Aeronautical Knowledge 3 (Instruments)

Aeronautical Knowledge 3
Technical Basic
Understanding
2 Aeronautical basics 3 - TTP
PITOT-STATIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

ALTIMETER

ALTIMETER
The altimeter
measures the
height of the
airplane above a
given pressure
level.
Aneroid—A sealed
flexible container, which
expands or contracts in
relation to the
surrounding air pressure.
It is used in an altimeter
or a barometer to
measure the pressure of
the air.

ALTIMETER
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The pressure altimeter is an aneroid barometer that
measures the pressure of the atmosphere at the level
where the altimeter is located, and presents an altitude
indication in feet. The altimeter uses static pressure as
its source of operation. Air is denser at sea level than
aloft, so as altitude increases, atmospheric pressure
decreases. This difference in pressure at various levels
causes the altimeter to indicate changes in altitude.

ALTIMETER
EFFECT OF NONSTANDARD PRESSURE

AND TEMPERATURE
Indicated altitude is correct only when the sea level barometric
pressure is standard (29.92 inches of mercury), the sea level free
air temperature is standard (+15°C or 59°F), and the pressure and
temperature decrease at a standard rate with an increase in
altitude. Adjustments for nonstandard conditions are accomplished
by setting the corrected pressure into a barometric scale located
on the face of the altimeter. Only after the altimeter is set does it
indicate the correct altitude.

ALTIMETER
Effects of nonstandard temperature on an altimeter.

ALTIMETER
If no means were provided for adjusting altimeters to

nonstandard pressure, flight could be hazardous. For example,
if flying from a high-pressure area to a low-pressure area
without adjusting the altimeter, the actual altitude of the
airplane would be LOWER than the indicated altitude. An old
saying, “HIGH TO LOW, LOOK OUT BELOW” is a way of
remembering which condition is dangerous. When flying from a
low-pressure area to a high-pressure area without adjusting the
altimeter, the actual altitude of the airplane is HIGHER than the
indicated altitude. If terrain or obstacle clearance is a factor in
selecting a cruising altitude, particularly at higher altitudes,
remember to anticipate that a colder-than-standard temperature
places the airplane LOWER than the altimeter indicates.
Therefore, it is necessary to use a higher indicated altitude to
provide adequate terrain clearance.
ALTIMETER
Modify the
memory aid to
“HIGH TO LOW
OR HOT TO
COLD, LOOK
OUT BELOW.”
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more error learning

ALTIMETER
ALTIMETER
OPERATION
There are two
means by which
the altimeter
pointers can be
moved. The first
is a change in air
pressure, while
the other is an
adjustment to the
barometric scale

ALTIMETER
TYPES OF ALTITUDE
Indicated Altitude—That altitude read directly from the
altimeter (uncorrected) when it is set to the current
altimeter setting.
True Altitude—The vertical distance of the airplaneabove
sea level—the actual altitude. It is often expressed as feet
above mean sea level (MSL). Airport, terrain, and
obstacle elevations on aeronautical charts are true
altitudes.
Absolute Altitude—The vertical distance of an airplane
above the terrain, or above ground level (AGL).

ALTIMETER
TYPES OF ALTITUDE
Pressure Altitude—The altitude indicated when the altimeter setting
window (barometric scale) is adjusted to 29.92. This is the altitude
above the standard datum plane, which is a theoretical plane
where air pressure (corrected to 15°C) equals 29.92 in. Hg.
Pressure altitude is used to compute density altitude, true altitude,
true airspeed, and other performance data.
Density Altitude—This altitude is pressure altitude corrected for
variations from standard temperature. When conditions are
standard, pressure altitude and density altitude are the same. If
the temperature is above standard, the density altitude is higher
than pressure altitude. If the temperature is below standard, the
density altitude is lower than pressure altitude. This is an important
altitude because it is directly related to the airplane’s performance.

VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR
The vertical speed

indicator (VSI) indicates
whether the airplane is
climbing, descending, or
in level flight. The rate of
climb or descent is
indicated in feet per
minute. If properly
calibrated, the VSI
indicates zero in level
flight.


Instantaneous
vertical speed
indicator (IVSI)
incorporates
accelerometers
to compensate
for the lag in the
typical VSI.

AIRSPEED INDICATOR
The airspeed
indicator is a
sensitive, differential
pressure gauge
which measures and
shows promptly the
difference between
pitot or impact
pressure, and static
pressure, the
undisturbed
atmospheric pressure
at level flight
AIRSPEED INDICATOR
The difference in pressure is registered by the airspeed pointer on
the face of the instrument, which is calibrated in nautical miles per
hour, knots, or both.

AIRSPEED INDICATOR
TYPES OF SPEEDS
Indicated Airspeed (IAS)—The direct instrument
reading obtained from the airspeed indicator,
uncorrected for variations in atmospheric density,
installation error, or instrument error. Manufacturers
use this airspeed as the basis for determining airplane
performance. Takeoff, landing, and stall speeds listed
in the AFM are indicated airspeeds and do not normally
vary with altitude or temperature.

