Electronic Measurement and Instrumentation (Aecb32) (ECE) B.TECH V-Semester (IARE-R18) By, Dr. B. Surekha Reddy, Assistant Professor, ECE

ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENT AND
INSTRUMENTATION(AECB32)
(ECE)
B.TECH V-Semester (IARE-R18)
By,
Dr. B. Surekha Reddy, Assistant Professor, ECE
Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
SYLLABUS:
MODULE-I-INTRODUCTION TO MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
MODULE-II-OSCILLOSCOPE
MODULE-III-SIGNAL GENERATOR AND SIGNAL ANALYZERS
MODULE-IV-AC AND DC BRIDGES
MODULE-V-TRANSDUCERS
2
COURSE OBJECTIVES
The students will try to learn:

I The performance characteristics and working principle of
analog and digital instruments for measuring electrical
quantities.
II The analysis of various signals by using oscilloscopes and
signal analyzers which have built in signal generators
The measurement of unknown resistive and reactive
III
components by using various AC and DC bridge circuits.
The construction and working of transducers for the
IV
conversion of physical quantities into electrical quantities.
3
COURSE OUTCOMES
After successful completion of the course, students will be able to:
Knowledge
Course Outcomes Level
(Bloom’s
Taxonomy)
CO 1 Recall fundamental overview of electrical Remember
measurements and basic instruments to perform
a required measurement.
CO 2 Make use of analog instruments working with Apply
the principle of D' Arsonval movement for
measuring electrical parameters.
CO 3 Demonstrate the working of digital voltmeters Understand
to display the voltage in numerical value.
4
COURSE OUTCOMES
Knowledge
(Bloom’s
Taxonomy)
CO 4 Describe the building blocks (cathode ray tube, Understand
deflection plates, and amplifiers) and
functionality of cathode ray oscilloscopes to
display the waveform.
CO 5 Classify the special purpose oscilloscopes with Understand
their applications to store and process the signal
waveforms
CO 6 Draw Lissajous figures, patterns at any Apply
frequency range of the oscilloscope
5
COURSE OUTCOMES
Knowledge
(Bloom’s
Taxonomy)
Experiment with signal generators for Apply
CO 7 generating standard test signals having the wide
frequency range.
Analyze the relative amplitude of the signal and Analyze
CO 8 its harmonic components in frequency domain
by using signal analyzers
Identify appropriate bridge circuits for Apply
CO 9
measurement of unknown electrical parameters.
6
COURSE OUTCOMES
Knowledge
(Bloom’s
Taxonomy)
CO 10 Classify and explain working of transducers and Understand
their applications for conversion of physical to
electrical energy.
Select proper transducer to make sensitive Apply
measurements of physical parameters such as
CO 11
displacement, pressure, flow, strain, and
temperature etc.
CO 12 Examine the appropriate virtual instruments for Analyze
measuring electrical and non electrical
parameters to solve the real world problem.
7
PROGRAM OUTCOMES
PO1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of
mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals, and an
engineering specialization to the solution of complex
engineering problems.
PO2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research
literature, and analyze complex engineering problems
reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences
PO3 Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for
complex engineering problems and design system components
or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural,
societal, and environmental considerations.
8
PROGRAM OUTCOMES
PO4 Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use
research-based knowledge and research methods including
design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data,
and synthesis of the information to provide valid
conclusions.
PO5 Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate
techniques, resources, and modern engineering and IT tools
including prediction and modeling to complex engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.
PO10 Communication: Communicate effectively on complex
engineering activities with the engineering community and
with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make
effective presentations, and give and receive clear
instructions. 9
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES
PSO 2 Focus on the practical experience of ASIC prototype
designs, Virtual Instrumentation and SOC designs

PSO 3 Build the Embedded hardware design and software
programming skills for entry level job positions to

meet the requirements of employers
10
MODULE-I
INTRODUCTION TO
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
11
MODULE I - SYLLABUS
Block schematics of measuring systems, performance

characteristics, Static characteristics: Accuracy, resolution,
precision, gross error, types of errors, Dynamic
characteristics: Repeatability, reproducibility, fidelity, lag;
Analog measuring instruments: D' Arsonval movement, DC
voltmeters and ammeter, AC voltmeters and current meters,
ohmmeters, multimeters, meter protection, extension of
range, digital voltmeters: Ramp type, staircase, dual slope
integrating type, successive approximation type,
specifications of instruments.
12
COURSE OUTCOMES
Knowledge
(Bloom’s
Taxonomy)
CO 1 Recall fundamental overview of electrical Remember
measurements and basic instruments to perform
a required measurement.
CO 2 Make use of analog instruments working with Apply
the principle of D' Arsonval movement for
measuring electrical parameters.
CO 3 Demonstrate the working of digital voltmeters Understand
to display the voltage in numerical value.
13
MAPPING OF COs WITH POs, PSOs FOR
MODULE I
Program
Course Program Outcomes Specific
Outcomes Outcomes
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
CO 1 √ - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
CO 2 √ - - - - - - - - √ - - - √ -
CO 3 √ √ - √ √ - - - - - - - - - -
14
INTRODUCTION
 Measurement is the process of determining the amount,
degree or capacity by comparison with the accepted
standards of the system units being used.
 Instrumentation is a technology of measurement which

serves sciences, engineering, medicine and etc.
 Instrument is a device for determining the value

or magnitude of a quantity or variable.
 Electronic instrument is based on electrical or electronic

principles for its measurement functions.
15
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT
• Basic elements of an electronics instrument
Signal Indicating
Transducer Modifier Device
1) Transducer-convert a non electrical signal into an

electrical signal
2) Signal modifier-convert input signal into a suitable
signal for the indicating device (e.g amplifier)
3) Indicating device- indicates the value of quantity

being measure (e.g ammeter)
16
FUNCTIONS
 The 3 basic functions of instrumentation
 Indicating – visualize the process/operation
 Recording – observe and save the measurement

reading
 Controlling – to control measurement and

process
17
Performance Characteristics
Types of Performance Characteristics
 Performance characteristics of instruments can be

classified into the following two types.
 Static Characteristics
 Dynamic Characteristics
18
Static Characteristics
 The characteristics of quantities or parameters measuring
instruments that do not vary with respect to time are
called static characteristics.
 Sometimes, these quantities or parameters may vary
slowly with respect to time. Following are the list of
static characteristics.
 Accuracy
 Precision
 Sensitivity
 Resolution
 Static Error
19
Accuracy
 The algebraic difference between the indicated value of
an instrument Ai, and the true value At, is known as
accuracy. Mathematically, it can be represented as −
Accuracy=Ai−At
20
Static Error
 The difference between the true value, At of the
quantity that does not vary with respect to time and the
indicated value of an instrument, Ai is known as static
error, ‘es’.
 Mathematically, it can be represented as −
es=At−Ai
Mathematically, it can be represented as −
%es=es/At×100
%es=At−Ai/At×100
21
Precision
 If an instrument indicates the same value repeatedly
when it is used to measure the same quantity under
same circumstances for any number of times, then we
can say that the instrument has high precision.
Sensitivity
 The ratio of change in output, ΔAout of an instrument
for a given change in the input, ΔAin that is to be
measured is called sensitivity, S.
22
Resolution
 If the output of an instrument will change only when
there is a specific increment of the input, then that
increment of the input is called Resolution.
 That means, the instrument is capable of measuring the

input effectively, when there is a resolution of the
input.
23
Dynamic Characteristics
 The characteristics of the instruments, which are used to

measure the quantities or parameters that vary very
quickly with respect to time are called dynamic
characteristics. Following are the list of dynamic
characteristics.
 Speed of Response
 Dynamic Error
 Fidelity
 Lag
24
Speed of Response
 The speed at which the instrument responds whenever there is
any change in the quantity to be measured is called speed of
response. It indicates how fast the instrument is.
Lag
 The amount of delay present in the response of an

instrument whenever there is a change in the quantity to be
measured is called measuring lag. It is also simply called lag.
25
Dynamic Error
 The difference between the true value At, of the
quantity that varies with respect to time and the
indicated value of an instrument Ai, is known as
dynamic error, ed.
Fidelity
 The degree to which an instrument indicates changes in
the measured quantity without any dynamic error is
known as Fidelity
26
Types of Measurement Errors
The errors, which occur during measurement are known
as measurement errors. In this chapter, let us discuss
about the types of measurement errors.

 classify the measurement errors into the following three
types.
 Gross Errors
 Random Errors
 Systematic Errors
27
Gross Errors
 The errors, which occur due to the lack of experience of
the observer while taking the measurement values are
known as gross errors.
 We can minimize the gross errors by following these

two steps.
 Choose the best suitable instrument, based on the
range of values to be measured.
 Note down the readings carefully
28
Systematic Errors
 If the instrument produces an error, which is of a
constant uniform deviation during its operation is known
as systematic error.
 Types of Systematic Errors
Instrumental Errors − This type of errors occur due to
shortcomings of instruments and loading effects.
 Environmental Errors − This type of errors occur due
to the changes in environment such as change in
temperature, pressure & etc.
 observational Errors − This type of errors occur due to
observer while taking the meter readings. Parallax
29
errors belong to this type of errors.
Random Errors
 The errors, which occur due to unknown sources during
measurement time are known as random errors. Hence,
it is not possible to eliminate or minimize these errors.
 But, if we want to get the more accurate measurement
values without any random error, then it is possible by
following these two steps.
 Step1 − Take more number of readings by different
observers.
 Step2 − Do statistical analysis on the readings obtained in
Step1.
30
Random Errors
 Following are the parameters that are used in statistical
analysis.
Mean
Median
Variance
Deviation
Standard Deviation
Now, let us discuss about these statistical parameters.
31
Mean
Let x1,x2,x3,......xN are the N readings of a particular
measurement. The mean or average value of these
readings can be calculated by using the following
formula.
m=(x1+x2+x3+....+xN)/N
Where, m is the mean or average value.
If the number of readings of a particular measurement are

more, then the mean or average value will be
approximately equal to true value.
32
Median
 If the number of readings of a particular measurement

are more, then it is difficult to calculate the mean or
average value.
 Here, calculate the median value and it will be

approximately equal to mean value.
33
 For calculating median value, first we have to arrange
the readings of a particular measurement in an
ascending order.
 We can calculate the median value by using the

following formula, when the number of readings is an
odd number.
 M=x((N+1)/2)
 We can calculate the median value by using the
following formula, when the number of readings is an
even number.
 M=x(N/2)+x([N/2]+1)2
 34
Deviation from Mean
 The difference between the reading of a particular
measurement and the mean value is known as deviation
from mean. In short, it is called deviation.
Mathematically, it can be represented as
 di=xi−m
Where,
 di is the deviation of ith reading from mean.
 xi is the value of ith reading.
 m is the mean or average value.
35
Standard Deviation
The root mean square of deviation is called standard
deviation. Mathematically, it can be represented as
The above formula is valid if the number of readings, N is

greater than or equal to 20. We can use the following formula
for standard deviation, when the number of readings, N is less
than 20.
Where,
σ is the standard deviation
d1,d2,d3,…,dN are the deviations of first, second, third, …, Nth
readings from mean respectively. 36
Variance
37
Variance
The above formula is valid if the number of
readings, N is greater than or equal to 20. We
can use the following formula for variance
when the number of readings, N is less than 20.
Where,
V is the variance
d1,d2,d3,…,dN are the deviations of first, second,
third, …, Nth Nth readings from mean respectively.
38
Question: The expected value of the voltage across a resistor is 80 V.
However, the measurement gives a value of 79 V. Calculate (i)
absolute error, (ii) % error, (iii) relative accuracy, and (iv) % of
accuracy.
Solution:
39
Types of Instruments:
i.PMMC
ii.Electrodynamometer
iii.Thermocouple
iv.Electrostatic
v.Moving iron
vi.Hot wire
vii.Induction type
viii.Rectifier
40
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
 A permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) is one

such instrument which is popularly used onboard and
has several applications. The other popular
nomenclature of this instrument is D’arsonval meter
and galvanometer.
Principle of Working
 When a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, it experiences a force and tends to move
in the direction as per Fleming’s left-hand rule.
41
N S
42
 The three important torque involved in this
instrument are:
 Deflecting torque:
 The force F which will be perpendicular to both the
direction of the current flow and the direction of
magnetic field as per Fleming’s left hand rule can be
written as
 F = NBIL
 where N: turns of wire on the coil
 B: flux density in the air gap
 I: current in the movable coil
 L: vertical length of the coil 43
 Theoretically, the torque (here electro-magnetic torque)
is equal to the multiplication of force with distance to
the point of suspension.
 Hence Torque on left side of the cylinder TL = NBIL x

W/2 and torque on right side of the cylinder TR = NBIL
x W/2
 Therefore the total torque will be = TL + TR
 T = NBILW or NBIA
where A is effective area (A= LxW)

44
Controlling Torque
This torque is produced by the spring action and

opposes the deflection torque so as the pointer can come
to rest at the point where these two torques are equal
(Electromagnetic torque = control spring torque).
The value of control torque depends on the mechanical

design of spiral springs and strip suspensions.
45
Controlling Torque
The controlling torque is directly proportional to the

angle of
deflection of the coil.
Control torque Ct =Cθ

where, θ = deflection angle in radians and
C = spring constant Nm /rad .
46
Damping torque
This torque ensures the pointer comes to an equilibrium
position i.e. at rest in the scale without oscillating to give
an accurate reading.
In PMMC as the coil moves in the magnetic field, eddy

current sets up in a metal former or core on which the
coil is wound or in the circuit of the coil itself which
opposes the motion of the coil resulting in the slow
swing of a pointer and then come to rest quickly with
very little oscillation.
47
D’ARSONVAL METER MOVEMENT
• Also called Permanent-Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC).

• Based on the moving-coil galvanometer constructed by
Jacques d’ Arsonval in 1881.
• Can be used to indicate the value of DC and AC

quantity.
• Basic construction of modern PMMC can be seen in
Figure .
3 48
6 2
Operation of D‘Arsonval Meter
• When current flows through the coil, the core will rotate.
• Amount of rotation is proportional to the amount of
current flows through the coil.
• The meter requires low current (~50uA) for a full scale

deflection, thus consumes very low power (25-200
uw).
• Its accuracy is about 2% -5% of full scale deflection
3 49
7 3
DC Ammeters
 Current is the rate of flow of electric charge. If this

electric charge flows only in one direction, then the
resultant current is called Direct Current (DC).
 The instrument, which is used to measure the Direct

Current called DC ammeter.
50
DC Ammeters
 The parallel resistance, which is used in DC ammeter is

also called shunt resistance or simply, shunt.
 The value of this resistance should be considered small

in order to measure the DC current of large value.
51
DC Ammeters
 Mathematically, it can be written as
The KCL equation at node 1 is
Substitute the value of Ish in Equation 1.
(Equation 2)
52
DC Ammeters
A 1 mA meter movement having an

internal resistance of 100 ohm is used to
convert into a multirange ammeter having
the range 0–10 mA, 0–20 mA and 0–50
mA. Determine the value of the shunt
resistance required.
Multi Range DC Ammeter
Place this multi range DC ammeter in series with the branch of

an electric circuit, where the Direct Current of required range is
to be measured. The desired range of currents is chosen by
connecting the switch, s to the respective shunt resistor.
54
 Let, m1,m2,m3 and m4 are the multiplying factors of DC
ammeter when we consider the total Direct Currents to be
measured as, I1,I2,I3I1,I2,I3 and I4 respectively.
 Following are the formulae corresponding to each

multiplying factor.
55
 In above circuit, there are four shunt

resistors, Rsh1,Rsh2,Rsh3 and Rsh4.
 Following are the formulae corresponding to these four
resistors.
56
DC Voltmeters
 The circuit diagram of DC voltmeter is shown in below

figure.
We have to place this DC voltmeter across the two points of

an electric circuit, where the DC voltage is to be measured.
57
DC Voltmeters
 The ratio of full range DC voltage that is to be measured, V and

the DC voltage drop across the galvanometer, Vm is known as
multiplying factor, m. Mathematically, it can be represented as
 m=V/Vm (Equation 3)
 From Equation 1, we will get the following equation for full

range DC voltage that is to be measured, V
 V= Im Rse + Im Rm (Equation 4)
58
DC Voltmeters
 The DC voltage drop across the galvanometer, Vm is

the product of full scale deflection current, Im and
internal resistance of galvanometer, Rm.
Mathematically, it can be written as
 Vm=ImRm (Equation 5)
 Substitute, Equation 4 and Equation 5 in Equation 3.
59
DC Voltmeters
We can find the value of series multiplier resistance by using

either Equation 2 or Equation 6 based on the available data.
60
Multi Range DC Voltmeter
We have to place this multi range DC voltmeter across the two

points of an electric circuit, where the DC voltage of required
range is to be measured. We can choose the desired range of
voltages by connecting the switch s to the respective multiplier
resistor.
61
Let, m1,m2, m3 and m4 are the multiplying factors of

DC voltmeter when we consider the full range DC
voltages to be measured as, V1,V2,V3 and V4
respectively. Following are the formulae corresponding
to each multiplying factor.
62
In above circuit, there are four series multiplier
resistors, Rse1,Rse2,Rse3and Rse4.
Following are the formulae corresponding to these four resistors.
So, we can find the resistance values of each series multiplier

resistor by using above formulae.
63
Ammeters
Current is the rate of flow of electric charge. If this electric

charge flows only in one direction, then the resultant current
is called Direct Current (DC).
The instrument, which is used to measure the Direct Current

called DC ammeter.
The value of this resistance should be considered small in

order to measure the DC current of large value.
64
Ammeters
The circuit diagram of DC ammeter is shown in

below figure.
We have to place this DC ammeter in series with the

branch of an electric circuit, where the DC current is to be
measured. The voltage across the elements, which are
connected in parallel is same.
65
Ammeters
Mathematically, it can be written as

Ish Rsh=ImRm
Rsh=ImRm
Ish (Equation 1)
The KCL equation at node 1 is

−I + Ish+Im=0
Ish = I−Im
66
Ammeters
Substitute the value of Ish in Equation 1.

