Communication Models

Linear Models
Originally developed by Shannon & Weaver in 1948, this model describes communication as a linear process.
This model describes how a sender, or speaker, transmits a message to a receiver, or listener. More specifically,
the sender is the source of the message. A message may consist of the sounds, words, or behaviours in a
communication interaction. The message itself is transmitted through a channel, the pathway or route for
communication, to a receiver, who is the target or recipient of the message. There may be obstacles in the
communication process, or noise. Noise refers to any interference in the channel or distortion of the message.
This is a fairly simple model in which a message is simply passed from sender to receiver.
KINDS OF LINEAR MODEL
1. Aristotle’s Model
- Aristotle’s model of communication is the oldest communication model, dating back to 300BC. The
model was designed to examine how to become a better and more convincing communicator.
Aristotle argues we should look at five elements of a communication event to analyze how best to
communicate: speaker, speech, occasion, target audience and effect. He also identified three
elements that will improve communication: ethos (credibility), pathos (ability to connect) and logos
(logical argument). Aristotle’s model does not pay attention to the role of feedback in
communication.
2. Lasswell’s Model
- Lasswell’s model of communication tries to understand a communication event by asking five
important questions. It looks at who created the message (and what their bias may be), what they
said, the channel they said it through (e.g. TV, radio, blog), who they said it two, and what effect it
had on the receiver. This model is effective as it provides a very simple and practical way of
critiquing a message and exploring five important elements that can help explain the event under
analysis in more detail.
3. Shannon-Weaver Model
- The Shannon-Weaver model sees communication occurring in five key parts: sender, encoder,
channel, decoder, receiver. It emphasizes the importance of encoding and decoding messages for them
to be sent (e.g. turning them into written words, morse code, etc.). During the process of encoding,
sending and decoding, ‘noise’ occurs that can disrupt or cloud a message. In the most traditional sense,
this may be static on a radio broadcast, or even extend to mishearing a conversation or misspelling an
email. This model was the first to introduce the role of noise in the communication process.
- The idea of feedback was retroactively introduced to this model
4. Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model
- Berlo’s model of communication explains it in four steps: Source, Message, Channel, and Receiver.

