085 - ME8491, ME6403 Engineering Metallurgy - Notes 4
085 - ME8491, ME6403 Engineering Metallurgy - Notes 4
085 - ME8491, ME6403 Engineering Metallurgy - Notes 4
Prepared
By
K.Kathirvel
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
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CONTENTS
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COURSE OBJECTIVE
Historical Perspective:
Materials are so important in the development of civilization that we
associate Ages with them. In the origin of human life on Earth, the Stone
Age, people used only natural materials, like stone, clay, skins, and wood.
When people found copper and how to make it harder by alloying, the
Bronze Age started about 3000 BC. The use of iron and steel, a stronger
material that gave advantage in wars started at about 1200 BC. The next big
step was the discovery of a cheap process to make steel around 1850, which
enabled the railroads and the building of the modern infrastructure of the
industrial world.
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properties of a material and its microstructure is the domain of Materials Science. The
development of this science allowed designing materials and provided a knowledge base
To be able to select a material for a given use based on considerations of cost and
performance.
To be able to create a new material that will have some desirable properties
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CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
Metals
valence electrons are detached from atoms, and spread in an 'electron sea'
that "glues" the ions together. Metals are usually strong, conduct electricity
and heat well and are opaque to light (shiny if polished). Examples:
aluminum, steel, brass, gold.
Semiconductors
The bonding is covalent (electrons are shared between atoms). Their
electrical properties depend extremely strongly on minute proportions of contaminants.
They are opaque to visible light but transparent to the infrared. Examples: Si, Ge, GaAs.
Ceramics
Atoms behave mostly like either positive or negative ions, and are bound by
Coulomb forces between them. They are usually combinations of metals or
semiconductors with oxygen, nitrogen or carbon (oxides, nitrides, and
carbides). Examples: glass, porcelain, many minerals.
Polymers
Are bound by covalent forces and also by weak van der Waals forces, and
usually based on H, C and other non-metallic elements. They decompose at
moderate temperatures (100 - 400 C), and are lightweight. Other properties
vary greatly. Examples: plastics (nylon, Teflon, polyester) and rubber.
TYPES OF BONDING
Ionic Bonding
This is the bond when one of the atoms is negative (has an extra electron) and another is
positive (has lost an electron). Then there is a strong, direct Coulomb attraction. An
example is NaCl. In the molecule, there are more electrons around Cl, forming Cl- and less
around Na, forming Na+. Ionic bonds are the strongest bonds.
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Covalent Bonding
In covalent bonding, electrons are shared between the molecules, to saturate
the valency. The simplest example is the H2 molecule, where the electrons
spend more time in between the nuclei than outside, thus producing bonding.
Metallic Bonding
In the metallic bond encountered in pure metals and metallic alloys, the atoms contribute
their outer-shell electrons to a generally shared electron cloud for the whole block of metal.
CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
Atoms self-organize in crystals, most of the time. The crystalline lattice is a periodic array
of the atoms. When the solid is not crystalline, it is called amorphous. Examples of
crystalline solids are metals, diamond and other precious stones, ice, graphite. Examples
of amorphous solids are glass, amorphous carbon (a-C), amorphous Si, most plastics
Unit Cells
The unit cell is the smallest structure that repeats itself by translation through the
crystal. The most common types of unit cells are the facedcentered cubic (FCC), the body-
centered cubic (FCC) and the hexagonal close-packed (HCP). Other types exist, particularly
among minerals.
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polycrystalline. The grains can be more or less aligned with respect to each other. Where they
meet is called a grain boundary.
Imperfection in solids
Materials are not stronger when they have defects.
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other. If a solid solution alloy is viewed under a microscope only one type of crystal can be
seen just like a pure metal. Solid solution alloys have similar properties to pure metals but
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( or solvent metal) are replaced or substituted by atoms of the alloying metal (solute metal)
In this case, the atoms of the two metals in the alloy, are of similar size.
In interstitial solid solutions the atoms of the parent or solvent metal are
bigger than the atoms of the alloying or solute metal. In this case, the smaller atoms fit into
Phases
One-phase systems are homogeneous. Systems with two or more phases are heterogeneous, or
mixtures. This is the case of most metallic alloys, but also happens in ceramics and polymers.
A two-component alloy is called binary. One with three components is called ternary.
Microstructure
The properties of an alloy do not depend only on concentration of the phases but how they
are arranged structurally at the microscopy level. Thus, the microstructure is specified by
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Phase diagram:
A graph showing the phase or phases present for a given composition as a function of
temperature.
Eutectoid:
Transforming from a solid phase to two other solid phases upon cooling.
Peritectoid:
Transforming from two solid phases to a third solid phase upon cooling.
Peritectoid reaction:
A reaction in which a solid goes to a new solid plus a liquid on heating, and reverse occurs on
cooling.
Iron-Iron Carbon diagram is essential to understand the basic differences among iron alloys
Iron is allotropic; at room temperature pure iron exists in the Body Centered Cubic crystal
form but on heating transforms to a Face Centered Cubic crystal. The temperature that this
first transformation takes place is known as a critical point and it occurs at 910 degrees Celsius.
This change in crystal structure is accompanied by shrinkage in volume, sine the atoms in the
face centered crystal are more densely packed together than in the body centered cubic
crystal. At the second critical point the F.C.C crystal changes back to a B.C.C crystal and
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The following phases are involved in the transformation, occurring with iron-carbon
alloys:
Austenite does not exist below 1333 ºF (723ºC) and maximum carbon concentration at
this temperature is 0.83%.
α-ferrite - solid solution of carbon in α-iron.
α-ferrite has BCC crystal structure and low solubility of carbon - up to 0.25% at 1333 ºF (723ºC). α-
ferrite exists at room temperature.
Cementite - iron carbide, intermetallic compound, having fixed composition Fe3C.
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Alloys, containing carbon more than 0.51%, but less than 2.06%, form primary
austenite crystals in the beginning of solidification and when the temperature reaches the
4.3%.
In practice only hypoeutectic alloys are used. These alloys (carbon content
from 2.06% to 4.3%) are called cast irons. When temperature of an alloy
from this range reaches 2097 ºF (1147 ºC), it contains primary austenite
crystals and some amount of the liquid phase. The latter decomposes by
ledeburite.
0.83%.
Critical temperatures
Upper critical temperature (point) A3 is the temperature, below which ferrite starts
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Upper critical temperature (point) ACM is the temperature, below which cementite
α-ferrite is ferromagnetic.
transformed to pearlite).
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At 4.3% carbon composition, on cooling Liquid phase is converted in to two solids hence
forming Eutectic reaction.
L ↔ γ + Fe3C
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solid solution changes directly into a solid known as Pearlite which is a layered structure
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METAL TYPES
The metals that Steelworkers work with are divided into two general
primarily of iron and iron alloys. Nonferrous metals are those composed
an impurity.
FERROUS METALS
Ferrous metals include all forms of iron and steel alloys. A few examples include
wrought iron, cast iron, carbon steels, alloy steels, and tool steels. Ferrous metals are iron-
base alloys with small percentages of carbon and other elements added to achieve
desirable properties. Normally, ferrous metals are magnetic and nonferrous metals are
nonmagnetic.
IRON
Pure iron rarely exists outside of the laboratory. Iron is produced by reducing iron
ore to pig iron through the use of a blast furnace. From pig iron many other types of
iron and steel are produced by the addition or deletion of carbon and alloys. The
following paragraphs discuss the different types of iron and steel that can be made from iron
ore.
PIG IRON
Pig iron is composed of about 93% iron, from 3% to 5% carbon, and various amounts of
other elements. Pig iron is comparatively weak and brittle; therefore, it has a limited use
and approximately ninety percent produced is refined to produce steel. Cast-iron pipe and
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WROUGHT IRON
Wrought iron is made from pig iron with some slag mixed in during manufacture.
Almost pure iron; the presence of slag enables wrought iron to resist corrosion and oxidation.
The chemical analyses of wrought iron and mild steel are just about the same. The difference
comes from the properties controlled during the manufacturing process. Wrought iron can be
gas and arc welded, machined, plated, and easily formed; however, it has a low hardness
CAST IRON
Cast iron is any iron containing greater than 2% carbon alloy. Cast iron has a high-
compressive strength and good wear resistance; however, it lacks ductility, malleability,
vanadium improves toughness, tensile strength, and hardness. A malleable cast iron is produced
through a easily as the low-carbon steels. They are used for crane prolonged annealing process.
