Unit–1

Introduction to Secondary Education

1.1 Nature of Secondary Education ..................................................................... 2

1.2 Significance of Secondary Education ............................................................ 4

1.3 Objectives of Secondary Education .............................................................. 7

1.4 Aims and Objectives of Education for Preparing Practicing Muslims and for
Creating Islamic Social Welfare State .......................................................... 8

1.5 Secondary Education in Pakistan ................................................................... 9

1.6 Scheme of Studies for the Secondary School Education .............................. 11

1.7 Scheme of studies (Higher Secondary) .......................................................... 15

1.8 The Stage of Formal Operations ................................................................... 18

1.9 Structure Developed in the Formal Operational Stage (Secondary Education) 19

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1.1 Nature of Secondary Education
Secondary education covers two phases on the International Standard Classification of Education
scale. Level 2 or lower secondary education (less common junior secondary education) is
considered the second and final phase of basic education. and level 3 (upper) secondary education
is the stage before tertiary education. Every country aims to provide basic education, but the
systems and terminology remain unique to them. Secondary education typically takes place after
six years of primary education and is followed by higher education, vocational education or
employment. Like primary education, in most countries secondary education is compulsory. at least
until the age of 16. Children typically enter the lower secondary phase around age 11. Compulsory
education sometimes extends to age 19.

Since 1989 education has been seen as a basic human right for a child: Article 28, of the Convention
on the Rights of the Child states that primary education should be free and compulsory while
different forms of secondary education, including general and vocational education, should be
available and accessible to every child. The terminology has proved difficult, and there was no
universal definition before ISCED divided the period between primary education and university into
junior secondary education and upper secondary education.

In classical and mediaeval times secondary education was provided by the church for the sons of
nobility and to boys preparing for universities and the priesthood. As trade required navigational and
scientific skills the church reluctantly expanded the curriculum and widened the intake. With the
Reformation the state wrestled the control of learning from the church, and with Comenius and John
Locke education changed from being repetition of Latin text to building up knowledge in the child.
Education was for the few. Up to the middle of the 19th century secondary schools were organised
to satisfy the needs of different social classes with the labouring classes getting 4 years, the
merchant class 5 years and the elite getting 7 years. The rights to a secondary education were
codified after 1945, and countries are still working to achieve the goal of mandatory and free
secondary education for all youth under 19.

Secondary education is in most countries the phase in the education continuum responsible for the
development of the young during their adolescence, the most rapid phase of their physical, mental
and emotional growth. It is at this very education level, particularly in its first cycle, where values
and attitudes formed at primary school are more firmly ingrained alongside the acquisition of
knowledge and skills.

From UNESCO Towards a Convergence of Knowledge Acquisition and Skills Development.

The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) (1997) describes seven levels that
can be used to compare education internationally. Within a country these can be implemented in
different ways, with different age levels and local denominations.

• Level 0–Pre-primary education

• Level 1–Primary education or first stage of basic education
• Level 2–Lower secondary or second stage of basic education
• Level 3–(Upper) secondary education
• Level 4–Post-secondary non-tertiary education
• Level 5–First stage of tertiary education
• Level 6– Second stage of tertiary education

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Within this system, national governments can call Levels 2, 3 and 4. Levels 2 and 3 or just Level 2
secondary education. Level 1 and Level 2, that is primary education and lower secondary together
form basic education. These definition were put together for statistical purposes, and to allow the
gathering of comparative data nationally and internationally and approved by the UNESCO General
Conference at its 29th session in November 1997. Though they may be dated they do provide a
universal set of definitions, and remain unchanged in the 2011 update.

The start of lower secondary education is characterised by the transition from the single class-
teacher delivering all the content to a cohort of pupils, to one where content is delivered by a series
of subject specialist. The educational aim is to complete provision of basic education, completing
the delivery of basic skills and to lay the foundations for lifelong learning.

Lower secondary education is likely to show these criteria:

1. The requirement for more highly qualified teachers just teaching within their specialism
2. Entry after some 6 years of primary education
3. Exit to level 3 courses, or employment, or vocational education after 9 or more years of
education.

The end of lower secondary education often coincides with the end of compulsory education in
countries where that exists.

(Upper) secondary education starts on the completion of basic education, which also is defined
as completion of lower secondary education and its completion will provide the entry requirements
to level 5 tertiary education, the entry requirements to technical or vocational education (Level 5-
non tertiary course, or direct entry into the workplace. More subjects may he dropped, and increased
specialism occurs. The educational focus is varied according to future direction of the student, and
their interests. Education at this level is usually voluntary (Upper) secondary education is likely to
show these criteria:

• entry after some 9 years of basic education

• exit to level 5 or level 4 courses or direct employment
• the typical entry age will be between 14 and 16 years
• all teachers will had level 5 qualifications in the subject they are teaching.

In 2012 the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) published a further work on
education levels where it codified particular paths and redefined the tertiary levels. Lower secondary
education and (Upper) secondary education could last between 2 and 5 years, and the transition
between two often would he when students were allowed some subject choice.

Secondary schools may he called high schools, academies, gymnasiums. Lyceums, middle schools,
upper schools, colleges, sixth-form colleges, vocational schools, or preparatory schools, and the
exact meaning of any of these varies among the countries.

UNESCO believes that in order to prepare young people for life and work in a rapidly changing
world, secondary-level education systems need to be re-oriented to impart a broad repertoire of life-
skills. These skills should include the key generic competencies, non occupation-specific practical
capabilities, ICT the ability to learn independently, to work in teams, entrepreneurship and civic
responsibility.

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They may be best instilled through a shared foundational learning period and by deferring the
directing of students into academic and vocational streams for as long as possible and then there
should be flexibility to ensure the free movement of students between the streams depending on
their aptitudes and inclinations. Accreditation in one stream should have equal recognition in the
other as well as for access to higher education. This will equip young people with multiple skills so
that they are prepared to enter and re-enter the several times in their lives as wage employees or
self-employed entrepreneurs, and to retrain themselves when their skills become obsolete.

It recognizes that there is no single model that will suit all countries, or even all communities in a
given country. Secondary-level education policy should be under continuous review to keep in step
with scientific and technological, economic and societal change.

Overall in determining the effectiveness of a national system of education, secondary education is

universally recognised as a fundamental stage. Developed countries such as the United States,
U.S.S.R., and many of the European countries are concentrating their attention on and research in
exploring better solutions to the ever-increasing problems faced by young people at secondary
school-level. Most of the people who compose the skilled manpower of a nation, are trained before
the end of their high school years. The quality of higher education is dependent upon the quality
achieved at this stage. The formation of character and foundations of future leadership are laid at
this stage, which comes at a time when the youth is in his formative adolescent stage.