Rsh=ImRm
I− Im (Equation 2)
Take, Im as common in the denominator term, which is

present in the right hand side of Equation 2
Rsh= ImRm
Im((1/ Im)−1))
Rsh= Rm
(1/ Im)−1) (Equation 3)
67
Ammeters
Where,
Rsh is the shunt resistance
Rm is the internal resistance of galvanometer
I is the total Direct Current that is to be measured
Im is the full scale deflection current
The ratio of total Direct Current that is to be
measured, II and the full scale deflection current of the
galvanometer, Im is known as multiplying factor, m.
Mathematically, it can be represented as,
m=Im (Equation 4)
Rsh=Rm /m−1 (Equation 5)
We can find the value of shunt resistance by using either
Equation 2 or Equation 5 based on the available data.
68
Place this multi range DC ammeter in series with the branch of an

electric circuit, where the Direct Current of required range is to
be measured.
The desired range of currents is chosen by connecting the switch,

s to the respective shunt resistor.
69
Aryton Shunt Ammeters
The shunt resistance discussed in the previous sections work
well enough on a single range ammeter. However, on a
multiple-range ammeter, the Ayrton shunt is frequently a more
suitable design.
70
71
Position of the switch:

a)‘1’: Ra parallel with series combination of Rb, Rc and the
meter movement. Current through the shunt is more than the
current through the meter movement, thereby protecting the
meter movement and reducing its sensitivity.
b)‘2’:
Ra and Rb in parallel with the series combination of Rc
and the meter movement. The current through the meter is
more than the current through the shunt resistance.
c)‘3’:Ra, Rb and Rc in parallel with the meter. Maximum

current flows through the meter movement and very little
through the shunt. This will increase the sensitivity.
72
73
(Rc)(I3-Im) = (Ra + Rb + Rm)(Im)

I3Rc = Im(Ra + Rb + Rc + Rm)
I3Rc = Im (Rsh + Rm)
Rc = Im (Rsh + Rm)/I3
The value of Rb can be obtained by substituting equation,
74
AC Voltmeters
The instrument, which is used to measure the AC voltage across
any two points of electric circuit is called AC voltmeter.
 If the AC voltmeter consists of rectifier, then it is said to be

rectifier based AC voltmeter.
75
AC Voltmeters
The DC voltmeter measures only DC voltages. If we want to use it
for measuring AC voltages, then we have to follow these two
steps.
Step1 − Convert the AC voltage signal into a DC voltage signal

by using a rectifier.
Step2 − Measure the DC or average value of the rectifier’s output

signal.
We get Rectifier based AC voltmeter, just by including the
rectifier circuit to the basic DC voltmeter.
76
AC Voltmeters
Types of Rectifier based AC Voltmeters
Following are the two types of rectifier based AC voltmeters.
AC voltmeter using Half Wave Rectifier
AC voltmeter using Full Wave Rectifier
AC Voltmeter using Half Wave Rectifier
77
AC Voltmeters
The above block diagram consists of two blocks: half wave
rectifier and DC voltmeter.
We will get the corresponding circuit diagram, just by replacing
each block with the respective component(s) in above block
diagram.
So, the circuit diagram of AC voltmeter using Half wave rectifier
will look like as shown in below figure.
78
AC Voltmeters
The rms value of sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal is
V rms=Vm/√2
Vm=√2 Vrms
Vm=1.414Vrms
Where,
Vm is the maximum value of sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal.
The DC or average value of the Half wave rectifier’s output signal
is
V dc=Vm/π
Substitute, the value of Vm in above equation.
Vdc=1.414Vrms/π
Vdc=0.45Vrms
Therefore, the AC voltmeter produces an output voltage, which is
equal to 0.45 times the rms value of the sinusoidal (AC) input
voltage signal 79
AC Voltmeters
AC Voltmeter using Full Wave Rectifier
If a Full wave rectifier is connected ahead of DC voltmeter, then
that entire combination together is called AC voltmeter using Full
wave rectifier.
The above block diagram consists of two blocks: full wave

rectifier and DC voltmeter. We will get the corresponding
circuit diagram just by replacing each block with the respective
component(s) in block diagram.
80
AC Voltmeters
So, the circuit diagram of AC voltmeter using Full wave rectifier
will look like as shown in below figure.
The rms value of sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal is

Vrms=Vm/√2
Vm=√2 Vrms Vm=2Vrms
Vm=1.414Vrms
Where, Vm is the maximum value of sinusoidal (AC) input
voltage signal. 81
AC Voltmeters
The DC or average value of the Full wave rectifier’s output signal is
Vdc=2Vm/π
Substitute, the value of Vm in above equation
Vdc=2×1.414Vrms/π
Vdc=0.9Vrms
Therefore, the AC voltmeter produces an output voltage, which is
equal to 0.9 times the rms value of the sinusoidal (AC) input voltage
signal.
82
AC Voltmeters
we discussed about rectifier based AC voltmeters. This chapter
covers the following two types of AC voltmeters.
Peak responding AC voltmeter
True RMS responding AC voltmeter
Peak Responding AC Voltmeter

As the name suggests, the peak responding AC voltmeter responds
to peak values of AC voltage signal. That means, this voltmeter
measures peak values of AC voltages. The circuit diagram of
peak responding AC voltmeter is shown below −
83
AC Voltmeters
True RMS Responding AC Voltmeter
As the name suggests, the true RMS responding AC voltmeter
responds to the true RMS values of AC voltage signal. This
voltmeter measures RMS values of AC voltages.
84
AC Voltmeters
True RMS Responding AC Voltmeter
• Complex waveform are most accurately measured with an RMS
voltmeter.
• This instrument produces a meter indication by sensing waveform
heating power, which is proportional to the square of the RMS
value of the voltage.
• This heating power can be measured by amplifying and feeding it
to a thermocouple, whose output voltages is then proportional to
the Erms.
• Thermocouples are non-linear devices.
• This difficulty can be overcome in some instruments by placing
two thermocouples in the same thermal environment.
85
AC Ammeter
Current is the rate of flow of electric charge. If the direction of this
electric charge changes regularly, then the resultant current is
called Alternating Current (AC).
The instrument, which is used to measure the Alternating Current
that flows through any branch of electric circuit is called AC
ammeter.
Example − Thermocouple type AC ammeter.
Thermocouple Type AC Ammeter
If a Thermocouple is connected ahead of PMMC galvanometer, then
that entire combination is called thermocouple type AC ammeter.
86
AC Ammeter
The above block diagram consists of mainly two blocks: a
thermocouple, and a PMMC galvanometer. We will get the
corresponding circuit diagram, just by replacing each block with the
respective component(s) in above block diagram.
So, the circuit diagram of thermocouple type AC ammeter will

look like as shown in below figure.
87
AC Ammeter
Thermocouple generates an EMF, e, whenever the Alternating
Current, I flows through heater element.
This EMF, e is directly proportional to the rms value of the

current, I that is flowing through heater element. So, we have to
calibrate the scale of PMMC instrument to read rms values of
current.
So, with this chapter we have completed all basic measuring

instruments such as DC voltmeters, AC voltmeters, DC
ammeters and AC ammeters.
88
ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION
Ohmmeters and MultiMeters
89
Ohmmeters
The instrument, which is used to measure the value of resistance
between any two points in an electric circuit is called ohmmeter.
It can also be used to find the value of an unknown resistor. The

units of resistance are ohm and the measuring instrument is meter.
So, the word “ohmmeter” is obtained by combining the
words “ohm” and “meter”.
Types of Ohmmeters
Following are the two types of ohmmeters.
•Series Ohmmeter
•Shunt Ohmmeter
90
Ohmmeters
Series Ohmmeter
If the resistor’s value is unknown and has to be measured by
placing it in series with the ohmmeter, then that ohmmeter is
called series ohmmeter. The circuit diagram of series ohmmeter
is shown in below figure.
91
Ohmmeters
92
Ohmmeters
93
Ohmmeters
94
Ohmmeters
95
Ohmmeters
96
Ohmmeters
Shunt Ohmmeter
If the resistor’s value is unknown and to be measured by placing
it in parallel (shunt) with the ohmmeter, then that ohmmeter is
called shunt ohmmeter. The circuit diagram of shunt ohmmeter
is shown in below figure.
97
MultiMeters
98
Measurements by using Multimeter
 Multimeter is an instrument used to measure DC & AC voltages,
DC & AC currents and resistances of several ranges. It is also
called Electronic Multimeter or Voltage Ohm Meter (VOM).
DC voltage Measurement
 The part of the circuit diagram of Multimeter, which can be used to
measure DC voltage is shown in below figure.
99
DC Current Measurement
The part of the circuit diagram of Multimeter, which
can be used to measure DC current is shown in below
figure.
100
 The above circuit looks like a multi range DC ammeter. the

combination of a resistor in parallel with PMMC
galvanometer is a DC ammeter. So, it can be used to measure
DC currents up to certain value.
 We can get different ranges of DC currents measured with the

same DC ammeter by placing the resistors in parallel with
previous resistor.
101
In above circuit, the resistor, R1 is connected in series with the
PMMC galvanometer in order to prevent the meter gets
damaged due to large current.
We can measure the DC current that is flowing through any

two points of an electric circuit, by connecting the switch, S to
the desired current range
102
AC voltage Measurement
The part of the circuit diagram of Multimeter, which can be
used to measure AC voltage is shown in below figure.
103
AC voltage Measurement
The above circuit looks like a multi range AC voltmeter. We
know that, we will get AC voltmeter just by placing rectifier in
series (cascade) with DC voltmeter.
The above circuit was created just by placing the diodes

combination and resistor, R6 in between resistor, R5 and PMMC
galvanometer.
We can measure the AC voltage across any two points of an

electric circuit, by connecting the switch, S to the desired
voltage range.
104
Resistance Measurement
The part of the circuit diagram of Multimeter, which can
be used to measure resistance is shown in below figure.
105
Resistance Measurement
 We have to do the following two tasks before taking any
measurement.
 Short circuit the instrument
 Vary the zero adjust control until the meter shows full
scale current. That means, meter indicates zero resistance
value.
Now, the above circuit behaves as shunt ohmmeter and has the
scale multiplication of 1, i.e. 100.
We can also consider higher order powers of 10 as the scale

multiplications for measuring high resistances
106
Digital Voltmeter (DVM)
DVM is essentially an Analog to digital converter (A/D)

with a digital display
Digital voltmeter
Digital
display
Attenuato Analog to
r Digital
Amplifier Converter
Digital = electronic Volt Ohm Millimeter

MultiMeter with digital display
(DMM)
107
Comparison of Digital and Analog
Meter
Digital meter Analog meter

Leaves no doubt about the measured Wrong scale might be used or might
quantity. be read incorrectly.
Superior resolution and accuracy. Inferior resolution and accuracy.
(±0.5% or better) (±3% in common)
Indicates a negative quantity when the Pointer attempts to deflect to the left
terminal polarity is reversed when the polarity is reversed
No usually damaged by rough treatment Can be damaged when dropped from
bench level
108
Digital Voltmeters
Digital voltmeters can be classified according to the

following broad categories:
(a) Ramp-type DVM

(b) Integrating DVM
(c) Continuous-balance DVM
(d) Successive-approximation DVM
109
Digital Voltmeters
Dual-slope DVM
The dual-slope type of A to D conversion is a very popular
method for digital voltmeter applications. When compared to
other types of analog-to-digital conversion techniques, the dual-
slope method is slow but is quite adequate for a digital voltmeter
used for laboratory measurements.
For data acquisition applications, where a number of

measurements are required, faster techniques are recommended.
When a dual-slope A/D converter is used for a DVM the

counters may be decade rather than binary and the segment and
digit drivers may be contained in the chip.
110
Digital Voltmeters
Dual-slope DVM
111
Dual slope type Digital Voltmeter
The block diagram of dual slope integrating type DVM is shown in the Fig. It
consists of five blocks, an op-amp used as an integrator, a zero comparator,
clock pulse generator, a set of decimal counters and a block of control logic.
112
Dual slope type Digital Voltmeter
113
114
Ramp-Type DVM
115
Ramp-Type DVM
The operating principle of the ramp-type DVM is based on the
measurement of the time it takes for a linear ramp voltage to
rise from 0 V to the level of the input voltage, or to decrease
from the level of the input voltage to zero.
This time interval is measured with an electronic time-interval

counter, and the count is displayed as a number of digits on
electronic indicating tubes. Conversion from a voltage to a time
interval is illustrated by the waveform diagram of Figure below.
116
Ramp-type Digital Voltmeter
(also called single slope)
Operation principle: The measurement of the time it takes for a linear ramp
voltage to rise from 0 V to the level of the input voltage, or to decrease from the
level of the input voltage to zero. This time interval is measured with an
electronic time-interval counter.
Start measurement
Ramp Coincindence Vramp(t) = Vo – m t
signal
Vin Where m is the ramp rate
Vramp(t1) = Vin = Vo –m
Time t1
Vramp(t2) = 0 = Vo – m
t t2
Gating t = t2- t1 = Vin/m
time interval
If the period of the clock is T, then during
the time interval t1, the number of
pulses is
Clock pulses n t  nT or Vin  nmT
to counter pulse
•Accuracy depends on both the ramp rate
and clock period. 117
Voltage-to-time conversion using gated clock pulses.
Ramp-type Digital Voltmeter
Voltage-to-time conversion
Time measurement unit
input
Ranging vin comparator
DC input Digital
voltage
and - display
Attenuator
+ start
count
clk
Oscillator Gate
Counter
ground
vramp stop
Ramp comparator
- count
Generator
0 +
start V
ramp Sample reset
Rate MV
Block diagram of a ramp-type digital voltmeter.

