IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 5 , No.

4, November 1990 1413

-
TEAC"G FAULT STUDIES IRIWG SYMMETRICAL ~MpONENTs
bY
T J Hammons, Glasgow University. G h g o w GI2 8 0 0 . S e o c h d . UK
A S s(M.Io.. South of SceUsd Ebrtriciy Dnrd. Glu(pw G44 48E. Scotland, UK

a l l r a b e ~ t h t . n y d t b e m l . n r r L p t M d r r h l
The ppu reviews symmetrical component methods in faults in a 3-phase power system can be represented by a simple
calculating currents in 3-phase electrical power systems followiq kterconnection of the sequence networks [1,2.3]. For example, a
assymetrical faults. Solution of the load flow problem in evaluating Ihe-to-groUna, fault, a line-to-line fault, a double-he-to-ground
component currents and voltages in network elements is ab0 hult, or a series fault sych as an open-circuited phase conductor in
discussed. one or two phases respectively.
First, development of a digita! fault studies program for use in Constraints are introduced into the system by the disturbance.
undergraduate teaching highlighting aspects of program design b These define the relationships between the symmetrical components
described. System data details; arrays containing details of system d voltage and current at the fault point. The necessary conditions
data; fault data; positive, negative and zero sequence network r a y be obtained by writing down the equations governing the voltage
arrays; voltage arrays which store node voltages before and after mad current at the fault point, expanding them into their symmetrical
the fault; corresponding current arrays; in addition to the Ak components and hence obtaining the relationship between the three
editor; routines for printing system data on screen and modifying components.
system data; fogether with line data; viewing the fault data; This paper describes the development of a digital fault studies
performing voltage calculations; and diagnostics are discussed for
program in FORTRAN 77 for use in undergraduate teaching. The
various shunt and series faults. The calculation of network elemont
bult studies program is intended to reproduce results for 3-phase
quantities with display of results is then explained.
&,mt and series faults obtained on a micro-network in an
Also discussed are modified routines which use compkx mdergraduate teaching laboratory. It can also be used for teaching
impedances to represent system elements and U& of the program on p w e r system fault analysis in both the undergraduate. and
the more common PC's. Phase voltages and currents for circuit
pst-graduate curricula. Line-to-ground, linelo-line,
elements in a model power system comprised of generators and
buble-line-to-ground. 3-phase, and series faults involving one
transmission lines are illustrated for the more common shunt and
phase, using reactances or complex impedances to represent system
scrier faults. Both reactulcef and complex impedances are used in dements, are analysed.
coarp#lu thecmdul Vduea.
System data details such as arrays containing network data, fault
m R D 6 : -S CQmponenb, fault rhdlcr, pow SyYtOm &a, voltage arrays which store node voltages before and after the
-, h m t halts, senes faults, sequence networks, undergradua- hult. and Corresponding current arrays are discussed. In addition,
-, prr @ n e e education. *le fde editor, routines for priuting system data on m e n , routines
red in performing voltage calculations, and diagnostic routines which
1. N- m y be called while running the program are summand. The
program uses fault and system data fdes which are user defined. The
Tbe foundatioa of symmetrical component methods in evaluating L t a may be changed interactively using a 'syskm of Menus which
fault currents in 3-phase power systems is the general theorem that
u c presented to the user. When correct, calculations are performed
any set of 'm' vectors may be resolved into 'm' sets of 'm' .Id the results are computed.
symmetrical vectors. Examples for common shunt and series faults are illustrated.
The theorem states that each of the new sets of m vectors are
equal in magnitude and displaced from one another by an equal 2. SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
angle. The angle of displacement for the components for the f i i
(m-1) sets are (2dm) radians. The vectors in the m* set are in Symmetrical components allow complicated unbalanced 3-phase
phase with one another and the displacement is zero. Each of the .etworks to be replaced by three separate but very similar
original vectors can be anstructed by taking one vector from each aymmetrical netwarks. The first network contains the driving
of the component sets, but the components must be taken in I
d t a g e s and the other two networks are passive. Depending on the
dilhrrt peSe sequence from each set, there being (m-1) possibk
pbu -es for the (m-1) sets.
type of fault, these networks - the positive-, negative- and zero
nquence networks. are connected together in different ways.
Whn interpreted in terms of a 3-phase system this general
theorem gi* +e to very simple identities. The unbalanced & l
Procedurq
3-phase system is resolved into a symmetrical 3-phase system havily
positive phase sequence a-b-c, a symmetrical 3-phase system h aw The procedure for fault calculations may be surrrmarised as
negative sequence a-c-b, and a symmetrical 3-phase system wb.rr yas:
dl voltages md curronta am in phw, i.e. I system with zero p b r r

- -
-. (i) Dottnnine the positive-, negative- and zero sequence
~ h unbdmced
c 3-phur qaem a o tberefore be represented by Impedance diagrams. (A zero sequence diagram is only
three independent single-phase networks: mquired for faults involving the ground).
(U) Imort the values of the sequence impedances on each
the positive phase-sequence netwrk, containing tho
p i t i v e sequence driving voltages, the resultant positive sequence
currents and appropriate impedances.
ab .--L m a qu am mmIwJ#k ML/II.y 80 driving
(id)-

-ti=-
th. dlq.ar
ubrrr. 4.z, z,
Md
to their aqt-
wqutacc aawah Nqmahdy.
@ -.
Tknd.

bw 1L. m m q u e n c e CamOOlnnts of (iv) COMect the equivalent networks in accordance with the
ament a d qpmpimtc
the zero
-. md
nquence network with no driving voltages but
eoanection diagrams depending on the type of fault.
(v) Fhd the current in each phase by adding the sequence
amaim@ Ir zorelsquencc currenu and appropriate components in accordance with the appropriate e q ~ t i o n s .
The values of current and voltage in any part of the
-balanced network can be obtained from the sequence components.
Sequence components of current and voltage are evaluated using
WM 157-8 PWRS A paper recommended and approved oatwork impedances and voltdrops across the various circuit elements.
t h e IEEE Power Enaineering Education Committee of The method is explained in References [l], [2] and [3].
t h e IEEE Power Engineering S o c i e t y f o r p r e s e n t a t i o n
a t t h e IEEE/PES 1990 Winter Meeting, A t l a n t a , Georgia, 3. PROGRAM DESIGN
February ,!. -
8, 1990. Manuscript submitted
J u l y 25, 1989; made a v a i l a b l e f o r p r i n t i n g In all but a few of the program blocks, all the variables are
January 18, 1990. declared and not left to their intrinsic type. Each program unit
-a€ .U tb@ WLbir pd m t h t PPQU d t .
TLrr U. U- larb ammon bbch L lh poqu.