Hence Secondary Education in Pakistan, as in any other country, cannot profitably be studied unless
the needs of the society and the child are fully assessed. In order to analyze the education provided
at this stage, consideration must be given to the social and cultural values of individuals and to the
development of potential talents. This would necessitate the recognition of national culture and sub-
cultures in which schools exit. Consideration must also be given to the nature of the learning
process. Adequacy of educational system can only be assessed when secondary education is
viewed in a world wide perspective. An educational system rapidly becomes obsolete and irrelevant
to students' needs unless administrative and instructional leaders keep abreast of the new trends
and developments of secondary education in different sectors of the world.

1.2 Significance of Secondary Education

Secondary education occupies the most critical position in any system of education. According to
Zaghioul Morsy, Editor of Prospects, secondary education “has the unenviable privilege of
occupying a mid-way position; - between primary and further education as a structure; between
childhood and adulthood as to its clientele; and - as to its content, between pure and applied
knowledge.

In any society the position of secondary education is generally paradoxical. It is expected to play a
transitional role between basic education and further (higher) education, as well as to play a terminal
role by providing necessary manpower for the development of the country. Thus, the complexion of
subjects at this stage generally militates against each other. The group it deals with is generally at
the volatile pre adolescent stage when the boys and girls are experiencing the most intensive
experience of their lives both physically and emotionally. The output of the secondary schools in
developing countries primarily comprises those who want to enter life and thus queue up for already
restricted employment opportunities. They have abandoned traditional an agricultural vocations and
obviously dream for a white collar job in a nearby city: hence migration. This creates immense
disparity between supply and demand, resulting in stock of manpower who are virtually left with no

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choice but to revert to petty jobs least related to their 'subject cluster' at secondary stage. A highly
aspirant group reverting joblessness leads to frustration and chaos in the society.

Another pressing problem at this stage is that of overloading of curricula. According to Heyneman,
“if there is a societal problem not easily amenable to other solution schools are called upon to sort
it out. If crime figures increase, schools are called upon to teach morality. If there are more traffic
accidents, schools should teach more road safety. If there is too much drinking, schools should
teach more about temperance. If there is too much urban drift or too much unemployment and not
enough respect for manual occupations, schools teach more practical subjects". Such indeed is the
demand of society on secondary school which has resulted in overburdening or curricula and
students, particularly ‘parents’ have severe reaction against school management.

Diversification of school curricula and introduction of occupational streams has necessitated the
institutionalization of guidance and counselling services in schools. The developing countries which
are, already seized with the problem of providing suitably trained science and technical teachers,
can hardly afford to supply guidance and counseling teacher to schools. The experiments of pilot
and comprehensive schools in Pakistan have suffered a great deal because of non-availability of
specialized guidance and counseling services.

Let us read directly from Morsy’s analysis of secondary education who considers it as the ‘linchpin
of the whole educational system’ and concludes that everything arises.

It is a true fact that destiny of a nation is shaped in the classrooms which implies that education is
the main source of progress and development. It can be said without any hesitation that education
can be mostly responsible for the future of Pakistan. Through education, nation building process for
the future citizens of the country can take place. As soon the education molds students, country will
be molded. From this point of view, a lot of responsibilities lie with the educationist for quality
education. Therefore, the education must he qualitative so that the students may develop necessary
knowledge, attitude and skills to perform their duties effectively. It is in this context that quality
education becomes the most important element to enhance the quality of life in any country. It is so
worthwhile to raise some issues in this regard and think of their solution (AEPM, 2010-11).

In the earlier period of Pakistan, the highest priorities were literacy and numeracy in the schools.
But later, personal growth with the communication skill, skill for social living, problem-solving skill
and co-ordination of physical and mental skills got attention and importance by the society. Schools
contribute its role in a vibrant way through the curriculum. Secondary schools develop the ability of
reasoning, proper use of language, social and emotional constancy in the students. Secondary
education plays a major role to produce realistic and skillful students.

Secondary education in all over the world recognized as an important level. The quality of higher
education is depended upon the quality of this stage. This is the crucial age of adolescence for youth
(AEPM. 2010-11).

Secondary education should provide the learner with opportunities to:

• acquire necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes for the development of the self and the
nation
• promote love for and loyalty to the nation
• promoter harmonious co-existence among the peoples of Kenya
• develop mentally, socially, morally, physically and spiritually

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 • enhance understanding and respect for own and other people's cultures and their place in
contemporary society
• enhance understanding and appreciation of interrelationships among nations
• promote positive environmental and health practices
• build a firm foundation for further education and training
• develop ability for enquiry, critical thinking and rational judgment
• develop into a responsible and socially well adjusted person
• promote acceptance and respect for all persons
• enhance enjoyment in learning
• identify individual talents and develop them
• build a foundation for technological and industrial development
• develop into a self-disciplined individual who appreciates work and manages time proper

1.2.1 Characteristics of Secondary School Students

General Characteristics:

• Interests shift from solitary to group pursuits

• Having the “right” or “in” clothing becomes particularly important
• Vocational interests become more prominent and realistic
• Concerns about social issues develop
• Beginning of a truer sense of self develops
• Strong attitudes toward religious, ethic, and racial groups begin to emerge

Physical Development:

• Rapid weight gain at beginning of adolescence; enormous appetite

• Sexual maturity with accompanying physical and emotional changes
• Females usually about two years ahead of males
• Bone growth essentially completed, adult height essentially reached, improved coordination

Characteristic Reactions

• Going to extremes, emotional instability and “know it all” attitude displayed

• Return to habits of childhood – nail biting, tricks, impudence, day-dreaming
• High interest in philosophical, ethical, and religious problems – search for ideals
• Preoccupation with acceptance by the social group; fear of ridicule and / or being unpopular;
overly sensitive; self-pity
• Strong identification with an admired adult
• Assertion of independence from family as a step toward adulthood
• High interest in physical attractiveness

Special needs:

• Conformity with and acceptance by the peer group

• Adequate knowledge and understanding of sexual relationships and attitudes
• Adult guidance which is kindly, unobtrusive, and does not threaten the feeling of freedom
• Sense of direction without being pushed
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 • The assurance of security – seeks both dependence and independence
• Opportunities to make decisions and to earn some money

1.3 Objectives of Secondary Education

The objectives of education are the tasks required of schools in carrying out the roles designated
above. It is useful to classify objectives into different groups. General objectives are those which
were found to be common to all countries in the region. They tended to be long term goals which
have changes little over time. Specific objectives stage in more details how the general objective
will be achieved.