118
Staircase Ramp-type Digital Voltmeter
Principles of ADC (Analog to Digital Conversion):
The input signal is compared with an internally generated voltage
which is increased in steps starting from zero. The number of steps
needed to reach the full compensation is counted. A simple
compensation type is the staircase ramp.
119
Staircase Ramp Digital Voltmeter
120
Staircase Ramp Digital Voltmeter
(also called digital Compare the input voltage to the internally generated
ramp) stair case ramp.
Vin + •The most simple A/D
Comp
-.
•Slow conversion and conversion time
depends on the magnitude of input
VAX signal.
TC,max  (2N  1)  Clock
D/A
period
Digital
output Vin
VAX
D/A output
Clock Counter
clock
Control circuit period
time
121
Block diagram
Calculate the value of the shunt resistors for the circuit shown below with
Im as 100μA.
Successive Approximations
123
3
13
 When the start pulse signal activates the control circuit, the
successive approximation register (SAR) is cleared. The output
of the SAR is 00000000. Vout of the D/A converter is 0.
 Now, if Vin > Vout the comparator output is positive. During the
first clock pulse, the control circuit sets the D7 to 1, and
Vout jumps to the half reference voltage. The SAR output is
10000000.
 If Vout is greater than Vin the comparator output is negative and
the control circuit resets D7. However, if Vin is greater than
Vout the comparator output is positive and the control circuits
keep D7 set.
 Similarly the rest of the bits beginning from D7 to D0 are set and
tested. Therefore, the measurement is completed in 8 clock
124
pulses.
125
3
13
Comparison with binary equivalent of VR with input voltage to be measured
126
3
13
Digital Multimeter
127
Digital Multimeter
 The basic building blocks of digital multimeter are several AID

converters, counting circuitry and an attenuation circuit.
 Generally dual slope integration type ADC is preferred in the

multimeters. The single attenuator circuit is used for both a.c.
and d.c. measurements in many commercial multimeters.
128
Typical specification of DMM
General
Maximum voltage between
:600 V
terminals
Fuse protection :200mA/250V
Power :9V battery
Display :LCD 31/2 digits, updates 2-
Input impedance Frequency 3/ sec.
range :10 M
:40-400 Hz
Measuring method Dual-slope integration
Over range indication Only figure “1” on the display
Polarity indication “-” displayed for negative
polarity
Accuracy of DMM
Indicate as ± (% of reading + No. of digits)
Ex. ± (0.5% of rdg + 1 digits) sometimes simplify as ± (0.5 + 1)
Ex. For an accuracy of ± (0.5 + 1) , calculate the maximum error of in the 1.800 V
reading error = ± (0.5% of 1.800 + 0.001 V)
= ± (0.009 + 0.001 V) = ± 0.01 V or ± 0.56% of reading
129
MODULE-II
OSCILLOSCOPE
134
MODULE II - SYLLABUS
Oscilloscopes: CRT, block schematic of CRO,

time base circuits, delay lines, high frequency
CRO considerations, applications,
specifications, special purpose oscilloscopes:
Dual trace, dual beam CROs, sampling
oscilloscopes, storage oscilloscopes, digital
storage CROs, Lissajous figures, frequency
measurement, phase measurement, CRO
probes.
135
COURSE OUTCOMES
Knowledge
(Bloom’s
Taxonomy)
CO 4 Describe the building blocks (cathode ray tube, Understand
deflection plates, and amplifiers) and
functionality of cathode ray oscilloscopes to
display the waveform.
CO 5 Classify the special purpose oscilloscopes with Understand
their applications to store and process the signal
waveforms
Draw Lissajous figures, patterns at any Apply
CO 6
frequency range of the oscilloscope
136
MODULE II
Program
Outcomes Outcomes
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
CO 4 √ - - - √ - - - - √ - - - - -
CO 5 √ - - √ - - - - - √ - - - √ -
CO 6 - √ - - √ - - - - √ - - - √ -
137
Oscilloscope is an electronic equipment, which displays a
voltage waveform. Among the oscilloscopes, Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope (CRO) is the basic one and it displays a time
varying signal or waveform
138
139
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
• Typically divided into four sections - display, vertical
controllers, horizontal controllers, and Triggers.
• Most of the oscilloscopes use probes as the input of any
instrument.
• We can analyze the waveform by plotting amplitude along with
the x-axis and y-axis.
• The applications of CRO are mainly involved in the radio, TV
receivers, also in laboratory work involving research and design.
• In modern electronics, the CRO plays an important role in the
electronic circuits.
140
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
Electrical Quantities Measurements
Electrical quantities measurements by using CRO can be
done like amplitude, time period and frequency.
•Measurement of Amplitude
•Measurement of Time Period
•Measurement of Frequency
141
Measurement of Amplitude
• The displays like CRO is used to exhibit the voltage signal like a
time function on its display.
• The amplitude of this signal is stable; however, we can change
the number of partitions that cover up the voltage signal within
vertical way by changing volt/division button on top of the CRO
board.
• So, we will acquire the signal’s amplitude, which is there on the
CRO screen with the help of the below formula.
A = j * nv
Where,
‘A’ is the amplitude
‘j’ is the volt/division value
‘nv’ is the no. of partitions that cover up the signal within a vertical
way. 142
Measurement of Time Period
• CRO displays the voltage signal as a function of time on its screen.
• The Time period of that periodic voltage signal is constant, but we
can vary the number of divisions that cover one complete cycle of
the voltage signal in the horizontal direction by varying the
time/division knob on the CRO panel.
• Therefore, we get the Time period of the signal, which is present on
the screen of CRO by using the following formula.
T = k * nh
• Where,
‘T’ is the Time period
‘j’ is the time/division value
‘nh’ is the number of partitions that cover up one whole cycle
of the periodic signal within the horizontal way.
143
Measurement of Frequency
• On the CRO screen, the measurement of tile & frequency can be
done very simply through the horizontal scale.
• Initially, the time can be measured with the help of the horizontal
scale on the CRO & counting the number of flat partitions from one
finish of the signal to the other wherever it crosses the flat line.
• After that, we can develop the number of flat partitions through the
time or division to discover the time period of the signal.
• Mathematically the measurement of the frequency can be signified
as frequency = 1/period.
f = 1/T
144
Applications
• The CRO’s are used in huge applications like radio stations for
observing the transmitting & receiving the properties of the signal.
• The CRO is used to measure the voltage, current, frequency,
inductance, admittance, resistance, and power factor.
• This device is also used to check the AM and FM circuits
characteristics
• This device is used to monitor the signal properties as well as
characteristics and also controls the analog signals.
• The CRO is used through the resonance circuit to view the shape of
the signal, bandwidth, etc.
• The shape of voltage and current waveform can be observed by
CRO which helps to take the necessary decision in a radio station or
communication station.
145
Applications
• It is used in laboratories for the purpose of research. Once
researchers design a new circuit, then they use CRO to verify
the waveforms of voltage and current of every element of the
circuit.
• Used for comparing phase & frequency
• It is used in TV, Radar, and analysis of engine pressure
• To check the reactions of nervous and heartbeat.
• In the hysteresis loop, it is used to find BH curves
• Transistor curves can be traced.
146
Block Diagram of CRO
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) consists a set of blocks. Those are
vertical amplifier, delay line, trigger circuit, time base generator,
horizontal amplifier, Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) & power supply.
147
COMPONENTS OF THE CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
The CRO consists of the following:

(i) CRT
(ii) Vertical amplifier
(iii) Delay line
(iv) Horizontal amplifier
(v) Time-base generator
(vi) Triggering circuit
(vii) Power supply
148
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Vertical Amplifier − It amplifies the input signal, which is to be
displayed on the screen of CRT.
Delay Line − It provides some amount of delay to the signal,

which is obtained at the output of vertical amplifier. This delayed
signal is then applied to vertical deflection plates of CRT.
Trigger Circuit − It produces a triggering signal in order to

synchronize both horizontal and vertical deflections of electron
beam.
Time base Generator − It produces a sawtooth signal, which is

useful for horizontal deflection of electron beam.
149
Horizontal Amplifier − It amplifies the sawtooth signal and then

connects it to the horizontal deflection plates of CRT.
Power supply − It produces both high and low voltages. The

negative high voltage and positive low voltage are applied to CRT
and other circuits respectively.
150
Simple CRO
151
CRT Showing Power Supply
Screen
• The intensity control controls the number of electrons by varying the control
grid voltage.
• Focusing can be done either electrostatically or electromagnetically.
• Electrostatic focusing is obtained by using a cylindrical anode, which changes
the electrostatic lines of force which controls the beam.
152
Vertical Amplifier
• Sensitivity (gain) and frequency bandwidth (B.W.) response

characteristics of oscilloscope
• gain–B.W. product is constant, to obtain a greater sensitivity the
B.W. is narrowed, or vice-versa.
• Some oscilloscopes give two alternatives, switching to a wide
bandwidth position, and switching to a high sensitivity position.
153
Vertical Amplifier
• Fixed overall sensitivity or gain expressed in V/div

• Vertical amplifier is kept within its signal handling capability by
proper selection of the input attenuator switch.
• FET source follower – high input impedance – isolates amplifier from
attenuator
154
Vertical Amplifier
• BJT emitter follower, to match the medium impedance of FET

output with the low impedance input of the phase inverter.
• Phase inverter provides two antiphase output signals which are
required to operate the push-pull output amplifier. The push-pull
output stage delivers equal signal voltages of opposite polarity to
the vertical plates of the CRT.
155
• Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) − It is the major important block of
CRO and mainly consists of four parts. Those are electron gun,
vertical deflection plates, horizontal deflection plates and
fluorescent screen.
• The electron beam, which is produced by an electron gun gets
deflected in both vertical and horizontal directions by a pair of
vertical deflection plates and a pair of horizontal deflection
plates respectively.
• Finally, the deflected beam will appear as a spot on the
fluorescent screen.
156
CATHODE-RAY TUBE
157
Internal structure of a CRT
158
Line Sketch of a CRT
159
Working of CRT
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) is a computer display screen, used
to display the output in a standard composite video signal.
The working of CRT depends on movement of an electron

beam which moves back and forth across the back of the
screen.
The source of the electron beam is the electron gun; the gun
is located in the narrow, cylindrical neck at the extreme rear
of a CRT which produces a stream of electrons through
thermionic emission.
Usually, A CRT has a fluorescent screen to display the output

signal.
160
Working of CRT
161
Working of CRT
162
Advantages of CRT
i.CRT’s are less expensive than other display technologies.
ii.They operate at any resolution, geometry and aspect ratio without
decreasing the image quality.
iii. CRTs produce the very best color and gray-scale for all
professional calibrations.
iv. Excellent viewing angle.
v. It maintains good brightness and gives long life service.
163
Features of CRT
 The use of CRT technology has quickly declined since the
introduction of LCDs but they are still unbeatable in certain
ways.
 CRT monitors are widely used in a number of electrical

devices such as computer screens, television sets, radar
screens, and oscilloscopes used for scientific and medical
purposes.
164
FLUORESCENT SCREEN
Phosphor is used as screen material on the inner surface of a

CRT. Phosphor absorbs the energy of the incident electrons.
The spot of light is produced on the screen where the electron

beam hits.
The bombarding electrons striking the screen, release

secondary emission electrons.
165
Cathode
The heater keeps the cathode at a higher temperature and electrons
flow from the heated cathode towards the surface of the cathode.
The accelerating anode has a small hole at its center and is

maintained at a high potential, which is of positive polarity. The
order of this voltage is 1 to 20 kV, relative to the cathode.
This potential difference creates an electric field directed from right

to left in the region between the accelerating anode and the cathode.
Electrons pass through the hole in the anode travel with constant
horizontal velocity from the anode to the fluorescent screen. The
electrons strike the screen area and it glows brightly.
166
Deflecting Plates
Two pairs of deflecting plates allow the beam of electrons.
An electric field between the first pair of plates deflects the
electrons horizontally, and an electric field between the second
pair deflects them vertically.
 The electrons travel in a straight line from the hole in the

accelerating anode to the center of the screen when no deflecting
fields are present, where they produce a bright spot.
167
DEFLECTION SYSTEMS
Electrostatic deflection of an electron beam is used in a general
purpose oscilloscope. The deflecting system consists of a pair of
horizontal and vertical deflecting plates.
Let us consider two parallel vertical deflecting plates P1 and P2.

The beam is focused at point O on the screen in the absence of a
deflecting plate voltage.
If a positive voltage is applied to plate P1 with respect to plate

P2, the negatively charged electrons are attracted towards the
positive plate P1, and these electrons will come to focus at point
Y1 on the fluorescent screen.
168
DEFLECTION SYSTEMS
The deflection is proportional to the deflecting voltage between the
plates. If the polarity of the deflecting voltage is reversed, the spot
appears at the point Y2.
169
Working of CRT
170
Theory of electrostatic deflection in
CRO
Fig: Trajectory of the electron upto the screen
171
CRO
172
CRO
The electron enters the deflecting plates with a velocity:
173
CRO
Acceleration in the Y-direction,
174
CRO
175
CRO
176
CRO
177
CRO
Deflection sensitivity
178
CRO
or deflection sensitivity
179
CRO
• A CRT with a high deflection sensitivity can be designed by
having large l and L, small d and Vd. However, each parameter
has a limiting value .Therefore, optimum values are to be chosen.
• If L is large, SE can be large, but the size of the CRO becomes
very large.
• If l is large, the electron beam after deflection may hit the
deflecting plates and may not be able to come out.
• If d is made very small to increase SE, the electron beam after
deflection in the Y-direction will hit the plates.
• If Vd is made small to increase SE, the deflection produced will
be less.
• Therefore, optimum values of these parameters must be chosen in
designing a CRT with a reasonable value of the deflection
sensitivity.
180
TIME-BASE GENERATORS
 The CRO is used to display a waveform that varies as a

function of time. If the wave form is to be accurately
reproduced, the beam should have a constant horizontal
velocity.
 As the beam velocity is a function of the deflecting voltage,

the deflecting voltage must increase linearly with time.
181
TIME-BASE GENERATORS
 A voltage with such characteristics is called a ramp voltage.
If the voltage decreases rapidly to zero—with the waveform
repeatedly produced, as shown in fig.
182
SIMPLE SAW-TOOTH GENERATOR
The circuit shown in Fig. 14-7(a) is a simple sweep circuit, in

which the capacitor C charges through the resistor R.
The capacitor discharges periodically through the transistor T1,

which causes the waveform shown in Fig. 14-7(b) to appear
across the capacitor of the transistor to turn it ON for short time
in t
183
TIME-BASE GENERATOR USING UJT
 The continuous sweep CRO uses the UJT as a time-base

generator. When power is first applied to the UJT, it is in the
OFF state and CT changes exponentially through RT .
 The UJT emitter voltage VE rises towards VBB and VE reaches
the plate voltage VP.
184
Sweep or Time Base Generator
185
• Acts as switching transistor instead of amplifying the signals

• Exhibits negative resistance in its characteristics which employs it as
relaxation oscillators.
186
• The UJT is used to produce the sweep.

• When the power is first applied, the UJT is off and the CT charges exponentially
through RT.
187
• The UJT emitter voltage VE rises towards VBB and when VE reaches the peak
voltage VP, the emitter to base ‘1’ (B1) diode becomes forward biased and the UJT
triggers ON.
• Low resistance discharge path and the capacitor discharges rapidly.
• The emitter voltage VE reaches the minimum value rapidly and the UJT goes OFF.
• The capacitor recharges and the cycle repeats.
188
Delay line circuit
189
Vertical Amplifier
• Sensitivity (gain) and frequency bandwidth (B.W.) response

characteristics of oscilloscope
• gain–B.W. product is constant, to obtain a greater sensitivity the
B.W. is narrowed, or vice-versa.
• Some oscilloscopes give two alternatives, switching to a wide
bandwidth position, and switching to a high sensitivity position.
190
Vertical Amplifier
• Fixed overall sensitivity or gain expressed in V/div

• Vertical amplifier is kept within its signal handling capability by
proper selection of the input attenuator switch.
• FET source follower – high input impedance – isolates amplifier from
attenuator
191
Vertical Amplifier
• BJT emitter follower, to match the medium impedance of FET

output with the low impedance input of the phase inverter.
• Phase inverter provides two antiphase output signals which are
required to operate the push-pull output amplifier. The push-pull
output stage delivers equal signal voltages of opposite polarity to
the vertical plates of the CRT.
192
FREQUENCY RESPONSE
 The bandwidth of an oscilloscope detects the range of
frequencies that can be accurately reproduced on the CRT screen.
The greater the bandwidth, the wider is the range of observed
frequencies.
 The bandwidth of an oscilloscope is the range of frequencies over

which the gain of the vertical amplifier stays within 3 db of the
mid-band frequency gain, as shown in Figure.
 Rise time is defined as the time required for the edge to rise from
10–90% of its maximum amplitude. An approximate relation is
given as follows:
193
FREQUENCY RESPONSE
194
Characteristics of a HF CRO
Features:
Highest Sensitivity up to 1mV/div (After Expand)
Full band Trig Auto Sweep Circuit
Flex Trig mode (Select either CH1 or CH2 Signal /
External Signal)
Alt-Trig View 2 in relative Signal
Ext Trig Input

Power Supply : AC 200 ±10%V
195
TYPES OF THE CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPES
The categorization of CROs is done on the basis of whether they

are digital or analog. Digital CROs can be further classified as
storage oscilloscopes.
1.Analog CRO: In an analog CRO, the amplitude, phase and

frequency are measured from the displayed waveform, through
direct manual reading.
2.Digital CRO: A digital CRO offers digital read-out of signal

information, i.e., the time, voltage or frequency along with signal
display. It consists of an electronic counter along with the main
body of the CRO.
196
TYPES OF THE
CATHODE-RAY
3. OSCILLOSCOPES
Storage CRO: A storage CRO retains the display up to a
substantial amount of time after the first trace has appeared on
the screen. The storage CRO is also useful for the display of
waveforms of low-frequency signals.
4. Dual-Beam CRO: In the dual-beam CRO two electron beams
fall on a single CRT. The dual-gun CRT generates two different
beams.
These two beams produce two spots of light on the CRT screen
which make the simultaneous observation of two different
signal waveforms possible. The comparison of input and its
corresponding output becomes easier using the dual-beam
CRO.
197
SPECIAL PURPOSE
OSCILLOSCOPES
Following are the special purpose oscilloscopes.
 Dual Beam Oscilloscope
 Dual Trace Oscilloscope
 Digital Storage Oscilloscope
198
SPECIAL
PURPOSEOSCILLOSCOPES
The graph, usually called the trace, is drawn by a beam
of electrons striking the phosphor coating of the screen
making it emit light, usually green or blue. This is
similar to the way a television picture is produced.
WHY DUAL TRACE?