Authorized licensed use limited to: University of Moratuwa. Downloaded on September 01,2021 at 14:20:12 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
 1414
Thnri.LLrwm L*I.l.rll-: --
1) SYSDTA: Dua A; rh arlcr d 8- drtr
2) SYSDTB: S p b a thta B; amp details ol t& FILES is a subroutine called by the main program. Using this
system data wbroutine the user can select data files other than the default files
3) FALDAT: Fault Data; all details of the fault FALDAT and SYSDAT. These user edited files must have some
4) ADMlT: Admittances arrays; the three sequence admittance resemblance to the default files.
-P Once the file choices a n made, the subroutine will print
5) WED: Iq.lrroa u n y s ; the three sequence impedance Menu 1. Six of the seven choices in the Menu lead to calls to
-P other routines which in some cases call other routines. A diagram
6) VOLCUR: Voltages and currrents; these are the fault voltam of the CALL structure related to the FILES routine is illustrated
.ad CwIwIa fa a f8ldt. in Figure 2. Figures 1 and 2 combine to give the CALL structure
7) VOLTS: V- q; these arrays hold the no& for the whole program.
before a d after the fault. Option 1 of Menu 1 rewinds both the fault and system data
files to set them up for use later in the program. Control is then
3.1 Main Promm IFAULTS) returned to the main program and the fault studies performed,
Option 2 is to modiiy system data and this is done by
The main program FAULTS d- little except open data f i , subroutine SYSMOD. On return from SYSMOD Menu 1 is printed.
declare COMMON blocks and call various subroutines. Option 3 permits new system data to be written over the
The COMMON blwks contain data which is & r e p e a t a y existing data. Subroutine SYSNEW performs this task. Menu 1 is
betwen the subroutines. These are declared in FAULTS for one printed on return from subroutine SYSNEW.
main reason. If a RETURN is executed in a subroutine and a Option 4 calls subroutine SYSSEE which allows the system data
COMMON block is no longer referred to by the current p r o m Do be viewed on the screen. On return Menu 1 is again printed.
unit, or by any higher level unit, the contents of the COMMON Option 5 is for modifying fault data. It calls subroutine
block become undefined. PALMOD. On return, Menu 1 is printed.
The main program starts by opening the default input files and Option 6 calls subroutine FALSEE. FALSEE writes the fault
the output file. If the default input files are not then chosen in dsta to the screen, then returns to FILES which in turn calls
subroutine FILES, the input files are closed and the replacement Menu 1.
files opened in their place. The input/output files are alyp Option 7 stops the program by calling the error routine ERR.
connected with the system data on Unit I , the fault data on Umt 3 Tha nmtk pnnwor prtnt~out a dsrulptin
and the output file is connected to Unit 2. with rrb.d drm d u m .
Call structure around the program is illustrated in Figure 1. cd 8tNGture around the file mutine h lllutntcd h Pl#sm 2.
The program calls the subroutines FILES. INPUT and SEQUEN.
These three routines fm read in and edit the system and fault 3.3 Svstem Data Modification (SYSMOD)
data, then prepare the data €or the voltage calculations. TIN
calculations are performed either by the routine SERIES or S " T , This subroutine is called to modify system data. Upon entry it
depending on the type of fpult. After the voltage calculations am presents the user with Menu 2 which has 5 Options.
complete. RESULT calculrh further results and sends thc
i;
-
formatted results to the output file which, due to the width of the ~ m ~ i ~ ~ d a ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Y S s E E
Tables, cannot be printed on the screen for interactive we. 3l Modify generator data: GEmOD
REPEAT looks at the fault data to see if there are any more fault8
to be considered, and repeats the program if t h e n are.
mare O0 -9 am
If t h e n
Ird tlr
Abandon
line data:
2) mMOD

Option 99 can be accessed because any modification to the

p0q.n rm k Icrmialltd.

-
system data is made to the variables and not to the system data
If the proqM
the call to
nm a pb ~ thn inturctiw,
can be omitted and a listing taken of the output
~~

fikik&,
It is possible to re-read the system data to recover original
file on completion.
It lor the lo a dump of t& 3.3.1 Generator Data Modification (GENMOD)
&. i
This subroutine, called by FILES. presents the user with Menu
MAIN PROGRAM 'FAULTS 3A. Menu 3A contains 7 optiolv which are summuid k k v :
CALL 1 CALI: 2 CALL 3 CALL L CALL s C W 6

I MAIN PROGRAM
OR

0 * *
FILES INPUT YOUEN SERIES SHUNT RESULT REPEAT

I ' t

MENU 3A MENU 38

6
-CALL WE TO OPTION 6

-- - -+CALL TO AN ENTRY POINT

, * : A CALL l a a PROGRAM UNIT.

Flguro 1 C a l l Structuro Around Program Fipuro 2 Call S t r u c t u r e Aound F i l e Routines

