Ch.

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Chapter

BEARINGS
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 What is a Bearing?
A bearing is a component which supports and locates a rotating
shaft, or which guides one component as it slides over another.
Furthermore, bearings are generally designed to permit relative
motion with minimal friction.
1.2 Types of Bearing
Bearings can easily be classified into either rolling element or
plain types. A rolling element bearing contains a number of rolling
elements (either balls or rollers) and these form the mechanical
link between the relative moving surfaces. A plain bearing has no
additional moving parts and relies upon large area surface
contact to permit sliding of one surface over another. Special
materials are used for the bearing surfaces to reduce friction and
wear. Within these two categories exist many further sub-
categories based upon construction, load direction and operating
conditions.
Bearings can also be classified according to the direction of the
load that they carry. A journal bearing supports a rotating shaft
and constrains radial motion; primarily it carries radial load. A
thrust bearing constrains axial shaft motion, and carries primarily
axial load. A linear bearing permits relative motion in a straight
line, and carries primarily perpendicular load.
2 THE BASICS OF ROLLING ELEMENT BEARINGS
2.1 The Operation of Rolling Element Bearings
A rolling element bearing is comprised of two races, between
which a number of rolling elements (balls or rollers) is held. The
rolling elements are themselves separated by a soft metal or
polymer cage, which ensures that they are evenly spaced around
the races. The area of contact between the rolling elements and
the races is very small, and hence the frictional resistance to

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motion of this type of bearing is also small, which is why they are
sometimes called anti-friction bearings.
In contrast to a plain bearing, where the relative motion at the
bearing faces is sliding, the relative motion in the case of a rolling
element bearing is rolling. This underlies the need for very
different construction materials. Rolling element bearings are
made of exceptionally hard bearing steels. This is because the
harder the material, the less the deformation caused by the
contact forces, hence the less the area of contact, and hence the
less the friction. Even though the principle of operation is one of
rolling, some sliding does still occur, and for this reason
lubrication of rolling element bearings is an important as it is for
plain bearings.
2.2 Types of Rolling Element Bearing
A fundamental distinction in types of rolling element bearing is
whether or not the bearing uses balls or rollers. Ball bearings tend
to be used for lower load, higher speed, unidirectional load
applications, whereas roller bearings tend to be used for higher
load, lower speed, multi-directional load applications. In general,
ball bearings are cheaper than rolling element bearings, they
offer lower frictional resistance, and they are more widely
available.
The operational and performance distinctions between ball and
roller bearings all stem from the differences in contact area that
they have between rolling elements and races. In theory, a
spherical ball on a circular raceway has a single point of contact,
whereas a circular section roller on a circular raceway has a line
of contact. This means that the load carried by a roller bearing is
spread over a greater area than that of a ball bearing, giving it a
greater load carrying and impact resistant capability, but also a
greater frictional resistance than an equivalent ball bearing.
Many type of ball and roller bearings exist. Simplest distinction
comes from whether they are intended for axial, radial or multi-
directional load transmission. Bearings intended for transmitting
primarily radial load are referred to as journal bearings, whereas
those for primarily axial load are termed thrust bearings.
Over a dozen different types of journal bearings exist, ranging
from the general purpose single row deep groove ball bearing, to
the specialist self-aligning spherical roller bearing. Similarly,
thrust bearings range from single row ball bearings to spherical
roller bearings. The selection of an appropriate bearing is itself a
whole field of study, but primary factors in the decision-making
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process include the relative ability to support radial and/or axial

load, the tolerance to misalignment, the speed range of
operation, and the available methods of location. There exists a
further specialist category of rolling element bearing called the
linear bearing, and again this represents a whole field in itself.
2.3 Constraint of Rolling Element Bearings
It is normal practice that a rolling element bearing is mounted so
that its rotating race is a press fit into housing or onto a shaft,
and its stationary race is a sliding fit. The specification of the fits
to use can be found in bearing handbooks and international
standards.
To permit thermal expansion during operation, without imposing
undesirable axial load on a bearing, it is normal practice on a two-
bearing shaft to have one bearing fixed axially and the other free
to move.
Bearings are normally fixed to a shaft with shaft nuts and tab
washers or with slotted nuts and split pins. Larger bearings may
be fixed to a shaft with an end plate. Other possibilities include
the use of an end cap, a circlip or a tapered adaptor / withdrawal
sleeve.
3 ROUTINE MAINTENANCE OF ROLLING ELEMENT
BEARINGS
3.1 Best Practice
The majority of best practice measures amount to little more than
good common engineering sense. They include appropriate
storage and handling, maintenance of cleanliness, and pre-
installation lubrication.
It is important when mounting and dismounting bearings that the
correct tools are used and that they are in good condition.
Makeshift arrangements or badly worn tools are likely to lead to
damage to the bearing or bearing assembly. Bearings should be
wrapped in oil-proof paper when not in use. Only clean solvents
and flushing oils should be used for bearing cleaning. Before
installing a rolling element bearing both the housing and shaft
should be carefully inspected for burrs, nicks and scratches that
may interfere with the fitting of the bearing. Bearings that are dry
and unlubricated or have not been cleaned should not be spun. If
compressed air is used to clean a bearing care should be taken to
avoid spinning the bearing. Cotton waste or dirty rags should not
be used to clean bearings, only clean, lint free rags.