INGOT IRON
Ingot iron is a commercially pure iron (99.85% iron) that is easily formed and possesses
good ductility and corrosion resistance. The chemical analysis and properties of this iron and
the lowest carbon steel are practically the same. The lowest carbon steel, known as dead-
soft, has about 0.06% more carbon than ingot iron. In iron the carbon content is considered an
impurity and in steel it is considered an alloying element. The primary use for ingot iron is
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STEEL
All the different metals and materials that we use in our trade, steel is by far
bridges, and railroad tracks that did not collapse. Steel is manufactured from
pig iron by decreasing the amount of carbon and other impurities and adding
specific amounts of alloying elements. Do not confuse steel with the two
general classes of iron: cast iron (greater than 2% carbon) and pure iron
alloying elements are added during the molten stage to produce the desired
broad range of steel that falls between the commercially pure ingot iron and
When welding, special electrodes must be used along with preheating and stress-
relieving procedures to prevent cracks in the weld areas. These steels are
used for dies, cutting tools, milltools, railroad car wheels, chisels, knives, and so
on.
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than 50,000 psi and tensile strengths of 70,000 to 120,000 psi. Structural
members made from these high-strength steels may have smaller cross-
sectional areas than common structural steels and still have equal or
greater strength. Additionally, these steels are normally more corrosion- and
NOTE: This type of steel is much tougher than low-carbon steels. Shearing
machines for this type of steel must have twice the capacity than that
STAINLESS STEEL
This type of steel is classified by the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) into two
general series named the 200-300 series and 400 series. Each series includes several types of
atmospheric conditions. The most well-known types of steel in this series are
the 302 and 304. They are commonly called 18-8 because they are composed
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Steel ....................... 0.05% to 0.30% carbon are the most widely used and are
normally nonmagnetic.
however, that alloy steels always contain traces of other elements. Among the more
common alloying elements are nickel, chromium, vanadium, silicon, and tungsten. One
or more of these elements may be added to the steel during the manufacturing process to
Alloy steels may be produced in structural sections, sheets, plates, and bars for use in the ―as-
rolled‖ condition.Better physical properties are obtained with these steels than are possible with
These alloys are used in structures where the strength of material is especially
important. Bridge members, railroad cars, dump bodies, dozer blades, and crane booms are
made from alloy steel. Some of the common alloy steels are briefly described in the
paragraphs below.
NICKEL STEELS
These steels contain from 3.5% nickel to 5% nickel. The nickel increases the
strength and toughness of these steels. Nickel steel containing more than 5%
nickel has an increased resistance to corrosion and scale. Nickel steel is used
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in the manufacture of aircraft parts, such as propellers and airframe support members.
CHROMIUM STEELS
chromium and 0.45% carbon or more. Some of these steels are so highly
resistant to wear that they are used for the races and balls in antifriction
This steel has the maximum amount of strength with the least amount of
weight. Steels of this type contain from 0.15% to 0.25% vanadium, 0.6% to
1.5% chromium, and 0.1% to 0.6% carbon. Common uses are for
crankshafts, gears, axles, and other items that require high strength. This steel is also
used in the manufacture of high-quality hand tools, such as wrenches and sockets.
TUNGSTEN STEEL
This is a special alloy that has the property of red hardness. This is the ability to
continue to cut after it becomes red-hot. A good grade of this steel contains from 13% to
MOLYBDENUM
chromium and nickel. The molybdenum adds toughness to the steel. It can
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be used in place of tungsten to make the cheaper grades of high-speed steel and in carbon
MANGANESE STEELS
The amount of manganese used depends upon the properties desired in the finished product.
Small amounts of manganese produce strong, free-achining steels. Larger amounts (between
2% and 10%) produce a somewhat brittle steel, while still larger amounts (11% to 14%)
produce a steel that is tough and very resistant to wear after proper heat treatment.
NONFERROUS METALS
Nonferrous metals contain either no iron or only insignificant amounts used as an alloy.
Some of the more common nonferrous metals Steelworkers work with are as follows:
copper, brass, bronze, copper-nickel alloys,
This metal and its alloys have many desirable properties. Among the
malleable, hard, tough, strong, wear resistant, machinable, weld able, and
silver brazing, bronze brazing, soft soldering, gas welding, or electrical arc
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welding. Copper is frequently used to give a protective coating to sheets and rods and to make
Carbon steels
ductility. The higher carbon content, the higher steel strength and the lower
its ductility. According to the steels classification there are following groups
of carbon steels:
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Applications: deep drawing parts, chain, pipe, wire, nails, some machine parts.
hardened by quenching
Applications: rolls, axles, screws, cylinders, crankshafts, heat treated machine parts.
Properties: very high strength, hardness and wear resistance, poor weldability low
ductility.
Applications: punches, shear blades, springs, milling cutters, knives, razors. Designation
designation system:
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SAE 1XXX
First digit 1 indicates carbon steel (2-9 are used for alloy steels); Second digit
1 - Resulfurized
Example: SAE 1030 means non modified carbon steel, containing 0.30% of carbon.
A letter prefix before the four-digit number indicates the steel making
technology:
E - Electric furnace
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Example: AISI B1020 means non modified carbon steel, produced in acid Bessemer and
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UNIT I
PART A:
1. Why carbon solubility is more in austenite
2. List the advantages of alloy steels as compared to plain carbon steel
3. What are the limitations of equilibrium diagram
4. Why is gray cast iron used for machine beds
5. Define peritectic and eutectoid reaction
6. What are various allotropic forms of iron
7. Define peritectoid reaction
8. Distinguish between hypoeutectoid and hyper eutectoid steel
9. Define solid solution
10. How steels are classified
PART B:
1. (i)What are the micro constituents of iron? Discuss them briefly? (ii) How are
solid solutions classified?
2. Draw the iron carbide diagram and discuss the different phases and reactions that
take place in it?
3. (i)How are solid solutions classified? (ii) draw the phase diagram between A and
B, if the two metals completely soluble in solid and liquid state?
4. What are hume rothery rules for the formation of substitutional solid solution?
What are the different types compounds? give an example for each.
5. Discuss microstructure properties and applications of medium carbon steel and a
white carbon steel
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UNIT II
TREATMENT
controlled heating and cooling operations, conducted for the purpose of changing the
alloy microstructure and resulting in achieving required properties.
There are two general objectives of heat treatment: hardening and annealing.
Hardening
- strengthening by cold-work
(cold plastic deformation).
strength.
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Grain boundaries serve as barriers to dislocations, raising the stress required to cause plastic
deformation.
element.
Atoms of solute element distort the crystal lattice, resisting the dislocations
The second phase boundaries resist the dislocations motions, increasing the
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The second phase boundaries resist the dislocations motions, increasing the material strength.
The age hardening mechanism in Al-Cu alloys may be illustrated by the phase diagram of
Al-Cu system. When an alloy Al-3%Cu is heated up to the temperature TM, all CuAl2 particles
are dissolved and the alloy exists in form of single phase solid solution (α-phase). This
operation is called solution treatment.
Slow cooling of the alloy will cause formation of relatively coarse particles of CuAl2
intermetallic phase, starting from the temperature T N.However if the the cooling rate is high
(quenching), solid solution will retain even at room temperature T F. Solid solution in this
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several hours to one day. When the aging is conducted at the room
more.
the matrix .
Annealing
Annealing is a heat treatment procedure involving heating the alloy and holding it at a
state.
Annealing stages:
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welding.
During this process atoms move to more stable positions in the crystal
Recovery heat treatment is used mainly for preventing stress-corrosion cracking and
decreasing distortions, caused by internal stresses.
grains start to grow from the nuclei formed in the cold worked metal. The new grains
absorb imperfections and distortions caused by cold deformation. The grains are equi-axed
the alloy return to the pre-cold-work level. The annealing temperature and
the new grains size are dependent on the degree of cold-work which has
been conducted. The more the cold-work degree, the lower the annealing
temperature and the fine recrystallization grain structure. Low degrees of cold-
work (less than 5%) may cause formation of large grains.Usually the annealing
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processes that either heat or cool the metal such as welding or forming.
not only help other manufacturing process, but can also improve product
Steels are particularly suitable for heat treatment, since they respond well to
heat treatment and the commercial use of steels exceeds that of any other
material. Steels are heat treated for one of the following reasons:
Softening
Softening is done to reduce strength or hardness, remove residual stresses, improve
toughnesss, restore ductility, refine grain size or change the electromagnetic properties of
the steel.