Authorized licensed use limited to: University of Moratuwa. Downloaded on September 01,2021 at 14:20:12 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
 h a k b.ld by tlre program variables, a CALL is made to F I l k T .
the ~ b x . RLWT k am rgy point in SYSMOD allowing access to the part of
Option 2 &km a -W. M e r receiving tbe paarr# SYSMOD .rhleh writes the data to the system data f i e connected to
number to be deleted, the generator details above the deletad Unit 1. On returning from FILRIT, SYSNEW also returns to
generator are moved doam one place in all the arrays. Menu 1.
Option 3 changes the node of a generator. This is a c h i e d
by asking for the generator to be changed, then a check is made lo U See Svstem Data LWSSEE)
ensure that the new node is valid.
Option 4 changes the generator voltage. SYSSEE can be called throughout the program and prints all
Option 5 changes the generator impedance. The user can system data held in the data variables to the screen.
specify which sequence impedances are to be modified.
Option 6 calls subroutine SYSSEE 1 - s
Option 7 is called when no more changes are necessary rd
returns the program to SYSMOD. FALSEE is a subroutine called by either FILES or FALMOD
rbich permits the user to sec the contents of the fault data Ne
3.3.2 Line Data Modification W OD) M e running the program. The routine reads in one fault at a
t h e and writes the details to the screen. If there is another fault
This subroutine presents the user with Menu 3B which has tbc (indicated by an 'A' in the data) the routine is rerun. If there are
following 6 Options. PO more faults (indicated by an 'N' in the data) the program
Add another line. This option prompts the &er for the twr, lromptr witb OP LET PRESS, RET" TO CONTDWe'.
1)
nodes and three impedances of the line. If both nodes are wt
present the uscr is asked to redefie the nodes. P
2) Dekte a line. This option works on the same principle Y
Option 2 in GENMOD. T U rubrautlac, aUed p PILES,.presents the user with
3) Change nodea of a l i e . Menu 4. Menu 4 allows a c h o w of 4 0pt10n.s.
4) Change impedance of a line. Option 1 is to make no more choices from the menu and
5) See system data: CALL to SYSSEE. returns control to FILES. Before returning, the fault data file is
6) Mate no more changes: RETURN to SYSMOD. rewound to allow it to be read by other routines.
Option 2 is to add another fault to the list of faults in the
3.4 New Svstem Data {SySNEW) data fie. After each fault is a marker which is an 'A' (for another)
or an 'N' (for no more), depending on the remaining data.
If the system data needs to be changed, SYSNEW can be c a l m Option 3 is to display the list of fault details. This is
to read in the data and write it into the file connected to Unit 1. performed by calling subroutine FALSEE.
SYSNEW first determines the number of nodes, genetators a d Option 4 (choice 99) is to erase the 'old l i t of faults and to
lirres. and checks that they do not exceed the limitations of the replace it by a new fault as the start of a new.list.
program. SYSNEW then reads in the generator data in a DO
LOOP. reading the data for one generator in each loop. 3.8 Data Inout IINPUT)
A&M r a d i q &e Icr for a p m ~ tbe . uses k giw the
~ b r e l . C I & h u r # d d . C i f * k u r a g . -3 INPUT k called by FAULTS and FILES.
IWU? ID the routine which reads in all the fault data and
+l-
DO 10 CEN=
m m dag required for one fault study. The system data is read
L from the f i e connected to Unit 1 and the fault data is read
M m Unit 3. Later in the main program output is sent to the fik
mnnected to Unit 2.
The first piece of data to be read is the number of nodes in
GENERATOR 7 system. If this is zero then the rest of the routine is
md. If, during ruding of r data, the system h found to
have too many generators, nodr, 01 Ynes for the program to cope
with, a suitable error message b printed indicating the data is
ENERATOR incorrect. Depending on the error, the user can stop the program
VOLTAGE ? run or move to GENMOD, LINMOD or SYSNEW to adapt the data
to a suitable form.
Once the routine determined the number of generators, all the
generator details are read from Ti, one generator at a time. As
the details of each generator is read in, the impedances are added
IMPED*NCE
SEQUENCE 7 OOP to the admittance arrays appropriately.
After reading all the generator details, the number of
interconnecting lines is read in. This permits line details to be read
in line by line in a DO loop. As each line is read in, the line
NEGATIVE impedances are added appropriately to the three admittance arrays.
SEQUENCE Once all the line data has been read in, the admittance arrays are
IWPEDANCE?
complete.
The fault data is read in next. First the string of letters
describing the fault is read and deciphered to give a numerical
description, in the range 1 to 6, of the fault. The location of the
SEOUENCE f8dt is read next. For shunt faults this is just one node,'but for
IMPEDANCE ? series faults two nodu are read. The fault impedance is then read.
' The ptb. b * rrlL.l m t i n e .

Delta/star connected transformera grounded either directly or via

an earthing impedance are represent&, in this version of the
program, by (i) transmis&m lines which simulate the pdtive- and
negative phase sequence impedance of the transformer where the

v
Fipro 3
10 CONTINUE

hnorator b t a Input
.tro phase sequence impedance of the line is neglected (by making
(be zero phase sequence line Lpedpnce very large). and (ii)
generators which simulate the Jlrrive zero phase -nCe
~ d
~ 4 o d m a ~ * m - - ~ ~ t w - - -
~

Authorized licensed use limited to: University of Moratuwa. Downloaded on September 01,2021 at 14:20:12 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
 1416
Iry--d=m-gbr---=Y
hge
m
transformer
d * k IrrmUl(srlf1.
zero phaae sequence impedance

between star-point and ground.

