EMD Notes - Complete

B.
TECH IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

MASTER FILE
FOR
ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN

SUBJECT CODE: _________
SEMESTER –5
REVISION NO - 0
RELEASED ON – 01.06.20
PREPARED BY
KUMARESH PAL
(Ph.D. –pursuing, N.I.T., Jamshedpur
M.TECH – Power System & Control Engineering)
Assistant Professor
E.E.E. Dept.
Syllabus & Infrastructure
Prepared by: Mr. Kumaresh Pal
The course should enable the students to understand about the designing aspects, requirements,
limitations, properties of an electrical machine.
This course covers basic design principles of electrical machines. This course also provides an introduction
to the design of various DC and AC Machines and gives a general idea to the computer aided design of
Electrical machines. Students will be able to design main parameters of an electric machine such as
magnetic and electric loading, number of slots, winding dimensions. Thermal and structural design of
electric machines will be also covered. In addition to design, students will also learn how to estimate the
dynamic parameters of electric machines and understand what the implications of those parameters are on
performance of systems incorporating those machines.
DC machines & AC machines.
SL NO TITLE OF BOOK AUTHOR PUBLICATION

A course in Electrical Machine
1. A.K. Sawhney Dhanpat Rai, 6th Edition, 2013
design
Performance and Design of
2. M.G. Say CBS Publisher, 3rd Edition, 2002
Alternating Current Machines
A. Sanmugasundaram New Age International, 1st
3. Design Data Handbook
Edition, 2011
AJU- B.TECH IN ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS - SEMESTER 5 –ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN - REV 0 – 01.06. 020 2
CONTENTS
MODULE 1 Fundamental Aspects of Electrical Machine Design: Design of Machines, 8 Lecture

Design Factors, Limitations in design, Modern Trends in design,
manufacturing Techniques.
Electrical Engineering Materials: Desirabilities of Conducting Materials,
Comparison of Aluminium and Copper wires. Ferromagnetic Materials:
Soft Magnetic materials – Solid Core Materials, Electrical Sheet and Strip,
Cold Rolled Grain Oriented Steel. Insulating Materials: Desirable
Properties, Temperature Rise and Insulating Materials, Classification of
Insulating materials based on Thermal Consideration.
MODULE 2 Design of DC Machines: Output Equation, Choice of Specific Loadings and 8 Lecture
Choice of Number of Poles, Main Dimensions of armature, Design of
Armature Slot Dimensions, Commutator and Brushes. Estimation of
Ampere Turns for the Magnetic Circuit. Dimensions of Yoke, Main Pole
and Air Gap. Design of Shunt and Series Field Windings
MODULE 3 Design of Transformers: Output Equations of Single Phase and Three 8 Lecture
Phase Transformers, Choice of Specific Loadings, Expression for
Volts/Turn, Determination of Main Dimensions of the Core, Estimation of
Number of Turns and Conductor Cross Sectional area of Primary and
Secondary Windings, No Load Current. Expression for the Leakage
Reactance of core type transformer with concentric coils, and calculation
of Voltage Regulation. Design of Tank and Cooling (Round and
Rectangular) Tubes.
MODULE 4 Design of Three Phase Induction Motors: Output Equation, Choice of 8 Lecture
Specific Loadings, Main Dimensions of Stator. Design of stator slots and
Winding, Choice of Length Air Gap, Estimation of Number of Slots for
Squirrel Cage Rotor. Design of Rotor Bars and End Ring. Design of Slip Ring
rotor. Estimation of No Load Current and Leakage Reactance.
MODULE 5 Design of Three Phase Synchronous Machines: Output Equation, Choice 8 Lecture
of Specific Loadings, Short Circuit Ratio, Main Dimensions of Stator.
Design of stator slots and Winding. Design of Salient and non- salient Pole
Rotors. Magnetic Circuit and Field Winding
MODULE I
Content
FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRICAL MACHINE

DESIGN
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Factors for consideration in electrical machine design
1.3 Limitations in design
1.4 Materials for Electrical Machines
Introduction
The magnetic flux in all electrical machines (generators, motors and
transformers) plays an important role in converting or transferring the energy.
Field or magnetizing winding of rotating machines produces the flux while
armature winding supplies either electrical power or mechanical power. In case
of transformers primary wing supplies the power demand of the secondary.
The basic design of an electrical machine involves the dimensioning of the
magnetic circuit, electrical circuit, insulation system etc., and is carried out by
applying analytical equations.
A designer is generally confronted with a number of problems for which there
may not be one solution, but many solutions. A design should ensure that the
products perform in accordance with the requirements at higher efficiency,
lower weight of material for the desired output, lower temperature rise and
lower cost. Also they are to be reliable and durable.
A practical designer must effect the design so that the stock (standard frames,
punching etc.,) is adaptable to the requirements of the specification. The
designer must also affect some sort of compromise between the ideal design
and a design which comply with manufacturing conditions. A electrical
designer must be familiar with the,
a. National and international standards

Indian Standard (IS), Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS), India
British Standard (BS), England
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
NEMA (The National Electrical Manufacturers Association).
b. Specifications (that deals with machine ratings, performance requirements

etc., of the consumer)
c. Cost of material and labour
d. Manufacturing constraints etc.
As the design involves a number of assumptions and constraints, final design

values can be obtained only by iterative methods. Computer plays a vital role in
arriving at the final values. By Finite Element Method (FEM), the effect of a
single parameter on the dynamical performance of the machine can be studied.
Furthermore, some tests, which are not even feasible in laboratory setup, can be
virtually performed by Finite Element Method.
The design problems, that have been considered to solve in the latter chapters,
are of different nature from the design worked out in detail in respect of any
machine. However, these test problems provide adequate elementary skills in
design, which is an indication that a student has a fair knowledge to deal with
the entire design.
Factors for consideration in electrical machine design
The basic components of all electromagnetic apparatus are the field and
armature windings supported by dielectric or insulation, cooling system and
mechanical parts. Therefore, the factors for consideration in the design are,
1. Magnetic circuit or the flux path: Should establish required amount of

flux using minimum mmf. The core losses should be less.
2. Electric circuit or windings: Should ensure required emf is induced

with no complexity in winding arrangement. The copper losses should be
less.
3. Insulation: Should ensure trouble free separation of machine parts

operating at different potential and confine the current in the prescribed
paths.
4. Cooling system or ventilation: Should ensure that the machine operates

at the specified temperature.
5. Machine parts: Should be robust.
The art of successful design lies not only in resolving the conflict for space
between iron, copper, insulation and coolant but also in optimization of cost of
manufacturing, and operating and maintenance charges.
The factors, apart from the above, that requires consideration are
a. Limitation in design (saturation, current density, insulation, temperature rise

etc.)
b. Customer’s needs
c. National and international standards
d. Convenience in production line and transportation e. Maintenance and repairs
f. Environmental conditions etc.
Limitations in design
The materials used for the machine and others such as cooling etc., imposes a
limitation in design. The limitations stem from saturation of iron, current
density in conductors, temperature, insulation, mechanical properties,
efficiency, power factor etc.
a. Saturation: Higher flux density reduces the volume of iron but drives the
iron to operate beyond knee of the magnetization curve or in the region of
saturation. Saturation of iron poses a limitation on account of increased core
Prepared by: Mr.
Kumaresh Pal
loss and excessive excitation required to establish a desired value of flux. It
also introduces harmonics.
b. Current density: Higher current density reduces the volume of
copper but increases the losses and temperature.
c. Temperature: poses a limitation on account of possible damage to
insulation and other materials.
d. Insulation (which is both mechanically and electrically weak): poses
a limitation on account of breakdown by excessive voltage gradient,
mechanical forces or heat.
e. Mechanical strength of the materials poses a limitation particularly in
case of large and high speed machines.
f. High efficiency and high power factor poses a limitation on account
of higher capital cost. (A low value of efficiency and power factor on
the other hand results in a high maintenance cost).
g. Mechanical Commutation in dc motors or generators leads to poor
commutation.
h. Apart from the above factors Consumer, manufacturer or standard
specifications may pose a limitation.
Materials for Electrical Machines

The main material characteristics of relevance to electrical machines are those
associated with conductors for electric circuit, the insulation system necessary
to isolate the circuits, and with the specialized steels and permanent magnets
used for the magnetic circuit.
 Conducting materials
Commonly used conducting materials are copper and aluminum. Some of the
desirable properties a good conductor should possess are listed below.
1. Low value of resistivity or high conductivity
2. Low value of temperature coefficient of resistance
3. High tensile strength
4. High melting point
5. High resistance to corrosion
6. Allow brazing, soldering or welding so that the joints are reliable
7. Highly malleable and ductile
8. Durable and cheap by cost
For the same resistance and length, cross-sectional area of aluminum is 61%
larger than that of the copper conductor and almost 50% lighter than copper.
Though the aluminum reduces the cost of small capacity transformers, it increases the
size and cost of large capacity transformers. Aluminum is being much used now a days
only because copper is expensive and not easily available. Aluminum is almost 50%
cheaper than Copper.
 Magnetic materials
The magnetic properties of a magnetic material depend on the orientation of the
crystals of the material and decide the size of the machine or equipment for a
given rating, excitation required, efficiency of operation etc.
The some of the properties that a good magnetic material should possess are
listed below.
1. Low reluctance or should be highly permeable or should have a high
value of relative permeability μr.
2. High saturation induction (to minimize weight and volume of iron parts)
3. High electrical resistivity so that the eddy emf and the hence eddy current
loss is less
4. Narrow hysteresis loop or low Coercivity so that hysteresis loss is less
and efficiency of operation is high
5. A high curie point. (Above Curie point or temperature the material loses
the magnetic property or becomes paramagnetic, that is effectively non-
magnetic)
6. Should have a high value of energy product (expressed in joules / m3).
Magnetic materials can broadly be classified as Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic,

Ferromagnetic, Antiferromagnetic and Ferrimagnetic materials. Only
ferromagnetic materials have properties that are well suitable for electrical
machines. Ferromagnetic properties are confined almost entirely to iron, nickel
and cobalt and their alloys. The only exceptions are some alloys of manganese
and some of the rare earth elements.
The relative permeability μr of ferromagnetic material is far greater than 1.0.