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The slushing compound used to protect a bearing in storage need
not be removed if it is petroleum based unless it has gone hard or
become contaminated. The force applied when mounting or
dismounting a bearing should always be applied to the ring with
the interference fit - it should never be applied in such a way that
the force is transmitted through the rolling elements! Never strike
a bearing directly with a hammer or mallet or with a soft metal
drift. Remember that all sealed and shielded bearings must be
mounted cold. Bearings should never be heated with a naked
flame.
3.2 Tools and equipment
The maintenance of rolling element bearings requires specialised
tools and equipment without these many tasks are extremely
difficult. Mounting dollies and sleeves - When mounting bearings
which are a press fit it is important that pressure is applied
evenly. If the bearing is cocked due to uneven force then surfaces
can be damaged and the bearing ring distorted. A set of mounting
dollies and sleeves will ensure that bearings are driven home
evenly. Dollies and sleeves can be purchased directly from the
bearing manufacturers, or can be made up to suit a particular
application.
Hammers should be made from steel or soft material and should
be free from burrs. Copper or synthetic resin is suitable materials
for soft hammers but lead and tin should not be used. Wooden
mallets should not be used because of splinters. Only steel drifts
should be used and they should only be used for bending or
straightening tabs on locking washers or for driving shaft nuts. An
arbor press ensures that bearings are driven evenly especially
when the fit is tight. It should be used in preference to other
methods where practicable. Bearing pullers are essential for
dismounting. There are several types available. Pullers should be
maintained in good condition, so that they operate freely and the
claws are free of burrs. When handling large, heavy bearings it is
important to have suitable lifting gear available such as tongs or
slings.
Hook and impact spanners are needed for use with adapter
sleeve nuts, withdrawal nuts and shaft nuts. Modern induction
heaters are much cleaner and easier to use than an oil bath when
bearings have to be heated for a shrink fit. When induction
heaters are not available, the traditional oil bath should be used.
Various types of gauges are needed for measuring diametrical
clearances, housing bores and shaft diameters. Ordinary feeler
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gauges are sufficient for clearances but a special set of bore

gauges may be required for measuring the bore of housings.
Alternatively, standard inside and outside micrometers can be
used for measuring diameters. The listed tools are the minimum
required for bearing maintenance. Where bearings are mounted
on tapered shafts or on sleeves, hydraulic equipment may also be
required.
Where shafts have been provided with oil ducts, hydraulic
pressure can be used for mounting and dismounting both straight
bore and tapered bore bearings. Hydraulic force is supplied by an
oil injection pump. Hydraulic nuts consist of a nut that
incorporates a groove in which an annular piston moves when oil
pressure is built up behind it. Hydraulic nuts can be used for both
mounting and dismounting.
As well as the equipment already mentioned, there are a number
of standard items which may be required from time to time. The
following should be readily available: straight edge, marking blue,
dial gauge, plumb line solvent, clean rags, etc. Tools should be
kept clean, and in good condition. Bearings are precision items
and tools and equipment should therefore be maintained, handled
and stored accordingly.
3.3 Mounting procedures
Before starting the mounting procedure for any bearing, the
following points should be considered: Check the manufacturer's
drawing of the bearing arrangement. Ensure that it is clearly
understood. Establish which fit is the interference fit. Check that
the necessary tools and equipment are available after
determining the mounting procedure to be used. Select a suitable
working environment - clean and adequately lit. If an old bearing
is to be remounted make sure that it has been properly cleaned
and lightly lubricated. Protect the bearing in greaseproof paper
until ready for fitting. New bearings should be kept wrapped until
ready for fitting. Check that the bearing is the correct type and
size according to the manufacturer's recommendations. Check
that the shaft and bearing housing are clean and free from burrs
and other surface damage. Check the shaft and housing
dimensions to ensure that they are correct according to drawings.
Check shoulders and abutments for run-out - especially in the
case of thrust bearings. Run-out in the thrust face mounting will
cause rapid wear. It should be checked with a dial gauge.
Pre-lubrication

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Normally, rolling element bearings are not lubricated until after
they are mounted, although there may be exceptions, especially
when the bearings are inaccessible. For cold mounted bearings,
however, a light lubrication of the bearing seat and the shaft
journal and housing will assist in assembly. It is also good practice
where shaft nuts and adapter sleeve nuts are used for drive-up,
that the threads be lightly lubricated; so that they create
minimum resistance.
Selection of mounting method
The method to be used for mounting a bearing will depend on the
type and size of bearing and the mounting arrangement. The
manufacturer's instructions or service manual should be followed
where available. Bearings with a bore of 100mm (4") or less can
usually be cold mounted; larger bearings need to be heated. For
bearings with tapered bores, only very large bearings need to be
heated. Cylindrical bore bearings need to be mounted
mechanically whereas tapered bore bearings can be mounted
using hydraulic mounting tools. The following methods can be
considered as standard for mounting rolling element bearings. If
doubt exists as to which method should be used then equipment
and bearing manufacturers should be consulted.
A press is fine for small bearings with cylindrical bore. A sleeve
should be used between bearing and press which has flat, parallel
and burr-free end faces. Sleeve should bear on the interference fit
bearing ring. For cold mounting of all cylindrical bore bearings a
dolly or sleeve can be used. The sleeve must bear on the race
with interference fit and care should be taken to ensure that the
bearing is driven on smoothly and does not cock over. For small
and medium sized bearings up to 200mm (8") bore with tapered
bore, either a hook or impact spanner can be used with a drive
nut to drive bearing onto tapered shaft or an adapter sleeve.
When a drive nut is used in this manner the face of the nut facing
the bearing should be coated with a dry lubricant, such as
molybdenum disulphide, and the surface of the shaft or sleeve
coated with light oil.
A hydraulic nut can be used for bearings with tapered bores.
When oil is pumped into the nut the annular piston forces the
bearing on to the tapered seat until it reaches a shoulder or the
required amount of axial drive-up. The hydraulic nut should be
used in conjunction with a suitable oil pump and oil of viscosity
recommended by the manufacturer. Oil can be injected between
inner race and shaft to expand the bearing and reduce the
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friction, hence to make it easier to drive bearing onto seat. To be