The unique aspect of Berlo’s model is that it gives a detailed account of the key elements in each
step that will affect how well the message is communicated:
 Source: Elements of the source include communication skills of the sender, their attitude and
their culture.
 Message: Elements of the message include its content, structure and code.
 Channel: Elements of the channel include the senses of hearing, seeing, touching, smelling,
etc.
 Receiver: Elements of the receiver include their attitude, knowledge and culture.
-
Interactional Models
In the move to a more dynamic view of communication, interactional models follow two channels
in which communication and feedback flow between sender and receiver. Feedback is simply a
response that a receiver gives to a sender. Feedback can be verbal (i.e. “yes”) or nonverbal (i.e. a
nod or smile). Most importantly, feedback indicates comprehension. It can help senders know if
their message was received and understood. By focusing on flow and feedback, interactional
models view communication as an ongoing process.
The final feature of this model is the field of experience. The field of experience refers to how
environment, experiences, culture, and even heredity can influence how a sender constructs a
message. Keep in mind that each person brings a unique field of experience to an interaction.
Likewise, each communication interaction is unique. While the interactional model is more
dynamic than the linear model, it still contains some limitations. For instance, this model implies
that while people can be both senders and receivers, they cannot do so simultaneously. In lived
communication, roles are not quite so clear-cut and in fact are much more fluid.
KINDS OF INTERACTIONAL MODELS
1. Osgood-Schramm Model
- The Osgood-Schramm model explores communication that is equal and reciprocal. It does not
differentiate between the sender and receiver, but sees each as being in an equal position as message
encoders and decoders. This model is best for explaining and examining personal synchronous
communication where feedback is immediate (such as face-to-face discussions). As feedback is
immediate, noise can be reduced through ongoing clarification of messages during the conversation.
2. The Westley And Maclean Model
- The Westley and Maclean model embraces the importance of feedback in communication. However,
it also emphasizes the important role of environmental and cultural factors in influencing
communication. It shows that the things we say and communicate are influenced by who we are,
what our background is, and what perspective we are approaching issues from. The model takes into
account the object of orientation (background, culture and beliefs) of the sender and receiver of
messages. It also considers the message to have been received and sent within a broader social
context that needs to be considered to know and understand the message.
Transactional Models
The transactional is the most dynamic of communication models. One notable feature of this model is the move
from referring to people as senders and receivers to referring to people as communicators. This implies that
communication is achieved as people both send and receive messages. (See Figure 1.3.) Fundamentally, this
model views communication as a transaction. In other words, communication is a cooperative action in which
communicators co-create the process, outcome and effectiveness of the interaction. Unlike the linear model in
which meaning is sent from one person to another, also unlike the interactional model in which understanding is
achieved through feedback, people create shared meaning in a more dynamic process in the transactional model.
This model also places more emphasis on the field of experience. While each communicator has a unique field
of experience, they must also inhabit a shared field of experience. In other words, communicators must share at
least some degree of overlap in culture, language, or environment if people are to communicate at all. This
model also recognizes that messages will influence the responses, or subsequent messages, produced in the
communication interaction. This means that messages do not stand alone, but instead are interrelated. The
principle of interrelation states that messages are connected to and build upon one another. The transactional
model forms the basis for much communication theory because (1) people are viewed as dynamic
communicators rather than simple senders or receivers, (2) there must be some overlap in fields of experience in
order to build shared meaning, and (3) messages are interdependent.
The transactional understanding of shared meaning has informed variety of communication theories. In general
terms, a theory comprises a way of seeing, interpreting, and explaining. A theory is a framework for
understanding. It illuminates social practices and helps to make sense of the everyday life-world. Durham &
Kellner (2001) suggest that we consider a theory as “a way of seeing, an optic, that focuses on specific subject
matter” (3). Think about a theory as an optic or a technology that enhances vision. Just as there are many
different communication theories, there are also many different visual technologies. Sunglasses, contacts, or
even virtual reality goggles each us help to see in a certain way. For instance, when you put on a pair of glasses,
it will cause you to see in a particular way, focusing things near or far depending on the type of lens. In this
way, every different theory will require a different way of seeing the world of communication. The most
important part of this metaphor is that a particular theory will bring specific aspects of communication into
focus yet may blur others. As you work through this book, pay attention to the ways in which a particular
perspective illuminates certain elements while leaving others in shadow. Also think about how exploring
different theories will provide a more comprehensive look at communication while also allowing you to see.
KINDS OF TRANSACTIONAL MODELS
1. Barnlund’s Transactional ModeL

- Barnlund’s Transactional Model of Communication is a model that explores interpersonal,
immediate-feedback communication. Central to this approach is the idea that feedback for the sender
is the reply for the receiver.
- This model also highlights the role of ‘cues’ in impacting our messages. Barnlund highlights the role
of public cues which are environmental cues, and private cues which are a person’s personal
thoughts and background. With this emphasis on cues, Barnlund’s model highlights the factors that
influence what we think and say.
2. Dance’s Helical Model
- Dance’s Helical Model builds on circular models by explaining how we improve our messages over
time by using feedback. When we communicate with others, their feedback will influence our next
statement. We become more knowledgeable with each cycle of communication, enabling up to
‘expand our circle’, as represented by the increasingly wider and wider circles. The movement up
the spiral indicates that each communication practice is new and different from the previous, as
communication does not ever perfectly repeat itself.

Communication Models

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What are the main components of the linear model of communication?

What are some differences between the linear and transactional models of communication?

Linear Models

KINDS OF LINEAR MODEL

4. Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model

- Berlo’s model of communication explains it in four steps: Source, Message, Channel, and Receiver.

KINDS OF INTERACTIONAL MODELS

KINDS OF TRANSACTIONAL MODELS

1. Barnlund’s Transactional ModeL

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