When ferromagnetic materials are subjected to the magnetic field, the dipoles
align themselves in the direction of the applied field and get strongly
magnetized.
Further the Ferromagnetic materials can be classified as Hard or Permanent

Magnetic materials and Soft Magnetic materials.
a) Hard or permanent magnetic materials have large size hysteresis loop
(obviously hysteresis loss is more) and gradually rising magnetization curve.
Ex: carbon steel, tungsten steal, cobalt steel, alnico, hard ferrite etc.
b) Soft magnetic materials have small size hysteresis loop and a steep
magnetization curve.
Ex:
i) cast iron, cast steel, rolled steel, forged steel etc., (in the solid form).
-Generally used for yokes poles of dc machines, rotors of turbo alternator etc.,
where steady or dc flux is involved.
ii) Silicon steel (Iron + 0.3 to 4.5% silicon) in the laminated form.
Addition of silicon in proper percentage eliminates ageing & reduce core loss.
Prepared by: Mr.
Kumaresh Pal
Low silicon content steel or dynamo grade steel is used in rotating electrical
machines and are operated at high flux density. High content silicon steel (4 to
5% silicon) or transformer grade steel (or high resistance steel) is used in
transformers. Further sheet steel may be hot or cold rolled. Cold rolled grain
oriented steel (CRGOS) is costlier and superior to hot rolled. CRGO steel is
generally used in transformers.
c) Special purpose Alloys:
Nickel iron alloys have high permeability and addition of molybdenum or
chromium leads to improved magnetic material. Nickel with iron in different
proportion leads to
(i) High nickel permalloy (iron +molybdenum +copper or chromium), used in
current transformers, magnetic amplifiers etc.
(ii) Low nickel Permalloy (iron +silicon +chromium or manganese), used in
transformers, induction coils, chokes etc.
(iii) Perminvor (iron +nickel +cobalt)
(iv) Pemendur (iron +cobalt +vanadium), used for microphones, oscilloscopes,
etc. (v) Mumetal (Copper + iron)
d) Amorphous alloys (often called metallic glasses):
Amorphous alloys are produced by rapid solidification of the alloy at cooling rates of
about a million degrees centigrade per second. The alloys solidify with a glass-like
atomic structure which is non-crystalline frozen liquid. The rapid cooling is achieved
by causing the molten alloy to flow through an orifice onto a rapidly rotating water
cooled drum. This can produce sheets as thin as 10μm and a metre or more wide.
 Insulating materials
To avoid any electrical activity between parts at different potentials, insulation
is used. An ideal insulating material should possess the following properties.
1) Should have high dielectric strength.
2) Should with stand high temperature.
3) Should have good thermal conductivity
4) Should not undergo thermal oxidation
5) Should not deteriorate due to higher temperature and repeated heat cycle
6) Should have high value of resistivity (like 1018 Ω-cm)
7) Should not consume any power or should have a low dielectric loss angle δ
8) Should withstand stresses due to centrifugal forces (as in rotating machines),
electro dynamic or mechanical forces (as in transformers)
9) Should withstand vibration, abrasion, bending
10) Should not absorb moisture
11) Should be flexible and cheap
12) Liquid insulators should not evaporate or volatilize
Insulating materials can be classified as Solid, Liquid and Gas, and vacuum.
The term insulting material is sometimes used in a broader sense to designate
also insulating liquids, gas and vacuum.
Solid: Used with field, armature, transformer windings etc. The examples are:
1) Fibrous or inorganic animal or plant origin, natural or synthetic paper, wood,
card board, cotton, jute, silk etc.,
rayon, nylon, terelane, asbestos, fiber glass etc.,
2) Plastic or resins. Natural resins-lac, amber, shellac etc.,
Synthetic resins-phenol formaldehyde, melamine, polyesters, epoxy, silicon
resins, bakelite, Teflon, PVC etc
3) Rubber : natural rubber, synthetic rubber-butadiene, silicone rubber, hypalon,
etc.,
4) Mineral : mica, marble, slate, talc chloride etc.,
5) Ceramic : porcelain, steatite, alumina etc.,
6) Glass : soda lime glass, silica glass, lead glass, borosilicate glass
7) Non-resinous : mineral waxes, asphalt, bitumen, chlorinated naphthalene,
enamel etc.,
Liquid: Used in transformers, circuit breakers, reactors, rheostats, cables,

capacitors etc., & for impregnation. The examples are:
1) Mineral oil (petroleum by product)
2) Synthetic oil askarels, pyranols etc.,
3) Varnish, French polish, lacquer epoxy resin etc.,
Gaseous: The examples are:

1) Air used in switches, air condensers, transmission and distribution lines etc.,
2) Nitrogen use in capacitors, HV gas pressure cables etc.,
3) Hydrogen though not used as a dielectric, generally used as a coolant
4) Inert gases neon, argon, mercury and sodium vapors generally used for neon
sign lamps.
5) Halogens like fluorine, used under high pressure in cables.
Classification of insulating materials based on thermal consideration

The insulation system (also called insulation class) for wires used in generators,
motors transformers and other wire-wound electrical components is divided into
different classes according the temperature that they can safely withstand.
As per Indian Standard ( Thermal evaluation and classification of Electrical
Insulation,IS.No.1271,1985,first revision) and other international standard insulation is
classified by letter grades A,E,B,F,H (previous Y,A,E,B,F,H,C).
MODULE II
Content
DESIGN OF DC MACHINE
2.1 Details to be specified while ordering a DC machine
2.2 Size of the DC machine
2.3 Limitations in design
2.4 Separation of D2I product
2.5 Limitations of D & l
2.6 Choice of number of poles
2.7 Armature Windings
2.8 Details of Insulation
2.9 Armature Slots
2.1 DETAILS TO BE SPECIFIED WHILE ORDERING A DC
MACHINE OR CONSUMER’S SPECIFICATION
1. Output: kW (for generators), kW or Hp (for motors)
2. Voltage: V volt
3. Speed: N rpm
4. Rating: Continuous or Short time
5. Temperature rise: θ0C for an ambient temperature of 400C
6. Cooling: Natural or forced cooling
7. Type: Generator or motor, separately excited or self-excited-shunt, series, or
compound, if compound type of connection – long or short shunt, type of
compounding – cumulative or differential, degree of compounding – over,
under or level. With or without inter poles, with or without compensating
windings, with or without equalizer rings in case of lap winding.
8. Voltage regulation (in case of generators): Range and method
9. Speed control (in case of motors): range and method of control
10. Efficiency: must be as for as possible high (As the efficiency increases, cost
of the machine also increases).
11. Type of enclosure: based on the field of application – totally enclosed,
screen protected, drip proof, flame proof, etc.,
12. Size of the machine etc.,
2.2 SIZE OF THE DC MACHINE
The size of the DC machine depends on the main or leading dimensions of the
machine viz., diameter of the armature D and armature core length L. As the
output increases, the main dimensions of the machine D and L also increases.
Output Equation
E : emf induced or back emf
Ia : armature current
φ : Average value of flux / pole
Z : Total number of armature conductors
N : Speed in rpm
P : Number of poles
A : number of armature paths or circuits
D : Diameter of the armature
L : Length of the armature core
Power developed in the armature in KW
Prepared by: Mr.
Kumaresh Pal
The term Pφ represents the total flux and is called the magnetic loading.
Magnetic loading/unit area of the armature surface is called the specific
magnetic loading or average value of the flux density in the air gap Bav. That is,
The term (Ia Z/A) represents the total ampere-conductors on the armature and is
called the electric loading. Electric loading/unit length of armature periphery is
called the specific electric loading q. That is,
The above equation is called the output equation. The D 2L product represents
the size of the machine or volume of iron used. In order that the maximum
output is obtained/kg of iron used, D2L product must be as less as possible. For
this, the values of q and Bav must be high.
2.3 LIMITATIONS IN DESIGN

