TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC NÔNG LÂM THÀNH PHỐ HỒ CHÍ MINH

KHOA NGOẠI NGỮ - SƯ PHẠM

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Educational
Psychology
- Portfolio -

Name: Đỗ Nguyên Bích Ngọc

Student Code: 19128109
Class: DH19AV
Date: Tuesday (shift 2)
Psych Course
I. THE LEARNER
1. Developing a Professional Knowledge Base.
2. The Development of Cognition and Language.
3. Personal, Social, and Emotional Development.
4. Learner Differences.
5. Learners with Exceptionalities.

II. LEARNING
6. Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory.
7. Cognitive Views of Learning.
8. Constructing Understanding.
9. Complex Cognitive Processes.

III. CLASSROOM PROCESSES

10.Theories of Motivation.
11.Motivation in the Classroom.
12.Creating Productive Learning Environments: Classroom Management.
13.Creating Productive Learning Environments: Principles of Instruction.
14.Assessing Classroom Learning.
15.Assessment through Standardized Testing.
I. Developing a Professional Knowledge Base
Educational Psychology and Becoming a Professional

- Education is raising the standards for teachers and are asking teachers to become
professionals who know and can do more.

Characteristics of Professionalism

- A commitment to learners that includes a code of ethics.

- The ability to make decisions in complex and ill-defined contexts.
- Reflective practice.
- A body of specialized knowledge .

Commitment to Learners

- Commitment is a very important characteristic in education; therefore, it is a paramount

need for the profession of teaching. A committed teacher is never satisfied with what she
or he already has; rather always seeks for the new ideas and ways to contribute to the
students.

Ideas and Activities to Demonstrate a Commitment in Learning

- In your home and family: Encourage reading as a regular part of your child's day. This
may include you reading to him or her or reading together, ...
- In your neighborhood and community: Set an example, ...
- In your school or youth program: Invite people who have achieved their dreams.

Decision Making

- Teaching as Decision Making Teachers are continually choosing strategies to help students
learn, develop, and achieve Wise decisions rely on good research decisions can influence
students’ learning, development, and long-term.

Reflective Practice
 - Reflective practice is learning through and from experience towards gaining new insights
of self and practice. Reflection is a systematic reviewing process for all teachers which
allows you to make links from one experience to the next, making sure your students make
maximum progress.
- Reflective practice can help teachers become more sensitive to individual student
differences and can make them more aware of the impact of their instruction on learning.
The teacher’s ability to improve their practice through reflection depend on both their
experience and professional knowledge.

Professional Knowledge

- Professionals make decisions in ill-defined situations and reflect on those decisions to

improve their teaching. And giving the framework for the lesson was grounded in theory
and research indicating that real-world application increase both learning and motivation.
The fact that if the teacher was less knowledgeable helps explain some of his difficulties.
Making decisions based on knowledge and using that knowledge as a basis for reflection is
the core of professionalism.
- The more knowledgeable you are, the better able you will be to meet the demands and
challenges of teaching, and the better able you will be to capitalize on its excitement and
rewards.

QUESTIONS FOR YOUR PORTFORLIO:

1. Why do you want to be a teacher? (Or why not? Why do you think others want to be
teachers?)
- I choose to be a teacher because this job in the future will be a well-paid job, broaden my
horizon, and meet all walks of life.
2. Who is a teacher? What qualities should a teacher have?
- A teacher is a person who have extensive professional knowledge. And the qualities of a
teacher should have be perseverance, patience, understanding and sense of humor.
3. Who is a student?
- A student is a person who has no much knowledge about any field and need a teacher's help.

Professional Knowledge and Learning to Teach

- Knowledge of content.
- Pedagogical content knowledge.
- General pedegogical knowledge.
- Knowledge of learners and learning.

Knowledge of Content
 - Knowledge about a particular content area, such as a math teacher who has content
knowledge about math. Cognition is learning, or the processes of increasing knowledge
through senses, experience, and thinking.

Pedagogical Content Knowledge

- Often described as the act of teaching. The pedagogy adopted by teachers shapes their
actions, judgments, and other teaching strategies by taking into consideration theories of
learning, understandings of students and their needs, and the backgrounds and interests of
individual students.