able to use this method the shaft must have been specially
machined with an oilway and oil grooves to distribute the oil
between the bearing and the shaft. The viscosity of the oil and
the pressure developed by the pump should be determined with
the supplier of the equipment. Sometimes withdrawal sleeves are
also specially machined with oil ducts and can be used with oil
injection. For large bearings on tapered bore shafts or with
suitably machined withdrawal sleeves, oil injection can be used in
conjunction with a hydraulic nut.
For bearings with cylindrical bores and for large bearings with
tapered bores it may be necessary to heat the bearing. The
bearing should be heated to around 80°C to 90°C above the shaft
temperature but never to more than 120°C (250°F). The heating
apparatus should be close to the equipment and the hot bearing
should be pushed home quickly and smoothly before it cools
down or jams. An induction heater should be used where possible.
If an oil bath is used, the bearing should be heated with the oil
and not dropped into hot oil also it should be kept off the bottom
of the bath by a grate to prevent distortion. If these two heating
methods are not available then a hot plate or an oven may be
used. Whatever method is used a careful check must be kept on
the temperature of the bearing by using a surface thermometer.
When a bearing is an interference fit in the housing and it is
impossible to heat up the housing it may be necessary to cool the
bearing by submerging it in a bath of alcohol cooled by dry ice or
in a cryogenic liquid.
Special mounting considerations
Adjustment of tapered roller bearings - Tapered roller bearings
must be set up either with clearance or with a certain amount of
preload, depending on the manufacturer's instructions. The
simplest way to do this is to draw up the shaft nut or end plate
until there is no play in the bearings and drag becomes
noticeable. If end play is required then the shaft nut can be
backed off. If preload is required then it can be pulled up harder.
The adjustment can be measured by mounting a dial gauge
against a shaft shoulder or gear face. In an arrangement with
shims, once the play has been taken up the gap between the end
plate and shaft end can be measured with a feeler gauge and
either the end play added or the preload subtracted to establish
the correct thickness of shim pack.
Where clearance is required it is always wise to take a final check

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of end play with a dial gauge against a shaft shoulder. If a shaft
locking nut arrangement is involved then a final check of
clearance will be needed after the locking nut has been tightened
because this will force the shaft nut towards the bearing by an
amount equal to the clearance in the threads. For a bearing
mounted on a tapered bore, the degree of interference between
the inner ring and the shaft depends on how far the bearing is
driven up the tapered shaft. This dimension is known as axial
drive-up. In small spherical roller bearings, where clearances
cannot be measured, the axial drive-up is used as a measure of
the interference fit. Manufacturers' information should be
consulted for correct values of axial drive-up for different
bearings.
Measurement of clearances in spherical roller bearings
The internal clearance in a spherical roller bearing is greater than
in a ball bearing and can be measured with feeler gauges.
Spherical roller bearings are mounted on tapered seats, so as the
bearing is pushed on to the taper the inner ring expands and
reduces the internal clearance in the bearing. Hence the final
clearance is a direct function of the interference fit on the shaft.
Measurement of the clearance is useful in giving an indication of
the shaft fit. This can be accomplished as follows: Measure the
un-mounted radial clearance by standing the bearing on a clean
surface and rotating the inner ring to seat the rollers in the outer
ring. Then use a feeler gauge to establish the clearance between
the uppermost roller and the outer ring. Do this by inserting the
gauge between two top rollers and then rolling the roller under
the blade. Increase the feeler gauge thickness until the roller
traps the blade and cannot be withdrawn. When the bearing is
mounted on a tapered shaft or sleeve, the clearance must be
measured at the bottom instead of the top. As before, the outer
ring should be rotated a few times to ensure that the rollers are
properly seated and a feeler gauge inserted between the rollers
and the bottom of the outer ring.
With self-aligning ball bearings the clearances are too small to
measure with a feeler gauge. Normal practice is to tighten up the
shaft nut and to check the clearance by swivelling and rotating
the outer ring. When the clearances are correct the ring should
rotate freely but there should be some resistance to swivelling.
3.4 Dismounting procedures
The procedure used for dismounting a bearing will depend on the
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way in which the bearing is mounted and whether the

interference fit is on the shaft or in the housing. If the bearing is
to be re-used then its relative position should be marked before it
is dismounted i.e. which side is 'up' and which way does it face.
Whether the bearing is to be re-used or not care should be taken
not to damage the bearing during the dismounting process so
that the evidence of failure is not disturbed and it can be used to
establish cause of failure. The dismounting force, like the
mounting force, should always be applied to the ring with the
interference fit. Care should also be taken not to damage the
surface of the shaft or housing. The following methods are
commonly used.
Interference fit on the shaft - The most common method for
dismounting bearings with either a cylindrical bore or a tapered
bore is by the use of an outside puller. Bearings mounted on
shafts that have been machined with oil ducts can be dismounted
using the oil injection method. Interference fit in the housing -
When the bearing is an interference fit in the housing then the
bearing may have to be hammered off using a dolly or a soft
metal drift. Because of the tendency of soft metal drifts to chip
they should never be used for mounting. When dismounted in this
way bearings should be washed carefully before being re-used.
For bearings where the inner race can be swiveled, an inside
puller can be used.
Bearings on adapter sleeves - A hammer and dolly can be used
either to drive the bearing off the sleeve or to drive the sleeve
from under the bearing depending on which way round the sleeve
is mounted. The alternative is to use a hydraulic nut. Bearings on
withdrawal sleeves For small and medium sized bearings a hook
or impact spanner can be used to drive up a withdrawal nut to
force out the sleeve. To make the process easier, the threads and
faces of the withdrawal nut should be lubricated with
molybdenum disulphide. For large bearings, a hydraulic nut is
recommended. If the withdrawal sleeve is machined with oil ducts
then oil injection can be used in conjunction with the withdrawal
nut and an impact spanner. 4. Failure patterns
As with plain bearings, it is important to determine accurately the
cause of failure before a rolling element bearing is replaced. this
requires careful analysis of the symptoms of malfunction and
careful inspection of the failed components. Generally speaking,
malfunction and failure of rolling element bearings are caused by
much the same problems as affect plain bearings. The symptoms