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alloy content. If there is sufficient Carbon content then the steel can be
Annealing
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Residual stress from the forming operations can affect both rimfire and
centerfire cartridge cases. For many cases, especially those with bottlenecks,
loaded and stored without addressing these stresses, cracks can appear in the
bottleneck area.
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set of gas burners that rapidly heat the neck and shoulder area to
glowing.
remains visible.
gradually, from small grains in the head area to large ones at the case
All high pressure cases must have variable metallurgical properties depending on
NORMALISING
Also used to soften and relieve internal stresses after cold work and to refine
the grain size and metallurgical structure. It may be used to break up the
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therefore similar to annealing but with a faster cooling rate. Curve 3 in Figure I would
Hardening
In this process steels which contain sufficient carbon, and perhaps other alloying
elements, are cooled (quenched) sufficiently rapidly from above the transformation
temperature to produce Martensite, the hard phase already described, see Curve 1 in
Figure 1.There is a range of quenching media of varying severity, water or brine being
the most severe, through oil and synthetic products to air which is the least severe.
Tempering
After quenching the steel is hard, brittle and internally stressed. Before use,
which are plots of hardness against tempering temperature. exist for all
commercial steels and are used to select the correct tempering temperature.
As a rule of thumb, within the tempering range for a particular steel, the
higher the tempering temperature the lower the final hardness but the greater
the toughness.It should be noted that not all steels will respond to all heat
different processes.
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Boronised substrates will often require heat treatment to restore mechanical properties. As
borides degrade in atmospheres which contain oxygen, even when combined as CO or C02,
PROCESSING METHODS
In the past the thermochemical processes were carried out by pack cementation or
salt bath processes. These are now largely replaced, on product quality and environmental
grounds, by gas and plasma techniques. The exception is boronising, for which a safe
production scale gaseous route has yet to be developed and pack cementation is likely to
remain the only viable route for the for some time to come.
The gas processes are usually carried out in the now almost universal seal quench furnace,
and any subsequent heat treatment is readily carried out immediately without taking the
work out of the furnace. This reduced handling is a cost and quality benefit.
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As we have already seen this requires heating to above the As temperature, holding to
equalise the temperature and then slow cooling. If this is done in air there is a real risk of
avoid this by ‗bright„ or ‗close„ annealing using protective atmospheres. The particular
NORMALISING
In common with annealing there is a risk of surface degradation but as air cooling is
HARDENING
With many components, hardening is virtually the final process and great care must taken to
protect the surface from degradation and decarburisation. The ‗seal quench„ furnace is now an
industry standard tool for carbon, low and medium alloy steels. The work is protected at each
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Some tool steels benefit from vacuum hardening and tempering, salt baths were widely
TEMPERING
the cycle in a seal quench furnace, with the parts fully protected against
slowly.
Caution : Tempering can, in some circumstances, make the steel brittle which is the
either, they are cooled too slowly from above 575°C, or are held for
Blue Brittleness affects carbon and some alloy steels after tempering in the range 230 to
370°C The effect is not reversible and susceptible steels should not be employed in applications
in which they sustain shock loads.If there is any doubt consult with the heat treater or in house
metallurgical department about the suitability of the steel type and the necessary heat
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It will be readily appreciated that the quenching operation used in hardening introduces
internal stresses into the steel. These can be sufficiently large to distort or even crack the
isothermal hold in the quenching operation. This allows temperature equalisation across the
section of the part and more uniform cooling and structure, hence lower stresses. The steel
Austempering also involves an isothermal hold in the quenching operation, but the
structure formed, whilst hard and tough, does not require further tempering. The process
is mostly applied to high carbon steels in relatively thin sections for springs or similar
parts. These processes are shown schematically in the TTT Curves, (figures 2a and 3b).
Figure 2. Temperature vs. time profiles for (a) austempering and (b) martempering.
induction hardening and electron beam hardening depending upon the heat
source used. These processes are used where only a small section of the
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there is sufficient heat sink in the part and an external quench is not needed. There is a much
lower risk of distortion associated with this practice, and it can be highly automated and it is
very reproducible.
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UNIT II
PART A
1. What are the principle advantages of austempering over conventional quench and
temper method?
2. Mention few application of induction hardening?
3. What is purpose of deep freezing in the heat treatment of steels
4. What is bright hardening
5. What is the principle of surface hardening in induction hardening process
6. Distringush between grey cast iron and spheroidal cast irons in terms of
microstructure
7. Why it is necessity to temper hardened steel
8. Define hardenability
9. When will you prefer carbonitriding
10. Define Hardness
PART B:
11. Explain the flame hardening and induction hardening? Distinguish austempering
and martempering?
12. Draw the TTT diagram for 0.8 percentage carbon steel and describe its isothermal
transformations?
13. Explain normalizing and spheroidzing
14. Explain with the help of sketch the procedure involved in gas carburizing process
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UNIT III
Plastic deformation is a change of the material dimensions remaining after removal of the
load caused the deformation. Plastic deformations in metals occurs by “slip” mechanism,
When the yield stress is achieved one plane of atoms in crystal lattice glides
over another. Few parallel slip planes form a block, neighboring with
steps, forming slip bands - black lines viewed under optical microscope.
Slip occurs when the share resolved stress along the gliding planes reaches a critical value.
Certain metals (Zn and Sn) deform by a process of twinning, differing from
the normal slip mechanism, where all atoms in a block move the same
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move different distance, causing half of the crystal lattice to become a mirror image of another
half.
the slip movement as the slip direction should be changed when it crosses
for a slip is higher than cohesion strength, metal fracture occurs. Stress-
strain relations are considered in the article Tensile test and Stress-Strain
Diagram.
extensive rearrangement of atoms within it. There is an irreversible shear displacement of one
part of the crystal relative to another in a definite crystallographic direction. This process
is known as slip. Slip follows the path of least energy. It coincides to the direction in
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some mechanism that causes dislocations to multiply to a large number. Slip is one of such
There are two types of dislocations: edge dislocation and screw dislocation. The edge
dislocation moves across the slip plane in the direction of applied shear force. The direction
of movement of screw dislocation is normal to the direction of slip step. When slip occurs by
direction of the lattice is altered so that each half of the crystal becomes a
mirror image of the other half along a twinning plane. In case of BCC
applied quickly.
The Brinell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with
kg. For softer materials the load can be reduced to 1500 kg or 500 kg to
seconds in the case of iron and steel and for at least 30 seconds in the case of
other metals. The diameter of the indentation left in the test material is
calculated by dividing the load applied by the surface area of the indentation.
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The diameter of the impression is the average of two readings at right angles
and the use of a Brinell hardness number table can simplify the
number reveals the test conditions, and looks like this, "75 HB 10/500/30"
diameter hardened steel with a 500 kilogram load applied for a period of 30
substituted for the steel ball. Compared to the other hardness test methods,
the Brinell ball makes the deepest and widest indentation, so the test
averages the hardness over a wider amount of material, which will more
accurately account for multiple grain structures and any irregularities in the
uniformity of the material. This method is the best for achieving the bulk or macro-
structures.
The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with
a diamond indenter, in the form of a right pyramid with a square base and an
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kgf. The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds. The two
diagonals of the indentation left in the surface of the material after removal of the load are
measured using a microscope and their average calculated. The area of the sloping surface
of the indentation is calculated. The Vickers hardness is the quotient obtained by dividing the
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F= Load in kgf
d = Arithmetic mean of the two diagonals, d1 and d2 in mm HV = Vickers
hardness
When the mean diagonal of the indentation has been determined the Vickers
hardness may be calculated from the formula, but is more convenient to use
conversion tables. The Vickers hardness should be reported like 800 HV/10,
which means a Vickers hardness of 800, was obtained using a 10 kgf force.
scale with the other hardness testing methods. The advantages of the Vickers
hardness test are that extremely accurate readings can be taken, and just one
type of indenter is used for all types of metals and surface treatments.
Although thoroughly adaptable and very precise for testing the softest and
standing unit that is more expensive than the Brinell or Rockwell machines.
The Rockwell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material
with a diamond cone or hardened steel ball indenter. The indenter is forced
into the test material under a preliminary minor load F0 (Fig. 1A) usually 10
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with resulting increase in penetration (Fig. 1B). When equilibrium has again
been reach, the additional major load is removed but the preliminary minor
permanent increase in depth of penetration, resulting from the application and removal of
the additional major load is used to calculate the Rockwell hardness number.