P equal
The --
to the a c t d
transformer zero phase impedance plus three times the impedance
It should be noted that the
opendrcuited. With the positive sequence admittance a m y in-
@ give the impedance array, and the fault left open-circuited
WLCAL can again be called for the positive sequence network.
With the voltage at each node calculated, the open-circuit voltage
across a-a' is easily obtained. With the open-circuit voltage and
short-circuit current for the Thevenin representation of the positive
generator which is employed to simulate the effective zero phue
sequence impedance of the transformer is connected to the star side phase sequence network known, the Thevenin impedance in positive
of the transformer busbar. Zero sequence currents flow only phase sequence is found.
through grounded star-points of transformers and generators (i) for For the negative- and zero phase sequence networks, the
shunt faults which involve ground, and (ii) for certain series faults, admittance arrays are reformed with node a' being taken as the
where the system on which the fault occurs is grounded at mom reference node. The old reference node is again given a node of
than one location. its own.
An updated version of the program will simulate grounded This permits the Thevenin impedance of the negative- and zero
delta/- trunforwn birectly. phase sequence networks to be found by taking the driving point
impedance of node a'.
at-F fSEQUEN) The driving voltage in positive phase sequence and the
impedance of each sequence network at the point where the fault
For a shunt fault, if the sequence currents and voltages are occurs is now known.
known at the fault location, currents and voltages throughout the By adding the impedances to each sequence network, the
power system can be calculated using the transfer and driving point positive sequence voltages with the fault applied can be calculated
impedances. directly using VOLCAL again. However, the negative and zero
The routine SEQUEN is called by the main program after the sequence networks have been adapted to a new reference and
data has been read by INPUT. The routine first inverts the therefore the voltages calculated by VOLCAL are displaced by a
admittance arrays formed by INPUT to give the impedance arraF. constant amount. This displacement voltage is given by the voltage
The impedance arrays contain the driving point and transfer with reference to the true reference node. At this point in the
impedance. VOLCAL is then used to calculate the normal voltages calculations, node a' and the true reference are interchanged so that
around the system by calculating the sequence voltages in positive corresponding nodes in positive, negative, and zero sequences are the
sequence. These normal node voltages are held in the prefault same node.
voltage array N O W . If the fault is a shunt fault the prefault The node voltages in each sequence networks are now known.
currents are ignored by making the entire system the same voltage Thii permits the phase currents and voltages to be calculated uin#
at each node. This is achieved by giving all the generators the subroutine RESULT.
same voltage as that of the node where the fault is to occur. (An
updated program will permit prefault currents to be represented in V m Fa& m)
predicting fault currents following a shunt disturbance). srbroutiae S " T cakuhtes netwrk vdtrpr at every no& of
Depending on the type of shunt fault, the three sequence each sequence network by d a g the -er impedance of tbc
currents and the three sequence voltages at the fault Location are network at each node.
defined differently. A computed G O T 0 instruction directs the The voltage of the node for the fault line FLIN is assigned
program to the correct set of conditions. After the constraints are -. This permits FLIN, which would otherwise be undefined for a
set, the program jumps to a common RETURN command. sbut r d t , to be cheeked in subroutine RESULT Lter in the
A series fault cannot be solved in this way. In this case the p ~ o g u nrcprdlerr of the type of fault.
program does not define the voltages and currents and simply jumps Tbe remaining part of the program h c o n c c d with
to the RETURN command. calculating the 3-phase voltages and currents at the fault location.
The calculated voltages and currents are then printed on screen and
3.10 Voltage Calculations [VOLCAL) written to the output file, for a visual indication and permanent
record of the state of the system at the point of the fault.
The voltage at every node in a given sequence is calculated by
the subroutine VOLCAL. VOLCAL is based on the superposition 5.13 Final
theorem. That is, the current that flows in any branch due to
simultaneous action of several driving voltages at various nodes in Tbis routine takes the s e q m e voltage arrays VOLT and
the network is equal to the vector sum of the component curreats N O W and calculates in each case the sequence currents in each
which would be caused by each driving voltage acting alone with al! line of each network. Then, by simply adding sequence components
others shunted out. appropriately, the three phase voltages and currents under fault and
The resultant sequence voltage at each node can therefore be normal conditions respectively are determined.
calculated knowing (a) the generator voltages, (b) the generator The first task of the routine is to add sequence voltages
impedances, (c) the node to which each generator is connected, (d) appropriately at each node to form the three phase voltages. This
the number of generators, (e) the number of nodes, and (f) the h undertaken for each node in rotation.
driving point and transfer impedance for each sequence. Thae The component currents supplied by each generator are
quantities are passed to the subrouthe U panmeten each time it h ukulated by considering generator internal impedance and voltage in
called. A seventh parameter is usd to return the na& vdtqcs. each sequence along with the nodal voltages in each sequence. The
three sequence currents are then added appropriately to give the
fault current for each phase of each generator. A fourth current is
calculated for each generator. It is the 'a' phase pre-fault positive
The three sequence ~ t w o r kare
~ interconnected to satisfy the phase sequence current. This current is rotated appropriately to give
constraints of an added impedance in line 'a'. the pre-fault currents in phases 'b' and 'c' respectively.
The voltage and impedance of the positive sequence network is The phase currents in each line is calculated using the sequence
calculated from the open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current of voltage at each end of the line and the appropriate line sequence
the positive sequence network acting alone as seen at the fault point impedance to give the sequence currents. The sequence currents are
given by a and a'. The short-circuit current is obtained by added appropriately to give phase currents. The fault lipe in a
calculating the current in the fault line before any fault h series fault is treated differently. This is because the node at the
occurred, i.e. with the impedance of the series fault zero, or the fault end of the line is an extra node.
fault short-circuited. The phase voltages and currents are then printed in a file
The fault line (FLIN) is found by looking for a line connected connected to Unit 2. The format is to print phase 'a' details
between the node at the fault (FLOC) and the secondary fault followed by phase 'b' and 'c' details respectively. Each phase
(FDIR). The current through the fault line in positive phaw ruults comprise three t a b .
sequence is given by the voltage drop across the line, as given by The first table giw the modulus of the phase voltages at each
VOLCAL, divided by the line impedance. This current is designat& node before and after the disturbance. The angle of each voltage
ISHORT. with reference to that of phase 'a' of the reference busbar is
O n account of the nature of a series fault the admittance indicated. Fault voltage at each node as a complex quantity with
arrays for each sequence network have to be reformed with some reqxct to the reference busbar is also given. The second tam
modifications. The positive sequence admittance array is changed, ia gives the current supplied by each generator before and after gC
that Doclc a ' h giwn a node number of its own and the COM- fedt to the sanae forrmt, while the third table depicts corrapanding
at fultt point 1. .nd a' (opposite slder of the fault) b . I$ , b e currents.

7 -'

Authorized licensed use limited to: University of Moratuwa. Downloaded on September 01,2021 at 14:20:12 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
 1417
3.14 Rerunninc the Ronpgl (REPEAT) generators and transmission lines. A simpler vvsion of the program
(FAULTI) uses system reactances to represent impedances of the
REPEAT is a logical function which assumes the value TRUE generators and transmission lines. The detailed and simple programs
when no more faults are to be studied. The function reads tbe yield identical results when resistance of all impedances (in program
fault data file and assigns the value TRUE or FALSE depending on FAULT2) are zero.
the data. If the function is true, the main program jumps back to
read more system data together with the new fault data. 7. TYPICAL STUDIES
3.15 Error (ERR)
System currents and voltages were checked by hand calculation
If an error occurs during the run of the program due to for all types of shunt fault, and for a series fault, using data for an
unexpected data values or when read/v.de statements cannot be elementary power system. They were also checked by comparing
executed, subroutine ERR is called. ERR prints out a descriptive
theoretical quantities with quantities measured on a 3-phare
micro-machine network [4]. Mirror-image model power syrtems
error message along with related data values. 76 error messages aremere also employed to check the program. The model power
employed in the program.
system configurations are illustrated schematically in Figures 4 and 5,
3.16 General R o u w respectively. Corresponding system data for (i) the elementary and
(fi) the mirror-image power systems are given in Tables 1 and 2,
General subroutines which form part of the program include respectively.
matrix invertion (INVERT), matrix zeroing (ZERO) and angle of a Table 3 illustrates 3-phase currents and voltages following a
complex number (ANGLE). sustained line-to-ground short-circuit on phase 'a' of node 2 of the
system illustrated in Figure 4 and compares the effect system
4. ADAPTABILITY resistance in a typical power network has on fault currents and the
fault system voltages. Data A1 corresponds to the case where all
There are two reasons for adapting the program. The first is generator and line resistances are neglected while Data B1 relates to
to increase the size of network the program can handle. The the case where generator and line resistances are simulated.
second reason is to permit the program (developed for use on an Generator resistance is negligible in comparison with the
IBM PC AT) to be used on another computer. generator subtransient, transient or the synchronous reactance, but