 Effect of higher value of q
Note: Since armature current Ia and number of parallel paths A are constants
and armature diameter D must be as less as possible or D must be a fixed
minimum value, the number of armature conductors increases as q = Ia Z / A π
D increases.
a. As q increases, number of conductors increases, resistance increases, I2R

loss increases and therefore the temperature of the machine increases.
Temperature is a limiting factor of any equipment or machine.
Prepared by: Mr.
Kumaresh Pal
b. As q increases, number of conductors increases, conductors/slot
increases, quantity of insulation in the slot increases, heat dissipation
reduces, temperature increases, losses increases and efficiency of the
machine reduces.
c. As q increases, number of conductors increases, armature ampere-turns

per pole ATa / pole = (Ia Z / 2 A P) increases, flux produced by the
armature increases, and therefore the effect of armature reaction
increases. In order to overcome the effect of armature reaction, field mmf
has to be increased. This calls for additional copper and increases the cost
and size of the machine.
d. As q increases, number of conductors and turns increases, reactance

voltage proportional to (turns)2 increases. This leads to sparking
commutation.
 Effect of higher value of Bav

a. As Bav increases, core loss increases, efficiency reduces.
b. As Bav increases, degree of saturation increases, mmf required for the
magnetic circuit increases. This calls for additional copper and increases
the cost of the machine.
It is clear that there is no advantage gained by selecting higher values of q and

Bav. If the values selected are less, then D 2L will be large or the size of the
machine will unnecessarily be high. Hence optimum value of q and Bav must be
selected.
In general q lies between 15000 and 50000 ampere-conductors/m.
Lesser values are used in low capacity, low speed and high voltage machines. In
general Bav lies between 0.45 and 0.75 T.
2.4 SEPARATION OF D2L PRODUCT
Knowing the values of kW and N and assuming the values of q and Bav, a value
for
Let it be 0.1 m3.
Since the above expression has two unknowns namely D and L, another
expression relating D and L must be known to find out the values of D and L.
Usually a value for the ratio armature core length L to pole pitch is assumed to
separate D2L product. The pole pitch τ refers to the circumferential distance
Prepared by: Mr.
Kumaresh Pal
corresponding one pole at diameter D. In practice L /τ lies between 0.55 and
1.1.
Therefore L = (0.55 to 1.1) τ

= (0.55 to 1.1) π D / P
If L/τ = 1.0 and P = 4,
then L = 1.0 × π D / P
= 1.0 × π D / 4
= 0.785D.
Therefore D2 × 0.785 D = 0.1 or D = 0.5m.

Thus L = 0.785 × 0.5 = 0.395 m.
2.5 LIMITATIONS OF D AND L
As the diameter of the armature increases, the peripheral velocity of the

armature v = π DN/60 m/s, centrifugal force and its effects increases. Therefore
the machine must be mechanically made robust to withstand the effect of
centrifugal force. This increases the cost of the machine. In general for normal
construction, peripheral velocity should not be greater than
30 m/s as for as possible.
To prevent arcing between commutator segments, voltage between the
commutator segments should not be greater than about 20V on open circuit. If a
single turn coil is used then the voltage/conductor e = Bav L v should not be
more than 10 V.
(Bav – Average value of flux density in the air gap in tesla, L – Length of the
conductor or gross armature core length in metre and v – Peripheral velocity of
armature in m/s).
2.6 CHOICE OF NUMBER OF POLES

The different factors affecting the choice of number of poles be discussed based
on the use of more number of poles:
1. Frequency
As the number of poles increases, frequency of the induced emf f = PN/120
increases, core loss in the armature increases and therefore efficiency of the
machine decreases.
2. Weight of the iron used for the yoke

Since the flux carried by the yoke is approximately φ /2 and the total flux φ T =
p φ is a constant for a given machine, flux density in the yoke
It is clear that Ay is ∝ 1/P

as By is also almost constant for a given iron. Thus, as the number of poles
increases, Ay and hence the weight of iron used for the yoke reduces.
3. Weight of iron used for the armature core (from the core loss point of
view)
Since the flux carried by the armature core is φ /2, eddy current loss in the
armature core
∝ BC2f2
∝ 1/P0.6 / 1.6 decreases as the number of poles increases for a given hysteresis
loss. Thus the weight of iron used for the armature core reduces as the number
of poles increases.
4. Weight of overhang copper

For a given active length of the coil, overhang ∝ pole pitch π D/P goes on
reducing as the number of poles increases. As the overhang length reduces, the
weight of the inactive copper used at the overhang also reduces.
5. Armature reaction
Since the flux produced by the armature φ a = AT a / pole
reluctance
Prepared by: Mr.
Kumaresh Pal
and armature ampere turns ATa / pole = Ia Z / 2AP is proportional to 1 / P, φa
reduces as the number of poles increases. This in turn reduces the effect of
armature reaction.
6. Overall diameter
When the number of poles is less, ATa / pole and hence the flux, produced by
the armature is more. This reduces the useful flux in the air gap. In order to
maintain a constant value of air gap flux, flux produced by the field or the field
ampere-turns must be increased. This calls for more field coil turns and size of
the coil defined by the depth of the coil df and height of the coil hf increases.
As the pole height, is proportional to the field coil height, height of the pole and
hence the overall diameter of the machine increases with the increase in height
of the field coil.
Obviously as the number of poles increases, height of the pole and hence the
overall diameter of the machine decreases.
7. Length of the commutator

The length of the commutator Lc reduces as the number of poles increases.
8. Flash over
As the number of poles increases, voltage between the segments
E = voltage between positive and negative brushes increases.
number of segments/pole
Because of the increased Eb number of segments/pole value of Eb and carbon

dust collected in the space where the mica is undercut, chances of arcing
between commutator segments increases. The arc between the segments in turn
may bridge the positive and negative brushes leading to a dead short circuit of
the armature or flash over.
9. Labour charges
As the number of poles increases cost of labour increases as more number of
poles are to be assembled, more field coils are to be wound, placed on to the
pole, insulate, interconnect etc.
SELECTION OF NUMBER OF POLES:
As the armature current increases, cross sectional area of the conductor and
hence the eddy current loss in the conductor increases. In order to reduce the
eddy current loss in the conductor, cross-sectional area of the conductor must be
made less or the current / path must be restricted.
While selecting the number of poles, the following conditions must also be
considered as far as possible.
a. Frequency of the armature induced emf f = PN/120 should as for as possible
between 25 and 50 Hz.
b. Armature ampere turns / pole = IaZ / 2AP should not be greater than 10000.
2.7 ARMATURE WINDINGS

The armature winding can broadly be classified as concentrated and distributed
winding.
In case of a concentrated winding, all the conductors / pole is housed in one
slot. Since the conductors / slot is more, quantity of insulation in the slot is
more, heat dissipation is less, temperature rise is more and the efficiency of
operation will be less. Also emf induced in the armature conductors will not be
sinusoidal. Therefore
a. design calculations become complicated (because of the complicated
expression of non- sinusoidal wave).
b. Core loss increases (because of the fundamental and harmonic components of
the non- sinusoidal wave) and efficiency reduces.
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Kumaresh Pal
c. Communication interference may occur (because of the higher frequency
components of the non-sinusoidal wave).
Hence no concentrated winding is used in practice for a DC machine armature.
In a distributed winding (used to overcome the disadvantages of the

concentrated winding), conductors / pole is distributed in more number of slots.
The distributed winding can be classified as single layer winding and double
layer winding.
In a single layer winding, there will be only one coil side in the slot having any
number of conductors, odd or even integer depending on the number of turns of
the coil. In a double layer winding, there will be 2 or multiple of 2 coil sides in
the slot arranged in two layers. Obviously conductors / slot in a double layer
winding must be an even integer.
A double layer winding can further be classified as simplex or multiplex and lap
or wave winding.
CHOICE BETWEEN A LAP AND WAVE WINDING
Since emf induced or back emf

E=φZNP
60A
, number of armature conductors Z = 60EA
φ NP
= KA for given value of E, N and Pφ. K is a constant. Therefore Z lap= KP
Zwave = K2 and Zlap= Zwave. It is clear that the number of conductors, coils and
commutator segments in a lap winding is more than that of a wave winding for
the same number of turns/coil in both cases.
While selecting the type of winding the following conditions must also be
considered as for as possible.
i) Commutator segment pitch τc = (π x diameter of the commutator Dc)
number of commutator segments
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Kumaresh Pal
should not be less than 4mm. Otherwise the segments becomes
mechanically week.
ii) Voltage between the commutator segments Eb on open circuit

= emf induced x P
number of segments
should not be more than 20V. Otherwise arcing between the segments
might result. Obviously voltage / conductor should not be greater than
10V on open circuit.
NUMBER OF ARMATURE CONDUCTORS
Since the emf induced or back emf

E = φ ZNP, number of armature conductors Z = 60 EA
60A φ NP
where φ = Bav π DL. For a preliminary design emf induced can be taken as the
P
terminal voltage in case of a generator and back emf can be taken as the applied
voltage in case of a motor.
The number of armature conductors can also be calculated by considering the
specific electric loading. In that case Z = q A π D/ Ia . The number of
conductors must be an even integer.
2.8 DETAILS OF INSULATION
Desirable properties of a good insulator:

1. Should have a high dielectric strength
2. Should withstand a high temperature
3. Should have a high resistivity
4. Should not absorb moisture
5. Should have a low dielectric hysteresis loss
6. Should withstand vibration, abrasion, bending
7. Should be flexible and cheap.
No insulating material in practice satisfies all the desirable properties. Therefore

materials which satisfy most of the desirable properties must be selected. Based
on the temperature withstanding ability, the insulating materials have been
classified as indicated below according to ISI (now BIS) – 1271, 1985, first
revision.
Class of Y A E B F H C
insulation
Maximum 90 105 120 135 155 180 >180
temp. °C
Class Y: Cotton, silk, paper, wood, cellulose, fiber etc., without impregnation or
oil immersed.
Class A: The material of class Y impregnated with natural resins, cellulose
esters, insulating oils etc., and also laminated wood, varnished paper etc.
Class E: Synthetic resin enamels of vinyl acetate or nylon tapes, cotton and
paper laminates with formaldehyde bonding etc.
Class B: Mica, glass fiber, asbestos etc., with suitable bonding substances, built
up mica, glass fiber and asbestos laminates.
Class F: The materials of Class B with more thermal resistance bonding
materials.
Class H: Glass fiber and asbestos materials and built up mica with appropriate
silicone resins.
Class C: Mica, ceramics, glass, quartz and asbestos with binders or resins of
super thermal stability.
Insulation on conductors:
In practice, the most important factor influencing the structure of the insulation
is the rated voltage of the machine. Based on the rated voltage, electrical
machines can be divided into high voltage and low voltage machines. A low
voltage machine is a machine the rated voltage of which is below 1000V.
Insulation on the conductors serves as an inter-turn insulation and may be
enamel, cotton (single cotton covered SCC or double cotton covered DCC),
rayon, silk, glass fiber, asbestos etc.
Addition of insulation to
a. Round wires or conductors – (0.015 to 0.075) mm for enamel covering
- (0.2 to 0.35) mm for dcc
b. Strip or rectangular conductors – (0.06 to 0.15) mm for enamel
For commercial voltages (up to 1000V) enameled wires are generally used.
2.9 ARMATURE SLOTS
TYPES OF SLOTS
The slots can be open, semi-closed or closed type. Slots may be parallel sided
or tapered (varying width). The tooth may also be of parallel sided or tapered.
Whenever a double layer winding is used, slots of parallel sided (or of constant
slot width) are to be used.
Plain un-notched slots or slots without wedge portion are used only for low
capacity machines. In this case the coils are restricted from coming out of the
slot by the use of steel binding wires. This type of slots is used only in machines
where the peripheral velocity is not more than about
25 m/s. For machines of higher peripheral velocity ear notched slots or slots
with lip and wedge portions are used.
Since wide open slots increases the reluctance of the air gap and causes the flux
to pulsate in comparison with the closed or semi closed slots, open slots are not
preferable. But open slots offers the advantage of placing the coils into the slots
and removing them from the slots easily for repair. Also coils can be fully
insulated or tapped before being placed into the slots.
With semi closed slots, the coils are to be placed into the slots, turn by turn and
therefore it is time consuming and expensive.
With closed slots, preformed coil placement and removal is very difficult and
hence no closed slots are used in practice.
In general open type of slots is used in case of high capacity machines and semi
closed slots in case of medium and low capacity machines.
NUMBER OF ARMATURE SLOTS
In order to decide what number of slots (more or less) is to be used, the

following merits and demerits are considered.
1. As the number of slots increases, cost of punching the slot increases, number
of coils increases and hence the cost of the machine increases.
2. As the number of slots increases, slot pitch

λs = (slot width bs + tooth width bt)
= πD/ number of slots S
decreases and hence the tooth width reduces. This makes the tooth
mechanically weak, increases the flux density in the tooth and the core loss in
the tooth. Therefore efficiency of the machine decreases.
If the slots are less in number, then the cost of punching & number of coils
decreases, slot pitch increases, tooth becomes mechanically strong and
efficiency increases, quantity of insulation in the slot increases, heat dissipation
reduces, temperature increases and hence the efficiency decreases.
It is clear that not much advantage is gained by the use of either too a less or
more number of slots.
As a preliminary value, the number of slots can be selected by considering the
slot pitch. The slot pitch can assumed to be between (2.5 and 3.5) cm.
The selection of the number of slots must also be based on the type of winding
used, quality of commutation, flux pulsation etc.
When the number of slot per pole is a whole number, the number slots
embraced by each pole will be the same for all positions of armature. However,
the number teeth per pole will not be same.
This causes a variation in reluctance of the air gap and the flux in the air gap
will pulsate. Pulsations of the flux in the air gap produce iron losses in the pole
shoe and give rise to magnetic noises. On the other hand, when the slots per
pole is equal to a whole number plus half the reluctance of the flux path per
pole pair remains constant for all positions of the armature, and there will be no
pulsations or oscillations of the flux in the air gap.
To avoid pulsations and oscillations of the flux in the air gap, the number of
slots per pole should be a whole number plus half.
To obtain good commutation, the flux density in the air gap must decrease
gradually from maximum value under the center of the pole to zero on the
center line between two poles, and the flux densities near the neutral point must
be low. A field form that drops off rapidly from maximum value to zero not
only leads to commutation difficulties but may also give rise to noises in
Prepared by: Mr.
Kumaresh Pal
machines with slotted armatures. In order to achieve good commutation the
pole shoe is designed to cover only certain percentage of the pole pitch.
The circumferential distance covered by the pole shoe on the armature surface
is called the pole arc. The ratio of the pole arc to pole pitch is called per unit
embrace or enclosure. That is, per unit enclosure ψ= Pole arc ≤ 1.0. In practice
Pole pitch
ψ lies between 0.6 and 0.7.
Rule to select the number of slots:
1. From satisfactory commutation point of view, minimum number of slots /

pole can be taken as 9.
2. To avoid flux pulsation, slots / pole should be an (integer + ½).
3. Slot pitch λs = π D/S can assumed to lie between 2.5 and 3.5 cm.
4. For a lap winding, number of slots may be multiple of number of poles P or
number of pair of poles p (p=P/2) so that equalizer rings can used.
5. For a wave winding, number of slots should not be a multiple of number of
pair of poles p and should lead to a particular number of coils that makes the
commutator or average pitch Yc = [(C ±plex) / p], an integer.
Size of the armature slots

Width and depth of the slot depends on the number of conductors per slot, cross
sectional area of the conductor, rated voltage etc.
2.10 DESIGN OF COMMUTATOR AND BRUSHES
The Commutator is an assembly of Commutator segments or bars tapered in

section. The segments made of hard drawn copper are insulated from each other
by mica or micanite, the usual thickness of which is about 0.8 mm. The number
of commutator segments is equal to the number of active armature coils.
Prepared by: Mr.
Kumaresh Pal
The diameter of the commutator will generally be about (60 to 80)% of the
armature diameter. Lesser values are used for high capacity machines and
higher values for low capacity machines.
Higher values of commutator peripheral velocity are to be avoided as it leads to

lesser commutation time ‘dt’.
The commutator peripheral velocity vc = π DC N / 60 should not as for as

possible be more than about 15 m/s. (Peripheral velocity of 30 m/s is also being
used in practice but should be avoided whenever possible.)
The axial length of the commutator depends on the space required:

1) by the brushes with brush boxes
2) for the staggering of brushes
3) for the margin between the end of commutator and brush and
4) for the margin between the brush and riser and width of riser.
The different losses that are responsible for the temperature rise of the
commutator are (a) brush contact loss and (b) brush frictional loss.
The voltage drop / brush set depend on the brush material – Carbon, graphite,
electro graphite or metalized graphite. The voltage drop / brush set can be taken
as 2.0 V for carbon brushes.
Brush frictional loss (due to all the brush arms)

= frictional torque in Nm × angular velocity
Prepared by: Mr.
Kumaresh Pal
In order to ensure a continuous supply of power and cost of replacement of
damaged or worn out brushes is cheaper, a number of subdivided brushes are
used instead of one single brush.
Staggering of Brushes:
Because of the current flowing from commutator segments to the brush, copper
is eaten away leading to formation of ridges between the subdivided brushes of
the same brush arm. Since it is not possible to avoid eating away copper by the
arc, eating away of copper must be made to take place over the entire axial
length of the commutator to ensure uniform commutator surface. This is
achieved by displacing all the positive brushes in one direction and all the
negative brushes in the other direction or by staggering of brushes in pairs as
shown below.
Brush materials and their properties:
MODULE III
Content
3.1 Design of Three Phase Transformer
SPECIFICATIONS
1. Output-kVA
2. Voltage-V1/V2 with or without tap changers and tapings
3. Frequency-f Hz
4. Number of phases – One or three
5. Rating – Continuous or short time
6. Cooling – Natural or forced
7. Type – Core or shell, power or distribution
8. Type of winding connection in case of 3 phase transformers – star-star, star-
delta, delta-delta, delta-star with or without grounded neutral
9. Efficiency, per unit impedance, location (i.e., indoor, pole or platform
mounting etc.), temperature rise etc.,
OUTPUT EQUATIONS
a. Single phase core type transformer

Rating of the transformer in kVA = V1I1 x 10-3 = E1I1 x 10-3
= 4.44 φm f T1 x I1 x 10-3 …. (1)
b. Single phase shell type transformer