Instructional Strategies

- Are techniques teachers use to help students become independent, strategic learners. These
strategies become learning strategies when students independently select the appropriate
ones and use them effectively to accomplish tasks or meet goals.

Classroom Management

- The process by which teachers and schools create and maintain appropriate behavior of
students in classroom settings. ... Establishes and sustains an orderly environment in the
classroom. Increases meaningful academic learning and facilitates social and emotional
growth.

II. The Development of Cognition and Language

What Is Development?

- The concept of development, which refers to the changes that occur in human beings as we
grow from infancy to adulthood. Physical development describes changes in the size,
shape, and functioning of our bodies.

- Cognitive development changes in our thinking that occur as a result of learning,

maturation, and experience. This helps us understand differences in the ways that young
children think compared to the thinking of older students and adults. It also helps us
understand why students who have had a rich array of experiences think differently than
those the same age whose experiences are limited.

Principles of Development
 - Development depends on both heredity and the environment: Maturation, genetically
controlled, age-related changes in individuals, plays an important role. High school
students are more cognitively mature than elementary or middle school students, which
helps us understand why we don't teach calculus or physics, for ex ample, to younger
students. While genetics are largely fixed, learners' experiences also influence their
development. Genetics set an upper limit on what may be achieved, but the environment
determines where individuals fall within the range.
- Development proceeds in relatively orderly and predictable patterns: We babble before
we talk, crawl before we walk, and learn concrete concepts such as mammal and car
before we learn abstract ones such as density and democracy.
- People develop at different rates: While progression from childhood to adolescence and
ultimately to adulthood is generally orderly, the rate at which we progress varies
dramatically.

Current Views of Cognitive Development

- It helps them grow self-esteem, confidence, insight to set perspective and gradually
develops the personality. It is more of learning mainstream academics instead; it teaches
through insight and imagination. Education at this level develops cognitive psychological
development.
- To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as
a result of biological maturation and environmental experience. Children construct an
understanding of the world around them, then experience discrepancies between what they
already know and what they discover in their environment.

For exmple: children start to understand the use of basic metaphors based on very concrete ideas,
such as the saying "hard as a rock". They also begin to tailor their speech to the social situation;
for example, children will talk more maturely to adults than to same-age peers.

Piaget's four stages of intellectual (or cognitive) development are:

- Sensorimotor: Birth through ages 18-24 months.

- Preoperational: Toddlerhood (18-24 months) through early childhood (age 7)
- Concrete operational: Ages 7 to 11.
- Formal operational: Adolescence through adulthood.

Language and Development

- Language is a system of communication that uses symbols in a regular way to create

meaning. Language gives us the ability to communicate our intelligence to others by
talking, reading, and writing. Language development starts with sounds and gestures, then
words and sentences. You can support language development by talking a lot with your
 child, and responding when your child communicates. Reading books and sharing stories
is good for language development.

The 6 Theories of Language Development

o Behavioral Theory.
o Nativistic Theory.
o Semantic-Cognitive Theory.
o Nativistic Theory.
o Social-Pragmatic Theory.
o Dialects.

Vygotsky’s Theory of Language Development

- Vygotsky had a groundbreaking theory that language was the basis of learning. His points
included the argument that language supports other activities such as reading and writing.
In addition, he claimed that logic, reasoning, and reflective thinking were all possible as a
result of language. There are four basic aspects of language that have been studied:
phonology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Language development occurs in a fairly
predictable fashion. Most typically developing children acquire the skills in each of the
four areas by the end of their ninth year of life.

The Role of the Teacher in Vygotsky’s Theory

- The role of the teacher is one of a mediator for the child's cognitive development. In
Vygotsky's theory of constructivism, learning, instruction and development are the only
positive forms of instruction. The most important application of Vygotsky's theory to
education is in his concept of a zone of proximal development. This concept is important
because teachers can use it as a guide to a child's development. Through play, and
imagination a child's conceptual abilities are stretched.