4.1 Network Size

The program is written for an IBM PC AT to handle a pomer

system with up to 9 nodes, 5 generators and 20 lines. These Limits
are controlled by the parameters NODMAX, GENMAX and
LINMAX. In the program NODMAX has been set at 10 but a limit
of one below this is taken because series faults require an extra
node to run the program. The program defines GENMAX as half
NODMAX, and LINMAX as twice the value of NODMAX.
To increase the size capability of the program, all that is
",' m Figure 4
ez

Elemant8ry Power System

z13

-- Studies 1

needed is change NODMAX in all the relevant routines. Some Table 1 System Dmta -- Studies 1
routines do not have parameters and hence do not use NODMAX.
If NODMAX, for example, is changed to 21, the following limits System Data S e t
would apply: 20 nodes, 10 generators and 42 lines. Element, A1 B1
P.U. Sequence Network Sequenc. N.tmrk
4.2 Comoatibility 1 2 0 1 2 0

The second reason for adapting the program is concerned with

portability. The program should be portable between computers with 2 ~ 1
2; j1.950 J0.223 50.130 (O.OOS+j1.950) (O.OOS+j0.223) (0.005+j0.130)
jo.000 jo,000 jo .ooo ( 0 . ooo+ jo.000) ( 0 . ooo+jo .OOO) ( 0 . ooo+jo.000)
j0.186 J0.186 50.279 (0.062+j0.186) (0.062+j0.186) (0.093+j0.279)
only a few alterations necessary. Any changes should be limited to Z u j0.434 50.310
j0.310 jO.806 (0.031+J0.310)
J0.434 10.496 (0.145+j0.434) (0.145+j0.434)
(0.031+j0.310) (0.269+j0.806)
(O.OSO+jO.496)
the main program FAULTS. The first change is likely to be to the
format of the file names used to connect the files to Units 1, 2 and LG, Serler
3, respectively, (in lines 86-88) as file names are rarely the same on
M e r e n t computers. The second modification is likely to be to the betwcn
Vcl
= Vc2 = 1.WO p.u. for aU Shunt Faults. Fault location node 2 for Shunt Faults, and
nodes 1 and 2 for the Series Fault.
command (on line 105) which permits the user to send the output
to the line printer. line rcrhtpnce is typically between 10% (for high vdtar h) to
30% (for low voltage Una) of the line reactance. Tbe tkb& &OM
5. RUNNING THE PROGRAM that simulating system resistance gives rise to a 3.9% reduction in
the fault current and a reduction of up to 6% in various line ph?se
The program is designed to be run either interactively or as a currents.
batch job. Instructions are available for running the program on the If a solidly-gnmxkd NY generator transformer of positive-,
IBM cluster in the Rankine Building at Glasgow University either negative- and zero p h v c sequence impedance jO.10, jO.10 and
interactively or as a batch job by removing the CALL to Files in jO.13 p.u.,respectively, were conected between GEN 1 and busbar B1
FAULTS and l i i g all other routines as detailed in the Instruction (node l), the star-side being connected to busbar B1, the fault
Manual. current for Data 1 (reactance only) for a sustained line-to-ground
6. COMPLEX IMPEDANCES short-circuit on phase 'a' of busbar B2 (node 2) would drop from
-14519 p.u. to-j4.4% p.u. If the star-point of the transformer
The propam (FAULT2) accepts complex impedances for the w e n ungrounded, the fault e m uodd drop to -j3.707 p.u.

Authorized licensed use limited to: University of Moratuwa. Downloaded on September 01,2021 at 14:20:12 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
 1418
Table 2 System h t a -- Studies 2 Table 4 also shows that at the fault node for the shunt fault
I
(node 2), no fault current flows in phases 'b' and 'c' respectively
ystem ta Sets while. for the series fault. no current flows in phase 'a' of lines 1
ement , B2
~~
and 3 and currents in phases 'b' and 'c' of lines 1 and 3,
Sequence Sequence respective~yare identical. ~

1 2 0 1 2
. Table's depicts the results of line-to-ground short-circuits at
nodes 2 and 8, respectiwly, of the mirror-image system illustrated in
J1.950 J0.223 J0.130 (0.002+J1.950) (0.002+J0.223)
J1.500 JO.150 J0.080 (0.002+J1.500) (0.002+J0.150)
Figure 5. In the studies complex impedances have been used to
J1.950 J0.223 J0.130 (0.002+J1.950) (0.002+J0.223) dmulate system elements. The results indicate that cuments and
J0.186 J0.186 J0.279 (0.062+J0.186) (0.062+J0.186) VOhgeS in mirror-image circuit elements and at mirror-image nodes
J0.310 J0.310 J0.496 (0.103+J0.310) (0.103+J0.310) for corresponding phases are identical.
J0.260 J0.260 J0.410 (0.026+J0.260) (0.026+J0.260)
ZL4 JO.090 JO.090 J0.300 (0.03O+J0.090) (0.030+J0.090)
Table 6 illustrates the effect system resistance has on fault
J0.400 J0.400 J0.650 (0.04OtJ0.400) (0.040+J0.400) current and voltage following a line-to-line short-circuit betaretn
JO.150 JO.150 J0.330 (O.OSOtJO.150) (0.050+JO.150) p h 'b'~ and 'c' at node 5 of the system illustrated schematically
JO.150 JO.150 J0.330 (0.050+JO.150) (O.OSO+JO.150)
J0.400 J0.400 J0.650 (0.04OtJ0.400) (0.04OtJ0.400) h Figure 5 . It also shows that whether or not system nsiStance is
ZL9 JO.090 JO.090 J0.300 (0.03Ot JO. 090) (0.030+J0.090) repnsented, currents and voltages in mirror-image lines and at
410 J0.260 J0.260 10.410 (0.026+J0.260) (0.026+J0.260)
J0.310 J0.310 J0.496 (0.103+J0.310) (0.103+J0.310) mirror-image nodes are identical. The constraints imposed by
J0.186 J0.186 J0.279 (0.062+J0.186) (0.062+J0.186) Kirchhoff's first and second laws and by the fault are satisfied for
Fault dl three phases.
No& 5 Node 2 Node 8