Rating of the transformer in kVA = V1I1 x 10-3 = E1I1 x 10-3
= 4.44 φm f T1 x I1 x 10-3 …(1)
[Note: Since there are two windows, it is sufficient to design one of the two
windows as both the windows are symmetrical. Since the LV and HV windings
are placed on the central leg, each window accommodates T1 and T2 turns of
both primary and secondary windings.]
c. Three phase core type transformer

Rating of the transformer in kVA = V1I1 x 10-3 = E1I1 x 10-3 = 3 x 4.44 φm f T1
x I1 x 10-3 …(1)
[Note: Since there are two windows, it is sufficient to design one of the two
windows, as both the windows are symmetrical. Since each leg carries the LV
&HV windings of one phase, each window carry the LV & HV windings of two
phases]
Since each window carries the windings of two phases, area of copper in the
window, say due to R & Y phases
d. Three phase shell type transformer

Rating of the transformer in kVA = 3V1I1 x 10-3
= 3E1I1 x 10-3
= 3 x 4.44 φm f T1 x I1 x 10-3 … (1)
[Note: Since there are six windows, it is sufficient to design one

of the six windows, as all the windows are symmetrical. Since
each central leg carries the LV and HV windings of one phase,
each window carries windings of only one phase.]
Since each window carries LV and HV windings of only one

phase,
Usual values of current and Flux density:

The value of current density depends on the type of cooling-natural or forced.
Upto 25000KVA natural cooling is adopted in practice. The current density lies
between 2.0 and 3.2 A/mm2 for natural cooling and between 5.3 and 6.4
A/mm2 for forced cooling.
The flux density lies between 1.1 and 1.4 T in practice.
Note: To solve the output equation, KVA = 2.22 or 3.33 or 6.66 f δ A iBm AwKw
x 10-3 having two unknowns Ai and Aw, volt per turn equation is considered.
Volt / turn equation

Rating of the transformer per phase kVA / ph = V1I1 x 10-3 = E1I1 x 10-3
= 4.44 φm f T1 I1 x 10-3
The term φm is called the magnetic loading and I1T1 is called the electric
loading. The required kVA can be obtained by selecting a higher value of φm
and a lesser of I1T1 or vice-versa.
As the magnetic loading increases, flux density and hence the core loss
increases and the efficiency of operation decreases. Similarly as the electric
loading increases, number of turns, resistance and hence the copper loss
increases. This leads to reduced efficiency of operation. It is clear that there is
no advantage by the selection of higher values of I1T1 or φm. For an
economical design they must be selected in certain proportion. Thus in practice
Where K = 4.44 f x 103 x Kt is another constant and kVA is the rated output of
the transformer. The constant K depends on the type of transformer-single or
three phase, core or shell type, power or distribution type, type of factory
organization etc.,
Emperical values of K:
(1.0 to 1.2) for single phase shell type
1.3 for three-phase shell type (power)
(0.75 to 0.85) for single phase core type
(0.6 to 0.7) for three phase core type (power)
0.45 for three-phase core type (distribution)
Core Design
Since the core has to be of laminated type, circular core is not practicable as it calls for more
number of different size laminations and poses the problem of securing them together is in
position. However, a circular core can be approximated to a stepped core having infinite
number of steps. Minimum number of steps one and the number of steps in practice is limited
to a definite number. Whenever a stepped core is employed a circular coil is used.
Leg or limb section details:
Note : As the number of steps increases, the diameter of the circumscribing circle reduces.
Though the cost of the core increases, cost of copper and size of the coil or transformer
reduces.
Winding details:
Since the applied voltage V1 is approximately equal to the voltage induced,

E1 = 4.44 φm f T1 = Et T1
Number of primary turns (or turns / phase) T1 = V1 / Et in case of single phase
transformers
= V1ph / Et in case of 3 phase transformers
Number of secondary turns (or turns / phase) T2 = V2/ Et in case of single
phase transformers
= V2ph / Et in case of 3 phase transformers
Primary current (or current/phase) I1 = kVA x 103 / V1 in case of single phase
transformers
= kVA x 103 / 3V1ph in case of 3 phase transformers
Cross-sectional area of primary winding conductor a1 = I1/ δ mm2
Secondary current (or current / phase) I2 = kVA x 103 / V2 in case of single
phase transformers
= kVA x 103 / 3V2ph in case of 3 phase transformers
Cross-sectional area of secondary winding conductor a2 = I2/ δ mm2
Knowing the number of turns and cross-sectional area of the primary and
secondary winding conductors, number of turns/layer in a window height of Hw
and number of layers in a window width of Ww can be found out.
No-load current of a transformer:
The no-load current I0 is the vectorial sum of the magnetizing current Im and
core loss or working component current Ic.
Note:
1. In case of a transformer of normal design, the no load current will generally
be less than about 2% of the full load current.
2. No load power factor Cos φ0 = Ic/I0 and will be around 0.2.
3. Transformer copper losses:
a) The primary copper loss at no load is negligible as I0 is very less.
b) The secondary copper loss is zero at no load, as no current flows in the
secondary winding at no load.
4. Core or iron loss:
Total core loss = core loss in legs + core loss in yokes.
The core loss can be estimated at design stage by referring to graph of core
loss/kg versus flux density.
Core loss in leg = loss/kg in leg x weight of leg in kg
= loss / kg in leg x volume of the leg (AiHw) x density of steel or iron used
Core loss in yoke = loss/kg in Yoke x volume of yoke (A y x mean length of the
yoke) x density of iron used
The density of iron or steel used for the transformer core lies between 7.55 to
7.8 grams/cc.
DESIGN OF TANK AND TUBES

Because of the losses in the transformer core and coil, the temperature of the
core and coil increases. In small capacity transformers the surrounding air will
be in a position to cool the transformer effectively and keeps the temperature
rise well within the permissible limits. As the capacity of the transformer
increases, the losses and the temperature rise increases. In order to keep the
temperature rise within limits, air may have to be blown over the transformer.
This is not advisable as the atmospheric air containing moisture, oil particles
etc., may affect the insulation. To overcome the problem of atmospheric
hazards, the transformer is placed in a steel tank filled with oil. The oil conducts
the heat from core and coil to the tank walls. From the tank walls the heat goes
dissipated to surrounding atmosphere due to radiation and convection. Further
as the capacity of the transformer increases, the increased losses demands a
higher dissipating area of the tank or a bigger sized tank. This calls for more
space, more volume of oil and increases the cost and transportation problems.
To overcome these difficulties, the dissipating area is to be increased by
artificial means without increasing the size of the tank. The dissipating area can
be increased by
1. fitting fins to the tank walls
2. using corrugated tank
3. fitting tubes to the tank and
4. using auxiliary radiator tanks
Since the fins are not effective in dissipating heat and corrugated tank involves
constructional difficulties, they are not much used now a days. The tank with
tubes are much used in practice. Tubes in more number of rows are to be
avoided as the screening of the tank and tube surfaces decreases the dissipation.
Hence, when more number of tubes are to be provided, a radiator attached with
the tank is considered. For much larger sizes forced cooling is adopted.
MODULE IV
Content
3.1 Design of Three Phase Induction Motor
Prepared by: Mr.
Kumaresh Pal
Induction motors are the ac motors which are employed as the prime movers in
most of the industries. Such motors are widely used in industrial applications
from small workshops to large industries. These motors are employed in
applications such as centrifugal pumps, conveyers, compressors crushers, and
drilling machines etc.
Constructional Details:
Similar to DC machines an induction motor consists of a stationary member
called stator and a rotating member called rotor. However the induction motor
differs from a dc machine in the following aspects.
1. Laminated stator
2. Absence of commutator
3. Uniform and small air gap
4. Practically almost constant speed
The AC induction motor comprises two electromagnetic parts:

• Stationary part called the stator
• Rotating part called the rotor
The stator and the rotor are each made up of

• An electric circuit, usually made of insulated copper or aluminum winding, to
carry current
• A magnetic circuit, usually made from laminated silicon steel, to carry
magnetic flux
The stator
The stator is the outer stationary part of the motor, which consists of
• The outer cylindrical frame of the motor or yoke, which is made either of
welded sheet steel, cast iron or cast aluminum alloy.
• The magnetic path, which comprises a set of slotted steel laminations called
stator core pressed into the cylindrical space inside the outer frame. The
magnetic path is laminated to reduce eddy currents, reducing losses and heating.
• A set of insulated electrical windings, which are placed inside the slots of the
laminated stator. The cross-sectional area of these windings must be large
enough for the power rating of the motor. For a 3-phase motor, 3 sets of
windings are required, one for each phase connected in either star or delta. Fig 1
shows the cross sectional view of an induction motor. Details of construction of
stator are shown in Fig .
The rotor
Rotor is the rotating part of the induction motor. The rotor also consists of a set
of slotted silicon steel laminations pressed together to form of a cylindrical
magnetic circuit and the electrical circuit. The electrical circuit of the rotor is of
the following nature
Squirrel cage rotor consists of a set of copper or aluminum bars installed into
the slots, which are connected to an end-ring at each end of the rotor. The
construction of this type of rotor along with windings resembles a ‘squirrel
cage’.
Wound rotor consists of three sets of insulated windings with connections
brought out to three slip rings mounted on one end of the shaft. The external
connections to the rotor are made through brushes onto the slip rings.
The main purpose of designing an induction motor is to obtain the complete

physical dimensions of all the parts of the machine as mentioned below to
satisfy the customer specifications. The following design details are required.
1. The main dimensions of the stator.
2 Details of stator windings.
3. Design details of rotor and its windings
4. Performance characteristics.
Output Equation:
Choice of Specific loadings
Specific Magnetic loading or Air gap flux density