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of failure can be classified into those noticed during operation and
those found on inspection. The evidence of failure differs to some
extent from that shown by plain bearings because of the physical
difference in construction.
4. OPERATING SYMPTOMS
Overheating
As the condition of a rolling element bearing deteriorates, the
frictional resistance to motion increases and the operating
temperature begins to rise. Unlike plain bearings, where almost
any change in condition tends to cause an increase in
temperature, only certain causes lead to overheating in rolling
element bearings. The two main causes of temperature rise are
inadequate lubrication and loss of internal clearance. Because of
the sliding contact between the surfaces of a plain bearing almost
any change in surface condition will increase the frictional
resistance to motion. But the rolling contact in a rolling element
bearing reacts rather differently. The temperature of a rolling
element bearing can be measured in the same way as a plain
bearing and again it is deviation from the normal running
condition that provides a warning of malfunction. A rise of 10°C
above normal running temperature is generally considered as
cause for alarm with a maximum allowable temperature for a
standard bearing being around 125°C (260°F).
Vibration
Unlike plain bearings, some vibration of rolling element bearings
is normal due to the action of the rolling elements themselves.
With rolling element bearings it is particularly important that a
vibration signature pattern is established. Deviation from the
healthy signature pattern can then be monitored to detect change
in condition of the bearing. The acceptable limits for measured
vibration vary with the size and type of machine. Really they are
machine specific but recommended values can be found. If
vibration levels are assessed by direct observation then
experience is required to determine the severity of the problem.
But an understanding of the principles of operation of the bearing
and the material characteristics should make it fairly obvious
vibration levels are becoming unacceptable. Vibration may
develop in a bearing because of defects in the bearing itself or it
may be transmitted to the bearing from other parts of the
machine or other adjacent equipment. Vibration produces rapid
and repeated blows on bearing surfaces and contributes, sooner
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or later, to fatigue failure of the bearing material. It can also

affect the properties of grease and damage bearing seals and
hence lead to loss of lubricant. When vibration is transmitted to a
stationary bearing it can cause fretting corrosion
Noise
As is the case with vibration, rolling element bearings generate
more noise under normal running conditions than do plain
bearings. The normal noise pattern may vary due to changes in
operating speeds and loads and, as with vibration patterns, a
signature should be established from which deviations can be
observed. Although noise can be measured with an acoustic
monitoring device, it is more usual for direct assessments to be
made by ear. Hence it is important to become familiar with
characteristic noises produced by different types of bearings and
the changes produced by different types of defects. E.g. dirt tends
to produce a crackling sound, and damage to the raceways
causes a high-pitched whine, while loss of lubricant causes a
squeaking sound. The most common aids used in the detection of
bearing noise remain the screwdriver and the stethoscope and
valuable information about bearing condition can be determined
this way.
Seizure
If noise, vibration and overheating are carefully monitored then
complete seizure should rarely occur. When it does, it may
indicate that overheating has reached the point where the
bearing metals have fused and the usual cause of this is lack of
lubrication. It is also possible for a very badly worn bearing to
seize due to displacement of the rolling elements. The failure of
the bearing cage or retainer can also cause the rolling elements
to jam. Symptoms found on inspection.
4.2 Symptoms found on inspection
Rolling element bearings also develop symptoms of malfunction
that can only be observed when the bearing is dismantled.
Careful observation of the bearing surfaces and other evidence is
essential if the precise cause of failure is to be established. The
only exception here is sealed bearings which are usually
discarded and replaced without investigation. The following
symptoms are commonly found as evidence of rolling element
bearing malfunction or failure.
Wear

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Rolling element bearings are not as susceptible to general wear
from adhesion and abrasion as plain bearings, because of the
rolling rather than sliding motion of the surfaces, but the
presence of foreign material will cause surface damage in the
form of scratching and scoring.
Fatigue
The rolling action of balls and rollers sets up an intermittent
transfer of load from one raceway to another and generates
cyclical stresses in the loaded area of the raceways. The
continuous deflection of the metal causes cracks to develop which
lead to flaking of the surfaces. As this condition worsens, the
metal breaks down further and grain displacement takes place.
This condition is known as spalling.
Fretting
Fretting corrosion or false brinelling is most likely to occur when a
rolling element bearing is dry and stationary. It is due to slight,
almost imperceptible motion between the contacting surfaces of
the rolling elements and raceways. Such motion may be
transmitted to the bearing from an external source or may come
from the machine itself. Fretting produces a characteristic red-
brown dust at the interface. Fretting corrosion is most lively to
occur when a machine is in transit or on stand-by.
Brinelling
True brinelling, which false brinelling or fretting is said to
resemble, consists of indentations in the raceways made by the
rolling elements when the bearing is subjected to shock loading
Pitting and fluting
A pitted or a fluted effect may appear as a result of stray electric
currents arcing across the contact surfaces. It is usual for the
pitting to develop first and if no action is taken to prevent further
damage this deteriorates further into a fluted or washboard
effect.
Smearing and galling
If the rolling elements fail to rotate properly and rub or slide over
the raceways then smearing may occur due to the surface of the
raceway 'picking up' on the rolling element.
Corrosion
Corrosion of bearing surfaces may be evident as pitting or
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spelling of bearing raceways. Rust and other corrosion products

may be present.
Wear patterns
The pattern or load zone produced on the internal surfaces of a
ball bearing can be an important clue to the cause of failure.
Although other types of bearings also generate specific loading
patterns they are much more difficult to analyze than ball
bearings. In order to benefit from the study of load zones it is
necessary to differentiate between normal and abnormal
patterns. The normal pattern to be expected from a bearing will
depend on the way the load is carried and whether it is the inner
or the outer ring that rotates.
4.3 Causes of failure
The same problems that cause malfunction and failure of plain
bearings also cause failure of rolling element bearings. Rolling
element bearings can also be affected by factors that do not
usually affect plain bearings due to their different configuration,
Thus the symptoms described above can result from one or more
of the following:
Dirt
As with plain bearings, the presence of dirt or other foreign
material in the bearing will cause excessive wear and premature
failure of a rolling element bearing. Cleanliness during assembly,
constant filtering of lubricants and well maintained seals will help
to avoid this problem.
Inadequate lubrication
The oil supply system is as critical for rolling element bearings as
for plain bearings and all the recommendations for maintaining an
adequate supply of the correct lubricant apply. Failure of the
system will lead to rapid deterioration in bearing condition due to
smearing and galling, and the likely seizure of the bearing. It is
generally recognised that inadequate lubrication is the single
most common cause of rolling element bearing failure.