General Objectives
i. To provide equity for all young people to obtain from secondary education the knowledge and
skill appropriate to their needs and abilities. These objective endeavors to overcome elitist
education.
ii. To be a means to achieve national unit and national objectives of development.
iii. To serve as an instrument for raising the quality of life of the people.
iv. To serve as a preparatory stage for those who wish to pursue higher/professional education
and training.
v. To improve learning through the use of both formal and non-formal approaches to education,
using modern technologies and aids.
vi. To establish close linkages with the community with a view to make the students aware of
the real-life situations and to check the alienation that exists between education and
environments.
vii. To establish close linkages with industry, agriculture and other places of work with a view to
provide meaningful courses and adequate preparation for employment and self-employment.
viii. To use a futuristic outlook and to pursue programmes keeping in view the immediate as well
as long term perspective of development i.e., economic, social, political, scientific and
technological.

Specific Objectives
To develop the skills of learning and living to:

• Develop the ability to communicate.

• Encourage the urge to inquire.
• Gain personal satisfaction through effect in learning and accomplishment.
• Develop an appreciation of problem-solving methods; and
• Help people to develop their ability to respond to experience in creative, inventive and
considered ways.

To develop appropriate value such as to:

• become self-reliant and to develop sense of responsibility for personal and group actions in
ways that show care and considerations for others (e.g. respect for others).
• Accept the rights to individuals and groups to be different provided they do not impinge
excessively on the rights of others.
• help students to develop sense of personal identity and self-worth; an

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 • help people contribute to society in a meaningful, productive and satisfying way by preparing
them to enter the world of work and adult life.

To provide the knowledge require for satisfaction and as a basic for further education to:

• Develop an awareness of the factors of their non-living and living surrounding.

• Help people to develop an appreciation of the contribution that the arts and technologies have
made to the lives of people.
• Provide experiences of the arts and science appropriate to the community.
• Develop in students an understanding of their nation their culture, history and way of life.
• Help people to develop an understanding of people from other countries and cultures and
their relationships with them; and
• Develop their understanding of human dependence on natural and man-made environments,
and responsible attitudes to the use of resources.

1.4 Aims and Objectives of Education for Preparing Practicing Muslims and
for Creative Islamic Social Welfare State
After Independence in 1997, efforts were made to provide a definite direction in education in
Pakistan. Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah laid down a set of aims that provide guidance to all
adductions in the country. This policy, too, has sought inspiration and guidance from those directions
and the constitution of Islamic Republic of Pakistan. The policy cannot be put in a better way than
in the Quaids’ words.

Ideology of Pakistan forms the genesis of Pakistan. The country cannot survive and advance without
a policy of the entire system of education on a sound Islamic Foundation. The policy has adequate
provisions for this transfer mention such as integration of society; upgrading the quality of education
in Deen in Madaaris. Nazera Qur’an has been introduced as a compulsory component from grade
I-VIII while at the secondary level translation of the selected verses from the Holy Qur’an will be
offered.

Furthermore, the desires of Quaid have been reflected in the constitution of the Islamic Republic of
Pakistan and relevant articles are:

1. The state shall endear as respects the Muslims of Pakistan:

a. To make the teaching of the Holy Qur’an and Islamiat compulsory, in order to
encourage and facilitate the learning of Arabic language and to secure correct and
exact printing and publishing of the Holy Qur’an.
b. To promote unity and the observance of the Islamic moral standards.

2. Provide basic necessities of life, such as food, clothing, housing, education and medical relief,
for all such citizens, irrespective of sex, caste, creed or race who are permanently or
temporarily unable to earn their livelihood on account of infirmity, sickness or unemployment.
3. Remove illiteracy and provide free and compulsory secondary education within minimum
possible period.

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 4. Enable the people of different areas, through education, training, agricultural and industrial
development and other methods, to participate fully in all the Forms of national activities,
including employment in the service of Pakistan.
5. The state shall discourage parochial, racial, tribal, sectarian and provincial prejudices among
the citizens.

Objectives
1. To make the Qur’anic principles and Islamic practices as an integral part of curricula so that
the message of the Holy Qur'an could be dissemination in the process of future generation
of Pakistan as a true practicing Muslim who could be able to enter into 21st century and the
next millennium with courage, confidence, wisdom and tolerance.
2. To ensure all the boys and girls, desirous of entering secondary education, get the basic
rights because of the availability of the schools.
3. To develop opportunities for technical and vocational education in the country for producing
trained manpower, commensurate with the needs of' industry and economic development
goals.
4. To improve the quality of technical education so as to enhance the chances of employment
technical and vocational (TVL) education graduates by moving from a static, supply system
to demand driven system.

1.5 Secondary Education in Pakistan

Secondary schools may he called high schools, academies, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools,
upper schools, colleges, sixth-form colleges, vocational schools, preparatory schools and the exact
meaning of any of these varies among the countries.

Education in Pakistan is overseen by the Federal Ministry of Education and the provincial
governments, whereas the federal government mostly assists in curriculum development,
accreditation and in the financing of research and development. Article 25-A of obligates the state
to provide free and compulsory quality education to children of the age group 5 to 16 years, “The
State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of five to sixteen years
in such a manner as may be determined by law”.

The education system in Pakistan is generally divided into six levels: preschool (for the age from 3
to 5 years), primary (grades one through five), middle (grades six through eight), high (grades nine
and ten, leading to the Secondary School Certificate of SSC), intermediate (grades eleven and
twelve, leading to a Higher Secondary School Certificate or HSSC), and university programs leading
to undergraduate and graduate degrees.

Secondary education in Pakistan begins from grade 9 and lasts for four years. After end of each of
the school years, students are required to pass a national examination administered by a regional
Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education (or BISE).

Upon completion of grade 9, students are expected to take a standardized test in each of the first
parts of their academic subjects. They again give these tests of the second parts of the same
courses at the end of grade 10. Upon successful completion of these examinations, they are
awarded a Secondary School Certificate (or SSC). This is locally termed as ‘Matriculation Certificate’
or ‘Matric’ for short. The curriculum usually includes a combination of eight course including electives
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(such as Biology. Chemistry, Computer and Physics) as well as compulsory subjects (such as
Mathematics. English, Urdu, Islamic studies and Pakistan Studies).

Students then enter an intermediate college and complete grades 11 and 12. Upon completion of
each of the two grades, they again take standardised tests in their academic subjects Upon
successful completion of these examinations, students are awarded the Higher Secondary School
Certificate (or HSSC). This level of education is also called the FSc/FA/ICS of ‘intermediate’. There
are many streams students can choose for their 11 and 12 grades, such as pre-medical, pre-
engineering, humanities (or social sciences), computer science and commerce. Each stream
consists of three electives and as well as three compulsory subjects of English, Urdu, Islamiat (grade
11 only) and Pakistan Studies (grade 12 only).