Unlike single trace oscilloscope, dual trace oscilloscope
can display two traces on the screen, allowing you to
easily compare the input and output .
FOR EXAMPLE: input and output of an amplifier.
199
DUAL TRACEOSCILLOSCOPE
200
DUAL BEAM OSCILLOSCOPE
The Oscilloscope, which displays two voltage waveforms is
called Dual Beam Oscilloscope
201
The oscilloscope, which stores the waveform digitally is known
as digital storage oscilloscope.
202
203
DTO - Alternate Mode
204
DTO - Alternate Mode
205
DTO – Chopped Mode
206
DTO – Chopped Mode
207
DTO – Alternate & Chopped Mode
208
The Oscilloscope, which displays two voltage waveforms is
called Dual Beam Oscilloscope
209
210
 The double beam analog oscilloscope can display two

signals simultaneously.
 A special dual beam CRT generates and deflects two
beams separately.
 Unlike an ordinary Dual trace oscilloscope which time
shared a single electron beam, thus loosing about 50%
of each signal, a dual beam oscilloscope
simultaneously produced two separate electron beams
capturing the entirely of both signals.
 Also Dual trace oscilloscope cannot capture two fast
transient events, as it cannot switch quickly enough
between traces.so to avoid these problems Dual Beam
Oscilloscope is used. 211
• The dual beam oscilloscope has two separate electron

beams and therefore two completely separate vertical
channels.each channel consists of a preamplifier and
attenuator.
• There is single set of horizontal plates and single time
base circuit.
• The sweep generator drives the horizontal amplifier which
in turn drives the plates.
• The horizontal plates sweep both the beams across the
screen at the same rate.
212
Difference between DTO and DBO
Dual Trace Oscilloscope Dual Beam Oscilloscope

• It has single electron beam • It has two different
which gets split into two electron gun which passes
passes through two through two completely
separate channels. separate vertical channels.
• It cannot switch quickly • In this, there is no problem

between the trace so it of switching.
cannot capture two fast
transient.
213
Digital Storage Oscilloscope
The oscilloscope, which stores the waveform digitally is known as digital
storage oscilloscope.
214
Digital Storage Oscilloscope
Uses of Digital Storage Oscilloscope

• used for testing signal voltage in circuit
debugging.
• Testing in manufacturing.
• Designing.
• Testing of signals voltage in radio
broadcasting equipment.
• In the field of research.
• Audio and video recording equipment.
215
Sampling Oscilloscope
 The advantage of the sampling oscilloscope is that it can measure

the very high-speed event with the help of the instrument having
lower bandwidth.
 The disadvantage of the oscilloscope is are that it can only measure

the repetitive or continuous signal. The frequency range of the
oscilloscopes depends on their design.
 The sampling techniques of the oscilloscope convert the input

signal into the low-frequency domain. The low-frequency signal
has a highly efficient domain.
 The sampling oscilloscopes in not used for displaying the transient

signals.
216
Block Diagram of Sampling
Oscilloscope
217
Block Diagram of Sampling
Oscilloscope
 The single feedback is used from the amplifier to the diode
gate. The feedback shows that the voltage stored on the
capacitor increases only by the change in internal signal
between each sample.
 The staircase waveform is shown in the figure below. The

waveform shows that it is reset after several numbers of steps.
Thus, more than 1000 points are used on the screen for creating
the waveform.
 The staircase waveform is used in the cathode ray tube. It is

used for removing the spot on the screen.
218
Sampling
Oscilloscope
219
Lissajous Figures
and
CRO Probes
220
LISSAJOUS FIGURES
LISSAJOUS FIGURES
• Lissajous figure can be displayed by applying two a.c. signals
simultaneously to the X-plates and Y-plates of an
oscilloscope.
• As the frequency, amplitude and phase difference are altered,
different patterns are seen on the screen of the CRO.
221
LISSAJOUS FIGURES
222
LISSAJOUS FIGURES
• An ordinary oscilloscope has a B.W. of 10 MHz the HF

performance can be improved by means of sampling the input
waveform and reconstructing its shape from the sample, i.e. the
signal to be observed is sampled and after a few cycles sampling
point is advanced and another sample is taken.
• The shape of the wave form is reconstructed by joining the

sample levels together. The sampling frequency may be as low as
1/10th of the input signal frequency (if the input signal frequency
is 100 MHz, the bandwidth of the CRO vertical amplifier can be
as low as 10 MHz).
• As many as 1000 samples are used to reconstruct the original
waveform.
223
LISSAJOUS FIGURES
Measurements using Lissajous Figures

We can do the following two measurements from a Lissajous
figure.
Frequency of the sinusoidal signal
Phase difference between two sinusoidal signals
224
LISSAJOUS FIGURES
Measurement of Frequency
 Lissajous figure will be displayed on the screen, when the
sinusoidal signals are applied to both horizontal & vertical
deflection plates of CRO.
 Hence, apply the sinusoidal signal, which has standard known
frequency to the horizontal deflection plates of CRO.
 Similarly, apply the sinusoidal signal,
whose frequency is unknown to the vertical deflection plates of
CRO
 Let, fH and fV are the frequencies of sinusoidal signals, which are
applied to the horizontal & vertical deflection plates of CRO
respectively. The relationship between fH and fV can
be mathematically represented as below.
225
LISSAJOUS FIGURES
fV/fH=nH/nV
From above relation, we will get the frequency of sinusoidal signal,

which is applied to the vertical deflection plates of CRO as,
fV=(nH/nV)fH
Where,
nH is the number of horizontal tangencies
nV is the number of vertical tangencies
We can find the values of nH and nV from Lissajous figure. So, by

substituting the values of nH, nV and fH in Equation , we will get the
value of fV, i.e. the frequency of sinusoidal signal that is applied to
the vertical deflection plates of CRO.
226
LISSAJOUS FIGURES
Measurement of Phase Difference
A Lissajous figure is displayed on the screen when sinusoidal signals
are applied to both horizontal & vertical deflection plates of CRO.
Hence, apply the sinusoidal signals, which have same amplitude
and frequency to both horizontal and vertical deflection plates of
CRO.
For few Lissajous figures based on their shape, we can directly tell
the phase difference between the two sinusoidal signals.
 If the Lissajous figure is a straight line with an inclination

of 45 45 with positive x-axis, then the phase difference between
the two sinusoidal signals will be 0 0 . That means, there is no
phase difference between those two sinusoidal signals..
227
LISSAJOUS FIGURES
 If the Lissajous figure is a straight line with an inclination
of 135 with positive x-axis, then the phase difference between
the two sinusoidal signals will be 180 . That means, those two
sinusoidal signals are out of phase.
 If the Lissajous figure is in circular shape, then the phase

difference between the two sinusoidal signals will be 90 or 270
228
LISSAJOUS FIGURES
We can calculate the phase difference between the two sinusoidal
signals by using formulae, when the Lissajous figures are
of elliptical shape.
If the major axis of an elliptical shape Lissajous figure having an
inclination angle lies between 0 and 90 with positive x-axis,
then the phase difference between the two sinusoidal signals will
be.
ϕ=sin−1(x1/x2)=sin−1(y1/y2)
If the major axis of an elliptical shape Lissajous figure having an
inclination angle lies between 90 and 180 with positive x-axis,
then the phase difference between the two sinusoidal signals will
be.
ϕ=180−sin−1(x1/x2)=180−sin−1(y1/y2)
229
LISSAJOUS FIGURES
Where,
x1 is the distance from the origin to the point on x-axis, where the
elliptical shape Lissajous figure intersects
x2 is the distance from the origin to the vertical tangent of elliptical

shape Lissajous figure
y1 is the distance from the origin to the point on y-axis, where the
elliptical shape Lissajous figure intersects
y2 is the distance from the origin to the horizontal tangent of

elliptical shape Lissajous figure
230
CRO Probes
We can connect any test circuit to an oscilloscope through a

probe. As CRO is a basic oscilloscope, the probe which is
connected to it is also called CRO probe.
We should select the probe in such a way that it should not

create any loading issues with the test circuit. So that we can
analyze the test circuit with the signals properly on CRO screen.
CRO probes should have the following characteristics.

High impedance
High bandwidth
231
CRO Probes
The block diagram of CRO probe is shown in below figure.
As shown in the figure, CRO probe mainly consists of three

blocks. Those are probe head, co-axial cable and termination
circuit. Co-axial cable simply connects the probe head and
termination circuit.
Types of CRO Probes
CRO probes can be classified into the following two types.
Passive Probes
Active Probes
232
CRO Probes
Passive Probes
If the probe head consists of passive elements, then it is
called passive probe. The circuit diagram of passive probe is
shown in below figure.
.
233
CRO Probes
Active Probes
If the probe head consists of active electronic
components, then it is called active probe. The block
diagram of active probe is shown in below figure.
.
234
CRO Probes
Passive Probes
As shown in the figure, the probe head consists of a parallel
combination of resistor, R1 and a variable capacitor, C1. Similarly,
the termination circuit consists of a parallel combination of
resistor, R2 and capacitor, C2.
235
CRO Probes
Passive Probes
We can balance the bridge, by adjusting the value of variable
capacitor, c1. We will discuss the concept of bridges in the
following chapters. For the time being, consider the
following balancing condition of AC bridge.
Z1 Z4=Z2 Z3
Substitute, the impedances Z1,Z2,Z3 and Z4 as R1,1/jωC1,R2
and 1/jωC2 respectively in above equation.
R1(1/jωC2)=(1/jωC1)R2
R1C1=R2C2---------------Equation 1
By voltage division principle, we will get the voltage across
resistor, R2 as
V0=Vi(R2/R1+R2)
236
CRO Probes
Passive Probes
attenuation factor is the ratio of input voltage, Vi and output
voltage, V0.
So, from above equation we will get the attenuation factor, α as,
α=Vi/V0=R1+R2/R2
α=1+(R1/R2)
α−1=R1R2
R1=(α−1)R2 --------------Equation 2
From above Equation 2 , we can conclude that the value of R1 is
greater than or equal to the value of 2 for integer values of α>1
237
CRO Probes
Passive Probes
Substitute above Equation 2 in Equation 1.
(α−1)R2C1=R2C2
(α−1)C1=C2
C1=C2/(α−1)
From Equation 3, we can conclude that the value of C1 is less than

or equal to the value of C2 for integer values of α>1
238
CRO Probes
Active Probes
If the probe head consists of active electronic
components, then it is called active probe. The block
diagram of active probe is shown in below figure.
.
239
CRO Probes
Active Probes
 As shown in the figure, the probe head consists of a FET source

follower in cascade with BJT emitter follower.
 The FET source follower provides high input impedance and

low output impedance. Whereas, the purpose of BJT emitter
follower is that it avoids or eliminates the impedance
mismatching.
 The other two parts, such as co-axial cable and termination

circuit remain same in both active and passive probes.
240
MODULE-III
SIGNAL GENERATOR
AND
SIGNAL ANALYZERS
241
MODULE III - SYLLABUS
Signal Generators: AF and RF signal

generators, sine and square wave generators,
function generators arbitrary waveform
generator, sweep frequency generators, video
signal generators, and specifications.
Signal Analyzers: AF, HF wave analyzers,
heterodyne wave analyzers, harmonic
distortion, spectrum analyzers, power
analyzers
242
COURSE OUTCOMES
Knowledge
(Bloom’s
Taxonomy)
CO 7 Experiment with signal generators for Apply
generating standard test signals having the wide
frequency range.
Analyze the relative amplitude of the signal and Analyze
CO 8 its harmonic components in frequency domain
by using signal analyzers
243
MODULE III
Program
Outcomes Outcomes
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
CO 7 √ - - - √ - - - - √ - - - - -
CO 8 √ √ - - - - - - - √ - - - √ -
244
Signal Generator
• Signal Generators provide a variety of waveforms
usually at low powers.
• The term oscillator is used to describe an instrument that

provides only a sinusoidal output signal.
• While, Signal generator describes an instrument that

provides several output waveforms, including sine wave,
square wave, triangular wave and pulse trains, as well as
an amplitude modulated waveform.
245
Signal Generator
Various types of signal generators:
1. Standard signal generator: This instrument produces sinusoidal
waveforms in audio frequency (AF) and radio frequency (RF)
ranges. Continuous wave and modulated RF signals can also be
produced. This is an oscillator with a modulation capability.
2. Oscillators: These are available in the AF and RF ranges

separately with variable amplitude and frequency. Modulated signals
will not be available.
3. Test oscillator: It is also an oscillator circuit with a calibrated

attenuator and an output monitor.
246
Signal Generator
Various types of signal generators:
4. Function generator: If the instrument is capable of generating
square, triangular, ramp, pulse, and sine waves or some of these
different types of waveforms in addition to the sine wave, then the
instrument is called function generator. In this instrument, the sine
wave is synthesised. Distortion will be more in the sine wave
compared to that produced in oscillator instruments.
247
Signal Generator
Various types of signal generators
5. Pulse generator: Rectangular waveforms with variable

duty cycles, variable frequency, and amplitude are
produced in this instrument.
6. Sweep generator: Ramp waveforms with variable slopes

are produced by this instrument.
248
Signal Generator
The following factors must be considered in selecting or

comparing signal generators.
1. Frequency range: The instrument must be capable of giving a
wide range of frequency signals, from low frequency signals to
very high frequency signals typically from 1 Hz to 30 MHz or
even higher.
2. Output voltage: Variable from low to a sufficiently high value.
3. Resolution: Small variation in frequency and amplitude could be
made.
4. Accuracy: The deviation from the set values must be minimum.
249
Signal Generator
The following factors must be considered in selecting or
comparing signal generators.
5. Frequency stability: Ability to maintain the selected frequency
over a period of time must be good. Component ageing, and
power supply fluctuations will affect this parameter.
6. Amplitude stability: Amplitude must remain constant at the set
value when frequency is changed.
7. Distortion: It should be minimum. The waveform generated will
be usually distorted at very low frequency and very high
frequency ranges.
250
Signal Generator
Frequency band limits:
251
Standard Signal Generator
 The modulation is indicated by a meter. The output signal
can be Amplitude Modulated (AM) or Frequency
Modulated (FM). Modulation may be done by a sine wave,
square wave, triangular wave or a pulse.
• In HF Osc. Isolate from
o/p ckt. (stable osc.freq
• LC ckt.
& amp., distortion)
• Constant voltage over a
frequency range
• Frequency range
control and Vernier dial
– oscillations • Sine/
• LC ckt limits freq. square/
stability - Capacitor triangular/
values for range pulse
252
Basic Standard Signal Generator
oscillator
 Simplest form
 Few Hertz to many Giga-Hertz
 Accuracy of the frequency, stability, and freedom from
distortion depend on the design of the oscillator
 the amplitude depends on the design of the attenuator
253
Oscillator Circuit
 Resonant characteristic of an LC-tuned circuit is made use of, to
provide a low-distortion sine wave.
 The frequency of oscillation is given by the expression:
254
Oscillator Circuit
Frequency is varied with L, C and R values.
The oscillator circuit consists of an amplifier and a
feedback network.
When Barkhausen Stability criterion is satisfied –
oscillations are produced.
255
Attenuator
 Reduces the power of an input so that the ratio of the input
power to the output power is a constant
 Second part of sine generator
where
256
SIGNAL GENERATORS
The signal generator, which produces the periodic signal
having a frequency of Audio Frequency (AF) range is
called AF signal generator.
The range of audio frequencies is 20Hz to 20KHz.
257
AF Sine and Square Wave Generator
The AF signal generator, which generates either sine wave or