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Improper assembly
If a rolling element bearing is not correctly assembled then rapid
wear will result from excessive or insufficient pre-loading,
misalignment or failure to secure the inner and outer rings
correctly. Abnormal wear patterns such as those described in the
previous section will result and also the likelihood of fatigue
failure is increased.
Misalignment
For rolling element bearings that do not have inherent self-
aligning features the alignment of shaft and housing can be
critical to the operation of the bearing. Cylindrical roller bearings
are the most susceptible to run-out and there are limits to the
tolerable run-out for all other types except self-aligning ball
bearings and spherical roller bearings. Wear patterns should be
studied carefully in order to establish evidence of misalignment
and squareness of the housing and shaft alignment should be
closely checked if doubt exists.
Overload
If a rolling element bearing is subjected to loads in excess of
those for which it was designed, then its life will be shortened and
early fatigue failure will occur. The reduction in life span can
generally be expected to be proportional to the cube of the load
increase. This means if the load were doubled then bearing life
would be reduced to approximately one-eighth of normal.
Overloading can also occur due to excessive speed which leads to
overheating of the bearing. High temperatures may affect the
properties of the lubricant and cause centrifugal throw-out of oil
and grease. Excessive wear will occur as the effectiveness of the
lubricant deteriorates, and at very high speeds fatigue life may be
reduced due to the increased loading which results from high
centrifugal forces acting on the rolling elements.
Moisture
The presence of water in a bearing, due to leakage into the
housing or condensation of moisture due to temperature changes,
can cause considerable damage from corrosion. Water may also
find its way into the bearing as a result of improper washing and
drying techniques used during inspection. In an oil lubricated
bearing, the presence of significant quantities of water will cause
emulsification of the lubricant.
Lubricant breakdown
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Oxidation of the lubricant may lead to the formation of acidic

compounds that may cause corrosion of bearing surfaces.
Sometimes lubricant additives may be incompatible with bearing
materials and also lead to corrosive attack.
Shock loading
Rolling element bearings are more susceptible to shock loading
than are plain bearings because of the point or line contact of the
rolling elements. Shock loads cause indentation of the raceways
and result in the brinelling effect.
Electric currents
Stray electric currents, even at very low voltages, can arc across
the lubricant film and lead to pitting and fluting. This is more
likely to occur with electrical machinery but can also occur in
other machines due to currents that build up statically and short
circuit to ground through the bearing. This type of problem may
also occur due to the incorrect positioning of earthing leads when
welding is being carried out on a machine.
External vibrations
Vibrations transmitted from other parts of a machine, or from
another machine altogether, can cause damage to a rolling
element bearing whether it is running or stationary. If a bearing is
in operation and is subjected to vibrations from an external
source then its fatigue life is likely to be reduced depending on
the severity of the vibrations. External vibrations transmitted to a
stationary bearing may produce fretting corrosion.
5 THE BASICS OF PLAIN BEARINGS
5.1 The Operation of Plain Bearings
The operation of a plain bearing relies on relative motion between
plain surfaces which are either cylindrical, in the case of journal
bearings, or flat, in the case of thrust or slider bearings. In order
that motion may occur with minimum resistance the effect of
friction between the two surfaces must be reduced as much as
possible. This is achieved by ensuring that the two surfaces are
smooth and by introducing a film of lubricant between them. In
some cases a bearing material which has self-lubricating
properties may be used, otherwise a separate supply of oil or
grease must be provided. For the best operation it is preferable
that full-film lubrication is achieved so that metal-to-metal contact
is eliminated. In some cases however, this may not be possible.

15
When loads are very high it is impossible for a lubricant to
maintain separation of the surfaces and even with extreme
pressure lubricants, only boundary lubrication can be achieved. In
the case of slider bearings, where positional accuracy of the
sliding element is required such as for machine tool carriages,
full-film lubrication is undesirable because the lubricant film tends
to vary in thickness. Hence boundary lubrication, which allows
some metal-tometal contact and thus more accurately locates the
sliding element, is preferable.
The material of a plain bearing is always softer than the material
of the shaft or slider it supports. This allows the bearing to wear
out rather than the shaft or slider. The design of plain bearing
assemblies is usually such that the bearing material itself can be
relatively easily replaced.
The key to satisfactory operation of a plain bearing is the
maintenance of the correct lubricant film. This is often assisted by
machined grooves in the bearing surface which act as reservoirs
and ensure even distribution of lubricant across the bearing
surface. The grooves are usually connected to the lubricant inlet
which is often located just ahead of the most highly loaded area
of the bearing.
One of the most important aspects of bearing operation is the
control of temperature. This may be achieved either by ensuring
an adequate flow of lubricant which acts as a coolant or by
surrounding the bearing with chambers in the housing through
which cooling water can circulate.
5.2 Types of Plain Bearing
Journal Bearings
A plain journal bearing is essentially a tube which encircles, either
totally or partially, a rotating shaft. The tube is normally held in a
fixed housing and provides a support for the shaft and allows it to
rotate with minimum resistance. There are two principal types of
plain journal bearings - solid and split. A solid bearing is usually
called a bushing when it is of the thin-walled type i.e. up to 2mm,
and a sleeve bearing when it is of the thick-walled type.
There are various types of split bearing but the most common
consists of two halves which together form a full circle. They are
used particularly for ease of shaft removal which can be
accomplished by removing the top half of the bearing only.
Similar to a split half bearing is a multipart bearing which is
 Ch. #01
B E A R I N G S I N T R O D U C T I O N