AIRSPEED INDICATOR
Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) — Indicated airspeed

corrected for installation error and instrument error.
Although manufacturers attempt to keep airspeed
errors to a minimum, it is not possible to eliminate all
errors throughout the airspeed operating range. At
certain airspeeds and with certain flap settings, the
installation and instrument errors may total several
knots. This error is generally greatest at low airspeeds.
In the cruising and higher airspeed ranges, indicated
airspeed and calibrated airspeed are approximately the
same. Refer to the airspeed calibration chart to correct
for possible airspeed errors.

AIRSPEED INDICATOR
True Airspeed (TAS)—Calibrated airspeed corrected

for altitude and nonstandard temperature. Because air
density decreases with an increase in altitude, an
airplane has to be flown faster at higher altitudes to
cause the same pressure difference between pitot
impact pressure and static pressure. Therefore, for a
given calibrated airspeed, true airspeed increases as
altitude increases; or for a given true airspeed,
calibrated airspeed decreases as altitude increases.

AIRSPEED INDICATOR
Groundspeed (GS) — The actual

speed of the airplane over the
ground. It is true airspeed adjusted
for wind.
Groundspeed decreases with a
headwind, and increases with a
tailwind.
AIRSPEED INDICATOR
AIRSPEED INDICATOR MARKINGS

AIRSPEED INDICATOR
STANDARD COLOR-CODED MARKINGS:

• White arc — This arc is commonly referred to
as the flap operating range since its lower limit
represents the full flap stall speed and its upper
limit provides the maximum flap speed.
Approaches and landings are usually flown at
speeds within the white arc.

AIRSPEED INDICATOR
• Lower limit of white arc (VS0) — The

stalling speed or the minimum steady
flight speed in the landing configuration.
In small airplanes, this is the power-off
stall speed at the maximum landing
weight in the landing configuration (gear
and flaps down).

AIRSPEED INDICATOR
• Upper limit of the white arc (VFE)

— The maximum speed with the
flaps extended.
• Green arc — This is the normal
operating range of the airplane. Most
flying occurs within this range.

AIRSPEED INDICATOR
• Lower limit of green arc (VS1) — The

stalling speed or the minimum steady flight
speed obtained in a specified configuration.
For most airplanes, this is the power-off stall
speed at the maximum takeoff weight in the
clean configuration (gear up, if retractable,
and flaps up).

AIRSPEED INDICATOR
• Upper limit of
green arc (VNO)
— The maximum
structural cruising
speed. Do not
exceed this speed
except in smooth
air.

AIRSPEED INDICATOR
• Yellow arc — Caution range. Fly

within this range only in smooth air, and
then, only with caution.
• Red line (VNE) — Never-exceed
speed. Operating above this speed is
prohibited since it may result in damage
or structural failure.
AIRSPEED INDICATOR
OTHER AIRSPEED LIMITATIONS

 Design maneuvering speed (VA)
 Landing gear operating speed (VLO)
 Landing gear extended speed (VLE)
 Best angle-of-climb speed (VX)
 Best rate-of-climb speed (VY)
 Minimum control speed (VMC)
 Best rate of climb with one engine inoperative
(VYSE)

BLOCKAGE OF THE PITOT-STATIC
SYSTEM
BLOCKED
PITOT SYSTEM
A blocked pitot
tube affects the
accuracy of only
the airspeed
indicator AND the
airspeed will drop
toward zero

SYSTEM
Blocked pitot system

with clear static system.

SYSTEM
BLOCKED STATIC SYSTEM

If the static system becomes blocked but the
pitot tube remains clear, the airspeed indicator
continues to operate; however, it is inaccurate.
Airspeed indications are slower than the actual
speed when the airplane is operated above the
altitude where the static ports became blocked,
because the trapped static pressure is higher
than normal for that altitude. And vise versa.

SYSTEM
A blockage of the static system also

affects the altimeter and VSI. Trapped
static pressure causes the altimeter to
freeze at the altitude where the blockage
occurred.
In the case of the VSI, a blocked static
system produces a continuous zero
indication.
SYSTEM

GYROSCOPIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPIC PRINCIPLES
Any spinning object exhibits gyroscopic
properties.
Two fundamental properties of
gyroscopic action are rigidity in space
and precession.

RIGIDITY IN SPACE
- remains in a fixed
position in the plane
in which it is spinning.
Regardless of the position
of its base, a gyro tends to
remain rigid in space, with
its axis of rotation pointed
in a constant direction.

PRECESSION - the
tilting or turning of a
gyro in response to a
deflective force. The
reaction to this force
does not occur at the
point where it was
applied; rather, it occurs
at a point that is 90°
later in the direction of
rotation.

SOURCES OF POWER
All the gyros are vacuum, pressure, or electrically operated;

TURN INDICATORS

TURN-AND-SLIP INDICATOR

TURN COORDINATOR

INCLINOMETER
Inclinometer — An instrument consisting of

a curved glass tube, housing a glass ball,
and damped with a fluid similar to kerosene.
It may be used to indicate inclination, as a
level, or, as used in the turn indicators, to
show the relationship between gravity and
centrifugal force in a turn.