Alternative qualifications in Pakistan are available but are maintained by other examination boards
instead of BISE. Most common alternative is the General Certificate of Education (or GCE), where
SSC and HSSC are replaced by Ordinary Level (or O-Level) and Advanced Level (or A-Level)
respectively. Other qualifications include IGCSE which replaces SSC. GCE and GCSE O-Level,
IGCSE and GCE AS/A-Level are managed by British examination boards of CIE of the Cambridge
Assessment and/or Edexcel International of the Pearson PLC. Generally, 8-10 courses are selected
by students at GCE O-Levels and 3-5 at GCE A-Levels.

Advanced Placement (or AP) is an alternative option but much less common than GCE of IGCSE.
This replaces the secondary school education as 'High School Education' instead. AP exams are
monitored by a North American examination board, College Board, and can only be given under
supervision of centers which are registered with the College Board, unlike GCE O/AS/A Level and
IGCSE which can be given privately.

There is another type of education in Pakistan which is called “Technical Education” gathering
technical and vocational Education. The vocational curriculum starts at grade 5 and ends on grade
10.(7) Three boards, Punjab Board of Technical Education (PBTE), KPK Board of Technical
Education (KPK BTE) and Sindh Board of Technical Education (SBTE) offering Matric Tech. course
(equivalent to 10th grade) Diploma in Associate Engineering (DAE) in technologies like Civil,
Chemical, Architecture, Mechanical, Electrical, Electronics, Computer and many more. DAE is a
three years program of instructions which is equivalent to 12th grade. Diploma holders are called
associate engineers. Either they can join their respective field or can take admission in B. Tech. or
BE in their related technology after DAE.

Overall the cycle of secondary education is completed in 5 years. The required age for admission
to 6th grade (Ist grade at secondary level) is 10 plus. Though transitionally middle school (comprising
grades VI to VIII) is a part of secondary education, but in principle secondary education is considered
to consist of grades IX and XII. Education policies introduced from time to time urge that grades XI
and XII, presently known as higher secondary education, should ultimately be merged in the
secondary stage. Though middle stage is considered to form grades VI-VIII, but all the middle
schools in Pakistan arrange schooling for grades I-VIII. Higher secondary schools impart instructions
from VI to XII grades. Originally the idea was conceived to arrange instructions for classes IX to XII
in order to introduce 3-tier education system in the country. The medium of instruction is the national
language with the exception of public schools where English has been opted as medium of
instruction.

Apart from these ordinary secondary schools being managed by public and private sectors, there is
another stream of institutions known as cadet colleges and public schools. These institutions are

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supposed to prepare personnel for Armed Forces. Cadet colleges are at Kohat, Hassanabad,
Larkana, Razmak, Petaro, Mastung. Public schools include: Lawrence College at Ghoragali, Army
Brurn Hall School/College Abbottablad, Atchison College Lahore, Sadiq Public School, Bahawalpur
etc.

According to economic survey of Pakistan, 1997-98, participation rate in 1997-98 at middle level is
49% for both sexes (male 62.0% and female 36.0%). At secondary level, it is 34% both sexes (male
43.0% and female 25.0%). It is, however, evident that girls’ participation rate is almost one half
compared to boys which is the main cause of low literacy rate at national level.

1.6 Scheme of Studies for Secondary School Certificate Examinations

UNDER PART SYSTEM FOR SESSION 2012-2014 & ONWARD

Punjab Boards offer qualifications for both English and Urdu medium schools. The revised SSC
Scheme of Studies issued by the Curriculum Wing will be implemented from session 2012 -2014
and onward. Accordingly each SSC subject will be taught across both the classes IX & X. The
Science group and Humanities group subjects arc offered at SSC level. Mode of conduct of
practicals is subject to approval by the Government. The marks allocated to the subjects in the
revised Scheme of Studies are as follows:

SSC I and II (Class IX and X) subjects on offer for examination

SCIENCE GROUP
PART-I (CLASS-IX)
Sr.
SUBJECT THEORY
No.
1 Urdu- I (In lieu Geography of Pakistan-I for foreign Students only)
75
2 English-I 75
3 Islamiyat Compulsory-I or Ethics-I (For Non- Muslims) 50
4 Pakistan Studies-I 50
5 Mathematics-I 75
6 Physics-I 75
7 Chemistry-I 75
8 Biology-I OR 75
Computer Science-I 75
Total 550

PART-II (CLASS-X)
Sr.
SUBJECT THEORY
No.
1 Urdu-II (In lieu Geography of Pakistan-II for foreign Students only)
75
2 English- II 75
3 Islamiyat Compulsory-II or Ethics-II (For Non-Muslims) 50
4 Pakistan Studies-II 50
5 Mathematics-II 75
6 Physics-II 75
7 Chemistry-II 75
8 Biology-II OR 75
Computer Science-II 75
Total 550

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 • Evaluation of Practical: In compliance with the Orders of Ombudsman, Punjab in Complaint
No. C-1404/04/2011-Adv-II-93/2011 dated 03-08-2011 and the minutes of the PBCC Meeting
held on 17-4-2012 at Bahawalpur, it is resolved that there will be one question of Practical
(10 Marks each) in the theory paper of SSC Part-I and Part-II respectively. It is pertinent to
mention here that Practical is a key factor in engaging, enthusing and inspiring students. High
quality, appropriate practicals are central to effective learning in science, technical and
applied subjects. Therefore, Separate paper of practical will also be conducted and grades
will be awarded on the basis of performance of the candidates as per following criteria.
• A+=90% & above, A=80%, B=70%, C=60%, D=50%, F=Fail=below 50%. These grades will
be mentioned on certificates issued by the Board.
• It is the responsibility of the institution to ensure the completion of chapter wise practicals as
per curricula and syllabi during the teaching learning process.
• Foreign students may opt (GEPGRAPHY OF PAKISTAN in lieu of Urdu
• Compulsory. subject to the approval of relevant Board.
• Non-Muslim candidates can opt Ethics in lieu of Islamiyat Compulsory.
• Islamiyat Compulsory composite book for 9th and 10th published in April, 2012 or afterward
is valid only.
• Each institution shall ensure 3 hrs Physical, Library & Manual work per week.
• Each period shall he at least of 45 minutes duration.