composed of more than two segments which fit together around

the journal to form a full circle.
A partial bearing is one which supports the shaft from the bottom
only and may comprise a half-circle or less. This type of bearing
can only be used when loads are relatively heavy and are
constant in direction.
Thrust Bearings
A plain thrust bearing supports the end thrust of a shaft and
restrains axial movement. The bearing surface itself consists of a
stationary surface in the form of a pad against which the rotating
element bears. The most common form of plain thrust bearing is
the thrust collar arrangement with the bearing face machined
with radial grooves as shown in Fig. 6-7.
Lubricant must be fed into the bearing at the inner diameter so
that lubricant flows outwards across the bearing face. Running
speeds are limited by lubricant viscosity.
A slight modification to the above is a profiled pad thrust bearing
where the pads are shaped to provide a convergent lubricant film
and help to form a hydrodynamic wedge. The pad may be profiled
to be unidirectional or bidirectional as shown below inFig. 6-8. In
order to meet these complex requirements, a range of special
materials that are used purely as bearing materials has been
developed.
Tilting pad thrust bearings are able to accomodate a large range
of speeds, loads, and lubricant. This is achieved by providing
pivoted protect the journal from wear and scoring. pads which can
assume a small angle with respect to the rotating collar surface,
and this makes sure that a full hydrodynamic film is maintained
between the surfaces.

17
Linear Bearings
Linear bearings, which are often called ways or guides, support
either linear or curvilinear motion and are often associated with
reciprocating mechanisms. There are various forms that linear
bearings can take, some of which are shown in Fig. 6- 1 0.
5.3 Plain Bearing Materials
The requirements of a plain bearing material are complex and, in
some senses, conflicting. For example, a bearing material must
be hard enough to resist wear and yet soft enough to conform to
the contours of the journal during the running-in process. A plain
bearing material must exhibit the following important
characteristics: Compressive strength to support unidirectional
loading without deformation. Fatigue strength to resist fluctuating
dynamic loadings. Embed ability To embed foreign matter and
viscosities. Conformability To tolerate misalignment and
deflection under load. Compatibility To tolerate momentary
metal-to-metal contact without seizure. corrosion resistance To
resist attack due to water or oxidized lubricant products.
A wide range of specialist materials is used in modern plain
bearings. White metal or babbitt alloys are tin or lead based
alloys. In general they are used in the form of a coating on a steel
bearing shell. Other materials include aluminium alloys, bronze
alloys (which can be more cost effective than other types because
they do not necessarily require a backing shell), and copper-lead
alloys.
6. ROUTINE MAINTENANCE OF PLAIN BEARINGS
6.1 Best Practice
There are a number of general considerations that relate to the
maintenance of plain bearings. Cleanliness is a keynote that must
be observed when handling bearings of any kind. Dust and dirt
particles should be kept away from bearing surfaces and all
bearing components should be kept dry and protected at all
times. Good alignment is essential to plain bearings without self-
aligning properties. When plain bearings are disassembled all
parts should be marked so that they can be reinstalled in their
original positions. The matching of parts during running-in makes
them unsuitable for operation in other positions. When fitting
plain journal bearings careful attention should be paid to the
correct tensioning of bolts. Bolting operations are normally
conducted by manufacturers with bolts tensioned to the same
 Ch. #01
B E A R I N G S I N T R O D U C T I O N

specification recommended in their maintenance instructions.

Incorrect tensioning may affect clearances and bearing crush. The
key to good bearing performance is having the correct clearances
and the correct lubricant. Bearing surfaces should be given
preliminary lubrication before the shaft is turned. The journal
surface or thrust collar should always be checked to ensure that it
is perfectly smooth. In the case of a journal, a micrometer should
be used to check the size so that replacement bearings will have
the correct i.d. (inside diameter).

6.2 Assembly of Plain Bearings

Bushes and sleeves may be either a press-fit or a shrink-fit in the
housing. In the case of a press-fit the following procedure should
be adopted. Check the dimensions of the bush and housing and
compare with manufacturer's recommendations to ensure they
are correct. Ensure that the mating surfaces are clean, smooth
and free of burrs. Press the bearing into the housing using an
arbor press if possible. Hammering should be avoided as this may
ruin the bearing. The bearing should be pressed in in one
continuous motion and a lubricant should be used. Check the
inside diameter of the bush to see if it has been reduced due to
'close-in' as a result of the press fit. Hone or ream the bush to the
recommended size.
In the case of a shrink-fit, the bearing can be assembled either by
heating the housing or by cooling the bearing. If the housing is
heated, care should be taken to ensure that heating is uniform so
that no warping or distortion occurs. Heat up should not be too
rapid and normally a temperature of around 100'C should provide
sufficient expansion. Avoid heating the housing any more than is
absolutely essential. If it is not convenient to heat the housing,
the bearing may be packed in dry-ice or chilled in a deep-freeze
unit before assembly. As in the case of a press-fit, it is advisable
to check the inside diameter of the bearing when temperatures
have returned to normal to ensure that it has not been reduced
due to close-in. When assembling split bearings it is vital that the
surfaces of the bearing and housing are clean. Especially check
between the bearing and housing and the joint faces of both the
bearing and housing. Also check the oil-ways and oil grooves. A
split bearing is provided with 'free spread' to ensure that both
halves assemble correctly and do not foul the shaft along the joint