square wave in the range of audio frequencies based on the
requirement is called AF Sine and Square wave generator. Its
block diagram is shown in below figure.
258
•The front panel of the signal generator consists of the

following:
•Frequency selector : It selects the frequency in different
ranges and varies it continuously in a ratio of 1 : 10. The
scale is non-linear.
• Frequency multiplier It selects the frequency range over 5
decades, from 10 Hz to 1 MHz.
• Amplitude multiplier: It attenuates the sine wave in 3
decades, x 1, x 0.1 and x 0.01.
• Variable amplitude It attenuates the sine wave amplitude
continuously.
259
• Symmetry control It varies the symmetry of the square

wave from 30% to 70%.
• Amplitude It attenuates the square wave output
continuously.
• Function switch It selects either sine wave or square wave
output.
• Output available This provides sine wave or square wave
output.
• Sync This terminal is used to provide synchronization of
the internal signal with an external signal.
260
 The upper path consists of the blocks like sine wave

amplifier and attenuator.
 If the switch is used to connect the output of Wien bridge

oscillator to upper path, it will produce a desired AF sine
wave at the output of upper path.
 The lower path consists of the following blocks: square

wave shaper, square wave amplifier, and attenuator.
 The square wave shaper converts the sine wave into a

square wave.
261
 If the switch is used to connect the output of Wien bridge

oscillator to lower path, then it will produce a desired AF
square wave at the output of lower path.
 In this way, the block diagram that we considered can be

used to produce either AF sine wave or AF square wave
based on the requirement.
262
Function Generators
263
Function Generator
 Function generator is a signal generator, which generates
three or more periodic waves. A Function generator, which
will produce periodic waves like triangular wave, square
wave and sine wave.
 Few Hz to several kHz
 Various outputs at same time
264
Function Generator
 Function generator is a signal generator, which generates
three or more periodic waves. A Function generator, which
will produce periodic waves like triangular wave, square
wave and sine wave.
265
Function Generator
 Frequency control network consists of LC or RC circuits.
 Frequency varied by changing the magnitude of the current which
drives the integrator.
 In frequency range of 0.01Hz to 100kHz.
266
Function Generator
267
Function Generator
There are two current sources, namely upper current
source and lower current source in above block diagram.
These two current sources are regulated by the frequency-

controlled voltage.
Triangular Wave
Integrator present in the above block diagram, gets
constant current alternately from upper and lower current
sources for equal amount of time repeatedly.
So, the integrator will produce two types of output for the
same time repeatedly − 268
Function Generator
269
Function Generator
So, the integrator will produce two types of output for the
same time repeatedly −
The output voltage of an integrator increases linearly
with respect to time for the period during which
integrator gets current from upper current source.
The output voltage of an integrator decreases linearly

with respect to time for the period during which
integrator gets current from lower current source.
In this way, the integrator present in above block diagram

will produce a triangular wave.
270
Function Generator
271
Function Generator
Square Wave & Sine Wave
The output of integrator, i.e. the triangular wave is applied
as an input to two other blocks as shown in block diagram in
order to get the square wave and sine wave respectively.
Square Wave
The triangular wave has positive slope and negative slope
alternately for equal amount of time repeatedly.
So, the voltage comparator multivibrator present in
above block diagram will produce the following two types of
output for equal amount of time repeatedly.
272
Function Generator
•The comparator output delivers a square wave voltage of the

same frequency.
•The resistance diode network alters the slope of the
triangular wave as its amplitude changes and produces a sine
wave with less than 1% distortion.
273
Arbitrary waveform generators (AWGs)
 Arbitrary waveform generators (AWGs) are the most

versatile signal generators available.
 An AWG can generate any mathematically-characterized

signal, including sine wave, pulse, modulated, multitone,
polarized, and rotated signals.
 The AWG is commonly seen as the workhorse piece of test
equipment and can perform the functions of any other
generator type.
 A typical block diagram of an AWG is shown below.
274
275
 The signal flow through the functional blocks starts with a

numeric description of a waveform stored in memory.
 Then the selected waveform samples are sent to a digital-to-

analog converter (DAC), filtered, conditioned, amplified and
output as an analog waveform.
276
Signal (or) Wave Analyzers
Introduction:
 Any complex waveform is made up of a fundamental
frequency and its harmonics. It is often required to measure

the amplitude of each harmonic and fundamental frequency
individually. This can be done using instrument known as
wave analyzer.
Wave analyzers are also referred to as frequency selective

voltmeter, carrier frequency voltmeter and selective level
voltmeter.
The wave analyzers are tuned to the frequency of the

component, whose amplitude is to be measured. 277
The electronic instrument used to analyze waves is called
wave analyzer. It is also called signal analyzer, since the
terms signal and wave can be interchangeably used
frequently.
We can represent the periodic signalas

sumof the following two terms.
•DC component
•Series of sinusoidal harmonics
So, analyzation of a periodic signal is analyzation of the

harmonics components presents in it.
278
279
Basic Signal (or) Wave
Analyzers
Basic wave analyzer mainly consists of three blocks − the
primary detector, full wave rectifier, and PMMC
galvanometer. The block diagram of basic wave analyzer is
shown in below figure −
280
Analyzers
 The function of each block present in basic wave analyzer is
mentioned below.
 Primary Detector − It consists of an LC circuit. We can

adjust the values of inductor, L and capacitor, C in such a
way that it allows only the desired harmonic frequency
component that is to be measured.
 Full Wave Rectifier − It converts the AC input into a DC

output.
 PMMC Galvanometer − It shows the peak value of the

signal, which is obtained at the output of Full wave rectifier.
281
Analyzers
 We will get the corresponding circuit diagram, just by
replacing each block with the respective component(s) in
above block diagram of basic wave analyzer.
 So, the circuit diagram of basic wave analyzer will look
like as shown in the following figure −
282
Analyzers
 This basic wave analyzer can be used for analyzing each
and every harmonic frequency component of a periodic
signal.
 The wave analyzer, used for analyzing the signals are of AF
range is called frequency selective wave analyzer.
Types of Wave Analyzers

Wave analyzers can be classified into the
following two types.
Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer
Super heterodyne Wave Analyzer
283
Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer
 The block diagram of frequency selective wave analyzer is shown
in below figure.
284
• The complex wave to be analyzed is passed through an adjustable
attenuator which serves as a range multiplier and permits a large
range of signal amplitudes to be analyzed without loading the
amplifier.
• High-Q filter is a low pass filter which allows the frequency

which is selected to pass and reject all others.
• The magnitude of this selected frequency is indicated by the meter

and the filter section identifies the frequency of the component.
• The filter circuit consists of a cascaded RC resonant circuit and

amplifiers.
285
Selecting the frequency range
• The capacitors generally used are of the closed tolerance
polystyrene type and the resistances used are precision
potentiometers.
• The capacitors are used for range changing and the potentiometer
is used to change the frequency within the selected pass-band.
• Hence this wave analyzer is also called a Frequency selective

voltmeter.
• AF range is covered in decade steps

286
Super heterodyne Wave Analyzer
 The wave analyzer, used to analyze the signals of RF range
is called super heterodyne wave analyzer.
287
 Heterodyning (mixing)
 The input signal to be analyzed is heterodyned with the signal
from the internal tunable local oscillator in the mixer stage to
produce a higher IF frequency.
 Tuning the local oscillator frequency, various signal frequency
components can be shifted within the pass-band of the IF
amplifier.
 The output of the IF amplifier is rectified and applied to the
meter circuit.
 The input signal is heterodyned to the known IF by means of a
tunable local oscillator.
 The amplitude of the unknown component is indicated by the
output meter.
288
 Heterodyning (mixing)
 The input signal to be analyzed is heterodyned with the signal
from the internal tunable local oscillator in the mixer stage to
produce a higher IF frequency.
 Tuning the local oscillator frequency, various signal frequency
components can be shifted within the pass-band of the IF
amplifier.
 The output of the IF amplifier is rectified and applied to the
meter circuit.
 The input signal is heterodyned to the known IF by means of a
tunable local oscillator.
 The amplitude of the unknown component is indicated by the
output meter.
289
Harmonic Distortion Analyzer
• An amplitude distorted sine wave is made up of pure sine
wave components, including the
– Fundamental frequency, f of the input signal, and
– Harmonics are integral multiples of fundamental frequency
(n.f where n=2,3,4,…), 2f, 3f, 4f, etc.
• Harmonic distortion can be measured accurately using

harmonic distortion analyzer, generally called a
distortion analyzer.
290
291
• A harmonic distortion analyzer measures the total harmonic power
present in the test wave
• Not the distortion caused by each individual component.
• The simplest method is to
– Suppress or block the fundamental frequency and
– Allow to pass all the harmonics to reach the meter
• This can be done by the following techniques
– Using High pass filter
– Resonance bridge filter
– Wien’s bridge type
– Bridged T-Network Method
292
Fundamental Suppression type
(a) Employing Resonance Bridge
The bridge is balanced for fundamental frequency, i.e. L and C are
tuned to the fundamental frequency.
The bridge is unbalanced for the harmonics, i.e. only harmonic

power will be available at the output terminal and can be measured.
293
(a) Employing Resonance Bridge
 The bridge is unbalanced for the harmonics, i.e. only harmonic

power will be available at the output terminal and can be
measured.
 If the fundamental frequency is changed, the bridge must be

balanced again. If L& C are fixed components, then this method
is suitable only when the test wave has a fixed frequency.
 Indicators can be thermocouples or square law VTVM’s. This

indicates the RMS value of all harmonics.
 When a continuous adjustment of the fundamental frequency is

desired, a wien bridge arrangement is used.
294
(b) Wien’s Bridge Method
The bridge is balanced for the fundamental frequency. The

fundamental energy is dissipated in the bridge circuit elements. Only
the harmonic components reach the output terminals.
The harmonic distortion output can then be measured with a meter.
For balance at the fundamental frequency
C1=C2=C, R1=R2=R, R3=2R4 .
295
(c) Bridged T-Network Method
 From the figure L and C’s are tuned to the fundamental frequency,
and R is adjusted to bypass fundamental frequency.
 The tank circuit being tuned to the fundamental frequency, the

fundamental energy will circulate in the tank and is bypassed by
the resistance. Only harmonic components will reach the output
terminals and the distorted output can be measured by the meter
296.
HDA Using Bridged T-Network
297
HDA Using Bridged T-Network
From the figure, The switch S is first connected to point

A so that the attenuator is excluded and the bridge T-
network is adjusted for full suppression of the
fundamental frequency, i.e. Minimum output indicates
that the bridged T network is tuned to the fundamental
frequency and that fundamental frequencies is fully
suppressed.
298
Spectrum Analyzer
299
Introduction
• A spectrum analyzer measures the amplitude of an input signal
versus frequency within the full frequency range of the instrument
• The spectrum analyzer is to the frequency domain where as the
oscilloscope is to the time domain.
300
Types of Spectrum Analyzers
• The most common spectrum analyzer measurements are:
modulation, distortion, and noise
 We can classify the spectrum analyzers into the following two types.
 Filter Bank Spectrum Analyzer
 Super heterodyne Spectrum Analyzer
Filter Bank Spectrum Analyzer

The spectrum analyzer, used for analyzing the signals are of AF range
is called filter bank spectrum analyzer, or real time spectrum
analyzer because it shows (displays) any variations in all input
frequencies.
301
The working of filter bank
spectrum analyzer is mentioned
below.
It has a set of band pass filters and
each one is designed for allowing
a specific band of frequencies.
The output of each band pass filter
is given to a corresponding
detector.
All the detector outputs are
connected to Electronic switch.
This switch allows the detector
outputs sequentially to the vertical
deflection plate of CRO. So, CRO
displays the frequency spectrum
of AF signal on its CRT screen. 302
Super heterodyne Spectrum Analyzer
The spectrum analyzer, used for analyzing the signals are of RF range
is called super heterodyne spectrum analyzer.
The working of super heterodyne spectrum analyzer is

mentioned below.
The RF signal, which is to be analyzed is applied to
input attenuator. If the signal amplitude is too large,
then it can be attenuated by an input attenuator. 304
Swept tuned spectrum analyzer
•The major components in a spectrum analyzer are the RF input

attenuator, mixer, IF (Intermediate Frequency) gain, IF filter,
detector, video filter, local oscillator, sweep generator, and LCD
display.
305
Input attenuator and mixer
•Its purpose is to adjust the level of the signal entering the

mixer to its optimum level. If the signal level is too high, the
readings fall outside the display, but also the mixer
performance may not be optimum.
•A mixer is a three-port device that converts a signal from
one frequency to another (sometimes called a frequency
translation device)
306
Gain , filter and detector
• IF stages provide the required level of gain. It has to
be used in conjunction with the RF gain control. Too
high a level of IF gain will increase the front end
noise level which may result in low level signals
being masked.
• The IF filter is a band pass filter which is used as the

"window" for detecting signals. It's bandwidth is also
called the resolution bandwidth (RBW) of the
analyzer and can be changed via the front panel of the
analyzer.
307
Gain , filter and detector
•The analyzer must covert the IF signal to a baseband or

video signal so it can be digitized and then viewed on the
analyzer display.
•This is accomplished with an envelope detector whose video
output is then digitized with an analog to digital converter
(ADC).
308
Video filter, LO, SG and ADC
• The video filter is a low-pass filter that is envelope detector and
before the ADC. This filter determines the bandwidth of the
video amplifier, and is used to average or smooth the trace
seen on the screen.
309
Video filter, LO, SG and ADC
•The local oscillator (LO) must be capable of being tuned over
a very wide range of frequencies to enable the analyzer to scan
over the required range.
•The sweep generator actually tunes the LO so that its

frequency changes in proportion to the ramp voltage. The video
signal by the ADC is also synchronized with the sweep
generator to create the frequency domain on the x-axis.
310
Front Panel
•The three primary hard keys

on any spectrum analyzer are:
frequency, amplitude, and span
•Other important control

functions include setting the
resolution-bandwidth, sweep
311
Advantages and disadvantages
• Advantages :
 Able to operate over wide frequency range
 Wide bandwidth
 Not as expensive as other spectrum analyzer technologies
• Disadvantages:
 Cannot measure phase
 Cannot measure transient events
312
Power Analyzer
These instruments are used for
a)Testing and verifying correct operation of motors.
b)Checking transformer efficiency
c)Verifying power supply performance
d)Measuring the effect of neutral current
 These features include harmonic analysis, power

measurements and Pulse width modulation.
 These instruments can also be used as oscilloscopes. which

enable trouble shooting and verification of complicated
electronic control circuits controlling the high-voltage power
electronic circuits.
313
MODULE-IV
DC & AC BRIDGES
314
MODULE IV - SYLLABUS
Measurements using DC and AC bridges:

Wheat stone bridge, Kelvin bridge, AC
bridges, Maxwell, Hay, Schering, Wien,
Anderson bridges, Wagner & ground
connection.
315
COURSE OUTCOMES
Knowledge
(Bloom’s
Taxonomy)
CO 9 Identify appropriate bridge circuits for Apply
measurement of unknown electrical
parameters.
316
MODULE I
Program
Outcomes Outcomes
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
CO 9 √ √ - √ - - - - - √ - - - √ -
317
Bridges
If the electrical components are arranged in the form a
bridge or ring structure, then that electrical circuit is
called a bridge.
In general, bridge forms a loop with a set of four arms or

branches. Each branch may contain one or two electrical
components.
Types of Bridges
We can classify the bridge circuits or bridges into the
following two categories based on the voltage signal with
which those can be operated.
•DC Bridges
•AC Bridges 318
DC Bridges
 If the bridge circuit can be operated with only DC voltage signal,

then it is a DC bridge circuit or simply DC bridge.
 DC bridges are used to measure the value of unknown resistance.