Faults 8. CONCLUSIONS
S t udl ed U. Lc Lc U.
1 I The fault studies program described in this paper is a valuable
VGI. vG2 M d vG3 = 1.m D.U. f a 'U
tool to assist in teaching symmetrical component methods in power

Element Data AI (Reactance Only) h t a B1 (Realstance and R e E t u r e )

Current. p.u. 1. Ib IC la Ib IC

At Paul t : w l x (0.000- J4.519) (0.000-JO ,000) (0.000- JO. 000) (1.133-54.199) (0.000- JO. 000) (0.000-JO .OOO)
Mod 4.519L-90.00 0.000~0~0~ 0.000~0~0~ 4.349L-74.99 0.000~0.0~ 0.000L0.0~
a n 1: w l x (0.000- J1.418) (0.352-JO. 506) (-0.352- J O . 506) (0.281- 11.352) (0.463- JO. 402 (-0.210-10.542)
Mod 1.418L-90.00 0.616L-55.20 0.6161-124.80 1.381L-78.20 0.6134-41.00 0.582L-111.20
2: W l X
Mod
( 0 . OOO-JS. 101)
3.101L-90.00
(-0.352+JO. 506 (O,352+JO. 506) -
(0.851 J2.847) (-0.463- JO. 402) (0.2lOtJO ,542)
0.616L124.8O 0.616L55.20 2.971L-73.40 0.613L139.00 0.58268.80
Llne 1: cmplx (0.000-J2.631) (0.117-50.218) (-0.117-JO.218) (0.561-JZ.502) (0.179-J1.530 (-0.030-JO.231)
Mod 2.631L-90 .Oo 0.247L-61.70 0.247~-118.30 2.564L-77.40 0.23%-40.60 0.2334-97.50
Line 2: Cmplx (O.OOO+J1.212) (0.235-J0.288) (-0.235- J0.288) (-O.ZBO+Jl. 150) (0.284-J0.249) (-0.180-J0.311)
Mod 1.212L+90.00 0.371L-50.80 0.371L-129.20 1.183L103.70 0.378L-41.20 0.360L-1200
Llne 3: Qlplx (O.OOOtJl.888) (0.117-J0.218) (-0.117-J0.212) (-0.571+J1.697) (0.179-J0.153) (-0.030-JO.231)
Lbd 1.888L+90.00 0.247L-61.70 0.247L-118.30 1.791L108.60 0.235L-40.60 0.233L-97.50
Voltage. p.u Van vbn Vbn
Bus 1: cmplx (0.584+JO. 000) (-0.450-JO. 793) (-0,45O+JO. 793) (0.597- JO. 058) (-0.452- JO. 793) (-0,447+JO. 793)
Mod 0.584L0.00 0.912L-119.60 0.912L119.6~ 0.6OOL-5.60 0.9124-119.70 0.91OL119.40
Bua 2: cmplX ( 0 .OOO+JO,000) (-0 .586-J0. 815) (-0.586+JO. 815) (O.OOO+JO ,000) (-0.588-JO. 809) (-0. 58&JO. 821)
Mod 0.0004.00 1.004L-125.70 1.004L125.70 O.OOOLO.0~ 1.OOOL-126.00 1.008L125.40
Bus 3: Q B l X ( 1 .OOO+JO. 000) (-0.500-JO. 866) (-0. 5OoCJO.866) (1.000- JO. 000) (-0.500-JO. 866) (-0.500-JO.866)
1.0004.00 1 . 0 0 0 ~ - 1 2 0 . 0 ~ 1.000L120.00 1 . OOOLO . O n 1 .OOOL-120.00 1.OoOL120.00

Element h t a A1 (Reactance only), Data B1* (Resistance and Reactance),

L-L Fault at Node 2 Series Fault between Nodes 1-2 (Line 1)
Current, p . u . la Ib IC I. Ib IC la (InIcial)
At Faul t : rpplx .
( 0 OOO+JO ,000) (-4 .280+J0.000) (4.28OtJ0.000 (0.000- JO.000) (-O.lOl+JO. 156) (O.O32+JO. 129) 0. W O 4 0 0
Mod O.OOOLO.Oo 4.280L18O.Oo 4.280~0.0~ 0.00004.0° 0.186L122.80 0.133L75.90
Gcn 1 : cmplx (O.OOO+JO.667) (-0.865-JO. 333) (0.865- jO.333) (-0.107- JO. 720) (-0.649+JO. 582) (0 656+JO.359) 0.963L-88.60
Mod 0.667L9O.O0 0.927L-158.9O 0.927L-21.lD 0.728L-98.40 0.871L138.10 0.748L28.70
Gcn 2: W l X

I
(0.000-JO. 667) (-3.416+JO. 333) (3.416+jO. 333) (O,107+JO,720) (0.649-JO. 582) (-0.656-JO. 359) 0.963L91 .+a
Mod 0.667.?-90.0° 3 4324174.4O 3.432L5.6O 0.728L81.60 0.871L-41.9° 0.748L-151.30
LlnC 1: Qlplx (O.OOOtJ0.222) (:-2.286-J0.111) (2.286-50.111) (0.000- JO.000) (-0.101+]0.156) (0.032+J0.129) 0.197L-Yl.7a
Mod 0.222L90.00 2.288L-177.20 2.288L-2.80 0.0004.00 0.186L122.80 0.1330S.90
Llne 2: cmplx (O.OOO+J0.444) (1,421- JO. 222) [-1.421-10.222) (-0.107-10.720) (-0.548+JO. 426) (0.623+JO. 230) 0.767L-87.5
Mod 0.444L90.00 1.438L-8.90 - 1.438L:171.1b . 0.728L:98.40' 0.694442.20 0.663L20.30
L i n e 3: cmplx (O.OOO+J0.222) (1.995-JO.lll) (-1.994-JO.111) .
(0 WO-JO.000) (-0.101+10.156) (0.032+J0.129) 0. W L - 9 2 . 7 0
Mod 0.222L90.00 1.998L-3.20 1.998L-176.80 0.0004.00 0.133L7S.90