19
line when bolted up. Free spread can be adjusted by tapping the
bearing gently with a wooden mallet.
Manufacturer's recommendations should be checked to determine
the amount of free spread allowed. To ensure that the bearing
inserts have good contact with the housing they are made so that
the inside diameter at right angles to the parting line is slightly
larger than the diameter across the parting line. This excess is
called crush and ensures that when the bearing is bolted up it will
be held securely and in full contact with the housing. The bearing
halves should be installed in the housing so that the crush is even
on both sides of the housing. Bolts should be torqued up
progressively and evenly on both sides.
6.3 Clearances in Plain Bearings
The correct adjustment of clearances is vital to the operation of
plain bearings. If clearances are insufficient then metal-to-metal
contact will occur causing excessive wear. If clearances are too
great then the hydrodynamic wedge will break down and also
cause metal-to-metal contact. In the case of journal bearings
there are several ways in which clearances can be checked.
Measurement of the inside diameter of the bearing and outside
diameter of the journal can be made with either a micrometer or
gauges. Care should be taken if using a micrometer, to take
readings in several positions.
A soft material that will deform easily, such as plastic thread, can
be inserted between the bearing and the journal before the bolts
are torqued up. After the bolts have been torqued and released
again, the flattened material can be compared with a suitably
prepared chart and the clearance read directly.
A third alternative is to insert lead or brass shims in between the
bearing and the housing. The shims are adjusted to the point
where the shaft turns easily but where an extra 0.025mm
(0.001") added to the thickness of the shim would cause it to jam.
Great care has to be taken not to damage the bearing surfaces if
this method is used. If, whatever method is used, some out-of-
roundness is found to exist, then it is the minimum clearance
which is critical. In the case of thrust bearings it is also important
to measure the end float to ensure that sufficient clearance exists
between the thrust collar and the bearing. This can be done by
forcing the shaft hard up in each direction and either measuring
the clearance at the thrust faces with gauges or shims or setting
up a dial gauge and reading against a suitable shoulder on the
 Ch. #01
B E A R I N G S I N T R O D U C T I O N

shaft.
6.4 Start-up of Plant
The following procedures should be adopted during the start-up of
new or reconditioned plain bearings. Before the shaft is run,
check the alignment with bearings in position. Bluing of the
journal will indicate whether the shaft is running true in the
bearing. If the wear spots are at one end of one of the bearing
halves and at the opposite end of the other, then misalignment is
indicated. Alignment should be corrected by shimming the
bearing housing. Once the alignment is true, pre-lubricate the
bearing surfaces before final assembly to ensure they do not start
up dry. Run the shaft and check for noise and vibration. Check
bearing temperatures every half hour for the first two or three
hours of operation. If temperatures are excessive, shut down the
machine and inspect the bearing surfaces for wear-in
characteristics. Further alignment or scraping may be required
before re-starting. Once the operation of the bearing is
satisfactory, ensure that it is regularly supplied with the correct
lubricant.
7. FAILURE OF PLAIN BEARINGS
7.1 Symptoms of Rolling Element Bearing Failure
Before replacing a damaged bearing it is important to know the
precise cause of failure so that the problem can be properly
corrected, otherwise similar failures may keep occurring due to
the same cause.
Bearing problems and failures can be analysed in terms of effects
or symptoms or in terms of causes. From the point of view of fault
detection it is useful to look first of all at symptoms and then to
trace the possible causes. Every failure is different in some
respects so it is extremely difficult to establish definite rules
about causes. The same symptom may result from many different
causes and systematic troubleshooting techniques are necessary
to eliminate all but the real cause. However, it is possible to
establish some general rules about the relationship between
symptoms and causes that can serve as a guide in the
troubleshooting process. There are two levels at which the
symptoms of bearing failure can be detected. The first is what
might be called the level of external symptoms which are
exhibited while the bearing is in operation. The second can be
called the level of internal symptoms which can only be observed
when the bearing is shut down, dismantled and inspected. When

21
the condition of a bearing begins to deteriorate, whatever the
cause, then it may exhibit one or all of the following symptoms:
Overheating
The temperature of a plain bearing during operation is a vital
indication of its condition. A properly lubricated bearing in good
condition should not generate excessive temperatures and should
run cool enough to touch. The most efficient way to check bearing
temperature is to use a portable sensing device and to measure
the normal running temperature of the bearing once it has been
run in. Routine checks at regular intervals will then show up any
sudden or dramatic increases from the base level. When using a
contact pyrometer or thermocouple to measure temperature it is
important to ensure that good contact is achieved at a position
that truly reflects the temperature of the bearing.
Vibration
A plain bearing in good condition should run very smoothly, even
more so than a rolling element bearing. As clearances increase,
some vibration may develop which will tend to accelerate the
deterioration of the bearing. As with temperature, hand contact is
usually sufficient to establish whether unnecessary vibration is
present. It is advisable where possible, and especially for critical
equipment items, to establish a normal operating level of
vibration using a vibration monitor (see Chapter 10) and to make
routine checks to establish when a deviation occurs. As with
temperature, a dramatic change in operating characteristics
indicates a need for further investigation.
Noise
A plain bearing should not produce high noise levels if it is in good
condition. If the noise level increases it may be due either to
misalignment or excessive wear. Foreign particles trapped in the
bearing may also cause noisy operation. In a reciprocating
mechanism the big and little end bearings produce a 'knocking'
sound when wear becomes excessive. Noise levels can be
measured independently although vibration monitoring is more
commonly used. Technicians should develop an 'ear' for the
sound of machinery so that changes in both level and
characteristics can be detected.
Seizure
Total seizure of a plain bearing is, of course, a symptom which
cannot be ignored. If the three characteristics referred to above
 Ch. #01
B E A R I N G S I N T R O D U C T I O N