HR = E - e
F0 = preliminary minor load in kgf
units of 0.002 mm
E = a constant depending on form of indenter: 100 units for diamond indenter, 130
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HRA ........... Cemented carbides, thin steel and shallow case hardened steel
HRB ........... Copper alloys, soft steels, aluminium alloys, malleable irons, etc.
HRC ........... Steel, hard cast irons, case hardened steel and other materials
HRD ........... Thin steel and medium case hardened steel and pearlitic
malleable iron
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HRE ........... Cast iron, aluminium and magnesium alloys, bearing metals
HRK ........... }
HRL ........... }
HRM . . . .} Soft bearing metals, plastics and other very soft materials
HRP }
HRR ........... }
HRS }
HRV ........... }
Advantages of the Rockwell hardness method include the direct Rockwell hardness number
many arbitrary non-related scales and possible effects from the specimen
support anvil (try putting a cigarette paper under a test block and take note of the effect on
easy to prepare and conduct and results can be obtained quickly and cheaply.
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comparing the difference in the height of the hammer before and after a big
fracture.
The notch in the sample affects the results of the impact test,[3] thus it is
necessary for the notch to be of regular dimensions and geometry. The size
of the sample can also affect results, since the dimensions determine whether
or not the material is in plane strain. This difference can greatly affect
conclusions made.[4]
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where all the aspects of the test and equipment used are described in detail.
Quantitative results
The quantitative result of the impact tests the energy needed to fracture a
material and can be used to measure the toughness of the material and the
yield strength. Also, the strain rate may be studied and analyzed for its effect
on fracture.
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Qualitative results
The qualitative results of the impact test can be used to determine the
ductility of a material. [8] If the material breaks on a flat plane, the fracture
was brittle, and if the material breaks with jagged edges or shear lips, then
the fracture was ductile. Usually a material does not break in just one way or
the other, and thus comparing the jagged to flat surface areas of the fracture
Sample sizes
According to ASTM A370,[9] the standard specimen size for Charpy impact
(Standard Test Method and Definitions for Mechanical Testing of Steel Products).
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FATIGUE TEST
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nominal maximum stress values are less than the ultimate tensile stress limit,
Fatigue occurs when a material is subjected to repeated loading and unloading. If the
loads are above a certain threshold, microscopic cracks will begin to form at the surface.
Eventually a crack will reach a critical size, and the structure will suddenly fracture. The
shape of the structure will significantly affect the fatigue life; square holes or sharp
corners will lead to elevated local stresses where fatigue cracks can initiate. Round holes
and smooth transitions or fillets are therefore important to increase the fatigue strength of
the structure.
Characteristics of fatigue
Fracture of an aluminium crank arm. Dark area of striations: slow crack growth. Bright
dislocation movements,
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The greater the applied stress range, the shorter the life.
Fatigue life scatter tends to increase for longer fatigue lives.
Damage is cumulative. Materials do not recover when rested.
Fatigue life is influenced by a variety of factors, such as temperature, surface
finish, microstructure, presence of oxidizing or inert chemicals, residual
stresses, contact (fretting), etc.
failure.
In recent years, researchers (see, for example, the work of Bathias, Murakami,
and Stanzl-Tschegg) have found that failures occur below the theoretical fatigue
limit at very high fatigue lives (109 to 1010 cycles). An ultrasonic resonance
technique is used in these experiments with frequencies around 10-20
kHz.[citation needed]
High cycle fatigue strength (about 103 to 108 cycles) can be described by stress-based
parameters. A load-controlled servo-hydraulic test rig is commonly used in these
tests, with frequencies of around 20-
Low cycle fatigue (typically less than 103 cycles) is associated with widespread
plasticity in metals; thus, a strain-based parameter should be used for fatigue life
prediction in metals and alloys. Testing is conducted with constant strain
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and the loading, one or more properties of the stress state need to
this surface compressive stress and can increase the fatigue life of
cycle fatigue.
fatigue strength.
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Grain size: For most metals, smaller grains yield longer fatigue
environments.
fatigue strength.
concept);
3. Instruct the user to inspect the part periodically for cracks and to
replace the part once a crack exceeds a critical length. This approach
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cause".
STOPPING FATIGUE
drilling holes, called drill stops, in the path of the fatigue crack.[10] This is
concentration factor which depends on the size of the hole and geometry.
There is thus the possibility of a new crack starting in the side of the hole. It is always far
MATERIAL CHANGE
Changes in the materials used in parts can also improve fatigue life. For
example, parts can be made from better fatigue rated metals. Complete
replacement and redesign of parts can also reduce if not eliminate fatigue
problems. Thus helicopter rotor blades and propellers in metal are being
replaced by composite equivalents. They are not only lighter, but also much
more resistant to fatigue. They are more expensive, but the extra cost is
amply repaid by their greater integrity, since loss of a rotor blade usually
leads to total loss of the aircraft. A similar argument has been made for
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UNIT III
PART A:
1. How does silicon addition influence the properties of steels
2. What are carbonitriding
3. State any two distinguish characteristics nickel maraging steels
4. What are the two primary methods of strengthening aluminum
5. Write the composition of stainless steels
6. Name any four applications of maraging steels
7. Write the composition of Babbitt metal
8. What are the types of stainless steels
9. What are the composition of, property and application (a) tin bronze (b) naval
brass
10. What are the applications of tools steels
PART B:
1. Discuss the characterstics of aluminium and also mention its alloys properties and
uses
2. Discuss the corrosion resistance of copper by increasing addition of zinc tin nickel
3. With the part of phase diagram and relevant sketches, explain the precipitation
hardening treatment of Al-Cu alloys
4. Explain the effect of alloying element in steel
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UNIT IV
properties
The elements, having the same crystal structure as that of austenite (cubic
These elements are nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn), cobalt (Co) and copper
(Cu).
exists.
The elements, having the same crystal structure as that of ferrite (cubic body
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tungsten (W), Molybdenum (Mo), vanadium (V), aluminum (Al) and silicon
(Si).
vanadium (V), titanium (Ti), niobium (Nb), tantalum (Ta), zirconium (Zr)
form hard (often complex) carbides, increasing steel hardness and strength.
The following elements have graphitizing effect: silicon (Si), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co),
aluminum (Al).
Decrease of the eutectoid concentration.
The following elements lower eutectoid concentration of carbon: titanium
(Ti), molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W), silicon (Si), chromium (Cr), nickel
(Ni).
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Titanium (Ti) - improves strength and corrosion resistance, limits austenite grain size.
permeability.
Zirconium (Zr) - increases strength and limits grain sizes.
Boron (B) - highly effective hardenability agent, improves deformability and machinability.
Maraging steels (from martensitic and aging) are steels (iron alloys) which
are known for possessing superior strength and toughness without losing
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malleability, although they cannot hold a good cutting edge. Aging refers to
the extended heat-treatment process. These steels are a special class of low-
and 25% Ni steels to which small additions of Al, Ti, and Nb were made.
and unable to transform to martensite when heat treated, while lower-nickel steels
Properties
Due to the low carbon content maraging steels have good machinability.
Prior to aging, they may also be cold rolled to as much as 80-90% without
When heat-treated the alloy has very little dimensional change, so it is often
machined to its final dimensions. Due to the high alloy content maraging
steels have a high hardenability. Since ductile FeNi martensites are formed
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The steel is first annealed at approximately 820 °C (1,510 °F) for 15-30
minutes for thin sections and for 1 hour per 25 mm thickness for heavy
excessive heat-treatment brings about the decomposition of the martensite and reversion to
austenite.
and crystallographic relationships with the parent martensite, including rhombohedral and
Uses
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be formed into thinner rocket and missile skins than other steels, reducing
weight for a given strength. Maraging steels have very stable properties, and,
and have maximum service temperatures of over 400 °C (752 °F).[citation needed]
They are suitable for engine components, such as crankshafts and gears, and
the firing pins of automatic weapons that cycle from hot to cool repeatedly
content.
In the sport of fencing, blades used in competitions run under the auspices of
the Fédération Internationale d'Escrime are often made with maraging steel.
Maraging blades are required in foil and épée because crack propagation in
maraging steel is 10 times slower than in carbon steel, resulting in less blade
breakage and fewer injuries. The notion that such blades break flat is a
fencing urban legend: testing has shown that the blade-breakage patterns in
maraging steel is used in bicycle frames and golf club heads. It is also used
scalpel blades because the lack of carbon prevents it from holding a good
cutting edge.