Vygotsky’s Theory Used and Applied in the Classroom

- A contemporary educational application of Vygotsky's theory is "reciprocal teaching,"

used to improve students' ability to learn from text. In this method, teachers and students
collaborate in learning and practicing four key skills: summarizing, questioning,
clarifying, and predicting.

III. Personal, Social and Emotional Development

 - Personal, social, and emotional development refers to changes in our personalities, the
ways we interact with others, and our ability to manage our feelings. Personal Social and
Emotional Development (PSED) supports children to have a positive sense of themselves,
respect for others, social skills, emotional well-being and a positive disposition to
learning.

The Role of Teachers in Social and Emotional Student Development

- Teachers are the main emotional leaders of their students, and the foundation for
promoting emotional balance within their groups is their ability to recognize, understand,
and manage their emotions. ... Teachers reported improvements in student behavior, in the
relationships between them and in the classroom environment.

Social and Emotional Development Influence Learning

- By providing a kind environment, it helps to encourage optimal brain development as

well as social connection and collaboration. In other words, SEL affects learning by
shaping children's developing neural circuitry, particularly the executive functions.

The Main Areas of Focus for Personal, Social, and Emotional Development

- Personal, social and emotional development includes three aspects of children's learning
and development:
o Making relationships.
o Managing feelings and behavior.
o Self-confidence and self-awareness.

IV. Learner Differences

- Refer to the diverse ways all students learn and the rates at which they learn, or can be
defined as personal characteristics that distinguish learners from each other in the
teaching and learning processes. Learning differences take into account individual
learning motivators; learner aspirations, interests, experience and cultural background;
and individual students' strengths and needs.

It is Important to Know the Differences among Learners

- Students have different levels of motivation, attitudes, and responses to specific classroom
environments and instructional practices. The more thoroughly educators understand
these difference among the students that they are teaching, the better the chance students
have in learning what is being taught. Some of the most prominent are academic ability
 (or intelligence), achievement level, gender, learning style, and ethnicity and culture. In
general, there are three different approaches for dealing with individual differences
among students.

Effective Teaching Strategies that Mind Individual Differences

o Differentiate instruction.
o Capitalize on learning styles.
o Incorporate multiple intelligences into curriculum.
o Capitalize on student interests.
o Involve students in educational goals.
o Use computerized instruction.
o Group students effectively.
o Consider outside placement options.

The Significance of Individual Differences in Education

- Individual differences must be kept in mind by the teacher if the needs of the individual
pupil are to be met. It should be remembered that physical and emotional differences must
be met, as well as intellectual differences.

Tips for Accommodating

o Engage the student in conversation about the subject matter.

o Question students about the material.
o Ask for oral summaries of material.
o Have them tape lectures and review them with you.
o Have them tape themselves reviewing material and listen to it together.
o Read material aloud to them.

V. Learners with Exceptionalities

- The learners with exceptionalities are students who have superior intelligence as well as those
who are slow to learn communicative. These students have special learning disabilities or speech
or language impairments.

The Importance of Knowing about Learners with Exceptionalities

 - These difficulties present many issues for student success and self-efficacy if not caught
early on in the student's education. Therefore, it is essential for teachers to know
characteristics of intellectual disabilities so that they can help identify potential reasons or
causes for student difficulties in school.

Teaching Strategies for Kids with Behavioral Exceptionalities

o Good communication with parents.

o Award and encourage positive behavior.
o Make sure classroom rules and consequences are clear and visible within the class.
o Offer choices for learning activities.
o Make a designated time-out location.
o Alternative location for testing.

The Major Role of Teachers Handling Students with Exceptionalities

- To provide alternative methods of assessment for students with disabilities.

- To arrange a learning environment that is as normal or as “least restrictive” as possible.
- To participate in creating individual educational plans for students with disabilities.

Some of the Major Cause of Exceptionalities

- Causes may include but are not limited to: open or closed head injuries, cerebrovascular
accidents (e.g., stroke, aneurysm), infections, kidney or heart failure, electric shock,
anoxia, tumors, metabolic disorders, toxic substances, or medical or surgical treatments.

The Characteristics of Exceptionality

- Exceptionality refers to uniqueness. The uniqueness of the exceptional child may be

noticed in one or more of the following dimensions- vision, hearing, movement,
perceptual, motor, communication, social, emotional & intelligence.