Iron losses largely depend upon air gap flux density
Limitations:
Flux density in teeth < 1.8 Tesla
Flux density in core 1.3 – 1.5 Tesla
Advantages of Higher value of Bav

• Size of the machine reduced
• Cost of the machine decreases
• Overload capacity increases
For 50 Hz machine, 0.35 – 0.6 Tesla. The suitable values of Bav can be selected
from design data hand book.
Specific Electric loading

Total armature ampere conductor over the periphery
Advantages of Higher value of q
• Reduced size
• Reduced cost
Disadvantages of Higher value of q

 Higher amount of copper
• More copper losses
• Increased temperature rise
• Lower overload capacity
Normal range 10000 ac/m – 450000 ac/m.
Choice of power factor and efficiency
Choice of power factor and efficiency under full load conditions will increase
with increase in rating of the machine. Percentage magnetizing current and
losses will be lower for a larger machine than that of a smaller machine. Further
the power factor and efficiency will be higher for a high speed machine than the
same rated low speed machine because of better cooling conditions. Taking into
considerations all these factors the above parameters will vary in a range based
on the output of the machine. Similar to Bav and q, efficiency and power factor
values can be selected from Design data hand book.
Separation of D and L
The output equation gives the relation between D2L product and output of the
machine. To separate D and L for this product a relation has to be assumed or
established. Following are the various design considerations based on which a
suitable ratio between gross length and pole pitch can be assumed.
i. To obtain minimum over all cost 1.5 to 2.0
ii. To obtain good efficiency 1.4 to 1.6
iii. To obtain good over all design 1.0 to 1.1
iv. To obtain good power factor 1.0 to 1.3
As power factor plays a very important role the performance of induction
motors it is advisable to design an induction motor for best power factor unless
specified. Hence to obtain the best power factor the following relation will be
usually assumed for separation of D and L.
Peripheral Speed
For the normal design of induction motors the calculated diameter of the motor
should be such that the peripheral speed must be below 30 m/s. In case of
specially designed rotor the peripheral speed can be 60 m/s.
Design of Stator
Stator of an induction motor consists of stator core and stator slots.
Stator slots: in general two types of stator slots are employed in induction
motors viz, open clots and semiclosed slots. Operating performance of the
induction motors depends upon the shape of the slots and hence it is important
to select suitable slot for the stator slots.
(i) Open slots: In this type of slots the slot opening will be equal to that of the
width of the slots as shown in Fig 10. In such type of slots assembly and repair
of winding are easy. However such slots will lead to higher air gap contraction
factor and hence poor power factor. Hence these types of slots are rarely used in
3Φ induction motors.
(ii) Semiclosed slots: In such type of slots, slot opening is much smaller than
the width of the slot as shown in Fig 10 and Fig 11. Hence in this type of slots
assembly of windings is more difficult and takes more time compared to open
slots and hence it is costlier. However the air gap characteristics are better
compared to open type slots.
(iii) Tapered slots: In this type of slots also, opening will be much smaller than
the slot width. However the slot width will be varying from top of the slot to
bottom of the slot with minimum width at the bottom as shown in Fig. 10.
Selection of number of stator slots: Number of stator slots must be properly

selected at the design stage as such this number affects the weight, cost and
operating characteristics of the motor. Though there are no rules for selecting
the number of stator slots considering the advantages and disadvantages of
selecting higher number slots comprise has to be set for selecting the number of
slots. Following are the advantages and disadvantages of selecting higher
number of slots.
Advantages :
(i) Reduced leakage reactance.
(ii) Reduced tooth pulsation losses.
(iii) Higher over load capacity.
Disadvantages:
(i) Increased cost
(ii) Increased weight
(iii) Increased magnetizing current
(iv) Increased iron losses
(v) Poor cooling
(vi) Increased temperature rise
(vii) Reduction in efficiency
Turns per phase

EMF equation of an induction motor is given by Eph = 4.44fΦTphkw
Hence turns per phase can be obtained from emf equation Tph = Eph/ 4.44fΦkw
Generally the induced emf can be assumed to be equal to the applied voltage
per phase Flux/pole, = Bav x πDL/P, winding factor kw may be assumed as
0.955 for full pitch distributed winding unless otherwise specified.
Number conductors /phase, Zph = 2 x Tph, and hence Total number of stator
conductors Z = 6
Tph and conductors /slot Zs = Z/Ss or 6 Tph/Ss, where Zs is an integer for single
layer winding and even number for double layer winding.
Conductor cross section:
Area of cross section of stator conductors can be estimated from the stator
current per phase and suitably assumed value of current density for the stator
windings.
Sectional area of the stator conductor as = Is / δs where δs is the current density

in stator windings
Stator current per phase Is = Q / (3Vph cos Φ)
A suitable value of current density has to be assumed considering the

advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of higher value of current density:

(i) reduction in cross section
(ii) reduction in weight
(iii) reduction in cost
Disadvantages of higher value of current density

(i) increase in resistance
(ii) increase in cu loss
(iii) increase in temperature rise
(iv) reduction in efficiency
Hence higher value is assumed for low voltage machines and small machines.
Usual value of current density for stator windings is 3 to 5 amps.
Area of stator slot: Slot area is occupied by the conductors and the insulation.
Out of which almost more than 25 % is the insulation. Once the number of
conductors per slot is decided approximate area of the slot can be estimated.
Slot space factor = Copper area in the slot /Area of each slot
This slot space factor so obtained will be between 0.25 and 0.4.
Size of the slot: Normally different types of slots are employed for carrying
stator windings of induction motors. Generally full pitched double layer
windings are employed for stator windings. For double layer windings the
conductor per slot will be even. These conductors are suitably arranged along
the depth and width of the winding. Stator slots should not be too wide, leading
to thin tooth width, which makes the tooth mechanically weak and maximum
flux density may exceed the permissible limit. Hence slot width should be so
Prepared by: Mr.
Kumaresh Pal
selected such that the flux density in tooth is between 1.6 to 1.8 Tesla. Further
the slots should not be too deep also otherwise the leakage reactance increases.
As a guideline the ratio of slot depth to slot width may assumed as 3 to 5. Slot
insulation details along the conductors are shown in Fig.
Length of the mean Turn:

Length of the mean turn is calculated using an empirical formula
lmt = 2L + 2.3 τp + 0.24
where L is the gross length of the stator and τp is pole pitch in meter.
Design of Rotor:
There are two types of rotor construction. One is the squirrel cage rotor and the
other is the slip ring rotor. Most of the induction motor are squirrel cage type.
These are having the advantage of rugged and simple in construction and
comparatively cheaper. However they have the disadvantage of lower starting
torque. In this type, the rotor consists of bars of copper or aluminum
accommodated in rotor slots. In case slip ring induction motors the rotor
complex in construction and costlier with the advantage that they have the
better starting torque. This type of rotor consists of star connected distributed
three phase windings.
Between stator and rotor is the air gap which is a very critical part. The
performance parameters of the motor like magnetizing current, power factor,
over load capacity, cooling and noise are affected by length of the air gap.
Hence length of the air gap is selected considering the advantages and
disadvantages of larger air gap length.
Advantages:
(i) Increased overload capacity
(ii) Increased cooling
(iii) Reduced unbalanced magnetic pull
(iv) Reduced in tooth pulsation
(v) Reduced noise
Disadvantages
(i) Increased Magnetising current
(ii) Reduced power factor
Magnetising current and power factor being very important parameters in

deciding the performance of induction motors, the induction motors are
designed for optimum value of air gap or minimum air gap possible. Hence in
designing the length of the air gap following empirical formula is employed.
Air gap length lg = 0.2 + 2√DL mm
Number of slots: Proper numbers of rotor slots are to be selected in relation to