Maraging steel production, import, and export by certain states, such as the
is particularly suited for use in gas centrifuges for uranium enrichment; lack
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of maraging steel significantly hampers this process. Older centrifuges used aluminum tubes;
Copper alloys are metal alloys that have copper as their principal
component. They have high resistance against corrosion. The best known
traditional types are bronze, where tin is a significant addition, and brass,
using zinc instead. Both these are imprecise terms, and today the term
Compositions
The similarity in external appearance of the various alloys, along with the
different combinations of elements used when making each alloy, can lead
grouped into the categories: copper, high copper alloy, brasses, bronzes,
special alloys. The following table lists the principal alloying element for
four of the more common types used in modern industry, along with the
name for each type. Historical types, such as those that characterize the
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C69800
Brasses
A brass is an alloy of copper with zinc. Brasses are usually yellow in color.
The zinc content can vary between few % to about 40%; as long as it is kept
conditions, when zinc is leached from the alloy (dezincification), leaving behind a spongy
copper structure.
Bronzes
silicon.
and silicon are sometimes added. They have higher strength and
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Carbon steels
ductility. The higher carbon content, the higher steel strength and the lower
its ductility.
Alloy steels
Alloy steels are iron-carbon alloys, to which alloying elements are added
those of plane carbon steels. AISI/SAE classification divide alloy steels onto
⇐ 8%);
2- Nickel steels;
3- Nickel-chromium steels;
4- Molybdenum steels;
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5- Chromium steels;
6- Chromium-vanadium steels;
7- Tungsten-chromium steels;
9- Silicon-manganese steels.
Second digit indicates concentration of the major element in percents (1 means 1%).
Tool and die steels are high carbon steels (either carbon or alloy) possessing
high hardness, strength and wear resistance. Tool steels are heat treatable. In
Applications: chisels, forging dies, hummers, drills, cutters, shear blades, cutters, drills,
razors.
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Properties: low cost, very hard, brittle, relatively low harden ability, suitable
Applications: drawing and forging dies, shear blades, highly effective cutters.
Properties: combine high toughness with good wear resistance. T,M - High
Applications: parts working at elevated temperatures, like extrusion, casting and forging dies.
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good machinability.
C,
AISI No. Mn,% W,% Si,% Cr,% Mo,% V,% Co,%
%
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Steel is basically iron alloyed to carbon with certain additional elements to give the required
properties to the finished melt. Listed below is a summary of the effects various alloying
elements in steel.
Carbon
The basic metal, iron, is alloyed with carbon to make steel and has the effect of increasing the
hardness and strength by heat treatment but the addition of carbon enables a wide range of
hardness and strength.
Manganese
Chromium
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Nickel
Nickel is added in large amounts, over about 8%, to high chromium stainless
steel to form the most important class of corrosion and heat resistant steels.
These are the austenitic stainless steels, typified by 18-8, where the tendency
of nickel to form austenite is responsible for a great toughness and high strength at both
high and low temperatures. Nickel also improves resistance to oxidation and corrosion. It
increases toughness at low temperatures when added in smaller amounts to alloy steels.
Molybdenum
Titanium
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Phosphorus
Sulphur
When added in small amounts sulphur improves machinability but does not cause hot
shortness. Hot shortness is reduced by the addition of manganese, which combines with
the sulphur to form manganese sulphide. As manganese sulphide has a higher
melting point than iron sulphide, which would form if manganese were not present, the
weak spots at the grain boundaries are greatly reduced during hot working.
Selenium
Niobium (Columbium)
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Niobium is added to steel in order to stabilise carbon, and as such performs in the same
way as described for titanium. Niobium also has the effect of strengthening steels and
Nitrogen
Nitrogen has the effect of increasing the austenitic stability of stainless steels
and is, as in the case of nickel, an austenite forming element. Yield strength
Silicon
Silicon is used as a deoxidising (killing) agent in the melting of steel, as a result, most
steels contain a small percentage of silicon. Silicon contributes to hardening of the ferritic
phase in steels and for this reason silicon killed steels are somewhat harder and stiffer than
Cobalt
Cobalt becomes highly radioactive when exposed to the intense radiation of nuclear reactors,
and as a result, any stainless steel that is in nuclear service will have a cobalt restriction,
Tantalum
Copper
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UNIT IV
PART A
1. What do you mean by copolymers
2. How are refractories classified
3. Distringuish between polymer and ceramics
4. Write the molecular structure of phenol farmoldehyde
5. What do oyu mean by copolymer
6. Write the General mechanical properties of ceramics
7. Define degree of polymerization
8. State any two properties of ceramics
9. What is cast iron
10. What is the effect of chromium alloying element an the properties of steels
PART B:
1. Discuss the properties and application of ceramics materials in industries?
Describe the mechanical behavior of polymers?
2. Advantages, limitations and applications of composite materials?
3. Strengthening mechanism of fibre-reinforcement composites?
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UNITV
NON-METALLIC MATERIALS
Polymer
Appearance of real linear polymer chains as recorded using an atomic force microscope
on surface under liquid medium. Chain contour length for this polymer is ~204 nm;
thickness is ~0.4 nm.[1]
Natural polymeric materials such as shellac, amber, and natural rubber have been used
for centuries. A variety of other natural polymers exist, such as cellulose, which is the
main constituent of wood and paper. The list of synthetic polymers includes synthetic
rubber, Bakelite, neoprene, nylon, PVC, polystyrene, polyethylene, polypropylene,
polyacrylonitrile, PVB, silicone, and many more.
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Most commonly, the continuously linked backbone of a polymer used for the preparation
of plastics consists mainly of carbon atoms. A simple example is polyethylene, whose
repeating unit is based on ethylene monomer. However, other structures do exist; for
example, elements such as silicon form familiar materials such as silicones, examples
being silly putty and waterproof plumbing sealant. Oxygen is also commonly present in
polymer backbones, such as those of polyethylene glycol, polysaccharides (in glycosidic
bonds), and DNA (in phosphodiester bonds).
Polymers are studied in the fields of polymer chemistry, polymer physics, and polymer
science
Etymology
The word polymer is derived from the Greek words πολύ- - poly- meaning "many"; and
μέρος - meros meaning "part". The term was coined in 1833 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius,
although his definition of a polymer was quite different from the modern definition.
Historical development
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Synthetic polymer materials such as nylon, polyethylene, Teflon, and silicone have
formed the basis for a burgeoning polymer industry. These years have also shown
significant developments in rational polymer synthesis. Most commercially important
polymers today are entirely synthetic and produced in high volume on appropriately
scaled organic synthetic techniques. Synthetic polymers today find application in nearly
every industry and area of life. Polymers are widely used as adhesives and lubricants, as
well as structural components for products ranging from children's toys to aircraft. They
have been employed in a variety of biomedical applications ranging from implantable
devices to controlled drug delivery. Polymers such as poly(methyl methacrylate) find
application as photoresist materials used in semiconductor manufacturing and low-k
dielectrics for use in high-performance microprocessors. Recently, polymers have also
been employed as flexible substrates in the development of organic light-emitting diodes
for electronic display.
Polymer synthesis
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Laboratory synthesis
Laboratory synthetic methods are generally divided into two categories, step-growth
polymerization and chain-growth polymerization. [5] The essential difference between the
two is that in chain growth polymerization, monomers are added to the chain one at a
time only,[6] whereas in step-growth polymerization chains of monomers may combine
with one another directly.[7] However, some newer methods such as plasma
polymerization do not fit neatly into either category. Synthetic polymerization reactions
may be carried out with or without a catalyst. Laboratory synthesis of biopolymers,
especially of proteins, is an area of intensive research.
Biological synthesis
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Polymer properties
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Polymer properties are broadly divided into several classes based on the scale at which
the property is defined as well as upon its physical basis.[8] The most basic property of a
polymer is the identity of its constituent monomers. A second set of properties, known as
microstructure, essentially describe the arrangement of these monomers within the
polymer at the scale of a single chain. These basic structural properties play a major role
in determining bulk physical properties of the polymer, which describe how the polymer
behaves as a continuous macroscopic material. Chemical properties, at the nano-scale,
describe how the chains interact through various physical forces. At the macro-scale, they
describe how the bulk polymer interacts with other chemicals and solvents.
The identity of the monomer residues (repeat units) comprising a polymer is its first and
most important attribute. Polymer nomenclature is generally based upon the type of
monomer residues comprising the polymer. Polymers that contain only a single type of
repeat unit are known as homopolymers, while polymers containing a mixture of repeat
units are known as copolymers. Poly(styrene), for example, is composed only of styrene
monomer residues, and is therefore classified as a homopolymer. Ethylene-vinyl acetate,
on the other hand, contains more than one variety of repeat unit and is thus a copolymer.