The circuit diagram of DC bridge looks like as shown in below
figure.
319
AC Bridges
 If the bridge circuit can be operated with only AC voltage signal,

then it is said to be AC bridge circuit or simply AC bridge. AC
bridges are used to measure the value of unknown inductance,
capacitance and frequency.
320
Types of DC Bridges
 DC bridges can be operated with only DC voltage signal. DC
bridges are useful for measuring the value of unknown
resistance, which is present in the bridge.
 Wheatstone’s Bridge and Kelvin’s are the examples of DC

bridge.
Wheatstone’s Bridge
 Wheatstone’s bridge is a simple DC bridge, which is mainly
having four arms. These four arms form a rhombus or square
shape and each arm consists of one resistor.
 To find the value of unknown resistance, we need the

galvanometer and DC voltage source.
321
 Hence, one of these two are placed in one diagonal of

Wheatstone’s bridge and the other one is placed in another
diagonal of Wheatstone’s bridge.
322
The above bridge circuit is balanced when no current flows

through the diagonal arm, DB. That means, there is no
deflection in the galvanometer, when the bridge is balanced.
The bridge will be balanced, when the following two

conditions are satisfied.
The voltage across arm AD is equal to the voltage across arm

AB. i.e.,
323
The voltage across arm DC is equal to the voltage across arm

BC. i.e.,
 From above two balancing conditions, we will get the

following two conclusions.
 The current flowing through the arm AD will be equal to that of
arm DC. i.e.,
The current flowing through the arm AB will be equal to that of

arm BC. i.e.,
324
By substituting the known values of resistors R1, R2 and R3 in

above equation, we will get the value of resistor,R4
325
Sensitivity of a Wheatstone Bridge

• Unbalanced condition, current flows through the galvanometer,
causing a deflection of its pointer
• amount of deflection is a function of the sensitivity of the
galvanometer.
• Sensitivity can be thought of as deflection per unit current.
• sensitivity can be expressed in units of S = mm/mA or degree/mA or
radians/mA.
• Therefore it follows that the total deflection D is D = S X I
where, I is the current in microamperes
326
Unbalanced Wheatstone’s Bridge
Thévenin’s equivalent voltage is found by disconnecting the
galvanometer from the bridge circuit
327
• Thévenin’s equivalent resistance can be determined by replacing
the voltage source E with its internal impedance or otherwise
short-circuited and calculating the resistance looking into
terminals a and b.
• The equivalent resistance of the circuit is R1//R3 in series with
R2//R4 i.e. R1//R3 + R2//R4.
328
• Thévenin’s equivalent circuit
• The resistance between a and b consists only of the
galvanometer resistance Rg.
329
Limitations Wheatstone’s Bridge
• For low resistance measurement, the resistance of the
leads and contacts becomes significant and introduces
an error.
• For high resistance measurements, the resistance
presented by the bridge becomes so large that the
galvanometer is insensitive to imbalance.
• Another difficulty is the change in resistance of the
bridge arms due to the heating effect of current
through the resistance.
330
331
Kelvin’s Bridge
Modification of Wheatstone’s Bridge
332
Kelvin’s Bridge
Case I: when Galvanometer is connected to point ‘a’
– Ry is added to Rx
– Too high indication for Rx
Case II: when Galvanometer is connected to point ‘c’
– Ry is added to R3
– Rx is lower than actual value
– R3 is greater than its nominal value by Ry
Case III: when Galvanometer is connected to point ‘b’
– Ratio of Resistance between c - b and a-b is equal to Ratio of
resistance R1 and R2
333
Kelvin’s Bridge
balance equations for the bridge
but
334
Kelvin’s Bridge
Therefore
335
Kelvin’s Bridge
Substituting for Rab and Rcb in above equation
Hence
This Equation is the usual Wheatstone’s balance equation and it

indicates that the effect of the resistance of the connecting leads
from point a to point c has been eliminated by connecting the
galvanometer to an intermediate position, b.
336
Kelvin’s Double Bridge
It incorporates a second set of ratio arms
337
• The second set of arms, a and b, connects the galvanometer to a
point c at the appropriate potential between m and n connection,
i.e. Ry.
• The ratio of the resistances of arms a and b is the same as the
ratio of R1 and R2.
• The galvanometer indication is zero when the potentials at k and
c are equal.
338
But …. (3)
and
Substitute E in Eq.(3),
339
340
But
Therefore,
341
342
AC BRIDGES
343
AC BRIDGES
In general, AC bridge has a similar circuit design as DC

bridge, except that the bridge arms are impedances.
The impedances can be either
pure resistances or complex
impedances (resistance +
inductance or resistance +
capacitance). Therefore, AC
bridges are used to measure
inductance and capacitance.
344
AC BRIDGES
Some impedance bridge circuits are frequency-sensitive

while others are not.
The frequency-sensitive types may be used as frequency
measurement devices if all component values are
accurately known
345
AC BRIDGES
The usefulness of AC bridge circuit is not restricted to

the measurement of an unknown impedance. These
circuits find other application in many communication
systems and complex electronic circuits, such as for:
 shifting phase, providing feedback paths for
oscillators or amplifiers;
 filtering out undesired signals;
 measuring the frequency of audio signals.
346
AC BRIDGES
AC bridge is excited by an AC source and its

galvanometer is replaced by a detector.
The detector can be a sensitive electromechanical meter

movements, oscilloscopes, headphones, or any other
device capable of registering very small AC voltage
levels.
347
AC BRIDGES
AC bridge circuits work on the same basic principle as

DC bridge circuits: that a balanced ratio of impedances
(rather than resistances) will result in a “balanced”
condition as indicated by the null-detector.
When an AC bridge is in null or balanced condition, the

detector current becomes zero. This means that there
is no voltage difference across the detector and the
bridge circuit in can be redrawn as
348
The dash line in the figure indicates that there is no potential
difference and no current between points b and c. The voltages
from point a to point b and from point a to point c must be
equal, which allows us to obtain:
IZ I Z ------(1)
1 1 2 2
Similarly, the voltages from point d to

point b and point d to point c must also be
equal, leading to: ------(2)
I1 Z 3  I 2 Z 4
Dividing Equation (1) by Equation (2) we obtain:
which can also be written as
Z1 Z2

Z3 Z 4 Z1 Z 4  Z 2 Z 3
349
CAPACITANCE COMPARISON BRIDGE
•The ratio arms R1, R2 are
resistive.
•The known standard
capacitor C3 is in series with
R3.
350
Maxwell Bridge
Maxwell bridge is an ac bridge
used to measure an unknown
inductance in terms of a known
capacitance. This bridge is
sometimes called a Maxwell-
Wien Bridge.
Using capacitance as a standard has

several advantages due to:
• Capacitance of capacitor is influenced by

less external fields.
• Capacitor has small size.
• Capacitor is low cost. 351
Maxwell Bridge
The impedance of the arms of the bridge can be

written as
1
Z1 
1
 j C1
R1
Z 2  R2
Z 3  R3
Z 4  Rx  j X Lx
352
The general equation for bridge balance is
Z 1Z x  Z 2 Z 3
1
1
R x  j X Lx   R 2 R 3
 j C1
R1
1
1  j C1
 R x  j X Lx   R 2 R 3
R1
R x  j X Lx R2 R3

1  j C 1 R1
R2 R3
R x  j X Lx   j R 2 R 3C 1
R1
353
Equating real terms and imaginary terms we have
R2 R3
Rx 
R1
j L x  j R 2 R 3C 1
Lx  R2 R3C1
354
Hay’s Bridge(Opposite Angle Bridge)
Opposite-angle bridge is an AC bridge for

measurement of inductance. The construction of this
bridge can be done by replacing the standard
capacitor of the similar-angle with an inductor .
j
Z1  R1  Z 2  R2
C1
Z3  R3 Z x  Rx  j Lx
355
At balance: Z1Zx = Z2Z3, and substituting the values in the balance equation we
obtain
 j 
 R1  Rx  j Lx   R2 R3
  C1 
Lx jRx
R1 Rx    j Lx R1  R2 R3
C1  C1
Equating the real and imaginary terms we have
Lx ---------(2)
R1 Rx   R2 R3 ---------(1)
C1
Rx
and   Lx R1
 C1
356
Solving for Rx we have, Rx = ω2LxC1R1.
Substituting for Rx in Eq 2
Lx
R1 ( 2 R1C1 L x )   R 2 R3
C1 Substituting for Lx in Eq.3 into
 R C1 L x 
2 2 Lx
 R 2 R3
Eq.2, we obtain
R1 R2 R3C12 ---------
1
C1
Rx 
1   2 R1 C1 (4)
2 2
Multiplying both sides by C1 we get

 2 R12C12 Lx  Lx  R2 R3C1
The term ω in the expression for
Therefore, both Lx and Rx indicates that the
bridge is frequency sensitive.
R2 R3 C1 ---------
Lx 
1   2 R1 C1
2 2
(3)
357
WEIN’s BRIDGE
The Wien’s bridge is an ac bridge having a series RC combination in

one arm and a parallel combination in the adjoining arm.
In its basic form, Wien’s bridge is

designed to measure either the
equivalent-parallel components or
the equivalent-series components of
an impedance.
The impedance of the arms of this

bridge can be written as:
Z1 = R 1 Z2 = R 2
358
The impedance of the parallel arm is
1
Z3 
1
 j  C3
R3
The impedance of the series arm is
j
Z 4  R4 
 C4
Using the bridge balance equation, Z1Z4 = Z2Z3 we obtain:
Equivalent parallel components
  R2  1 
R 1  ---------(1) C3    ---------(2)
R3  1  R4 
  1   2 R 2 C 2 C4
R2   R4 C 4 
2 2 R1  4 4 
359
Equivalent series components
R2  R3  R2  1 
R4    C3   C4
R1  1   2 R3 C3 
2 2 R1  1   R4 C4 
2 2 2
Knowing the equivalent series and parallel components, Wien’s bridge can also be
used for the measurement of a frequency.
1
f 
2 R3C3 R4C4
360
Schering bridge
Schering bridge is a very important AC

bridge used for precision measurement
of capacitors and their insulating
properties. Its basic circuit arrangement
given in Figure shows that arm 1
ScheringofBridge
contains a parallel combination a
resistor and a capacitor.
 The standard capacitor C3 is a high quality mica capacitor for

general measurements, or an air capacitor for insulation
measurements.
 A high quality mica capacitor has very low losses (no
resistance) and an air capacitor has a very stable value and a
very small electric field.
361
The impedance of the arms of the Schering bridge can be written as
1
Z1 
1 1

R1  jX C1
Z 2  R2
Z 3   jX C 3
Z 4  Rx  jX x
362
Substituting these values into general balance equation gives:
Z 2 Z3
Z4 
Z1
R2 ( jX C 3 )
Rx  jX x 
1
1 1

R1  jX C1
j 1 1 
Rx   R2 (  jX C 3 )  
Cx  R1  jX C1 
j R2C1 jR2
Rx   
Cx C3  C3 R1
363
Equating the real and imaginary terms, we find that
C1
Rx  R2
C3
R1
C x  C3
R2
364
Anderson’s bridge
Definition:
The Anderson’s bridge gives the accurate
measurement of self-inductance of the circuit.
Anderson’s Bridge
The bridge is the advanced form of Maxwell’s
inductance capacitance bridge.
In Anderson bridge, the unknown inductance is

compared with the standard fixed capacitance
which is connected between the two arms of
the bridge.
365
Anderson’s bridge
366
Anderson’s bridge
For balance condition,
367
Anderson’s bridge
368
Phasor Diagram:
The phasor diagram of the
Anderson bridge is shown in the
figure below.
The current I1 and the E3 are in

phase and represented on the
horizontal axis. When the bridge
is in balance condition the
voltage across the arm bc and
ec are equal.
369
Advantages of Anderson’s Bridge:
1) In Anderson’s bridge it is very easy to obtain the balance point

as compared to Maxwell’s bridge.
2) In this bridge a fixed standard capacitor is used therefore there

is no need of costly variable capacitor.
3) This method is very accurate for measurement of capacitance

in terms of inductance.
370
Wagner’s Ground Connection
Definition: The Wagner earthing device is used for removing the
earth capacitance from the bridges. It is a type of voltage divider
circuit used to reduce the error which occurs because of stray
capacitance. The Wagner Earth device provides high accuracy to
the bridge.
• At high frequency, stray capacitance is induced between the

bridge elements, ground and between the arms of the bridge.
• This stray element causes the error in the measurement.
• One of the way, of controlling these capacitances is to enclose
the bridge elements into the shield.
• Another way of eliminating these stray capacitance is to places
the Wagner Earth device between the elements of the bridge.
371
Construction of Wagner’s Ground Connection
• Position 1 – R1 is adjusted to full null or minimum sound
• Position 2 – connected to wagner ground connection
- R1 & R2 are adjusted for balancing or
minimum detector response
372
• Position 2 – connected to wagner ground connection
• Position 1 – imbalance might be there
• Repeated till null for points 1 & 2 at same potential
Ground Potential
373
• C1 and C2 are shorted and no effect on balance condition
374
MODULE-V
TRANSDUCERS
375
MODULE V - SYLLABUS
Transducers: Classification, strain gauges, force and

displacement, transducers, resistance thermometers,
hotwire anemometers, LVDT, thermocouples,
synchros; Piezoelectric transducers, variable
capacitance transducers; Magneto strictive
transducers, measurement of physical parameters:
Flow measurement, displacement meters, liquid level
measurement, measurement of humidity and
moisture, velocity, force, pressure, high pressure,
vacuum level, temperature measurements.
376
COURSE OUTCOMES
Knowledge
(Bloom’s
Taxonomy)
CO 10 Classify and explain working of transducers and Understand
their applications for conversion of physical to
electrical energy.
CO 11 Select proper transducer to make sensitive Apply
measurements of physical parameters such as
displacement, pressure, flow, strain, and
temperature etc.
377
MODULE I
Program
Outcomes Outcomes
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
CO 10 √ - √ - - - - - - √ - - - √ √
CO 11 √ √ - √ - - - - - - - - - - -
378
INTRODUCTION TO TRANSDUCERS
A transducer is a device that convert one form of energy to

other form. It converts the measurand to a usable electrical
signal.
In other word it is a device that is capable of converting the

physical quantity into a proportional electrical quantity such as
voltage or current.
Pressure Voltage
379
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TRANSDUCERS
• Transducer contains two parts that are closely related to

each other i.e. the sensing element and transduction element.
• The sensing element is called as the sensor. It is device
producing measurable response to change in physical
conditions.
• The transduction element convert the sensor output to
suitable electrical form.
380
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSDUCERS
1. Ruggedness
2. Linearity
3. Repeatability
4. Accuracy
5. High stability and reliability
6. Speed of response
7. Sensitivity
8. Small size
381
TRANSDUCERS SELECTION FACTORS
1. Operating Principle: The transducer are many times

selected on the basis of operating principle used by them.
The operating principle used may be resistive, inductive,
capacitive , optoelectronic, piezo electric etc.
2. Sensitivity: The transducer must be sensitive enough to
produce detectable output.
3. Operating Range: The transducer should maintain the
range requirement and have a good resolution over the
entire range.
4. Accuracy: High accuracy is assured.
382
TRANSDUCERS SELECTION FACTORS
4. Cross sensitivity: It has to be taken into account when

measuring mechanical quantities. There are situation
where the actual quantity is being measured is in one
plane and the transducer is subjected to variation in
another plan.
5. Errors: The transducer should maintain the expected
input-output relationship as described by the transfer
function so as to avoid errors.
6. Transient and frequency response : The transducer
should meet the desired time domain specification like
peak overshoot, rise time, setting time and small dynamic
error.
383
7. Loading Effects: The transducer should have a high input
impedance and low output impedance to avoid loading
effects.
9. Environmental Compatibility: It should be assured that the
transducer selected to work under specified environmental
conditions maintains its input- output relationship and does
not break down.
10. Insensitivity to unwanted signals: The transducer should be
minimally sensitive to unwanted signals and highly sensitive
to desired signals.
384
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
The transducers can be classified as:
I. Active and passive transducers.