VI. Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

- Behaviorism is a theory that explains learning in terms of observable behaviors and how
they're influenced by stimuli from the environment. It defines learning as a relatively
enduring change in observable behavior that occurs as a result of experience.

The Concept of Behaviorism Theory

 - Behaviorism theory seeks to explain human behavior by analyzing the antecedents and
consequences present in the individual's environment and the learned associations he or
she has acquired through previous experience.

Behaviorism Theory can be used in the classroom

- Behaviorism can also be thought of as a form of classroom management. An example of

behaviorism is when teachers reward their class or certain students with a party or special
treat at the end of the week for good behavior throughout the week.

Classical Conditioning

- Classical conditioning occurs when an individual learns to produce an involuntary

emotional or physiological response similar to an instinctive or reflexive response.

The 5 Concepts of Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning

- An unconditioned stimulus is an object or event that startling phenomenon caused a turn

in Pavlov's work and opened the field of causes an instinctive or reflexive (unlearned)
physiological or emotional response.
- An unconditioned response is the instinctive or re flexive (unlearned) physiological or
emotional response caused by the unconditioned stimulus.
- A neutral stimulus is an object or event that doesn't initially impact behavior one way or
the other.
- A conditioned stimulus is a formerly neutral stimulus that becomes associated with the
unconditioned stimulus.
- A conditioned response is a learned physiological or emotional response that is similar to
the unconditioned response.

Classical Conditioning in the Classroom

- Classical conditioning is a form of learning whereby a conditioned stimulus becomes

associated with an unrelated unconditioned stimulus, in order to produce a behavioral
response known as a conditioned response.

Classical Conditioning can Be Used in the Classroom

- Teachers are able to apply classical conditioning in the class by creating a positive
classroom environment to help students overcome anxiety or fear. Pairing an anxiety-
provoking situation, such as performing in front of a group, with pleasant surroundings
helps the student learn new associations.
 - In the area of classroom learning, classical conditioning primarily influences emotional
behavior. Things that make us happy, sad, angry, etc. become associated with neutral
stimuli that gain our attention.

Classical Conditioning can Affect Learning in General

- Classical conditioning is a type of learning that happens unconsciously. When you learn
through classical conditioning, an automatic conditioned response is paired with a specific
stimulus. This creates a behavior. ... We're all exposed to classical conditioning in one
way or another throughout our lives.

Social Cognitive Theory

- Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) describes the influence of individual experiences, the
actions of others, and environmental factors on individual health behaviors. ...
Observational learning: Watching and observing outcomes of others performing or
modeling the desired behavior.

Comparing Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

- Behaviorism and social cognitive theory are similar in three ways:

o They agree that experience is an important cause of learning (as do other cognitive
descriptions, e.g., those found in Piaget's and Vygotsky's work).
o They include the concepts of reinforcement and punishment in their explanations of
learning.
o They agree that feedback is important in promoting learning.

- The two theories differ in three important ways:

o They define learning differently.

o Social cognitive theory emphasizes the role of beliefs, self-perceptions, and expectations
in learning.
o Social cognitive theory suggests that the environment, personal factors, and behavior are
interdependent, a concept called reciprocal causation.

The Main Points of Social Cognitive Theory

- Four primary capabilities are addressed as important foundations of social cognitive

theory: symbolizing capability, self-regulation capability, self-reflective capability, and
vicarious capability. Symbolizing Capability: People are affected not only by direct
experience but also indirect events.
- Bandura's social cognitive theory of human functioning emphasizes the critical role of
self-beliefs in human cognition, motivation, and behavior. Social cognitive theory gives
 prominence to a self-system that enables individuals to exercise a measure of control over
their thoughts, feelings, and actions.
- Using Bandura's social learning theory in the classroom can help students reach their
potential. If there is a good student who is motivated and responsible and a student who
does not care about school in the same group, then according to Bandura they will imitate
each other.