Some biological polymers are composed of a variety of different but structurally related
monomer residues; for example, polynucleotides such as DNA are composed of a variety
of nucleotide subunits.
Microstructure
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example, two samples of natural rubber may exhibit different durability, even though
their molecules comprise the same monomers.
Polymer architecture
Branching of polymer chains affects the ability of chains to slide past one another by
altering intermolecular forces, in turn affecting bulk physical polymer properties. Long
chain branches may increase polymer strength, toughness, and the glass transition
temperature (Tg) due to an increase in the number of entanglements per chain. The effect
of such long-chain branches on the size of the polymer in solution is characterized by the
branching index. Random length and atactic short chains, on the other hand, may reduce
polymer strength due to disruption of organization and may likewise reduce the
crystallinity of the polymer.
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Dendrimers are a special case of polymer where every monomer unit is branched. This
tends to reduce intermolecular chain entanglement and crystallization. Alternatively,
dendritic polymers are not perfectly branched but share similar properties to dendrimers
due to their high degree of branching.
The architecture of the polymer is often physically determined by the functionality of the
monomers from which it is formed.[11] This property of a monomer is defined as the
number of reaction sites at which may form chemical covalent bonds. The basic
functionality required for forming even a linear chain is two bonding sites. Higher
functionality yields branched or even crosslinked or networked polymer chains.
A cross-link suggests a branch point from which four or more distinct chains emanate. A
polymer molecule with a high degree of crosslinking is referred to as a polymer
network.[12] Sufficiently high crosslink concentrations may lead to the formation of an
infinite network, also known as a gel, in which networks of chains are of unlimited extent—
essentially all chains have linked into one molecule.[13]
Chain length
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The physical properties[14] of a polymer are strongly dependent on the size or length of
the polymer chain.[15] For example, as chain length is increased, melting and boiling
temperatures increase quickly.[15] Impact resistance also tends to increase with chain
length, as does the viscosity, or resistance to flow, of the polymer in its melt state.[16]
Chain length is related to melt viscosity roughly as 1:103.2, so that a tenfold increase in
polymer chain length results in a viscosity increase of over 1000 times [citation needed]
.
Increasing chain length furthermore tends to decrease chain mobility, increase strength
and toughness, and increase the glass transition temperature (T g)[citation needed]
. This is a
result of the increase in chain interactions such as Van der Waals attractions and
entanglements that come with increased chain length[citation needed]
. These interactions tend
to fix the individual chains more strongly in position and resist deformations and matrix
breakup, both at higher stresses and higher temperatures[citation needed].
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Tacticity
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Polymer morphology
Crystallinity
When applied to polymers, the term crystalline has a somewhat ambiguous usage. In
some cases, the term crystalline finds identical usage to that used in conventional
crystallography. For example, the structure of a crystalline protein or polynucleotide,
such as a sample prepared for x-ray crystallography, may be defined in terms of a
conventional unit cell composed of one or more polymer molecules with cell dimensions of
hundreds of angstroms or more.
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Chain conformation
Mechanical properties
The bulk properties of a polymer are those most often of end-use interest. These are the
properties that dictate how the polymer actually behaves on a macroscopic scale.
Tensile strength
The tensile strength of a material quantifies how much stress the material will endure
before suffering permanent deformation.[29][30] This is very important in applications that
rely upon a polymer's physical strength or durability. For example, a rubber band with a
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higher tensile strength will hold a greater weight before snapping. In general, tensile
strength increases with polymer chain length and crosslinking of polymer chains.
Young's Modulus quantifies the elasticity of the polymer. It is defined, for small strains,
as the ratio of rate of change of stress to strain. Like tensile strength, this is highly
relevant in polymer applications involving the physical properties of polymers, such as
rubber bands. The modulus is strongly dependent on temperature.
Transport properties
Transport properties such as diffusivity relate to how rapidly molecules move through the
polymer matrix. These are very important in many applications of polymers for films and
membranes.
Phase behavior
Melting point
The term melting point, when applied to polymers, suggests not a solid-liquid phase
transition but a transition from a crystalline or semi-crystalline phase to a solid
amorphous phase. Though abbreviated as simply Tm, the property in question is more
properly called the crystalline melting temperature. Among synthetic polymers,
crystalline melting is only discussed with regards to thermoplastics, as thermosetting
polymers will decompose at high temperatures rather than melt.
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Mixing behavior
Phase diagram of the typical mixing behavior of weakly interacting polymer solutions.
In general, polymeric mixtures are far less miscible than mixtures of small molecule
materials. This effect results from the fact that the driving force for mixing is usually
entropy, not interaction energy. In other words, miscible materials usually form a solution
not because their interaction with each other is more favorable than their self-interaction,
but because of an increase in entropy and hence free energy associated with increasing
the amount of volume available to each component. This increase in entropy scales with
the number of particles (or moles) being mixed. Since polymeric molecules are much
larger and hence generally have much higher specific volumes than small molecules, the
number of molecules involved in a polymeric mixture is far smaller than the number in a
small molecule mixture of equal volume. The energetics of mixing, on the other hand, is
comparable on a per volume basis for polymeric and small molecule mixtures. This tends
to increase the free energy of mixing for polymer solutions and thus make solvation less
favorable. Thus, concentrated solutions of polymers are far rarer than those of small
molecules.
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Furthermore, the phase behavior of polymer solutions and mixtures is more complex than
that of small molecule mixtures. Whereas most small molecule solutions exhibit only an
upper critical solution temperature phase transition, at which phase separation occurs
with cooling, polymer mixtures commonly exhibit a lower critical solution temperature
phase transition, at which phase separation occurs with heating.
In dilute solution, the properties of the polymer are characterized by the interaction
between the solvent and the polymer. In a good solvent, the polymer appears swollen and
occupies a large volume. In this scenario, intermolecular forces between the solvent and
monomer subunits dominate over intramolecular interactions. In a bad solvent or poor
solvent, intramolecular forces dominate and the chain contracts. In the theta solvent, or
the state of the polymer solution where the value of the second virial coefficient becomes
0, the intermolecular polymer-solvent repulsion balances exactly the intramolecular
monomer-monomer attraction. Under the theta condition (also called the Flory
condition), the polymer behaves like an ideal random coil. The transition between the
states is known as a coil-globule transition.
Inclusion of plasticizers
Chemical properties
The attractive forces between polymer chains play a large part in determining a polymer's
properties. Because polymer chains are so long, these interchain forces are amplified far
beyond the attractions between conventional molecules. Different side groups on the
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polymer can lend the polymer to ionic bonding or hydrogen bonding between its own
chains. These stronger forces typically result in higher tensile strength and higher
crystalline melting points.
The intermolecular forces in polymers can be affected by dipoles in the monomer units.
Polymers containing amide or carbonyl groups can form hydrogen bonds between
adjacent chains; the partially positively charged hydrogen atoms in N-H groups of one
chain are strongly attracted to the partially negatively charged oxygen atoms in C=O
groups on another. These strong hydrogen bonds, for example, result in the high tensile
strength and melting point of polymers containing urethane or urea linkages. Polyesters
have dipole-dipole bonding between the oxygen atoms in C=O groups and the hydrogen
atoms in H-C groups. Dipole bonding is not as strong as hydrogen bonding, so a
polyester's melting point and strength are lower than Kevlar's (Twaron), but polyesters
have greater flexibility.
Ethene, however, has no permanent dipole. The attractive forces between polyethylene
chains arise from weak van der Waals forces. Molecules can be thought of as being
surrounded by a cloud of negative electrons. As two polymer chains approach, their
electron clouds repel one another. This has the effect of lowering the electron density on
one side of a polymer chain, creating a slight positive dipole on this side. This charge is
enough to attract the second polymer chain. Van der Waals forces are quite weak,
however, so polyethylene can have a lower melting temperature compared to other
polymers.