II. Analog and digital transducers.
III. On the basis of transduction principle used.
IV. Primary and secondary transducer
V. Transducers and inverse transducers.
385
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
Active transducers :
These transducers do not need any external source of power for
their operation. Therefore they are also called as self generating
type transducers.
I. The active transducer are self generating devices which
operate under the energy conversion principle.
II. As the output of active transducers we get an equivalent
electrical output signal e.g. temperature or strain to electric
potential, without any external source of energy being used.
386
CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVE TRANSDUCERS
387
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
Passive Transducers :
I. These transducers need external source of
power for their operation. So they are not
self generating type transducers.
II. A DC power supply or an audio frequency
generator is used as an external power
source.
III. These transducers produce the output
signal in the form of variation in
resistance, capacitance, inductance or
some other electrical parameter in
response to the quantity to be measured.
388
CLASSIFICATION OF PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
389
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY TRANSDUCERS
• Some transducers contain the mechanical as well as

electrical device. The mechanical device converts the
physical quantity to be measured into a mechanical signal.
Such mechanical device are called as the primary
transducers, because they deal with the physical quantity to
be measured.
• The electrical device then convert this mechanical signal
into a corresponding electrical signal. Such electrical device
are known as secondary transducers.
390
•Ref fig in which the diaphragm act as primary
transducer. It convert pressure (the quantity to be
measured) into displacement(the mechanical signal).
•The displacement is then converted into change in
resistance using strain gauge. Hence strain gauge acts as
the secondary transducer.
391
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
ACCORDING TO TRANSDUCTION PRINCIPLE
392
CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER:
•In capacitive transduction transducers the measurand is converted
to a change in the capacitance.
• A typical capacitor is comprised of two parallel plates of
conducting material separated by an electrical insulating material d
called a dielectric. The plates and the dielectric may be either
flattened or rolled.
Area=A
• The purpose of the dielectric is to help the two parallel plates
maintain their stored electrical charges.
• The relationship between the capacitance and the size of capacitor
plate, amount of plate separation, and the dielectric is given by
C = ε0 εr A / d
d is the separation distance of plates (m) Either A, d or ε can be varied.
C is the capacitance (F, Farad)
ε0 : absolute permittivity of vacuum
εr : relative permittivity
A is the effective (overlapping)
area of capacitor plates (m2) 393
ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSDUCTION:
•In electromagnetic transduction, the measurand is
converted to voltage induced in conductor by change in
the magnetic flux, in absence of excitation.
•The electromagnetic transducer are self generating active
transducers
•The motion between a piece of magnet and an
electromagnet is responsible for the change in flux
394
Current induced in a coil.
395
STRAIN GAUGE
The strain gauge is a passive, resistive transducer which converts

the mechanical elongation and compression into a resistance
change.
This change in resistance takes place due to variation in length and
cross sectional area of the gauge wire, when an external force acts
on it.
396
STRAIN GAUGE
397
STRAIN GAUGE
398
STRAIN GAUGE
399
STRAIN GAUGE
400
STRAIN GAUGE
401
STRAIN GAUGE
402
STRAIN GAUGE
403
TYPES OF STRAIN GAUGE
The type of strain gauge are as

1. Wire gauge
a) Unbonded
b) Bonded
c) Foil type
2. Semiconductor gauge
404
BONDED STRAIN GAUGE
The bonded metal wire strain gauge are used for both stress
analysis and for construction of transducer.
A resistance wire strain gauge consist of a grid of fine resistance
wire. The grid is cemented to carrier which may be a thin sheet of
paper bakelite or teflon.
The wire is covered on top with a thin sheet of material so as to
prevent it from any mechanical damage.
The carrier is bonded with an adhesive material to the specimen
which permit a good transfer of strain from carrier to grid of wires.
405
BONDED METAL FOIL STRAIN GAUGE
It consist of following parts:

1.Base (carrier) Materials: several types of base material are used
to support the wires. Saturated paper is used for room temp.
applications.
2.Adhesive: The adhesive acts as bonding materials. Like other
bonding operation, successful strain gauge bonding depends upon
careful surface preparation and use of the correct bonding agent.
In order that the strain be faithfully transferred on to the strain
gauge, the bond has to be formed between the surface to be strained
and the plastic backing material on which the gauge is mounted.
406
BONDED METAL FOIL STRAIN GAUGE
407
UNBONDED STRAIN GAUGE
An unbonded meter strain gauge is shown in fig
408
UNBONDED STRAIN GAUGE
An unbonded meter strain gauge is shown in fig
This gauge consist of a wire stretched between two point in an

insulating medium such as air. The wires may be made of various
copper, nickel, crome nickle or nickle iron alloys.
In fig the element is connected via a rod to diaphragm which is

used for sensing the pressure. The wire are tensioned to avoid
buckling when they experience the compressive force.
409
The unbonded meter wire gauges used almost exclusively in
transducer application employ preloaded resistance wire connected in
Wheatstone bridge as shown in fig.
At initial preload the strain and resistance of the four arms are
nominally equal with the result the output voltage of the bridge is
equal to zero.
410
 Application of pressure produces a small displacement , the
displacement increases a tension in two wire and decreases it in
the other two thereby increase the resistance of two wire which
are in tension and decreasing the resistance of the remaining two
wire .
 This causes an unbalance of the bridge producing an output
voltage which is proportional to the input displacement and
hence to the applied pressure .
411
 This class of strain gauge is only an extension of the bonded
metal wire strain gauges.
 The bonded metal wire strain gauge has been completely
superseded by bonded metal foil strain gauges.
 Metal foil strain gauge use identical material to wire strain gauge
and are used for most general purpose stress analysis application
and for many transducers.
412
METAL FOIL STRAIN GAUGE
413
RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
Resistance of metal increase with increases in temperature.

Therefore metals are said to have a positive temperature
coefficient of resistivity.
Fig shows the simplest type of open wire construction of
platinum résistance thermometer. The platinum wire is wound in
the form of spirals on an insulating material such as mica or
ceramic.
This assembly is then placed at the tip of probe
This wire is in direct contact with the gas or liquid whose
temperature is to be measured.
414
415
THERMISTOR
•Thermistor is a contraction of a term “thermal resistor”.
•Thermistor are temperature dependent resistors. They are

made of semiconductor material which have negative
temperature coefficient of resistivity i.e. their resistance
decreases with increase of temperature.
•Thermistors are widely used in applications which involve

measurement in the range of 0-60º. Thermistors are
composed of sintered mixture of metallic oxides such as
magnese, nickle, cobalt, copper, iron and uranium
416
417
•The thermistor may be in the form of beads, rods and discs.
•The thermistor provide a large change in resistance for small

change in temperature. In some cases the resistance of themistor
at room temperature may decreases as much as 6% for each 1ºC
rise in temperature.
418
Thermocouples
See beck Effect
When a pair of dissimilar metals are joined at one end, and there is a
temperature difference between the joined ends and the open ends,
thermal emf is generated, which can be measured in the open ends.
This forms the basis of thermocouples.
419
Typical Specifications
Handheld/Economy Industrial Grade

Measurable 0.2-20 m/s 0.2-90 m/s
velocities
Operating temp 0-50 °C -40-200 °C
ranges
Velocity ± 3% reading ± 1% reading
Accuracy
Time constant 200 ms 100 ms
Interfacing Handheld reader, RS232 RS232, RS485, voltage,
options 4-20 mA, Modbus,
Profibus, etc.
420
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL
TRANSFORMER(LVDT)
• AN LVDT transducer comprises a
coil former on to which three coils are
wound.
• The primary coil is excited with an
AC current, the secondary coils are
wound such that when a ferrite core is
in the central linear position, an equal
voltage is induced in to each coil.
• The secondary are connected in
opposite so that in the central position
the outputs of the secondary cancels
each other out.
421
LVDT
422
TRANSFORMER(LVDT)
• Movable soft iron core slides within
the hollow former and affects the
magnetic coupling between the
primary and the two secondaries
• When core is in normal (null)
position  equal voltage induced in
S1 and S2
• Frequency of the ac applied to the
primary winding ranges from 50 Hz
to 20 kHz
• Output voltage of S1 is ES1 and S2 is
ES2.
423
TRANSFORMER(LVDT)
When core is in normal (null) position 
• Transducer or differential output voltage Eo = ES1 ~ ES2.
• At normal position E0=0, because the flux linking with both
secondary windings is equal, hence equal EMF is induced in
them (i.e., ES1 = ES2)
424
TRANSFORMER(LVDT)
When core is moved to the left null position 
• More flux linking with S1 and Less with S2
• Output voltage ES1 > ES2
• Output voltage of secondary is then ES1-ES2, this is in phase
with ES1
When core is moved to the right null position 
• Flux linking with S2 becomes greater than S1.
• Output voltage, ES2 > ES1
• Eo = ES2 – ES1 and in phase with ES2.
425
TRANSFORMER(LVDT)
When core is moved to the right null position 
• The amount of voltage change in either secondary winding is
proportional to the amount of movement of the core.
• The amount of output voltage may be measured to determine the
displacement.
• The output signal may also be applied to a recorder or to a
controller that can restore the moving system to its normal
position.
• The output voltage of an LVDT is a linear function of the core
displacement within a limited range of motion (say 5 mm from
the null position).
426
TRANSFORMER(LVDT)
• LVDTs are available with ranges as low as ± 0.05 in. to as high as ±
25 in. and are sensitive enough to be used to measure displacements
of well below 0.001 in.
• They can be obtained for operation at temperatures as low as –
265°C and as high as + 600°C and are also available in radiation
resistance designs for nuclear operations.
427
Advantages of LVDT
1. Linearity The output voltage of this transducer is practically linear for
displacements upto 5 mm (a linearity of 0.05% is available in commercial
LVDTs).
2. Infinite resolution The change in output voltage is stepless. The effective
resolution depends more on the test equipment than on the transducer.
3. High output It gives a high output (therefore there is frequently no need for
intermediate amplification devices).
4. High sensitivity The transducer possesses a sensitivity as high as 40 V/mm.
5. Ruggedness These transducers can usually tolerate a high degree of vibration
and shock.
6. Less friction There are no sliding contacts.
7. Low hysteresis This transducer has a low hysteresis, hence repeatability is
excellent under all conditions.
8. Low power consumption Most LVDTs consume less than 1 W of power.
428
Disadvantages of LVDT
1. Large displacements are required for appreciable differential
output.
2. They are sensitive to stray magnetic fi elds (but shielding is
possible).
3. The receiving instrument must be selected to operate on ac
signals, or a demodulator network must be used if a dc output is
required.
4. The dynamic response is limited mechanically by the mass of the
core and electrically by the applied voltage.
5. Temperature also affects the transducer.
429
LVDT
Problem:
An ac LVDT has the following data.
Input = 6.3 V, Output = 5.2 V, range ± 0.5 in. Determine
(i) Calculate the output voltage vs core position for a core
movement going from + 0.45 in. to – 0.30 in.
(ii) The output voltage when the core is – 0.25 in. from the
centre.
Solution:
(i) 0.5 in. core displacement produces 5.2 V, therefore a 0.45 in.
core movement produces (0.45 x 5.2)/0.5 = 4.68 V.
Similarly a – 0.30 in. core movement produces
(– 0.30 x – 5.2)/(– 0.5) = – 3.12 V
(ii) – 0.25 in. core movement produces
(– 0.25 x – 5.2)/(– 0.5) = – 2.6 V
430
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
Three Coil mutual inductance device (LVDT)
431
Rotary Variable Differential Transformer
An RVDT is a type of electrical transformer used for measuring Angular

Displacement .
The RVDT construction is similar in construction to LVDT, except that a

cam-shaped core replaces the core in the LVDT as shown below.
432
What are thermocouples?
Thermocouples operate under

the principle that a circuit
made by connecting two
dissimilar metals produces a
measurable voltage (emf-
electromotive force) when a
temperature gradient is
imposed between one end and
the other.
They are inexpensive, small,

rugged and accurate when
used with an understanding of
their peculiarities.
433
See beck Effect
434
How thermocouples work
• It is generally reasonable
to assume that the emf is
generated in the wires,
not in the junction. The
signal is generated when
dT/dx is not zero.
• When the materials are
homogeneous, e, the
thermoelectric power, is
a function of temperature
only.
• Two wires begin and end Generally, a second order Eqn. is used.
at the same two E   (T  To )   (T  To )
2
temperatures.
435
How thermocouples work
• It is generally reasonable to assume that the emf is generated in the
wires, not in the junction. The signal is generated when dT/dx is not
zero.
• When the materials are homogeneous, the thermoelectric power, is a
function of temperature only.
• Two wires begin and end at the same two temperatures.
Generally, a second order Eqn. is used.
E   (T  To )   (T  To )
2
436
Material EMF vs Temperature
EMF
Chromel With reference to
the characteristics
of pure Platinum
Iron
Copper
Platinum-Rhodium
Temperature
Alumel
Constantan
437
Thermocouple Effect
• Any time a pair of dissimilar wires is joined
to make a circuit and a thermal gradient is
imposed, an emf voltage will be generated.
– Twisted, soldered or welded junctions are

acceptable. Welding is most common.
– Keep weld bead or solder bead diameter

within 10-15% of wire diameter
– Welding is generally quicker than soldering

but both are equally acceptable
438
The Piezoelectric Effect
 Piezoelectric effect is the generation of electric charge in

crystalline materials upon application of mechanical stress.
 The opposite effect is equally useful: application of charge
across the crystal causes mechanical deformation in the
material.
 The piezoelectric effect occurs naturally in materials such as
quartz ( SiO2 - a silicon dioxide)
 Has been used for many decades in so called crystal
oscillators.
439
The piezoelectric effect
 It is also a property of some ceramics and polymers

 The piezoelectric effect has been known since 1880
 First used in 1917 to detect and generate sound waves in
water for the purpose of detecting submarines (sonar).
 The piezoelectric effect can be explained in a simple model
by deformation of crystals
440
The piezoelectric effect
• Deformation in one direction (B) displaces the

molecular structure so that a net charge occurs as shown
(in Quartz crystal - SiO2)
• Deformation in a perpendicular axis (B) forms an

opposite polarity charge
441
Piezo-Electric Transducers
• Certain materials can produce an electrical potential when subjected to
mechanical strain or conversely, can change dimensions when subjected to
voltage. This effect is called ‘Piezoelectric effect'.
F
P iezoelectric
crystal O utput voltage
E= gtp
• The fig shows a piezoelectric crystal placed between two plate electrodes
and when a force ‘F’ is applied to the plates, a stress will be produced in
the crystal and a corresponding deformation.
442
Piezo-Electric Transducers
F
P iezoelectric
crystal O utp ut voltage
E= gtp
• The induced charge Q=d × F where ‘d’ is the piezoelectric constant.
• The output voltage E=g × t × p

where ‘t’ is crystal thickness,
‘p’ is the impressed pressure &
‘g’ is called voltage sensitivity
given by g=(d/e),
‘e’ being the strain.
443
Piezo-Electric Materials
• The common piezoelectric materials are quartz, Rochelle salt
(Potassium sodium tartrate), ammonium dihydrogen phosphate and
ordinary sugar.
• The desirable properties are stability, high output, insensitivity to
temperature and humidity and ability to be formed into desired
shape.
Piezoelectric transducers are used to measure surface

roughness, strain, force & torque, Pressure, motion & noise.
444
Piezo-Electric Materials
• Quartz is most suitable and is used in electronic oscillators. Its

output is low but stable.
• Rochelle salt provides highest output, but requires protection from

moisture in air & cannot be used above 45oC.
• Barium titanate is polycrystalline, thus it can be formed into a

variety of sizes & shapes.
445
Capacitive Transducer
Capacitance Pickup to measure liquid level (Changing
C ap acitan ce
dielectric constant)
• The fig. shows a device used for C en tral

electrode
the measurement of liquid level
H ollow tu b e
in a container.
• The capacitance between the Liq uid
central electrode and the O pen ing
surrounding hollow tube varies
with changing dielectric constant
brought about by changing liquid
level.
• Thus the capacitance between the electrodes is a direct indication of
the liquid level.
• Variation in dielectric constant can also be utilized for measurements
of thickness, density, etc.
446
(Torque meter)
S le e v e
In te rn a l m e m b e r A ir g a p
• Capacitance changes depending on the change in effective area.