HUMANITIES GROUP PART-I (CLASS-IX)

Sr.
SUBJECT THEORY
No.
1 Urdu- I (In lieu Geography of Pakistan-I for foreign Students only)
75
2 English- I 75
3 Islamiyat Compulsory -I or Ethics -I (For Non-Muslims) 50
4 Pakistan Studies-I 50
5 General Mathematics-I 75
6 General Science-I 75
7 Two elective subjects (from the list of elective subjects) OR 150
(In case of Technical subject) Two Technical Subjects OR 150
One Elective Subject & One Technical Subject 150
Total 550
PART-II (CLASS-X)
Sr.
SUBJECT THEORY
No.
1 Urdu-II (In lieu Geography of Pakistan-II for foreign Students only) 75
2 English-II 75
3 Islamiyat Compulsory-II or Ethics-II (For Non- Muslims) 50
4 Pakistan Studies-II 50
5 General Mathematics-II 75
6 General Science-II 75
7 Two Elective Subjects (from the list of Elective Subjects) OR 150
8 (In Case of Technical Subject) Two Technical Subjects OR 150
One Elective Subject & One Technical Subject 150
Total 550

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SCHEME OF STUDIES-SSC GRADES IX & X (HUMANITIES GROUP) ELECTIVE
SUBJECTS
1. CIVICS
2. EDUCATION
3. ECONOMICS
4. ELEMENTS OF HOME ECONOMICS
5. PHYSIOLOGY & HYGIENE
6. GEOGRAPHY
7. FOOD & NUTRITION
8. CLOTHING & TEXTILE
9. MILITARY SCIENCE
10. HISTORY OF PAKISTAN
11. ENGLISH LITERATURE
12. URDU LITERATURE
13. ART & MODEL DRAWING
14. PERSIAN/ARABIC/PUNJABI/SARAIKI
15. ADVANCED ISLAMIC STUDIES
16. HEALTH & PHYSICAL EDUCATION
17. COMPUTER SCIENCE
18. ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
19. MUSLIM HISTORY
20. AGRICULTURE
21. HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION
22. SECRETARIAL PRACTICES
23. BUSINESS STUDIES
24. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY

TECHNICAL SUBJECTS

1 Geometrical & Technical Drawing

2 Electrical Wiring
3 Wood Work (Furniture Making)
4 Repair & Maintenance of Domestic Refrigerator & Air Conditioner
5 Computer Hardware
6 Poultry Farming
7 Fish Farming
8 Dress Making and Fashion Designing
9 Beautician

DARS-E-NIZAMI GROUP
Can be taken for examination with the written permission from Chairman of the relevant Board

PART-I (CLASS-IX)
Sr.
SUBJECT THEORY
No.
1 Urdu-I (In lieu Geography of Pakistan-I for foreign Students only) 75

13
 2 English- I 75
3 Seerat-un-Nabi-I, ‫( ﷺ‬Alternative Islamiyat Compulsory) 50
4 Pakistan Studies-I 50
5 General Mathematics-I 75
6 General Science-I 75
7 Al-Quran-I 75
8 Al-Hadith-I 75
Total 550

DARS-E-NIZAMI GROUP
Can be taken for examination with the written permission from Chairman of
the relevant Board
PART-II (CLASS-X)
Sr.
SUBJECT THEORY
No.
1 Urdu-II (In lieu Geography of Pakistan-II for foreign Students only)
75
2 English-II 75
3 Islamiyat Compulsory-II or Ethics-II (For Non-Muslims) 50
4 Pakistan Studies-II 50
5 General Mathematics-II 75
6 General Science-II 75
7 Al-Quran-II 75
8 Al-Fiqah-II 75
Total 550

SCHEME OF STUDIES FOR DEAF AND DUMB

Sr.
SUBJECT THEORY PRACTICAL
No.
1 Urdu 75
2 English 75
3 Islamiyat Compulsory or Ethics (For Non-
50
Muslims)
4 Pakistan Studies 50
5 Mathematics 75
6 3 Elective Subjects 30+30+30 90+90+90
Total 685

LIST OF ELECTIVE SUBJECTS FOR DEAF AND DUMB

1. Tailoring
2. Embroidery
3. Type Writing
4. Derry Saazi
5. Carpet Making

14
 6. Drawing
7. Baking
8. Hosiery
9. Computer Science
10. Physical Education

1.7 Scheme of Studies (Higher Secondary)

Higher Secondary School Certificate: After matriculation students may choose to undergo 2 years
of additional schooling after which they sit for the Higher Secondary School Certificate (HSSC),
more commonly referred to as “Intermediate” exams. The students are promoted to grade II after
passing of grade 10. Upon successful completion of grade 11 and grade 12 Examination by the
BISE, students are awarded the Higher Secondary School Certificate (HSSC). This level of
education is also called the FSc/FA or “Intermediate”. There are many groups that students can
choose for their 11 and 12 grades, such as pre-medical, pre-engineering, humanities and
commerce, humanities, pre engineering etc.

At Intermediate level each group consists of three elective and as well as three compulsory subject
of English, Urdu, Islamiyat (grade 11 only) and Pakistan Studies (grade 12 only).

HSSC GRADES XI & XII

• Science Group-I (Pre-Medical)

• Science Group-II (Pre-Engineering/Computer Science)
• Humanities Group
• Commerce Group
• Medical Technology Group (six technologies)
• Home Economics Group

HSSC GRADES XI & XII 1. Science Group-I (Pre-Medical)

Periods Marks
Subject Medium
Theory Practical Theory Practical Total
Urdu 6 – 150 – 150
English 6 – 150 – 150
Islamiyat/Ethics (for
2 – 50 – 50 Urdu
Non-Muslims)
Biology 6 2 170 30 200 English
Physics 6 2 170 30 200 English
Chemistry 6 2 170 30 200 English
Library – 2 – – –
Total: 32 8 860 90 950

2. Science Group-II (Pre-Engineering/Computer Science)

Periods Marks
Subject Medium
Theory Practical Theory Practical Total
Urdu 6 – 150 – 150
English 6 – 150 – 150
15
Islamiyat/Ethics (for
Non-Muslims) 2 – 50 – 50 Urdu
Mathematics 8 – 200 – 200 English
Physics 6 2 170 30 200 English
Chemistry/Computer
6 2 170 30 200 English
Science
Library – 2 – – –
Total: 34 6 890 60 950

HSSC GRADES XI & XII 3. Humanities Group

Periods Marks
Subject Medium
Theory Practical Theory Practical Total
Urdu 6 – 150 – 150
English 6 – 150 – 150
Islamiyat/Ethics (for
2 – 50 – 50 Urdu
Non-Muslims)
200+200
3 Elective subject 8+8+8 – – 600
+200
Library – 2 – – –
Total: 38 2 950 – 950

ELECTIVE SUBJECTS (HUMANITIES GROUP)

1. Advanced Islamic Studies
2. Advanced Islamic Studies
3. Muslim History and Culture
4. History of Modern World
5. Education
6. Statistics
7. Economics
8. Health and Physical Education
9. Sociology
10. Psychology
11. Philosophy
12. Urdu Literature
13. English Literature
14. Arabic/Persian/Modern Languages
15. Regional Languages
16. Geography
17. Fine Arts
18. Library Science
19. Civics
20. Mathematics/Physics/Chemistry/Biology
21. Agriculture
22. Computer Science
23. Pakistan Culture
24. Archeology