Theory to Practice: Applying Social Cognitive Theory in Your Classroom

- Social cognitive theory has a wide range of classroom applications. The following guidelines
can help you apply the theory with your students:

1. Model desirable behaviors for students.

2. Place students in modeling roles, and use cognitive modeling to share their strategies.

3. Capitalize on modeling effects and processes to promote learning.

4. Use guest role models.

Classroom Connections: Applying Social Cognitive Theory in Your

Classroom

- Cognitive modeling involves verbalizing your thinking as you demonstrate skills. Use
cognitive modeling in your instruction, and act as a role model for your students.
- Effective modeling requires attending to a behavior, retaining it in memory, and then
reproducing it. To capitalize on these processes, provide group practice by walking
students through examples before having them practice on their own.
- When learners observe a classmate being reinforced, they are vicariously reinforced. Use
vicarious reinforcement to improve behavior and increase learning.
- Self-regulation is the process of students taking responsibility for their own learning.
Teach self-regulation by systematically working on its components.

Cognitive Behavior Modification

- Self-regulation can be enhanced through cognitive behavior modification, a procedure

that combines behavioral and cognitive learning principles to promote behavioral change
in students through self-talk and self-instruction. Teachers use cognitive modeling to help
students develop skills that are part of self-regulation, such as organization and time
management. After observing the modeled abilities, students practice them with the
teachers' support and then use self-talk as a guide when performing the skills without
supervision.
Putting Social Cognitive Theory into Perspective

- Social Cognitive Theory also has limitations:

o It cannot explain why learners attend to some modeled behaviors but not others.
o It can't explain why learners can reproduce some behaviors they observe but can't
reproduce others.
o It doesn't account for the acquisition of complex abilities, such as learning to write
(beyond mere mechanics).
o It cannot explain the role of context and social interaction in complex learning
environments. The processes involved in these set tings extend beyond simple modeling
and imitation.

The Experiement of Myself’s Bad Habit: Surfing on Facebook within 1 month

- Week 1: I spent 21 hours for doing it.

- Week 2: I spent 67 bours
- Week 3: I spent 135 hours
- Week 4: I spent 98 hours

 I wasted 321 hours/ month for sufing on Facebook and I think myself could improve it
successfully more in the nearest future.

VI. Cognitive Views of Learning

- The Cognitive View of Learning: A general approach that views learning as an active
mental process of acquiring, remembering and using knowledge. Knowledge guides new
learning and knowledge is the outcome of learning.
- Cognitive Learning Theory uses meta-cognition—“thinking about thinking”—to
understand how thought processes influence learning. In the traditional classroom,
teachers apply Cognitive Learning Theory by encouraging self-reflection and explaining
their reasoning.

Examples of cognitive learning strategies include:

- Asking students to reflect on their experience.

- Helping students find new solutions to problems.
- Encouraging discussions about what is being taught.
- Helping students explore and understand how ideas are connected.
- Asking students to justify and explain their thinking.
VIII. Constructing Understanding
- Become aware of, build on and modify their understandings; provide an opportunity to
reflect on ideas about teaching, learning, and scientific conceptual understanding; gain
awareness of how students can hold onto inaccurate ideas despite instruction on the topic.

For Example: Undergraduate students in any school of architecture, especially those in

their first and second years in the program, are inundated with countless new learning
experiences and avenues of thought. Frequently missing from those experiences, however, are
moments in the curriculum that allow the student to connect their generated abstractions to
the actual built environment through critical acts of making. In an age of increasing focus on
digital technologies and virtual architecture, these developing students also need to be
introduced first hand to the physical consequences of the lines they draw on paper. By
introducing acts of making into the curriculum alongside their digital counterparts, students
are given the capacity to achieve a deeper understanding of their projects and of the
architecture they will come to design in the future. 

The advantages of Teaching

- Allow the student to connect their generated abstractions to the actual built environment
through critical acts of making.
- In an age of increasing focus on digital technologies and virtual architecture, these
developing students also need to be introduced first hand to the physical consequences of
the lines they draw on paper. By introducing acts of making into the curriculum alongside
their digital counterparts, students are given the capacity to achieve a deeper
understanding of their projects and of the architecture they will come to design in the
future. 
- Allows the developing architecture student to begin to cultivate understanding between
the sketch, the drawing, and construction throughout the design process.
- Encourages these students to have a more intimate relationship with the materials of
design and construction both from a technical view of construction and a poetic
understanding of architecture as an assembly. 
- provide a tangible basis of knowledge that has the potential to inject the unseasoned
architecture student with a valuable, but often forgotten, connection to materiality and the
sensory potential of our built world.