THE ATTITUDE INDICATOR
The attitude indicator, with

its miniature airplane and
horizon bar, displays a
picture of the attitude of
the airplane. The
relationship of the
miniature airplane to the
horizon bar is the same as
the relationship of the real
airplane to the actual
horizon.


Attitude representation by the attitude indicator

corresponds to that of the airplane to the real
horizon


horizon


horizon.

HEADING INDICATOR
The heading
indicator (or
directional gyro) is
fundamentally a
mechanical
instrument designed
to facilitate the use of
the magnetic
compass.

HEADING INDICATOR
A heading indicator
displays headings
based on a 360°
azimuth, with the final
zero omitted. For
example, a 6
represents 060°, while
a 21 indicates 210°.
The adjustment knob
is used to align the
heading indicator with
the magnetic
compass.

MAGNETIC COMPASS
Earth’s
magnetic field
around a bar
magnet.

MAGNETIC COMPASS
The Earth's
magnetic field
compared to a
bar magnet.

MAGNETIC COMPASS

MAGNETIC COMPASS
COMPASS ERRORS
VARIATION
Variation at point A in the
western United States is
17°. Since the magnetic
north pole is located to the
east of the true north pole in
relation to this point, the
variation isasterly. When the
magneticole falls to the west
of the true north pole,
variation is westerly.

MAGNETIC COMPASS
COMPASS DEVIATION
Besides the magnetic fields generated by the Earth, other magnetic
fields are produced by metal and electrical accessories within the
airplane. These magnetic fields distort the Earth’s magnetic force,
and cause the compass to swing away from the correct heading.
The card (shown below) corrects for deviation that occurs from one heading to the next
as the lines of force interact at different angles.

MAGNETIC COMPASS
MAGNETIC DIP
Magnetic dip is the result of the vertical
component of the Earth’s magnetic field. When
a compass is moved toward the poles, the
vertical component increases, and magnetic
dip becomes more apparent at higher latitudes.

MAGNETIC COMPASS
ACCELERATION/DECELERATION ERRORS
Acceleration and deceleration errors are fluctuations
in the compass during changes in speed.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the compass swings
towards the north during acceleration, and towards
the south during deceleration.
In the Southern Hemisphere, this error occurs in the
opposite direction.

MAGNETIC COMPASS
TURNING ERRORS
Turning errors are most apparent when turning
to or from a heading of north or south. This
error ncreases as the poles are neared and
magnetic dip becomes more apparent. There is
no turning error when flying near the magnetic
equator.

MAGNETIC COMPASS
VERTICAL CARD
COMPASS

OUTSIDE AIR TEMPERATURE GAUGE
OUTSIDE AIR
TEMPERATURE
GAUGE

RADIO NAVIGATION
AUTOMATIC
DIRECTION FINDER
(ADF)
To navigate using the
ADF, the pilot tunes the
receiving equipment to a
ground station nown as a
NONDIRECTIONAL
RADIO BEACON (NDB)

RADIO NAVIGATION
ADF with fixed

azimuth and
magnetic compass.

RADIO NAVIGATION
ADF tracking

RADIO NAVIGATION
VERY HIGH
FREQUENCY (VHF)
OMNIDIRECTIONAL
RANGE (VOR)

RADIO NAVIGATION
VOR indicator.

RADIO NAVIGATION
Tracking a radial in
a crosswind.

RADIO NAVIGATION
DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME)

Distance measuring equipment (DME) is an
ultra high frequency (UHF) navigational aid
present with VOR/DMEs and VORTACs. It
measures, in nautical miles (NM), the slant
range distance of an airplane from a VOR/DME
or VORTAC (both hereafter referred to as a
VORTAC).

RADIO NAVIGATION
VOR/DME RNAV
Flying an RNAV course.

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Aeronautical Knowledge 3

3 Aeronautical basics 3 - TTP

4 Aeronautical basics 3 - TTP

5 Aeronautical basics 3 - TTP

6 Aeronautical basics 3 - TTP

EFFECT OF NONSTANDARD PRESSURE

7 Aeronautical basics 3 - TTP

Effects of nonstandard temperature on an altimeter.

8 Aeronautical basics 3 - TTP

If no means were provided for adjusting altimeters to

Go to: http://www.luizmonteiro.com/ for

10 Aeronautical basics 3 - TTP

11 Aeronautical basics 3 - TTP

12 Aeronautical basics 3 - TTP

13 Aeronautical basics 3 - TTP

The vertical speed

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Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) — Indicated airspeed

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True Airspeed (TAS)—Calibrated airspeed corrected

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Groundspeed (GS) — The actual

AIRSPEED INDICATOR MARKINGS

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STANDARD COLOR-CODED MARKINGS:

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• Lower limit of white arc (VS0) — The

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• Upper limit of the white arc (VFE)

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• Lower limit of green arc (VS1) — The

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• Yellow arc — Caution range. Fly

OTHER AIRSPEED LIMITATIONS

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Blocked pitot system

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BLOCKED STATIC SYSTEM

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A blockage of the static system also

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Inclinometer — An instrument consisting of

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The attitude indicator, with

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Attitude representation by the attitude indicator