number of stator slots otherwise undesirable effects will be found at the starting
of the motor. Cogging and Crawling are the two phenomena which are observed
due to wrong combination of number of rotor and stator slots. In addition,
induction motor may develop unpredictable hooks and cusps in torque speed
characteristics or the motor may run with lot of noise. Let us discuss Cogging
and Crawling phenomena in induction motors.
Selection of number of rotor slots: The number of rotor slots may be selected
using the following guide lines.
(i) To avoid cogging and crawling: (a)Ss ≠ Sr (b) Ss - Sr ≠ ±3P
(ii) To avoid synchronous hooks and cusps in torque speed characteristics ≠ ±P,
±2P, ±5P.
(iii) To noisy operation Ss - Sr ≠ ±1, ±2, (±P ±1), (±P ±2)
Shape and Size of the Rotor slots: Generally semiclosed slots or closed slots
with very small or narrow openings are employed for the rotor slots. In case of
fully closed slots the rotor bars are force fit into the slots from the sides of the
rotor. The rotors with closed slots are giving better performance to the motor in
the following way.
(i) As the rotor is closed the rotor surface is smooth at the air gap and hence the
motor draws lower magnetizing current.
(ii) reduced noise as the air gap characteristics are better
(iii) increased leakage reactance and
(iv) reduced starting current.
(v) Over load capacity is reduced
(vi) Undesirable and complex air gap characteristics.
From the above it can be concluded that semiclosed slots are more suitable and
hence are employed in rotors.
Design of wound Rotor: These are the types of induction motors where in
rotor also carries distributed star connected 3 phase winding. At one end of the
Prepared by: Mr.
Kumaresh Pal
rotor there are three slip rings mounted on the shaft. Three ends of the winding
are connected to the slip rings. External resistances can be connected to these
slip rings at starting, which will be inserted in series with the windings which
will help in increasing the torque at starting. Such type of induction motors are
employed where high starting torque is required.
Number of rotor slots: As mentioned earlier the number of rotor slots should
never be equal to number of stator slots. Generally for wound rotor motors a
suitable value is assumed for number of rotor slots per pole per phase, and then
total number of rotor slots are calculated. So selected number of slots should be
such that tooth width must satisfy the flux density limitation. Semiclosed slots
are used for rotor slots.
Number of rotor turns: Number of rotor turns are decided based on the safety
consideration of the personal working with the induction motors. The volatge
between the slip rings on open circuit must be limited to safety values. In
general the voltage between the slip rings for low and medium voltage
machines must be limited to 400 volts. For motors with higher voltage ratings
and large size motors this voltage must be limited to 1000 volts. Based on the
assumed voltage between the slip rings comparing the induced voltage ratio in
stator and rotor the number of turns on rotor winding can be calculated.
Voltage ratio Er/ Es = (Kwr x Tr) / (Kws x Ts)

Hence rotor turns per phase Tr = (Er/Es) (Kws/Kwr) Ts
Er = open circuit rotor voltage/phase

Es = stator voltage /phase
Kws = winding factor for stator
Kwr = winding factor for rotor
Ts = Number of stator turns/phase
Area of Rotor Conductor: Area of rotor conductor can be calculated based on

the assumed value for the current density in rotor conductor and calculated rotor
current. Current density rotor conductor can be assumed between 4 to 6
Amp/mm2
Ar = Ir / δr mm2
Ar < 5mm2 use circular conductor, else rectangular conductor, for rectangular
conductor width to thickness ratio = 2.5 to 4. Then the standard conductor size
can be selected similar to that of stator conductor.
Size of Rotor slot: Mostly Semi closed rectangular slots employed for the
rotors. Based on conductor size, number conductors per slot and arrangement of
conductors similar to that of stator, dimension of rotor slots can be estimated.
Size of the slot must be such that the ratio of depth to width of slot must be
between 3 and 4.
Flux density in rotor tooth: It is required that the dimension of the slot is
alright from the flux density consideration. Flux density has to be calculated at
1/3rd height from the root of the teeth. This flux density has to be limited to 1.8
Tesla. If not the width of the tooth has to be increased and width of the slot has
to be reduced such that the above flux density limitation is satisfied.
Depth of stator core below the slots: Below rotor slots there is certain solid
portion which is called depth of the core below slots. This depth is calculated
based on the flux density and flux in the rotor core. Flux density in the rotor
core can be assumed to be between 1.2 to 1.4 Tesla.
No load current: As seen from Fig 14, the no load current of an induction
motor has two components magnetizing component, Im and iron loss
component, Iw.
Thus the no load current I0 = √ [(Im)2 + (Iw)2] amps
Magnetising current: Magnetising current of an induction motor is responsible
for producing the required amount of flux in the different parts of the machine.
Hence this current can be calculated from all the magnetic circuit of the
machine. The ampere turns for all the magnetic circuit such as stator core, stator
teeth, air gap, rotor core and rotor teeth gives the total ampere turns required for
the magnetic circuit. The details of the magnetic circuit calculations are studied
in magnetic circuit calculations.
MODULE V
Content
4.1 Design of Three Phase Synchronous Machine
Introduction
Synchronous machines are AC machines that have a field circuit supplied by an
external DC source. Synchronous machines are having two major parts namely
stationary part stator and a rotating field system called rotor.
In a synchronous generator, a DC current is applied to the rotor winding
producing a rotor magnetic field. The rotor is then driven by external means
producing a rotating magnetic field, which induces a 3-phase voltage within the
stator winding.
Field windings are the windings producing the main magnetic field (rotor
windings for synchronous machines); armature windings are the windings
where the main voltage is induced (stator windings for synchronous machines).
Types of synchronous machines
1. Hydrogenerators : The generators which are driven by hydraulic turbines are

called hydrogenerators. These are run at lower speeds less than 1000 rpm.
2. Turbogenerators: These are the generators driven by steam turbines. These

generators are run at very high speed of 1500rpm or above.
3. Engine driven Generators: These are driven by IC engines. These are run at
aspeed less than 1500 rpm.
Hence the prime movers for the synchronous generators are Hydraulic turbines,
Steam turbines or IC engines.
Hydraulic Turbines: Pelton wheel Turbines: Water head 400 m and above
Francis turbines: Water heads up to 380 m
Kaplan Turbines: Water heads up to 50 m
Steam turbines: The synchronous generators run by steam turbines are called
turbo-generators or turbo alternators. Steam turbines are to be run at very high
speed to get higher efficiency and hence these types of generators are run at
higher speeds.
Diesel Engines: IC engines are used as prime movers for very small rated
generators.
Construction of synchronous machines
1. Salient pole Machines: These type of machines have salient pole or

projecting poles with concentrated field windings. This type of construction is
for the machines which are driven by hydraulic turbines or Diesel engines.
2. Nonsalient pole or Cylindrical rotor or Round rotor Machines: These
machines are having cylindrical smooth rotor construction with distributed field
Prepared by: Mr.
Kumaresh Pal
winding in slots. This type of rotor construction is employed for the machine
driven by steam turbines.
1. Construction of Hydro-generators: These types of machines are constructed

based on the water head available and hence these machines are low speed
machines. These machines are constructed based on the mechanical
consideration. For the given frequency the low speed demands large number of
poles and consequently large diameter. The machine should be so connected
such that it permits the machine to be transported to the site. It is a normal to
practice to design the rotor to withstand the centrifugal force and stress
produced at twice the normal operating speed.
Stator core:
The stator is the outer stationary part of the machine, which consists of
• The outer cylindrical frame called yoke, which is made either of welded sheet
steel, cast iron.
• The magnetic path, which comprises a set of slotted steel laminations called
stator core pressed into the cylindrical space inside the outer frame. The
magnetic path is laminated to reduce eddy currents, reducing losses and heating.
CRGO laminations of
0.5 mm thickness are used to reduce the iron losses.
A set of insulated electrical windings are placed inside the slots of the laminated
stator. The cross-sectional area of these windings must be large enough for the
power rating of the machine. For a 3-phase generator, 3 sets of windings are
required, one for each phase connected in star. Fig. 1 shows one stator
lamination of a synchronous generator. In case of generators where the diameter
is too large stator lamination cannot be punched in on circular piece. In such
cases the laminations are punched in segments. A number of segments are
assembled together to form one circular laminations. All the laminations are
insulated from each other by a thin layer of varnish.
Rotor of water wheel generator consists of salient poles. Poles are built with
thin silicon steel laminations of 0.5mm to 0.8 mm thickness to reduce eddy
current laminations. The laminations are clamped by heavy end plates and
secured by studs or rivets. For low speed rotors poles have the bolted on
construction for the machines with little higher peripheral speed poles have
dove tailed construction as shown in Figs. Generally rectangular or round pole
constructions are used for such type of alternators. However the round poles
have the advantages over rectangular poles.
Generators driven by water wheel turbines are of either horizontal or vertical
shaft type. Generators with fairly higher speeds are built with horizontal shaft
and the generators with higher power ratings and low speeds are built with
vertical shaft design. Vertical shaft generators are of two types of designs (i)
Umbrella type where in the bearing is mounted below the rotor. (ii) Suspended
type where in the bearing is mounted above the rotor.
In case of turbo alternator the rotors are manufactured form solid steel forging.
The rotor is slotted to accommodate the field winding. Normally two third of
the rotor periphery is slotted to accommodate the winding and the remaining
one third unslotted portion acts as the pole. Rectangular slots with tapering teeth
are milled in the rotor. Generally rectangular aluminum or copper strips are
employed for filed windings. The field windings and the overhangs of the field
windings are secured in place by steel retaining rings to protect against high
centrifugal forces. Hard composition insulation materials are used in the slots
which can with stand high forces, stresses and temperatures. Perfect balancing
of the rotor is done for such type of rotors.
Damper windings are provided in the pole faces of salient pole alternators.
Damper windings are nothing but the copper or aluminum bars housed in the
Prepared by: Mr.
Kumaresh Pal
slots of the pole faces. The ends of the damper bars are short circuited at the
ends by short circuiting rings similar to end rings as in the case of squirrel cage
rotors. These damper windings are serving the function of providing mechanical
balance; provide damping effect, reduce the effect of over voltages and damp
out hunting in case of alternators. In case of synchronous motors they act as
rotor bars and help in self-starting of the motor.
Introduction to Design
Synchronous machines are designed to obtain the following informations.