• This principle is used in the secondary transducing element of a Torque
meter.
• This device uses a sleeve with serrations cut axially and a matching
internal member with similar serrations as shown in the above fig.
• Torque carried by an elastic member causes a shift in the relative positions
of the serrations, thereby changing the effective area.
• The resulting capacitance change may be calibrated to read the torque
directly.
447
(Capacitive Type Pressure Transducer)
• The capacitance varies inversely as the distance between the plates.
• The fig shows a capacitive type pressure transducer where the pressure
applied to the diaphragms changes the distance between the diaphragm &
the fixed electrode which can be taken as a measure of pressure.
Fixed electrode
C apacitance
C hange in
clearance 'd'
Pressure Diaphragm
448
Advantages of Capacitive Transducers
(1) Requires extremely small forces to operate and are highly sensitive
(2) They have good frequency response and hence useful for dynamic
measurements.
(3) High resolution can be obtained.
(4) They have high input impedance & hence loading effects are minimum.
(5) These transducers can be used for applications where stray magnetic fields
render the inductive transducers useless.
Disadvantages of Capacitive Transducers
(1) Metallic parts must be properly insulated and the frames must be earthed.
(2) They show nonlinear behaviour due to edge effects and guard rings must be
used to eliminate this effect.
(3) They are sensitive to temperature affecting their performance.
(4) The instrumentation circuitry used with these transducers are complex.
(5) Capacitance of these transducers may change with presence of dust particles &
moisture.
449
Magnetostrictive Transducers
Characteristics:
Magnetostrictive materials transduce or convert magnetic energy to
mechanical energy and vice versa.
If a magnetostrictive material is magnetized, it strains. Conversely, if
an external force produce a strain in a magnetostrictive material, the
magnetic state of the material will change.
Magnetostriction is an inherent material property that does not
degrade with time.
The principle of operation of these transducers depends on the
change of permeability of ferromagnetic materials, like Ni, when
they are subjected to strain.
450
Force
Magnetostrictive
Coil material probe
The schematic representation of An actual magnetostrictive

a magnetostrictive transducer transducer
451
Magnetostrictive Transducers
A simplistic representation of the strain and

magnetic induction observed in magnetostrictive
materials
452
Measurement of Shaft Torque:
A Popular Application
A.C. energized
(at 45o)
Torque Torque
Flux path
45o 45o
 An a.c. bridge circuit is employed, with two coils forming two arms.
 The voltage output of the a.c. bridge gives a measure of the torque applied.
453
Measurement of Physical
Parameters
454
HUMIDITY MEASUREMENT
• Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the air and

Humidity Measurement is a measure of relative amount
of water vapour present in the air or a gas.
• The humidity can be expressed in different ways:
– Absolute Humidity
– Relative Humidity
– Dew Point
455
HUMIDITY MEASUREMENT
• Devices that indirectly measure humidity by
sensing changes in physical or electrical
properties in materials due to their moisture
content are called hygrometers.
• The three major instruments used for measuring
humidity in industry are:
– The Electrical Hygrometer
– The Psychrometer
– The Dew Point Meter
456
RESISTANCE HYGROMETER
• This is an electrical hygrometer.

• It is an active transducer.
• These instruments are suitable for measuring moisture
levels between 15% and 95%.
• It has typical measurement uncertainty of 3%.
• Atmospheric contaminates and operation in saturation
conditions both cause characteristics drift.
457
PRINCIPLE OF RESISTANCE HYGROMETER
• Some Hygroscopic Salts exhibit a change in
resistivity with humidity.
• Resistive hygrometer humidity sensors use the
change in resistance of a hygroscopic material
between two electrodes on an insulating substrate.
• The hygroscopic salt is deposited between two
electrodes.
• The resistance of the element changes when it is
exposed to variations in humidity.
458
RESISTANCE HYGROMETER
• The Resistance Hygrometer should not be exposed

to conditions of 100% humidity as the resulting
condensation may damage the device.
• These are accurate to within ± 2.5 % or ± 1.5 % in
some cases.
• Response times are typically of the order of a few
seconds.
459
APPLICATIONS
Humidity sensors can be used not only to measure the

humidity in an atmosphere but also to automatically
control:
-> Humidifiers
-> Dehumidifiers
-> Air conditioners for adjustment.
460
Velocity Transducer
461
Velocity Transducer
• The system forms closed magnetic circuit with constant

air gap
• The entire unit is placed inside antimagnetic case, hence
the effects of stray magnetic fields are reduced.
• Damping is achieved by an electrical means. Under
varying temperature conditions, the system provides
high stability.
462
MOVING MAGNET TYPE VELOCITY TRANSDUCERS
463
LIQUID LEVEL MEASUREMENT
• Generally, there are two methods used in industries for

measuring liquid level.
These are
1. Direct Method
2. Indirect Method
• Direct method use the varying level of the liquid as a mean of

obtaining the measurement and the indirect method use a
variable that changes with the liquid level to accurate the
measuring mechanism.
464
1. DIRECT METHOD
This is the simplest method of measuring liquid level. In this

method, the level of the liquid is measured directly by means of the
following level indicators
i.Sight Glass / Gauge Glass

ii.Float Type / Float - Operated Level Gauges
iii.Torque Tube Displacer / Float Displacement Type Level Gauges
465
2. INDIRECT METHODS
Following are the indirect methods of liquid level measurement

generally used in industries.
i.Hydrostatic pressure type

ii.Electrical methods
iii.Ultrasonic level sensor
466
SIGHT GLASS / GAUGE GLASS
• Sight glass is used for the continuous indication of liquid level
within a tank or vessel.
• A sight glass instrument consists of a graduated tube of
toughened glass which is connected to the interior of the tank at
the bottom in which the water level is required.
467
Advantages
Direct reading is possible
Special designs are available for use up to 316°C and 10000 psi.
Glassless designs are available in numerous materials for corrosion
resistance.
Disadvantages
Overlapping gauges are needed for long level spans Accuracy and
readability depend on the cleanliness of glass and fluid
It is read only where the tank is located, which is not always
convenient.
468
FLOW MEASUREMENT
469
DEFINITION OF FLOW & FLUID TYPES
 Flow is the motion characteristics of constrained fluids (liquids or gases). It deals
with two things: how much (total) and how fast (rate)
 Viscosity: Dynamic or absolute viscosity (η) is measure of the resistance to a fluid
to deformation under shear stress, or an internal property of a fluid that offers
resistance to flow.
 Fluids may generally be divided into two types: Newtonian and Non-Newtonian
fluids.
 When held at a constant temperature, the viscosity of a Newtonian fluid will not
change regardless of the size of the shear force.
 When held at a constant temperature, the viscosity of a Non-Newtonian fluid will
change with relation to the size of the shear force, or will change over time under
a constant shear force.
470
REYNOLDS NUMBER
 The Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces to viscous

forces of fluid flow within a pipe and is used to determine
whether a flow will be
𝐷
laminar or turbulent.
where, RD = Reynolds number

V = average velocity
D = inside pipe diameter
ρ = density of flowing fluid
μ = absolute viscosity
471
UNITS OF FLOW
 The units used to describe the flow measured can be of several types
depending on how the specific process needs the information.
 Solids: Normally expressed in weight rate like Tonnes/hour,
Kg/minute etc.
 Liquids: Expressed both in weight rate and in volume rate.
Examples: Tonnes/hour, Kg/minute, litres/hour, litres/minute, m3/hour etc.
 Gases: Expressed in volume rate at NTP or STP like Std m3/hour,
Nm3/hour etc.
 Steam: Expressed in weight rate like Tonnes/hour, Kg/minutes etc.
Steam density at different temperatures and pressures vary.
 Hence the measurement is converted into weight rate of water which
is used to produce steam at the point of measurement.
472
TYPES OF FLOW
 Laminar Flow occurs at low Reynolds numbers, typically Re < 2000,

where viscous forces are dominant. Laminar flow is characterized by
layers of flow traveling at different speeds with virtually no mixing
between layers. The velocity of the flow is highest in the center of the pipe
and lowest at the walls of the pipe.
 Turbulent Flow occurs at high Reynolds numbers, typically Re > 4000,

where inertial forces are dominant. Turbulent flow is characterized by
irregular movement of the fluid in the pipe. There are no definite layers
and the velocity of the fluid is nearly uniform through the cross section of
the pipe. The flow is turbulent.
473
TYPES OF FLOW
 Turbulent Flow occurs at high Reynolds numbers, typically Re > 4000,

where inertial forces are dominant. Turbulent flow is characterized by
irregular movement of the fluid in the pipe. There are no definite layers
and the velocity of the fluid is nearly uniform through the cross section of
the pipe. The flow is turbulent.
 Transitional Flow typically occurs at Reynolds numbers between 2000 and

4000. Flow in this region may be laminar, it may be turbulent or it may
exhibit characteristics of both.
474
Bernoulli's Equation
 Bernoulli's principle says that a rise (fall) in pressure in a flowing

fluid must always be accompanied by a decrease (increase) in
the speed, and conversely, i.e. an increase (decrease) in the
speed of the fluid results in2 a decrease (increase) in the pressure.
2
𝜌 12 𝜌𝑣2
𝑣2 1 2
2
475
BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR FLOW
MEASUREMENT 8
 Ability to calibrate
 Ability to integrate flow fluctuations
 Easy integration with piping system
 High accuracy
 High turn-down ratio
 Low cost
 Low sensitivity to dirt particles
 Low pressure loss
 No moving parts
 Resistant to corrosion and erosion
476
FACTOR AFFECTING FLOW METER
PERFORMANCE
 Process Media – Gas/Liquid

 Temperature
 Velocity
 Viscosity
 Pressure
 Density
477
Introduction
Pressure is define as force divided by area. (exerts on solid,

gas, liquid)
P = F/A F = force in newton/ lb

A = area in m2/ in2
The unit of pressure is in Pa, psi, atm, bar, torr
1 psi = 6895 pa
1 bar = 105 Pa
1 atm = 101325 Pa
1 torr = 133.3 Pa
478
Static and Dynamic Pressure
Static pressure is the pressure of fluid or gases that are

stationary or not in motion.
Dynamic pressure is the pressure exerted by a fluid or gas

when it impacts on a surface or an object due to its
motion or flow.
479
Pressure Measurement
Absolute pressure is the pressure

measured wrt a vacuum (unit = Zero Pressure
psia)
Gauge pressure is the pressure Absolute
measured wrt atmospheric pressure Pressure due to Pressure at
Atmosphere point of
(unit = psig) interest
Atmospheric pressure is the

pressure on the earth’s surface due Gauge Pressure
at point of
to the weight of gases in the earth’s interest
atmosphere (14.7psi)
480
Types of Pressure measurements
Absolute pressure is measured relative to

a perfect vacuum (psia)
Gauge pressure is measured relative to

ambient pressure (psig)
Differential pressure is the difference in

pressure between two points of
measurement. (psid).
Note that the same sensor may be used for

all three types; only the reference is
different.
481
PRESSURE SENSING
Pressure
Pressure is sensed by mechanical elements

such as plates, shells, and tubes that are
designed and constructed to deflect when Sensing
pressure is applied. Element
This is the basic mechanism converting

displacement
pressure to physical movement.
Transduction
element
Next, this movement must be transduced to
obtain an electrical or other output. electric
Signal
Finally, signal conditioning may be needed, Conditioner
depending on the type of sensor and the
application. Figure 8 illustrates the three
functional blocks.
V or I output
482
SENSING ELEMENTS
The main types of sensing

elements are Bourdon tubes,
diaphragms, capsules, and
bellows
All except diaphragms provide

a fairly large displacement that
is useful in mechanical gauges
and for electrical sensors that
require a significant
movement
483
POTENTIOMETRIC PRESSURE SENSORS
 Potentiometric pressure
sensors use a Bourdon tube,
capsule, or bellows to drive a
wiper arm on a resistive
element.
 For reliable operation the
wiper must bear on the
element with some force,
which leads to repeatability
and hysteresis errors.
 These devices are very low
cost, however, and are used in
low-performance applications
such as dashboard oil pressure
gauges
484
Inductive Pressure Sensors
 Several configurations based on

varying inductance or inductive
coupling are used in pressure
sensors. They all require AC
excitation of the coil(s) and, if a
DC output is desired, subsequent
demodulation and filtering.
 The LVDT types have a fairly low

frequency response due to the
necessity of driving the moving
core of the differential transformer
 The LVDT uses the moving core to

vary the inductive coupling
between the transformer primary
and secondary. 485
CAPACITIVE PRESSURE SENSORS
 Capacitive pressure sensors typically use a thin diaphragm as

one plate of a capacitor.
 Applied pressure causes the diaphragm to deflect and the
capacitance to change.
 This change may or may not be linear and is typically on the
order of several picofarads out of a total capacitance of 50-100
pF.
 The change in capacitance may be used to control the frequency
of an oscillator or to vary the coupling of an AC signal through
a network.
 The electronics for signal conditioning should be located close
to the sensing element to prevent errors due to stray capacitance.
486
CAPACITIVE PRESSURE SENSORS
Capacitive Pressure Sensors

487
PIEZOELECTRIC PRESSURE SENSORS
Piezoelectric elements are bi-directional transducers capable of

converting stress into an electric potential and vice versa.
One important factor to remember is that this is a dynamic effect,
providing an output only when the input is changing.
This means that these sensors can be used only for varying
pressures.
The piezoelectric element has a high-impedance output and care
must be taken to avoid loading the output by the interface
electronics. Some piezoelectric pressure sensors include an internal
amplifier to provide an easy electrical interface.
488
Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors.
Piezoelectric sensors convert stress into an electric potential and vice versa.
Sensors based on this technology are used to measure varying pressures.
489
Strain Gauge Pressure Sensors
Strain gauge sensors originally used a metal diaphragm

with strain gauges bonded to it.
the signal due to deformation of the material is small, on

the order of 0.1% of the base resistance
Semiconductor strain gauges are widely used, both bonded

and integrated into a silicon diaphragm, because the
response to applied stress is an order of magnitude larger
than for a metallic strain gauge.
490
When the crystal lattice structure of silicon is deformed by applied
stress, the resistance changes. This is called the piezoresistive effect.
Following are some of the types of strain gauges used in pressure
sensors.
Deposited strain gauge. Metallic strain gauges can be formed on a

diaphragm by means of thin film deposition. This construction
minimizes the effects of repeatability and hysteresis that bonded strain
gauges exhibit. These sensors exhibit the relatively low output of
metallic strain gauges.
491
Bonded semiconductor strain gauge. A silicon bar may be

bonded to a diaphragm to form a sensor with relatively high
output. Making the diaphragm from a chemically inert material
allows this sensor to interface with a wide variety of media
492
Displacement measurement
There are a wide variety of devices used to measure
displacement
• Potentiometer
•Linear and Rotary Variable Differential Transformers
•Capacitive Displacement Sensors
•Linear Velocity Transducers
•Angular Displacement and Velocity Devices
493

Electronic Measurement and Instrumentation (Aecb32) (ECE) B.TECH V-Semester (IARE-R18) By, Dr. B. Surekha Reddy, Assistant Professor, ECE

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Electronic Measurement and Instrumentation (Aecb32) (ECE) B.TECH V-Semester (IARE-R18) By, Dr. B. Surekha Reddy, Assistant Professor, ECE

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ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENT AND

B.TECH V-Semester (IARE-R18)

The students will try to learn:

PSO 2 Focus on the practical experience of ASIC prototype

designs, Virtual Instrumentation and SOC designs

programming skills for entry level job positions to

Block schematics of measuring systems, performance

 Instrumentation is a technology of measurement which

 Instrument is a device for determining the value

 Electronic instrument is based on electrical or electronic

1) Transducer-convert a non electrical signal into an

3) Indicating device- indicates the value of quantity

 The 3 basic functions of instrumentation

 Indicating – visualize the process/operation

 Recording – observe and save the measurement

 Controlling – to control measurement and

Types of Performance Characteristics

 Performance characteristics of instruments can be

 That means, the instrument is capable of measuring the

 The characteristics of the instruments, which are used to

 The amount of delay present in the response of an

Types of Measurement Errors

 We can minimize the gross errors by following these

Now, let us discuss about these statistical parameters.

If the number of readings of a particular measurement are

 If the number of readings of a particular measurement

 Here, calculate the median value and it will be

 We can calculate the median value by using the

The above formula is valid if the number of readings, N is

 A permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) is one

 Hence Torque on left side of the cylinder TL = NBIL x

 Therefore the total torque will be = TL + TR

where A is effective area (A= LxW)

This torque is produced by the spring action and

The value of control torque depends on the mechanical

The controlling torque is directly proportional to the

Control torque Ct =Cθ

In PMMC as the coil moves in the magnetic field, eddy

• Also called Permanent-Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC).

• Can be used to indicate the value of DC and AC

• The meter requires low current (~50uA) for a full scale

• Its accuracy is about 2% -5% of full scale deflection

 Current is the rate of flow of electric charge. If this

 The instrument, which is used to measure the Direct

 The parallel resistance, which is used in DC ammeter is

 The value of this resistance should be considered small

 Mathematically, it can be written as

The KCL equation at node 1 is

Substitute the value of Ish in Equation 1.

A 1 mA meter movement having an

Place this multi range DC ammeter in series with the branch of

 Following are the formulae corresponding to each

 In above circuit, there are four shunt

 The circuit diagram of DC voltmeter is shown in below

We have to place this DC voltmeter across the two points of

 The ratio of full range DC voltage that is to be measured, V and

 From Equation 1, we will get the following equation for full

 The DC voltage drop across the galvanometer, Vm is

 Substitute, Equation 4 and Equation 5 in Equation 3.