Voltage, p.u. Van Vbn Vcn Van Vbn Vcn Va (Initial)

1: Cmplx (0.862+JO ,000) (-0.431-JO ,425) (-0.431+JO ,425) (1.131- JO ,011) (0,589- JO .957) (-0.567+ J O ,962) 1.04~-2.39
Mod 0. 8624.0° 0.605L-135.4O 0.605L135.4O 1 . 132LO.S0 1.124~-121.60 1.116L120.5~
Bur 2 : w l x (0.904+JO. 000) (-0.452+J0.000) (-0.452+J0.000) (0.9OO+J0.000) (-0.540- JO ,900) (-0,466+JO. 812) 0.98%-1.9'
Mod 0.904L0.00 0.452L-180.00 0.452L-180.0o 0.9OOLO.00 1.050~-120.90 0.936~119.80
Bus 3: cmplx (l.OOO+JO,000) (-0.500-jO.866) (-0. SOO+JO. 866) (0.900+ JO. 000) (-0.450-JO. 771) (0.45OtJO. 771) 0.9004.00
Mod 1.0O04.OD 1.00OL-120.O0 1.00OL120.O0 0.9004.0° 0.900L-120.00 0.9OOL120.00

Authorized licensed use limited to: University of Moratuwa. Downloaded on September 01,2021 at 14:20:12 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
 1419
Table 5 F a u l t C u r r e n t s f o r Mirror-Image Systems f o l l o w i n g S u s t a i n e d Line-Ground
Fault-- Studies 2
Element Data BZ, Fault at Node 8
la Ib IC

(0.292-j2.573) (O.OOO+jO.OOO) (O.OOO+jO.OOO)

2.573L-88.10 O.OOOLO.00 O.OOOLO.0~ 2.573L-88.1° 0.000L0.00 O.OOOLO.0~
(0.072-10.326) (-0.137+j0.122) (0.092+j0.137)
1.309L-85.80 0.243L-56.90 0.225L-112.10 0.334L-77.50 0.183L138.40 0.165L55.90
(0.123-j0.942) (0.004+j0.0~2) (-O.O08+jO1O72) (0.123-50.942) (0.004+j0.082) (-0.008+j0.072)
0.9504-82.5° 0.082L87.0 0.073~96.10 0.95OL-82.50 0.08247.00 0.073496.10
(0.072-50.326) (-0.137+j0.122) (0.092+j0.137) (0.097-j1.305) (0.133-jO.204) (-0,085-jO.209)
0.334L-77.50 0.183L138.40 0.165L55.90 1.3094-85.80 0.2431-56.90 0.225L-112.10
Llne 1: Cmplx (0.099-jl.015) (0.095-jO.155) (-0.051-j0.162) (0.053-j0.216) (-0.094+j0.080) (0.059+j0.093)
Mod 1.020L-84.40 0.182~-58.50 0.169L-107.4° 0.223L-76.2n 0.123L139.60 0.111L57.5Q
Llne 2: Cmplx (-0.002-
jO.290) (0.038-~0.049) (-0.034-jO.047) (0.019-jO.109) (-0.043+j0.042) (0.033+j0.043)
Mod 0.29OL-90.40 0.062L-52.10 0.058L-125.70 0.111~j80.2° 0.060L135.80 0.054L52.70
Line 3: Cmplx (O.OlI+j0.387) (-0.013+j0.040) (0.007+j0.043) (-0.OlO+jO.O28) (0.014-jO.Ol2) (-0.007-jO.015)
Mod 0.387L88.4' 0.042L108.1Q 0.044L80.70 0.030L109.5~ 0.0194-38.80 0,0174-113.60
Line 4: Cmplx (-0.204+j1.171) (0.108-jO.195) (-0.058-jO.205) (0.063-10.244) (-0.108+j0.092) (0.066+J0.109)
Mod 1.189499.90 0.223L-61.00 0.2134-105.8° O . Z S ~ L - ~ S . S O 0.142~139.80 o.m~s8.70
LIne 5 : Cmplx (0.009+j0.097) (0.025-jO.009) (0.027-50.004) (0.009-jO.082) (-0.029+j0.030) (0.026+j0.028)
Mod 0.097L84.90 0,0264-19.20 o.oz7~-171.40 0.082L-83.7O 0.042L133.40 0.038L46.70
LIne 6: Cmplx (-0,195+jI,267) (0.133-jO.204) (-0,085-jO.209) (0.072-50.326) (-0.137+j0.122) (0.092+j0.136)
Mod 1.282L98.8' 0.243L-56.90 0.225~-1l2.1 0 0.3344-77.5O 0.183L138.40 0.165L55.90
Line 7: Cmplx (0.072-j0.326) (-0.137+JO.122) (0.092+j0.136) (-0.19S+j1.267) (0.133-50.204) (-0.085-jO.209)
Mod 0.334L-77.50 0 . 1 8 3 ~ 1 3 8 . 4 ~ 0.165L55.9° 1.282498.8° 0.243L-56.9O 0.225L-112.lO
LIne 8 : Cmplx (0,009-jO.082) (-0.029+j0.030) (0.026+j0.028) (O.O09+JO.097) (0.025-jO.009) (-0.027- jO.004)
Mod 0.0824-83.70 0.042~133.40 0.038L46.70 0.097L84.90 0.0264-19.20 0.027L-171.40
Llne 9: Cmplx (0.063-j0.244) (-0.108+jO.092) (0.066+j0.109) (-0.204+jl.171) (0.108-50.195) (-0.058-jO.205)
Mod 0.252L-75.5Q 0.142L139.80 0.127L58.7Q 1.189L99.9O 0.223L-61.00 0.213L-105.8Q
Llne IO: Cmplx (-0.OlO+jO.O28) (0.014-jO.012) (-0,007-jO.015) (O.OIl+ I O . 387) ( G O . Ol3+ 10.040) (0.007+ 10.043)
Mod 0.030L109.5~ 0.019L-38.80 0.017L-113.60 '0.3874%1.40 ' ' 0.042~io8.10' '0.044~i0.70 '
Llne 1 1 : Cmplx (0.019-jO.109) (-0.043+j0.042) (0.033+j0.043) (-0.002-jO.290) (0,038-50.049) (-0.034-jO.047)
Mod 0.111~-80.2Q 0.060L135.8Q 0.054L52.7~ 0.290L-90.4° 0,0621-52.10 0.058L-125.70
Line 12: Cmplx (0.053-jO.216) (-0.094+j0.080) (0.059+j0.093) (0.099+J1.015) (0,095-jl.015) (-0.051-j0.162)
Mod 0.223L-76.20 0.123L139.60 O.lllL57.5~ 1.020L-84.4° 0.182L-58.50 0.169L-107.40
Fault impedance zero, System Initially at nomlnal voltage and unli i e d . S t a r - p o i n t of a l l generators s o l l d l y grounded.