are carefully monitored then seizure should not occur. Seizure is

usually a result of excessive temperature build-up due to lack of
lubrication and if temperatures are routinely checked then seizure
should be avoided. The danger in allowing undetected
deterioration to lead to ultimate seizure of a bearing is that such
a sudden catastrophic failure is likely to also cause severe
damage to the housing and other machine components. The
excessive temperature build-up can result in fire and the sudden
shutdown of the machine may cause severe or even disastrous
process problems.
Symptoms often occur simultaneously and the presence of one
often leads to the others appearing. This means that cross-checks
can be made to establish whether a problem exists. For example,
if it is suspected that the noise level is increasing, then a check on
operating temperature may confirm that the condition of the
bearing is deteriorating.
The operating symptoms alone rarely, if ever, provide sufficient
evidence for the exact cause of failure to be determined. It may
be possible, once the external symptoms of failure are detected,
to attribute them to the general cause of 'wear'and then merely
to proceed to replace the bearing and re-start the equipment.
This is a short-sighted approach however, and runs a strong risk
of a premature repetition of the same problem. In order to be
more precise about the cause of failure, it is necessary to
dismantle the bearing and inspect the bearing surfaces to
establish what internal symptoms exist. These can generally be
identified according to one of the following categories.
Wear
Any two surfaces that are in constant sliding contact, even though
properly lubricated, will eventually wear out. This process will, in
most cases, be apparent due to a general loss of metal across the
bearing surface. The bearing surface may still be reasonably good
and the wear only clearly evident by the increased clearances
established by a dimension check. Wear occurs due to a
combination of the processes of adhesion and abrasion.
Fatigue
Fatigue is caused by cyclical stressing due to fluctuating loads
and although not as common in plain bearings as in rolling
element bearings it can often occur when load or speed becomes
excessive.

23
Galling
Sometimes the adhesion due to cold welding of two surfaces in
contact becomes so great that grain displacement of the bearing
material takes place leaving pits or craters. This is usually
associated with high loads which cause excessive pressure
between points of contact.
Scoring
When excessive amounts of dirt or large dirt particles are present
due to contamination of the lubricant or because of abrasive wear
then scoring and erosion of the bearing surface will result.
 Ch. #01
B E A R I N G S I N T R O D U C T I O N

Wiping
When there is insufficient clearance in the bearing or overheating
occurs due to inadequate lubrication then a superficial melting of
the bearing surface and a flow of material occurs.
Fretting
Fretting is most likely to occur in plain bearing between the liner
and the housing when the interference fit is inadequate and slight
vibratory movement occurs. A characteristic fine brown debris of
oxidation material is the usual evidence of fretting or false
brinelling as it is sometimes called. Fretting may also occur
between the bearing surfaces while the shaft is stationary due to
vibrations transmitted from external sources.
Pitting
Local loss of metal in the form of pits or deep craters can result
from a number of causes. This can sometimes be due to stray
electric currents that arc across the bearing and cause pitting of
both the surface of the bearing and the journal.
Corrosion
Etching and surface discoloration are all evidence of corrosion.
7.2 Factors Causing Deterioration of Plain Bearings
There are several factors which experience has shown to be
common causes of plain bearing deterioration and failure.
Dirt Contamination
Ingress of dirt is probably the most common cause of plain
bearing failure. Dirt particles can become embedded in the
bearing surface and can then act an abrasive causing excessive
wear. It is also possible for dirt particles to be trapped between a
bearing shell and its housing, and this can distort the bearing with
consequent reduction in clearance and heat transfer. Dirt can
ingress into a bearing during assembly or via contaminated
lubricant, hence good maintenance practice and properly filtered
lubrication systems are very important.
Lubrication Problems
Oil starvation is a common cause of bearing failure and may occur
for various reasons. The period immediately after overhaul is
always critical and it is recommended that the lubrication system
be primed to ensure lubricant is present on initial start-up. The
lubrication system should be kept under close observation for the

25
period after start-up to ensure that pressures and temperatures
are established according to design. During normal operation,
several factors may affect the supply of oil. Leaks, oil pump
failure, blocked filters and blocked oil passages are all potential
problems. Care must be taken when installing bearing liners to
ensure that the oil hole is in line with the oil passage in the
housing. It should also be recognised that once a bearing
becomes badly worn the hydrodynamic wedge cannot be
effectively established and the wear rate will further increase due
to inadequate lubrication. Bearing failure may also occur due to
use of an unsuitable lubricant due either to error or poor
selection. Lubricant suppliers and equipment manufacturers
should be consulted if there is reason for concern about the
suitability of the lubricant used. Lubricants should be stored
properly and clearly marked so that the likelihood of error is
reduced.
Breakdown of the lubricant, because of the formation of organic
acids due to oxidation or the presence of specific elements in the
oil such as sulphur compounds, may lead to corrosion of the
bearing surfaces. An analysis of the lubricant after it has been in
service may be necessary to establish whether deterioration has
taken place. A review of the oil replacement period may be
sufficient to avoid recurring problems. This should be done in
consultation with the lubricant supplier.
Improper assembly
As well as ensuring that cleanliness is observed during the
assembly procedure, it is also important to ensure that the
bearing is assembled correctly in all other respects. The main
considerations are that the bearing should be fitted square and
secure in its housing and that it does not get physically damaged
during assembly. Failure to ensure proper assembly may result in
uneven or rapid wear and overheating.
Misalignment
If the journal is not properly aligned in the bearing uneven
bearing wear and possible damage to the journal will result. The
alignment procedures described earlier in this chapter should be
followed carefully. The alignment of shaft couplings should also
be checked to ensure that misalignment there does not affect the
true running of the journal in the bearing.
Overload
 Ch. #01
B E A R I N G S I N T R O D U C T I O N

Equipment overloads can occur for many different reasons and

are particularly likely to occur when extra output is required. The
most common symptoms of overload are overheating and fatigue.
When these are observed a review of operating conditions is
advisable in order to establish whether any overloading has
occurred. Increased speeds, feed rates, levels, operating
temperatures and pressures, etc. can all create overload
conditions which lead to machine elements such as bearings
having to perform above design limits. Moisture The presence of
water due to condensation or lack of effective sealing may cause
corrosion of the bearing surfaces and the formation of rust.

27