There are multiple conventions for naming polymer substances. Many commonly used
polymers, such as those found in consumer products, are referred to by a common or
trivial name. The trivial name is assigned based on historical precedent or popular usage
rather than a standardized naming convention. Both the American Chemical Society
(ACS)[32] and IUPAC[33] have proposed standardized naming conventions; the ACS and
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IUPAC conventions are similar but not identical.[34] Examples of the differences between
the various naming conventions are given in the table below:
In both standardized conventions, the polymers' names are intended to reflect the
monomer(s) from which they are synthesized rather than the precise nature of the
repeating subunit. For example, the polymer synthesized from the simple alkene ethene is
called polyethylene, retaining the -ene suffix even though the double bond is removed
during the polymerization process:
Polymer characterization
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A variety of lab techniques are used to determine the properties of polymers. Techniques
such as wide angle X-ray scattering, small angle X-ray scattering, and small angle
neutron scattering are used to determine the crystalline structure of polymers. Gel
permeation chromatography is used to determine the number average molecular weight,
weight average molecular weight, and polydispersity. FTIR, Raman and NMR can be
used to determine composition. Thermal properties such as the glass transition
temperature and melting point can be determined by differential scanning calorimetry and
dynamic mechanical analysis. Pyrolysis followed by analysis of the fragments is one
more technique for determining the possible structure of the polymer. Thermogravimetry
is a useful technique to evaluate the thermal stability of the polymer. Detailed analyses of
TG curves also allow us to know a bit of the phase segregation in polymers. Rheological
properties are also commonly used to help determine molecular architecture (molecular
weight, molecular weight distribution and branching)as well as to understand how the
polymer will process, through measurements of the polymer in the melt phase. Another
polymer characterization technique is Automatic Continuous Online Monitoring of
Polymerization Reactions (ACOMP) which provides real-time characterization of
polymerization reactions. It can be used as an analytical method in R&D, as a tool for
reaction optimization at the bench and pilot plant level and, eventually, for feedback
control of full-scale reactors. ACOMP measures in a model-independent fashion the
evolution of average molar mass and intrinsic viscosity, monomer conversion kinetics
and, in the case of copolymers, also the average composition drift and distribution. It is
applicable in the areas of free radical and controlled radical homo- and copolymerization,
polyelectrolyte synthesis, heterogeneous phase reactions, including emulsion
polymerization, adaptation to batch and continuous reactors, and modifications of
polymers.[35][36][37]
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Polymer degradation
A plastic item with thirty years of exposure to heat and cold, brake fluid, and sunlight.
Notice the discoloration, swollen dimensions, and tiny splits running through the material
Although such changes are frequently undesirable, in some cases, such as biodegradation
and recycling, they may be intended to prevent environmental pollution. Degradation can
also be useful in biomedical settings. For example, a copolymer of polylactic acid and
polyglycolic acid is employed in hydrolysable stitches that slowly degrade after they are
applied to a wound.
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The degradation of polymers to form smaller molecules may proceed by random scission
or specific scission. The degradation of polyethylene occurs by random scission—a
random breakage of the bonds that hold the atoms of the polymer together. When heated
above 450 °C, polyethylene degrades to form a mixture of hydrocarbons. Other polymers,
such as poly(alpha-methylstyrene), undergo specific chain scission with breakage
occurring only at the ends. They literally unzip or depolymerize back to the constituent
monomer.
The sorting of polymer waste for recycling purposes may be facilitated by the use of the
Resin identification codes developed by the Society of the Plastics Industry to identify
the type of plastic.
Product failure
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properties, especially in the USA in the 1990s. Traces of chlorine in the water supply
attacked vulnerable polymers in the plastic plumbing, a problem which occurs faster if
any of the parts have been poorly extruded or injection molded. Attack of the acetal joint
occurred because of faulty molding, leading to cracking along the threads of the fitting
which is a serious stress concentration.
Polymer oxidation has caused accidents involving medical devices. One of the oldest
known failure modes is ozone cracking caused by chain scission when ozone gas attacks
susceptible elastomers, such as natural rubber and nitrile rubber. They possess double
bonds in their repeat units which are cleaved during ozonolysis. Cracks in fuel lines can
penetrate the bore of the tube and cause fuel leakage. If cracking occurs in the engine
compartment, electric sparks can ignite the gasoline and can cause a serious fire.
Fuel lines can also be attacked by another form of degradation: hydrolysis. Nylon 6,6 is
susceptible to acid hydrolysis, and in one accident, a fractured fuel line led to a spillage
of diesel into the road. If diesel fuel leaks onto the road, accidents to following cars can
be caused by the slippery nature of the deposit, which is like black ice
POLYMER MATERIALS
Elastomers
Thermoplastics
Thermosets
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Elastomers
Elastomers are polymers possessing high elasticity - may be reversibly stretched at high
degree. Elastomers consists of long lightly cross-linked molecules.
Common elastomers are:
Polyisoprene (natural rubber)
Butyl
Nitrile
Neoprene
Ethylene-Propylene
Hypalon
Silicone
Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics are polymers, which soften (becomes pliable and plastic) and melt when
heated. In the melted conditions thermoplastics may be formed by various methods
(injection molding, extrusion, Thermoforming). No new cross-links form (no chemical
curing) when a thermoplastic cools and harden. Thermoplastics may be reprocessed
(remelt) many times.
Common thermoplastics are:
Thermoplastic Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE)
Thermoplastic High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
Polypropylene (PP)
Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS)
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA)
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
Nylon 6 (N6)
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Polyimide (PI)
Polycarbonate (PC)
Polysulfone (PSF)
Thermosets
Thermosets are polymers which do not melt when heated. Thermosets molecules are
cross-linked by strong covalent intermolecular bonds, forming one giant molecule. Cross-
linking is achieved in curing process initiated by heat, chemical agents or radiation.
Before curing processing thermoset materials are stored in partially polymerized
condition. Thermosets are stronger and stiffer than thermoplastics.
Alkyds (AMC)
POLYMER STRUCTURE
Polymer
Polymer is a substance (natural or synthetic), molecules of which consist of numerous
small repeated chemical units (monomers) linked to each other in a regular pattern.
Polymers usually combine crystalline and amorphous structures (semi-crystalline).
Degree of polymerization
Degree of polymerization is an average number of monomers (mers) in a polymer
molecule. Polymer molecules may combine up to million of monomers (mers) forming a
one-dimensional structure (chain), two-dimensional structure (planar molecules) or
threedimensional structure.
One-dimensional structure is common for organic polymers.
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Organic polymer
Organic polymer is a polymer compound built of hydrocarbon base monomer units.
Besides carbon and Hydrogen the following atoms may be incorporated in polymer
molecules: Oxygen, Nitrogen, chorine, fluorine, silicon, phosphorous, and sulfur. Atoms
of a polymer molecule are held by covalent bonding.
Neighboring chains may form secondary bonds between them (cross-links) which are less
strong than covalent bonding between the atoms within the molecules.
Cross-links provide elasticity to the polymer, preventing sliding of the neighboring chains
when the material is stretched.
Branched polymer
Branched polymer consists of molecules having side chains (branches) attached to the
main chain.
Copolymer
Copolymer is a polymer molecule of which contains more than one kind of monomers.
Nylon is a common copolymer. Its molecules consist of two alternating monomers:
diacid and diamine.
Graft copolymer
Graft copolymer is a kind of branch polymer, side chains of which are made of
monomers differing from the monomer of the main chain.
Block copolymer
Block copolymer is a polymer molecules of which built from alternating polymeric
blocks of two or more different polymers.
Structure parameters affecting polymer properties:
Increase of the chain length.
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Effect: Anisotropy of the material properties (properties along the deformation differ
from those in other directions). Every polymer is characterized by a temperature below of
which mobility of its molecules sharply decreases and the material becomes brittle and
glassy.
This temperature is called Glass Transition Temperature.
Monomer molecular structures of different polymers are presented in the picture:
Elastomers
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Elastomers are polymers possessing high elasticity - may be reversibly stretched at high
degree. Elastomers consists of long lightly cross-linked molecules.
Common elastomers are:
Polyisoprene (natural rubber)
Butyl
Nitrile
Neoprene
Ethylene-Propylene
Hypalon
Silicone
Elastomers may be strengthened by vulcanization process (heat treatment in presence of
chemical agents). Vulcanization results in increase of cross-linking of the molecules.
Vulcanized elastomers are elastic for small deformations.
Vulcanization produces cross-links which make impossible shaping material. Therefore
most of elastomers are shaped before cross-linking. However there are some elastomer
materials which are not cross-linked when heated. These astomers may be reversibly
remolded by heating many times (like Thermoplastics).
Such kind of elastomers is called Thermoplastic Elastomers.
Thermoplastic elastomers are manufactured by copolymerization of two or more
monomers forming block polymers or graft polymers.