IX. Complex Cognitive Processes

- Cognition is a term referring to the mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and
comprehension. Learning involves acquiring knowledge through experience, study, and
being taught. These cognitive processes include thinking, knowing, remembering,
 judging, and problem-solving. These are higher-level functions of the brain and
encompass language, imagination, perception, and planning.

Attraction

- Attention is the process of consciously focusing on a stimulus. Our attention acts as a

screen, allowing us to filter out unimportant information.
- Two characteristics of attention are important:

o First, although individual differences in students exist, everyone’s attention is limited,

both in capacity and duration. So, students are likely to pay attention to parts of teachers’
explanations but miss others.
o Second, our attention easily shifts from one stimulus to another; people in general are
easily distracted. This helps us understand why students seem to derive less from
teachers’ explanations than they should. A myriad of distractions exist in classrooms -
students whispering, noises outside the room, and people in the hallway, among others.
Any one or more of these can cause students to miss parts of teachers’ explanations.

Perception

- Perception taps into old stored information and new information to enable the brain to
process, make sense of, respond to and perceive different situations. Perception involves
touch, smell, sight and hearing to optimally function. All of this information is then
transformed into outputs such as conversation, flavor detection and new ideas.

Encoding

- After learners attend to and perceive information, and organize it in working memory, it is
ready for encoding, which is the process of representing information in long-term
memory. This information can be represented either visually, such as Juan’s forming an
image of Pluto with a different orbital plane, or verbally, when students construct schemas
that relate ideas to each other.
- Maintenance rehearsal, which is the process we use to re train information in working
memory until it is used or forgotten. However, this is the strategy learners often use to
remember factual information, such as specific dates and math facts. Teachers commonly
use rehearsal, such as practicing with flash cards, to help their students learn math facts.

Making Information Meaningful

 Imagery: Form mental pictures of topics.

 Organization: Impose order and connections in new information.
 Schema Activation: Activate relevant prior knowledge.
 Elaboration: Expand on existing schemas.
Fogetting

- Forgetting is the loss of , or inability to retrieve, information from long-term memory,

and it is both a real part of people’s everyday lives and an important factor on learning.
- Forgetting as Interference is to explain how and why forgetting occurs in long-term
memory. Essentially, interference occurs when some information makes it difficult to
recall similar material. Similar memories compete, causing some to be more difficult to
remember or even forgotten entirely.
- Forgetting as Retrieval Failure is the process of pulling information from long-term
memory back into working memory and is believed to be actually the inability to retrieve
information from long-term memory. We’ve all had the experience of realizing that we
know a name, fact, or some other information, but we simply can’t pull it up. An example
is of retrieval failure is, needing a pen, going upstairs, and then forgetting what you were
doing.

Exploring Diversity: The Impact of Diversity on Cognition

- Assess students’ prior knowledge and perceptions by asking them what they already know
about a topic.
- Supplement students’ prior experiences with rich examples.
- Use students’ experiences to augment the backgrounds of those lacking the experiences.

X. Theories of Motivation
Behavioral

- Each of the major theoretical approaches in behavioral learning theory posits a primary
factor in motivation. Classical conditioning states that biological responses to associated
stimuli energize and direct behavior. Operant learning states the primary factor is
consequences: the application of reinforcers provides incentives to increase behavior; the
application of punishers provides disincentives that result in a decrease in behavior.