16
4. Commerce Group XI-XII
Periods Marks
Subject Medium
Theory Practical Theory Practical Total
Urdu 6 – 150 – 150
English 6 – 150 – 150
Islamiyat/Ethics (for
2 – 50 – 50 Urdu
NonMuslims)
a. Business Math.
6 – 150 – 150 English
b. Business Stat.
a. Principles of Commerce
b. Computer Skill/ Banking 6 – 150 – 150 English

a. Principles of
Accounting-I
6 – 150 – 150 English
b. Principles of
Accounting-II
a. Principles of
Economics
6 – 150 – 150 English
b. Commercial
Geography
Library – 2 – – –
Total: 38 2 950 – 950

5. Medical Technology Science Group (XI-XII)

Periods Marks
Subject Medium
Theory Practical Theory Practical Total
Urdu 6 – 150 – 150
English 6 – 150 – 150
Islamiat/Ethics
2 – 50 – 50 Urdu
(for Non-Muslims)
Course subjects of:
Laboratory Technology/
Imaging
Technology/
Operation Theatre
Technology/
15 9 300 300 600 English
Ophthalmology
Technology/
Physiotherapy
Technology/
Dental Hygiene
Technology
Library – 2 – – –
Total: 29 11 650 300 950

6. Home Economics Group

Periods Marks
Subject Medium
Theory Practical Theory Practical Total
Urdu 6 – 150 – 150
English 6 – 150 – 150
Islamiyat/Ethics (for
2 – 50 – 50 Urdu
Non-Muslims)

17
a. Food and House
Management 5 3 120 80 200 English
b. Food and Nutrition
a. Management for
Home and Farm 5 3 120 80 200 English
b. Clothing and Related Arts

a. Child Development and

Group Behavior
b. Childcare and Home 5 3 120 80 200 English
Nursing
Library – 2 – – –
Total: 29 11 710 300 950

COMPARATIVE STATEMENT ON SCHEME OF STUDIES

OLD SCHEME OF STUDIES NEW SCHEME OF STUDIES

DIFFERENCE
UPTO 2005 2006
Classes IX-X Science SSC Grades IX-X Science SSC Grades IX-X Science
Group Group Group
1. Urdu 1. Urdu 1. Marks of Mathematics increased
2. English 2. English from 100 to 150
3. Islamiyat for Muslims/ Ethics 3. Islamic Studies for
for Non-Muslims Muslims/Ethics for 2. Technical subjects (46) are not
4. Pakistan Studies Non-Muslims included, as such the technical
5. Physics 4. Pakistan Studies group has been deleted to be
6. Chemistry 5. Physics taken care of by NAVTEC.
7. Mathematics 6. Chemistry
7. Mathematics 3. Computer Science has been
8. Library deleted from the
9. Biology Science group

4. History and Geography of

Pakistan in lieu of Urdu
compulsory foreign students has
been added.

5. Library periods have been

added.

1.8 The Stage of Formal Operations (11–15 years) —Stage of Secondary

Education
During the stage of formal operations, which on average begins around age 11 to 12, a child
develops the reasoning and logic to solve all classes of problems. There is a freeing of thought from
direct experience. The child’s cognitive structures reach maturity during this stage. That is, his or
her potential quality or reasoning or thought (compared with the potential of adult thought) is at its
maximum when formal operations are fully developed. After this stage, there are no further structural
improvements in the quality of reasoning. The adolescent with fully developed formal operations
typically has the cognitive structural equipment to think as well as adults’. This does not mean the
thinking of the adolescent with formal reasoning is necessarily “as good as” about thought in
particular instance, though it may be; it means only that the potential has been achieved. Both adults
and adolescents with formal operational reasons are using the same logical processes.
18
Assimilation and accommodation, prompted by disequilibrium, continue throughout life to produce
changes in schemata. After the development of formal operations, changes in reasoning abilities
are quantitative and no longer qualitative with respect to logical operations and structure. The quality
of reasoning, one is capable of, does not improve after this stage, the content and functions of
intelligence may improve. This does not mean that the use of thought cannot or does not improve
after adolescences. The content and function of thought are free to vary and improve after this stage,
which in part helps explain some of the classical differences between adolescent thought and adult
thought.

One should not assume that all adolescents and adults fully develop formal operations. Several
studies concluded that no more than half of the American population develops all the possibilities of
formal operations. Certainly, a proportion of the American adult population never advances much
beyond concrete operational reasoning.

1.9 Structure Developed in the Formal Operational Stage (Secondary

Education)

(a) Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning

Hypothetical reasoning “goes beyond the confines of everyday experience to things which we have
no experience” (Brainerd 1978, p. 205) It is reasoning that transcends perception and memory and
deals with things not directly known to us are hypothetical.

Deductive reasoning is reasoning from premises to conclusion or form the general to the specific.
Inferences or conclusions based on deductive reasoning are necessarily true only if the premises,
they are derived from, are true. Reasoning can be applied to arguments that have false premises,
however, and logical conclusions can be derived.

Hypothetical-deductive is reasoning that “involves deducing conclusions from premises which are
hypotheses rather than from facts; that the subject has actually verified” (Brainerd 1978, p. 205). In
this manner the possible (hypothetical) becomes an arena within which reasoning can be used
effectively.

(b) Scientific-Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is reasoning from specific facts to general conclusions. It is the main reasoning
process used by scientists to arrive at generalizations or scientific laws.

Inhelder and Piaget (1958) concluded that when confronted with problems, children with formal
operations are capable of reasoning very much like scientists. They form hypotheses, experiment,
control variable, record effects, and form the results, draw conclusions in a systematic manner.

One of the characteristics of scientific reasoning is the ability to think about a number of different
variables at the same time. Those with formal reasoning accomplish this in a coordinated manner
and can determine the effect of one, all or some combinations of a set of variables.