Common thermoplastic elastomers are:
Polyurethanes
Polyester Copolymers
Styrene-Butadiene
Elastomer Nitrile
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ELASTOMER POLYISOPRENE
(NATURAL RUBBER)
Elastomer
Polyisoprene (natural rubber)
ELASTOMER BUTYL
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(ISOBUTENE-ISOPRENE)
Elastomer
Butyl (Isobutene-Isoprene)
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ELASTOMER NEOPRENE
(CHLOROPRENE)
Elastomer
Neoprene (Chloroprene)
Property Value in metric unit Value in US unit
Density 1.23 *10³ kg/m³ 76.8 lb/ft³
Tensile strength 25 MPa 3630 psi
Applications: oil and crude oil hoses, gaskets, diaphragms, lining of chemical vessels.
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ELASTOMER SILICONE
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Elastomer
Silicone
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THERMOPLASTICS
Thermoplastics are polymers, which soften (becomes pliable and plastic) and melt when
heated. In the melted conditions thermoplastics may be formed by various methods
(injection molding, extrusion, Thermoforming). No new cross-links form (no chemical
curing) when a thermoplastic cools and harden. Thermoplastics may be reprocessed (re-
melt) many times.
Molecules of most of thermoplastics combine long polymer chains alternating with
monomer units.
Thermoplastic materials may contain filler materials in form of powder or fibers,
providing improvement of specific material properties (strength, stiffness, lubricity, color
etc.).
Thermoplastic groups:
Polyolefines: Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE), High Density Polyethylene
(HDPE), Polypropylene (PP).
Styrenics: Polysterene (PS), Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS), Styrene-
Acrylonitrile (SAN), Styrene/Acrylic (S/A), Styrene-Maleic Anhydride
(SMA).
Vinyls: Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride (CPVC).
Acrylics: Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), Polyvinilchloride-Acrylic Blend
(PVC/MA).
Fluoropolymers: Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (CTFE),
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF).
Polyesters: Polyethylene Terephtalate (PET), Polyester PETG (PETG),
Polybutylene Terephtalate (PBT), Polyarilate (PAR), Liquid Crystal Polyester
(LCP).
Polyamides (Nylons): Nylon 6 (N6), Nylon 66 (N66), Nylon 11 (N11), Nylon
12 (N12), Polyphtalamide (PPA), Polyamidemide (PAI).
Polyimides: Polyimide (PI), Polyetherimide (PEI).
Polyethers: Polyacetal (POM), Polycarbonate (PC), Polyphenylene Oxide
Blend (PPO), Polyaryletherketone (PAEK), Polyetheretherketone.
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FUNDAMENTALS OF CERAMICS
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Atoms of the elements are held together in a ceramic structure by one of the
following bonding mechanism: Ionic Bonding, Covalent Bonding, Mixed
Bonding (Ionic-Covalent).
Electro negativity
Ionic Bonding
Covalent Bonding
Ionic-Covalent (mixed) Bonding
Characterization of ceramics properties
Electro negativity
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Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonding occurs between two elements with a large difference in their
electro negativities (metallic and non-metallic), which become ions
(negative and positive) as a result of transfer of the valence electron from the
element with low electro negativity to the element with high electro
negativity.
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(anion). The two ions attract to each other by Coulomb force, forming a
compound (sodium chloride) with ionic bonding.
Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonding occurs between two elements with low difference in their
electronegativities (usually non-metallics), outer electrons of which are
shared between the four neighboring atoms.
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In contrast to metallic bonding neither ionic nor covalent bonding form free
electrons, therefore ceramic materials have very low electric conductivity
and thermal conductivity. Since both ionic and covalent bonds are stronger
than metallic bond, ceramic materials are stronger and harder than
metals.
Strength of ionic and covalent bonds also determines high melting point,
modulus of elasticity (rigidity), temperature and chemical stability of
ceramic materials. Motion of dislocations through a ceramic structure is
impeded therefore ceramics are generally brittle that limits their use as
structural materials.
Ceramics may have either crystalline or amorphous structure. There are also
ceramic materials, consisting of two constituents: crystalline and amorphous.
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Where
rc - radius of cation;
ra - radius of anion.
Radius Ratio determines Coordination Number (CN)- the maximum
number of anion nearest neighbors for a cation.The anion neighbors do not
touch each other.
rc/ra = 0.225…0.414(SiO2) CN = 4
rc/ra = 0.414…0.732(SnO2, PbO2) CN = 6
rc/ra = 0.732…1.0(ThO2) CN = 8
Covalent bonding component, which tends to form tetrahedral coordination,
may affect the Coordination Number.
Ions are packed with maximum density, providing minimum
energy of the structure.
Ceramic structures are classified and designated according to the pattern
structures of several natural minerals:
Mineral Coordination
Formula Structure Characterization
Name Number
Octahedral unit cell, cubic
Rocksalt NaCl 6
appearance
FCC unit cell with S2- anions at 4
Zincblende ZnS 4
tetrahedral sites
8-cationCN FCC unit cell with F- anions at 8
Fluorite CaF2
4-anion CN tetrahedral sites
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Single or two silica blocks, containing other cations, form Island (olivine) or
Double Island Silicates (hemimorphite).
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Framework silicate
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Tribology of ceramics
Characteristics of friction and wear of a ceramic material are determined by
a combination of its bulk microstructure parameters, surface conditions and
environmental factors (temperature, atmosphere pressure, etc.), lubrication
conditions.
Grain size
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Critical flaw size (the size of a flaw that results in rapid fracture)
Homogeneity
Homogeneous distribution of the matrix particles size and pores size, second
phase particles (toughening particles) incorporated between the matrix
particles, aid phase (binders, etc.) locating at the grains boundaries results in
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lowering the flaw size and consequently in increase of the fracture strength
(according to the Griffith equation).Higher fracture strength causes higher
wear resistance.Bulk homogeneity of the microstructure allows creating fine
and homogeneous surface finish with low content of surface flaws.High
quality surface possess low coefficient of friction.
Powder preparation
Powder characteristics such as particle shape (spherical, irregular), average
particle size, size distribution determine the ceramic grain size and the amount
and size of the pores.
Compaction (shape forming)
The value of the applied pressure, the method of its application (Uniaxial
(Die) Pressing, Isostatic Pressing, Injection Molding, Extrusion, Slip
Casting, etc.) and the amount of binders and other additives (plasticizers,
lubricants, deflocculants, water etc.) determine the pores size and the
residual internal stresses.
Sintering
Diffusion proceeding during sintering process causes the pores to diminish
or even to close up resulting in densification of the ceramic material. The
bonding and other second phases are distributed between the grains of the
main ceramic phase. The matrix grains may grow during the sintering
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process. Thus sintering process determines the final grains and pores size
and the physical and chemical homogeneity.
Effect of surface characteristics on tribological properties of ceramics
Surface characteristics
Surface topography
Friction characteristics (coefficient of friction, wear) are strongly dependent
on the type of the lubrication regime (boundary lubrication, mixed
lubrication, hydrodynamic lubrication).The lubrication regime is determined
by the ratio of the lubricant film thickness to the surface roughness
Ra.Rough ceramic surface with relatively large microasperities causes direct
contact between the rubbing surfaces and results in high coefficient of
friction and increased wear.High surface finish quality allows to improve the
tribological characteristics of ceramics.
Ceramics are brittle and they wear by fracture mechanism, which is
characterized by formation of cracks in the subsurface regions surrounding
the wear groove. The volume of the lost material is higher than the volume
of the wear track.
Thus wear of brittle ceramics results in roughening the surface. The effect of
roughening during friction is lower in toughened ceramics.
Surface defects
Sintering defects, surface machining, impacts during friction, embedded
particles introduce surface flaws, which lead to fracture cracking and
increase wear.
Surface composition and tribochemical reactions
Ceramic surface may adsorb molecules of the environmental gases and
liquids. Such surfaces with modified composition may have different
coefficient of friction. Coefficient of friction of ceramics in vacuum is
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Liquid lubricants
Solid lubricants
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Gaseous lubricants
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UNIT V
PART A
1. What are slip bands
2. What are different types of loadings available for fatigue?
3. State the two difference between elastic and plastic deformations
4. A metal has a hardness of 30 HRC. What is its brinell hardness
5. Define endurance limit in fatigue test
6. Distringuish between slip and twinning
7. What is creep? Draw a typical creep curve and show difference creep stages on it
8. Define fatigue
9. List the testing methods of metals
10. Define creep
PART B
1. Write does the procedure for preparing charpy aand izod specimens for impact
testing and also explain how testing is performed.
2. Discuss the characterstics of ductile and brittle
3. Explain with the help of neat sketch the procedure for fatigue
4. List the types of fractures and factors influencing them.
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