Cognitive

- In term of the cognitive approaches, notice the relationship between William James'
formula for self-esteem (Self-esteem = Success / Pretensions) and the attribution and
expectancy theories of motivation. If a person has an external attribution of success, self-
concept is not likely to change as a result of success or failure because the person will
attribute it to external factors. Likewise, if the person has an Internal/Ability explanation,
his or her self-concept will be tied to learning to do a new activity quickly and easily (I do
well because I am naturally good at it). If failure or difficulty occurs, the person must
quickly lower expectations in order to maintain self-esteem. However, if the person has a
 Internal/Effort explanation and high expectations for success, the person will persevere
(i.e., stay motivated) in spite of temporary setbacks because one's self-esteem is not tied
to immediate success.
- On the other hand, cognitive dissonance theory suggests that individuals will seek balance
or dynamic homeostasis in one's life and will resist influences or expectations to change.
How, then, does change or growth occur. One source, according to Piaget, is biological
development. As human beings mature cognitively, thinking processes and organizations
of knowledge (e.g., schemas, paradigms, explanations) are reworked to more accurately
reflect one's understanding of the world. One of those organizations involves
explanations or attributions of success or failure. After puberty, when biological change
slows down considerably, it is very difficult to change these attributions. It requires a
long-term program where constant feedback is provided about how one's behavior is
responsible for one's success.

XI. Motivation in the Classroom

- Students may be motivated to learn to pass a test, to gain a reward, or to avoid a
punishment. An example of extrinsic motivation is a student who is studying so their
parents will not ground them for poor grades. As a teacher, you can prevent this by
prioritizing intrinsically motivated learning in the classroom.
- Motivation is not only important in its own right; it is also an important predictor of
learning and achievement. Students who are more motivated to learn persist longer,
produce higher quality effort, learn more deeply, and perform better in classes and on
standardized tests.

Teachers can Motivate Students

- A motivated teacher has a different outlook that one who is simply 'going through the
motions'. Motivation is what energies, directs and sustains positive behavior in the
classroom. It means creating challenging goals alongside activities and tasks that help a
student or class reach these dizzying heights.
o Ensure Fear Free Classroom.
o Encourage Their Thoughts And Choices.
o Clarify The Objective.
o Improve The Classroom Environment.
o Be a Great Listener.
o Share Their Experience.
o Positive Competition.
o Know Your Student Well.

Extrinsic Motivation
 - Refers to the behavior of individuals to perform tasks and learn new skills because of
external rewards or avoidance of punishment.

For example: - Going to work because you want to earn money.

- Studying because you want to get a good grade.

Intrinsic Motivation

- Refers to the act of doing something that does not have any obvious external rewards.
You do it because it’s enjoyable and is performing an activity for its own sake rather than
the desire for some external reward or out of some external pressure. Essentially, the
behavior itself is its own reward.

For example: - Investing money because you want to become financially independent.

- Learning about personal development because you want to improve yourself.

XII. Creating Productive Learning Environment: Classroom

Management
Classroom Management

- Productive Learning Environment – a classroom that is safe and orderly and focused on
learning
o Central to effective classroom management
o Students are well behaved, emotional climate – relaxed & inviting
o Learning – Highest priority

Productive Learning Environment

- Classroom management – all the actions teachers take to create an environment that
supports academic & social-emotional learning.
o Important – suggest that schools & teachers are in charge & know what they’re doing.
 Contributes to learning and development
 Students – more motivated to learn
o Learn more – well managed
o Emphasize – respect & responsibility
 o Avoid – criticizing

A Productive Learning Environment

- Successful classroom management – begins with goals

 Guide out actions.
- Classroom management vs. discipline
 Management prevents problems from occurring
- Effective Classroom Management:
 Creating a positive classroom climate
 Creating a community of learners
 Developing learner responsibility
 Maximizing time and opportunity for learning

Classroom Management

- Communicating Caring
- Teaching Effectively
- Organizing Your Classroom
- Preventing Problems through Planning

Creating Productive Learning Environments

- Caring refers to a teacher’s investment in the protection and development of young

people
 Caring teacher – heart of productive learning environment
- Research: students are more motivated & learn more in classrooms where they believe
teacher like, understand & empathize with them
 Call student by first name – learn names
 Greet students every day
 Use “we” & “our”
 Nonverbal communications (eye contact, smiling)
 Spend time with students
 Hold students to high standards

XIII. Creating Productive Learning Environments: Principles of

Struction
Teaching Effectively
 - Classroom organization – a professional skill that includes:
o Preparing materials in advance
o Starting classes and activities on time
o Making transitions quickly & smoothly directions
o Creating well-established routines
o Turning in papers, going to the restroom, lining up for lunch
o Essential for effective classroom management