19
(c) High School Cognitive Development
Most high school students have achieved the formal operational stage, as described by Piaget.
These students can think abstractly and need fewer concrete examples to understand complex
thought patterns. Generally speaking, most students share the following characteristics:

1. Need to understand the purpose and relevance of instructional activities

2. Are both internally and externally motivated
3. Have self-imposed cognitive barriers due to years of academic failure and lack self-
confidence overcome these barriers to learning
4. Want to establish immediate and long term personal goals
5. Want to assume individual responsibility for learning and progress towards goals

(d) High School Social Development

High school students are experimenting with adult like relationships. Generally speaking, most
students share the following characteristics:

1. Interested in co-educational activities

2. Desire adult leadership roles and autonomy in planning
3. Want adults to assume a chiefly support role in their education
4. Developing a community consciousness
5. Need opportunities for self-expression

20
Unit–2
Organizational Structure of Secondary Education

2.1 Ministry of Education ....................................................................................... 22

2.2 Education Secretariat ........................................................................................ 23

2.3 Provincial Department of Education ................................................................. 23

2.4 Secretariats of Education ................................................................................... 23

2.5 Directors Public Instruction .............................................................................. 24

2.6 Federal Government Educational Institutions (Cant./Gars) .............................. 25

2.7 Boards of Intermediate and Secondary Education ............................................ 28

2.8 Administrative Structures of the Boards ........................................................... 30

2.9 Controlling Authorities ..................................................................................... 30

2.10 Administration of Examinations ....................................................................... 30

2.11 Examinations, promotion and certification ....................................................... 31

2.12 National Bureau of Curriculum and Textbooks ................................................ 32

21
2.1 Ministry of Education

Pre Eighteenth Amendment:

The Ministry of education was the central organization responsible for formulating national education
policies and for development of national education. The ministry also played the role of provincial
coordinator of educational departments for policy making and other functions. The Ministry of
education was headed by the Federal Minister of education who was the member of the cabinet. He
represented Ministry of Education in the Parliament or similar bodies at the federal level.

Education was in the concurrent legislative list so it was a joint function of federal as well as
provincial. At federal level, it was the responsibility of ministry of education to formulate policies,
plans and national curriculum while provinces developed their own policies, plans and curriculum in
the light of guidelines given by the federal government.

Post Eighteenth Amendment:

The Eighteenth Amendment Act 2010 has introduced a number of changes in the constitution of
Pakistan 1973. It has redefined the existing nature of relationship between the federal and the
federating units in Pakistan. The distribution of powers has profound impacts for the legislative
jurisdictions and executive authorities at federal and provincial levels. Education is one of the key
subjects which are being devolved to the provincial level. The present change in the constitution
entails a shift in the nature of relations between the federal and provincial governments in as much
as governance of education is concerned. The result is a significant shift in the roles and
responsibilities of the federation and the federating units. The Eighteenth Constitutional Amendment
Act 2010 has introduced significant changes having direct bearing on the education sector. As a
result of deletion/omission of concurrent legislative list, main areas of education policy, planning,
curriculum, standards, centers of excellence and Islamic education have been devolved to the
provincial ambit.

Eighteenth constitutional amendment has revised the existing frame work of distribution of powers
between federal government and federating units. Education has been shifted to the legislative and
executive jurisdiction of the provinces.

The Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training is a federal ministry of the Government
of Pakistan. The ministry's political figure is known as the Education Minister of Pakistan. Education
is primarily provincial in Pakistan.

The Ministry of Professional and Technical Training was established in July 2011 in the wake of
18th Amendment when Education department was transferred from federal to provinces. In 2013, it
was renamed to Ministry of Education, Trainings & Standards in Higher Education, and in 2014 was
renamed to Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training.

The department’s main responsibilities include creating policies, plans and programs to ensure the
accessibility and availability of education in Pakistan. It is also a provider of many technical,
vocational and professional skills and training that are needed to satisfy the national and
international standards of the employment market. It works in collaboration with other ministries and
organizations by sponsoring students, distributing scholarships and conducting multiple training
sessions. Sub-departments under the ministry of Education and Training include: National

22
Vocational and Technical Training Commission, National Commission for Human Development,
National Education Founding, National Education Assessment System etc.

2.2 Education Secretariat

In pre-Eighteenth amendment, the Federal Education Secretary was the Chief Executive of the
Education Secretariat. He was responsible for the administration of his Secretariat and for
implementation of Government’s decisions and policies relating to education.

After Eighteenth amendment, education has become independent responsibility of provinces so, the
secretary of education at Federal level is responsible only in certain areas.

2.3 Provincial Departments of Education

Pakistan is a Federation of four Provinces, Punjab, Sindh, KPK and Baluchistan. According to the
constitution, education in Pakistan is a provincial concern. Before 18th amendment, Provinces are,
as a matter of principle, independent in policy formulation and management of education within their
administrative boundaries. In practice, major education policies were formulated at federal level and
they were passed on to the provincial education department for implementation.

After 18th amendment, education has been included in the legislative and executive list so, it has
become totally the provincial responsibility. There is federal Ministry of education who is responsible
for the federal matters of education. Punjab, Sindh, KP and Baluchistan have their independent
ministries of education. They develop their own education policies.

2.4 Secretariats of Education

The provincial secretariats of Education are independent in matters relating to education. The
purpose and functions of Departments of Education are more or less similar in all the provinces,
depending on the local conditions and needs they differ to some extent and vary from each other in
organization and management structure.

The below is given organizational management structure of the Department of education, Punjab
as an example. The flow chart given below is almost same in other provinces

23
 Ministry of Education

2.5 Directorates Public Instructions (Schools Colleges)

Directorate Public Instruction

The administration of schools and colleges in the province rests with the Directorates of Public
Instructions, Schools and Colleges.

A brief history of DPI is given below:

Directorate of Public Instruction was established in 1856 and since then it is functioning. In 1956
when the four provinces i.e. Punjab, Sindh, NWFP and Baluchistan were merged and named as
West Pakistan, the Directorate of Public Instruction was renamed as Director Public Instruction
(West Pakistan) and four Regional Directorates i.e., Lahore, Peshawar, Quetta and Hyderabad were
setup.

In 1962, the Regional Directorate Lahore was further bifurcated into two Region i.e. Lahore Region
(Lahore, Multan and Bahawalpur Division) and Rawalpindi Region (Rawalpindi, and Sargodha
Division) respectively.

In 1973, Education Department was reorganized with Five Divisional Directorates (Lahore,
Rawalpindi, Multan Bahawalpur, and D. G. Khan). Later on, the number of Divisions raised to eight.

In 1982, the Provincial Directorate was further divided into two separate independent functional units
i.e. DPI (Colleges), and DPI (Schools).

In 1993, on the recommendations of the International Donor Agencies, Directorate of Public

Instruction (Schools) was further divided into three wings i.e. DPI (secondary Education), DPI
(Elementary Education) and Directorate of Staff Development (Training Wing).

24
Divisional Directorates abolished in 2001 and School Education devolved to District Governments.

Directorate of Public Instruction Colleges is an attached department that performs a coordinating

role between the secretariat and the district education office, and an augmenting role in policy
formulation, administrative as well as financial matters.

DPI is assisted by an Additional DPI, and four directors [Planning, Academic, Administration (M)
Administration (F)].

