N0 ) m + s(n) = s(m + n).

M1 (∀m ∈ N0 ) m0 = 0.

M2 (∀m, n ∈ N0 ) ms(n) = mn + m.

50
 Using these definitions and the axioms of the natural numbers the rules of arithmetic will now be
established but first the following should be noted:

From A2 and A1 m + 1 = m + s(0) = s(m + 0) = s(m). This gives the successor of m its normal
(habitual) meaning.

Theorem 5.1.2. (∀m ∈ N0 )

1. 0 + m = m,

2. 1 + m = s(m),

3. 0m = 0,

4. 1m = m.

Proofs are straight forward applications of the method of induction.

From M2 and 1, m1 = ms(0) = m0 + m = 0 + m = m.

Proof of 1.

Let S = {m ∈ N0 |0 + m = m} ⊆ N0 . Since 0 + 0 = 0 by A1, 0 ∈ S.

If n ∈ S, then 0 + n = n and 0 + s(n) = s(0 + n) = s(n). Thus s(n) ∈ S and S = N0 .

Proof of 2.

Let S = {m ∈ N0 |1 + m = s(m)} ⊆ N0 . Since 1 + 0 = 1 = s(0) by A1, 0 ∈ S.

If n ∈ S, then 1 + n = s(n) and 1 + s(n) = s(1 + n) = s(s(n)). Thus s(n) ∈ S and S = N0 .

Proof of 3.

Let S = {m ∈ N0 |0m = 0} ⊆ N0 . Since 0 · 0 = 0 by M1 with m = 0, 0 ∈ S.

51
 If n ∈ S, then 0 · n = 0 and 0s(n) = 0n + 0 = 0 + 0 = 0. Thus s(n) ∈ S and S = N0 .

Proof of 4.

Let S = {m ∈ N0 |1m = m} ⊆ N0 . Since 1 · 0 = 0 by M1, 0 ∈ S.

If n ∈ S, then 1n = n and 1s(n) = 1n + 1 = n + 1 = s(n). Thus s(n) ∈ S and S = N0 .

The usual rules of associativity and commutativity and distributivity of multiplication over addition
are established in the next theorem.

Theorem 5.1.3. (∀m, n, p ∈ N0 )

1. (m + n) + p = m + (n + p),

2. m + n = n + m,

3. m(n + p) = mn + mp,

4. (mn)p = m(np),

5. mn = nm.

Proof of 1.

Let S = {p ∈ N0 |(∀m, n ∈ N0 ) (m+n)+p = m+(n+p)} ⊆ N0 . Then (m+n)+0 = m+n = m+(n+0)

by A1 and so 0 ∈ S.

If p ∈ S, then (m + n) + p = m + (n + p) and so

(m + n) + s(p) = s((m + n) + p) = s(m + (n + p)) = m + s(n + p) = m + (n + s(p)).

Thus s(p) ∈ S and S = N0 .

Proof of 2.

52
 Let S = {n ∈ N0 |(∀m ∈ N0 ) m + n = n + m} ⊆ N0 . Then by A1 and the first part of the last theorem
m + 0 = m = 0 + m and so 0 ∈ S.

If n ∈ S, then m + n = n + m and so

m + s(n) == s(m + n) = s(n + m) = n + s(m) = n + (1 + m) = (n + 1) + m = s(n) + m.

Thus s(n) ∈ S and S = N0 .

Proof of 3.

Let S = {p ∈ N0 |(∀m, n ∈ N0 ) m(n+p) = mn+mp} ⊆ N0 . Then m(n+0) = mn = mn+0 = mn+m0

by A1, M1 and so 0 ∈ S.

If p ∈ S, then m(n + p) = mn + mp and so

m(n + s(p)) = ms(n + p) = m(n + p) + m = (mn + mp) + m = mn + (mp + m) = mn + ms(p).

Thus s(p) ∈ S and S = N0 .

Proof of 4.

Let S = {p ∈ N0 |(∀m, n ∈ N0 ) (mn)p = m(np)} ⊆ N0 . Then (mn)0 = 0 = m0 = m(n0) by M1 and so

0 ∈ S.

If p ∈ S, then (mn)p = m(np) and so

(mn)s(p) = (mn)p + mn = m(np) + mn = m(np + n) = m(ns(p)).

Thus s(p) ∈ S and S = N0 .

Proof of 5.

Let S = {n ∈ N0 |(∀m ∈ N0 ) mn = nm} ⊆ N0 . Then by part 3 of the previous result and M1

m0 = 0 = 0m and so 0 ∈ S.

If n ∈ S, then mn = nm (∀m ∈ N0 ) and so ms(n) = mn + m = nm + m So to complete the induction

53
step it is necessary to show that

(∀m, n ∈ N0 ) nm + m = s(n)m.

This last step needs a second induction to prove it.

Let T = {m ∈ N0 |nm + m = s(n)m} ⊆ N0 .

That 0 ∈ T follows since

n0 + 0 = 0 + 0 = 0 = s(n)0.

If m ∈ T , then nm + m = s(n)m.

Therefore

ns(m) + s(m) = n(m + 1) + (m + 1)

= (nm + n) + (m + 1)

= nm + (n + (m + 1))

= nm + ((n + m) + 1)

= nm + ((m + n) + 1)

= nm + (m + (n + 1))

= (nm + m) + (n + 1)

= s(n)m + s(n)

= s(n)s(m).

Hence s(m) ∈ T and T = N0

It follows that s(n) ∈ S and S = N0 .

54
Therefore

ns(m) + s(m) = n(m + 1) + (m + 1)

= (nm + n) + (m + 1)

= nm + (n + (m + 1))

= nm + ((n + m) + 1)

= nm + ((m + n) + 1)

= nm + (m + (n + 1))

= (nm + m) + (n + 1)

= s(n)m + s(n)

= s(n)s(m).

55