Element Data A2 (Reactance Only) Data 82 (Resistance and Reactance)

Current, p.u. la Ib IC la Ib I C

At Fault: (O.OOO+jO.OOO) (-2.31S+j0.000) (2.315+j0.000) (O.OOO+jO.OOO) (-2,309-jO.079) (2.309+j0.079)

Cen 1 : (0.000-j0.148) (-0.528+j0.074) (0.528+j0.074) (-0.014-jO.151) (-0.515+j0.028) (0.529+j0.124)
Cen 2: (O.OOO+jO.295) (-1.259-jO.148) (1.259-jO.148) (0.028+j0.303) (-1.278-j0.134) (1.250-J1.683)
Gen 3 : (0.000-j0.148) (-0.528+j0.074) (0.528+j0.074) (-0.014-jO.151) (-0.515+j0.028) (0.529+j0.124)
Llne 1: ( 0 , 0 0 0 - jO.099) (-0.356+j0.050) (0.356+j0.050) (-0.007-j0.l0l) (-0.345+j0.010) (0.352+j0.091)
Llne 2: (0,000-jO.048) (-0.172+j0.024) (0.172+j0.024) (-0.007-jO.050) (-0.17O+j0.017) (0.177+j0.033)
Line 3: (O.OOO+jO.O14) (0.049-jO.007) (-0.049-jO.007) (-0.OOO+j0.014) (0.048+j0.003) (-0,048-jO.017)
Line 4: (o.ooo-jo.ll3) (-0.405+I O . 057) (0.405+ 10.057) (-0.007-jO.116) (-0.394+j0.007) (0.400+j0.108)
Line 5: (0.000-jO.034) i-o .123+jo ,017j io.i23+jo.o17j (-0,007-jO.036) (-0.122+50.020) (0.129+j0.015)
Llne 6: (0,000-j0.148) (-0.528+j0.074) (0.528+j0.074) (-0.014-jO.151) (-0.515+j0.028) (0.529+j0.124)
Llne 7: (0,000-j0.148) (-0.528+j0.074) (0.528+j0.074) (-0.0l4-j0.151) (-0.515+j0.028) (0.529+j0.124)
Llne 8: (0.000-jO.034) (-0.123+j0.017) (0.123+j0.017) (-0.007-50.036) (-0.122+j0.020) (0.129+j0.015)
Llne 9: (0.000-j0.113) (-0.405+10.057) (0.405+10.057) (-0,007-jO.116) (-0.394+j0.007) (0.400+j0.108)
LIne IO: (O.OOO+JO.O14) '(0.492-jo.007 j (10.049-jo .oo7j (-0.OOO+j0.014) (0.048+j0.003) (-0.048-50.017)
Llne 11: (0.000-jO.048) (-0.172+j0.024) (0.172+j0.024) (-0.007-jO.050) (-0.17O+j0.017) (0.177+j0.033)
Line 12: (0.000-jO.099) (-0.356+j0.050) (0.356+J0.050) (-0.007-j0.l0l) (-0.345+J0.010) (0.352+j0.091)

Fault impedance zero. System initially unloaded at nominnl wluge. Fault benccn lines 'b' and 'e'.
1982, 1985 and 1988 and Visiting Professor at the Polytechnical
9. REFERENCES University of Grenoble, France in 1984.
He holds the degree of ACGI from City and Guilds College,
[l] Mortlock, J.R. and Davies, M.W.H "Power System Analysis", London and BSc, Engineering (1st Class Honours), DIC and PhD
Chapman & Hall, London, 1952. from Imperial College, London University. He also holds two
(21 Lyon, W.V. "Aoolications of the Method of Symmetrical higher honorary Doctorates in Engineering.
Components", McGraw-Hill, New York, 1937. Dr. Hammons, a Senior Member of IEEE, is an active member of
[3] Clarke, E. "Circuit Analysis of A.C. Power Systems: several IEEE Power Engineering Society Committees and Working
Symmetrical Components", Wiley, New York, 1943. Groups and is a Founder Member of the UK Universities Power
141 Hammons, T.J. and Parsons, A.J. "Design of a M i c r o a l t e m n
Engineering Conference (Convenor 1967). He is also a Member of
for POwer-System-Stability Investigation", Proc. IEE, 1971,the International Conference on Large High Voltage Systems
vol. ii8, (io), pp.1421-1441. (CIGRE), Paris, France; Member of the Institution of Mechanical
Thomas James Hammom is a Engineers, UK; Fellow of the Institute of Diagnostic Engineers,
member of the teaching faculty UK; Member of the IEEE Industry Applications Society; and a
of the Faculty of Engineering, Deputy Director General of the International Biographical Centre,
Glasgow University, Scotland, Cambridge, UK.
UK. Prior to this he was He is the author/co-author of over 150 scientific articles and
employed as an Engineer in the papers on Electrical Power Engineering, including IEEElANSI
Systems Engineering Department Standards, Papers, and IEEE Committee Reports published in IEEE
of Associated Electrical
Power Engineering Society Transactions; and Papers in the
Industries, Manchester, UK. In Transactions of the Australian Institution of Engineers, Revue
1978 he was Visiting Professor Generale de la Electricite, IEE Proceedings, etc.
at the Polflechnical Alexander S h u n Stevenson vias formerly with Glasgow University,
UniversitYi Poland, Professor of Scotland.
He is now employed as an Engineer with the South of
and Scotland Electricity Board, Glasgow, Scotland, U.K. He holds an
Engineering at McMaster Honours Degree in Engineering from Glasgow University. Mr
University, Hamilton, Ontario, Alexander Stevenson was born in Scotland in 1967. He was educated
Canada in 1978179, Visiting at Ravenspark Academy, Irvine, Ayrshire, Scotland. His hobbies
Professor at the Czechoslovakian Academy of Sciences, Prague in include golf, football and tennis.

Authorized licensed use limited to: University of Moratuwa. Downloaded on September 01,2021 at 14:20:12 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.