(i) Main dimensions of the stator frame.
(ii) Complete details of the stator windings.
(iii) Design details of the rotor and rotor winding.
(iv) Performance details of the machine.
To proceed with the design and arrive at the design information the design
engineer needs the following information.
(i) Specifications of the synchronous machine.
(ii) Information regarding the choice of design parameters.
(iii) Knowledge on the availability of the materials.
(iv) Limiting values of performance parameters.
(v) Details of Design equations.
Specifications of the synchronous machine:

Important specifications required to initiate the design procedure are as follows:
Rated output of the machine in kVA or MVA, Rated voltage of the machine in
kV, Speed, frequency, type of the machine generator or motor, Type of rotor
salient pole or non-salient pole, connection of stator winding, limit of
temperature, details of prime mover etc.
Output Equation:
Output of the 3 phase synchronous generator is given by
Zph = no of conductors/phase in stator

Tph = no of turns/phase
Ns = Synchronous speed in rpm ns = synchronous speed in rps
p = no of poles,
q = Specific electric loading
Φ = air gap flux/pole;
Bav = Average flux density
kw = winding factor
From the output equation of the machine it can be seen that the volume of the
machine is directly proportional to the output of the machine and inversely
proportional to the speed of the machine. The machines having higher speed
Prepared by: Mr.
Kumaresh Pal
will have reduced size and cost. Larger values of specific loadings smaller will
be the size of the machine.
Choice of Specific loadings:

From the output equation it is seen that choice of higher value of specific
magnetic and electric loading leads to reduced cost and size of the machine.
Specific magnetic loading: Following are the factors which influences the
performance of the machine.
(i) Iron loss: A high value of flux density in the air gap leads to higher value of
flux in the iron parts of the machine which results in increased iron losses and
reduced efficiency.
(ii) Voltage: When the machine is designed for higher voltage space occupied
by the insulation becomes more thus making the teeth smaller and hence higher
flux density in teeth and core.
(iii) Transient short circuit current: A high value of gap density results in
decrease in leakage reactance and hence increased value of armature current
under short circuit conditions.
(iv) Stability: The maximum power output of a machine under steady state
condition is indirectly proportional to synchronous reactance. If higher value of
flux density is used it leads to smaller number of turns per phase in armature
winding. This results in reduced value of leakage reactance and hence increased
value of power and hence increased steady state stability.
(v) Parallel operation: The satisfactory parallel operation of synchronous

generators depends on the synchronizing power. Higher the synchronizing
power higher will be the ability of the machine to operate in synchronism. The
synchronizing power is inversely proportional to the synchronous reactance and
hence the machines designed with higher value air gap flux density will have
better ability to operate in parallel with other machines.
Specific Electric Loading: Following are the some of the factors which
influence the choice of specific electric loadings.
(i) Copper loss: Higher the value of q larger will be the number of armature of
conductors which results in higher copper loss. This will result in higher
temperature rise and reduction in efficiency.
(ii) Voltage: A higher value of q can be used for low voltage machines since the
space required for the insulation will be smaller.
(iii) Synchronous reactance: High value of q leads to higher value of leakage

reactance and armature reaction and hence higher value of synchronous
reactance. Such machines will have poor voltage regulation, lower value of
current under short circuit condition and low value of steady state stability limit
and small value of synchronizing power.
(iv) Stray load losses: With increase of q stray load losses will increase.
Values of specific magnetic and specific electric loading can be selected from
Design Data Hand Book for salient and non-salient pole machines.
Separation of D and L:
Inner diameter and gross length of the stator can be calculated from D2L
product obtained from the output equation. To separate suitable relations are
assumed between D and L depending upon the type of the generator.
Salient pole machines: In case of salient pole machines either round or
rectangular pole construction is employed. In these types of machines the
diameter of the machine will be quite larger than the axial length.
Round Poles: The ratio of pole arc to pole pitch may be assumed varying
between 0.6 to 0.7 and pole arc may be taken as approximately equal to axial
length of the stator core. Hence
Axial length of the core/ pole pitch = L/τp = 0.6 to 0.7
Rectangular poles: The ratio of axial length to pole pitch may be assumed
varying between 0.8 to 3 and a suitable value may be assumed based on the
design specifications.
Axial length of the core/ pole pitch = L/τp = 0.8 to 3
Using the above relations D and L can be separated. However once these values
are obtained diameter of the machine must satisfy the limiting value of
peripheral speed so that the rotor can withstand centrifugal forces produced.
Limiting values of peripheral speeds are as follows:

Bolted pole construction = 45 m/s
Dove tail pole construction = 75 m/s
Normal design = 30 m/s
Short Circuit Ratio:
Effects of SCR on Machine performance

1. Voltage regulation
2. Stability
3. Parallel operation
4. Short circuit Current
5. Cost and size of the machine
3. Parallel operation: SCR = 1/ Xs, as SCR↑ Xs ↓ IXs ↑ V ↓ Psync ↓
5. Size and cost of the machine

As SCR ↓ Xs ↑ Zs ↑ Isc ↓ and hence cost of control equipment reduces
For salient pole machines SCR value varies from 0.9 to 1.3
For turbo alternators SCR value varies from 0.7 to 1.1
Length of the air gap:

Length of the air gap is a very important parameter as it greatly affects the
performance of the machine. Air gap in synchronous machine affects the value
of SCR and hence it influences many other parameters. Hence, choice of air gap
length is very critical in case of synchronous machines. Following are the
advantages and disadvantages of larger air gap.
Advantages:
(i) Stability: Higher value of stability limit
(ii) Regulation: Smaller value of inherent regulation
(iii) Synchronizing power: Higher value of synchronizing power
(iv) Cooling: Better cooling
(v) Noise: Reduction in noise
(vi) Magnetic pull: Smaller value of unbalanced magnetic pull
Disadvantages:
(i) Field mmf: Larger value of field mmf is required
(ii) Size: Larger diameter and hence larger size
(iii) Magnetic leakage: Increased magnetic leakage
(iv) Weight of copper: Higher weight of copper in the field winding
(v) Cost: Increase over all cost.

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B.

TECH IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN

DC machines & AC machines.

SL NO TITLE OF BOOK AUTHOR PUBLICATION

MODULE 1 Fundamental Aspects of Electrical Machine Design: Design of Machines, 8 Lecture

FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRICAL MACHINE

1.2 Factors for consideration in electrical machine design

1.3 Limitations in design

1.4 Materials for Electrical Machines

a. National and international standards

b. Specifications (that deals with machine ratings, performance requirements

c. Cost of material and labour

d. Manufacturing constraints etc.

As the design involves a number of assumptions and constraints, final design

1. Magnetic circuit or the flux path: Should establish required amount of

2. Electric circuit or windings: Should ensure required emf is induced

3. Insulation: Should ensure trouble free separation of machine parts

4. Cooling system or ventilation: Should ensure that the machine operates

5. Machine parts: Should be robust.

a. Limitation in design (saturation, current density, insulation, temperature rise

Materials for Electrical Machines

Magnetic materials can broadly be classified as Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic,

The relative permeability μr of ferromagnetic material is far greater than 1.0.

Further the Ferromagnetic materials can be classified as Hard or Permanent

d) Amorphous alloys (often called metallic glasses):

Liquid: Used in transformers, circuit breakers, reactors, rheostats, cables,

Gaseous: The examples are:

Classification of insulating materials based on thermal consideration

2.1 Details to be specified while ordering a DC machine

2.2 Size of the DC machine

2.3 Limitations in design

2.4 Separation of D2I product

2.5 Limitations of D & l

2.6 Choice of number of poles

2.7 Armature Windings

2.8 Details of Insulation

2.9 Armature Slots

2.2 SIZE OF THE DC MACHINE

Power developed in the armature in KW

2.3 LIMITATIONS IN DESIGN

a. As q increases, number of conductors increases, resistance increases, I2R

c. As q increases, number of conductors increases, armature ampere-turns

d. As q increases, number of conductors and turns increases, reactance

 Effect of higher value of Bav

It is clear that there is no advantage gained by selecting higher values of q and

2.4 SEPARATION OF D2L PRODUCT

Let it be 0.1 m3.

Therefore L = (0.55 to 1.1) τ

Therefore D2 × 0.785 D = 0.1 or D = 0.5m.

2.5 LIMITATIONS OF D AND L

As the diameter of the armature increases, the peripheral velocity of the

2.6 CHOICE OF NUMBER OF POLES

2. Weight of the iron used for the yoke

It is clear that Ay is ∝ 1/P

4. Weight of overhang copper

7. Length of the commutator

Because of the increased Eb number of segments/pole value of Eb and carbon

SELECTION OF NUMBER OF POLES:

2.7 ARMATURE WINDINGS

In a distributed winding (used to overcome the disadvantages of the

CHOICE BETWEEN A LAP AND WAVE WINDING