Organizing Your Classroom

- Developmental Differences in Students

o Different grade levels
o All students need caring teachers who have positive expectations for them & hold them to
high standards
- Creating Procedures & Rules
o Procedures – routines students following in their daily learning activities (how papers are
turned in, when to sharpen pencils)
o Rules – guidelines that provide standards for acceptable classroom behavior. When
consistently enforced – reduce behavior problems & promote a feeling of pride &
responsibility in the classroom community

XIV. Assessing Classroom Learning

- Assessing Classroom Learning is the process of gaining information about students'
learning, and judging the quality of their learning. Different types of test questions and
assessment practices affect the success of each of these steps. Action research can help
teachers understand and improve their teaching.

Types of Classroom Assessment

 Assessment for Learning (Formative Assessment)

 Assessment of Learning (Summative Assessment)

 Comparing Assessment for Learning and Assessment of Learning.

 Assessment as Learning.

- The process of classroom assessment are choosing a learning to assess Assessment is a

key component of learning because it helps students learn. When students are able to see
 how they are doing in a class, they are able to determine whether or not they understand
course material. Assessment can also help motivate students.

The different purposes of assessing students learning in the classroom

- A good classroom assessment plan gathers evidence of student learning that informs

teachers' instructional decisions. It provides teachers with information about what
students know and can do. To plan effective instruction, teachers also need to know what
the student misunderstands and where the misconceptions lie.

The benefits in assessing student learning outcomes

- There are several advantages to having course learning outcomes including: Setting

shared expectations between students and instructors. Helping students learn more
effectively. Providing clear direction for educators when making instruction and
assessment decisions.

Classroom assessment improve learning

- Assessments can provide evidence of learning: A system of well-constructed

formative and summative assessments allows students to demonstrate their abilities and
knowledge and then reflects how close they are to meeting educational goals and
standards. Evidence from assessments can be directly beneficial to students.

XV. Assessment through Standardized Testing

Standardized Testing

- an assessment instrument administered in a predetermined manner, such that the

questions, conditions of administration, scoring, and interpretation of responses are
consistent from one occasion to another.
- Standardized tests are used to evaluate the effectiveness of an education program. Besides
being useful in assessing student performance, they are also a means to evaluate the
curriculum. Principals and teachers can see where their students are doing well, and
determine what areas need improvement.
- Teachers should understand scoring, calculating, and percentile norms of
standardized tests, because they may get questions from students and parents. ... Most
commonly, standardized tests are used to measure knowledge in specific areas such as
math, reading, and social studies.

Six types of assessments are:

 o Diagnostic assessments

o Formative assessments

o Summative assessments

o Ipsative assessments

o Norm-referenced assessments

o Criterion-referenced assessments

The purpose of standardization in assessment

- The main purpose of standardized tests in schools is to give educators an objective,
unbiased perspective of how effective their instruction is. Standardized testing helps
identify the natural aptitudes of individual students. Identifying skill development and
progress is made possible by the use of standardized tests.

Standardized Tests Improve Education

- Proponents argue that standardized tests offer an objective measurement of education and
a good metric to gauge areas for improvement, as well as offer meaningful data to help
students in marginalized groups, and that the scores are good indicators of college and job
success.
- Standardized tests don't show intelligence. The only thing they show is how well a student
can memorize or cram information in which they all probably forgot as fast as they
learned it.
- In addition to comparing students against one another or identifying problematic schools
or districts, standardized tests can also illustrate student progress over time. Taking the
same or similar tests over the years can allow students to indicate measurable
improvement.
- Standardized testing is not an effective way to test the skills and abilities of today's
students. Standardized tests do not reveal what a student actually understands and learns,
but instead only prove how well a student can do on a generic test.

Standardized Assessment affect the Classroom Environment

- The toxic environment of standardized testing is causing teachers to consider leaving the
profession because of the increase in pressure, wasted time, and negative impact on the
classroom. Standardized testing has eroded student learning time, while doing nothing to
shed light on the achievement gaps between schools.

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