Key functions performed by the DPI can be listed as following:

1. Implement government policies, directions and orders

2. To assess the needs and requirements of the colleges and provision of funds, staff and
buildings
3. To assist the government in formulating policies in respect of academics, financial and
administrative matters
4. To act as coordinator between the government and other agencies including the Director
/District Education Officers Colleges
5. Maintenance of the career record of teaching staff of colleges (BPS 17, 18, 19 &20) and
preparation of their promotion.
6. Administer inter, degree and post-graduate colleges
7. Arrangements for teacher training
8. Registration of private colleges
9. Conduct of inquiries
10. Settlement of audit paras
11. Technical and administrative inspection of colleges
12. Inter-district transfers of teaching and non-teaching staff up to BPS 19
13. Sanction of Leave up to maximum of 365 days up to BPS 20, except ex-Pakistan leave

2.6 Federal Government Educational Institutions (Cantts/Gars)

Mission:
To provide purposeful and quality education to the wards of Armed Forces personnel as well as of
civilians, residing in cantonments/garrisons throughout the country by nurturing fine citizens' skills
among the students and providing the healthy educational environment, so as to make them useful
members of the society.

Core Values

• Instilling in the students moral, social and national values so as to help them becoming good
human beings and patriotic Pakistanis.
• Grooming them to be educationally sound to adjust as effective and productive members of
the society.
• Making the students physically and mentally robust by providing them with the facilities of
sports and co-curricular activities.
• Realizing the fact that in FGEIs children generally come from the lower social strata of the
society thus deserve utmost care in their nurturing.

25
Introduction:
Educational Institutions of the Cantt Boards all over Pakistan were taken over by the Federal Ministry
of Education in 1975. In September 1977, the administrative and financial control of these schools
and colleges was transferred to DAE (Director Army Education). Subsequently, in November 1981,
a separate Directorate was created under IGT&E Branch to deal exclusively with the affairs of the
Federal Govt. Educational Institutions (FGEIs) in Cantts and Garrisons (C/G). Recently, FGEI
Directorate has been declared as an attached department of Ministry of Defence DEI exercises
administrative and financial control over the department and its employees through the authority
delegated to him under the Cabinet Division letter issued in September 1977.This is a fundamental
document which spells out the functions of this Directorate. FGEI Directorate has dual role. On the
one hand it is a Directorate of GHQ, on the other it is an attached civil department of the Ministry of
Defence with 99.5% of its employees being paid out of civil establishment.

The employees of FGEIs are governed by the Civil Services Rules and enjoy protection to the extent
that their cases of indiscipline and inefficiency cannot be dealt with expeditiously. They have a right
of appeal before the Federal Service Tribunal against any decision. For appointment and disciplinary
actions, the authority of the Director is rested to the employees of BPS-15 AND BELOW. For
gazzetted employees in BPS-16 and above the authority for regular appointments, promotions and
disciplinary actions rest totally with Ministry of Defence, Establishment Division and Federal Public
Service Commission. However, The Director FGEI enjoys full powers of posting and transfers in
respect of all categories of the civil employees.

Organization of FGEI Directorate

The organization of the Directorate is as under:

Director (Brig)

Military Staff Civil Staff

Dy Director (Col) Dy Director (Colleges)
GSO-I Dy Director (male)
GSO-II Dy Director (Females)
Steno (JCO/NCO) Financial & Estab. Officer
Driver (Sep) Admin. Officer
Superintendent
Other Staff

Role of FGEI Directorate:

The role of FGEI Directorate is:

“To exercise full administrative control over FGEIs in Cantt and Garrisons with a view to providing
better educational facilities, primarily to the children of servicing persons and civilians residing in
Cantt areas”.

26
Functions of FGEI Directorate:
This directorate performs following functions:

• Implementation of National Education Policy.

• Laying down of uniform syllabi, textbooks and schedule of examinations.
• However, syllabi and schedule of Matric, FA/FSc, BA/BSc & MA exams are controlled by
FBISE and the Universities.
• Maintenance of high academic standards and quality of education.
• Selection and recruitment of categories of all categories of teaching and nonteaching staff
except Grade 16 and above.
• Management, posting, promotions, transfers, welfare and disciplinary/ administrative actions
regarding civil staff. Promotion/disciplinary actions against Grade 16 and above are dealt with
by Ministry of Defense and Establishment Division.
• Preparation and processing of budget establishment, Annual Development Programs/ Plans
in respect of FGEIs and procurement of necessary funds from the Ministry of Defense.
• Execution of development projects through MES.

Regional Offices
FGEI Directorate has eight sanctioned regional offices throughout the country. An additional regional
office has been established at Gujranwala and Bahawalpur and its Govt. sanction is in process. Out
of nine regions, four regions are headed by Army Officers (Lt. Cols) and five regions by civil officers.
At present, following regional offices are functioning under GSOs-I Deputy Directors (Civil):

• Peshawar, Wah, Quetta and Karachi Under GSOs-I Lt. Col

• Rawalpindi, Mangla, Multan, Lahore, Gujranwala and Bahawalpur

The organization of Regional Offices is as under:

Lt. Col-I Deputy Director

Major GSO-II/Assistant Director

Education JCO Administrative Officer/Supdt

2* OR Clerical/Ministerial Staff

The number of institutions presently being run by Federal Government Education Institutions
Directorates in eleven regions throughout Pakistan:

• Primary Schools
• Model Schools
• High Schools
• Inter College Female
• Inter College (Co-Education)

27
 • Degree College Male
• Degree College Female
• Degree College Co-education)

2.7 Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education (BISE)

Federal Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education (FBISE), an autonomous body of Ministry
of Federal Education and Professional Training, Government of Pakistan has been entrusted a
spectrum of responsibilities, including curricula recommendation, appointment of examiners and
supervisory staff to conduct examinations, ensuring required physical and human resource of all
affiliated institutions imparting secondary and higher secondary levels within and across the country
to match the in-house talent with needs of the market.

FBISE is committed to provide conducive learning environment, transparent, efficient and objective
assessment opportunities to the students during their academic pursuit in its affiliated institutions.
Complete automation of the whole system to promote trouble-free interaction - acquisition of
required documents, prompt dissemination of information to thousands of affiliated institutions and
millions of students, well defined mapping and monitoring system using advance technological tools
like GIS and remote sensing, establishment of Quality Enhancement Cell to improve the standards
of examination through students feedback, creation of pool of qualified paper setters, examiners
and assessor augmented with specialized trainings are the immediate priorities. This
multidimensional approach of FBISE as a way forward to beatify all its stakeholders require
teamwork and well wishes to track this mission.

Functions of Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education

Important functions and powers of the Boards are enumerated below:

1. To organize, regulate, develop and control intermediate education and secondary education.
2. To hold and conduct all examinations pertaining to intermediate education, secondary
education, Pakistani and international languages and such other examinations as may be
determined by the Government.
3. To lay down conditions for recognition of institutions
4. To supervise the residence, health and discipline of the students of recognized institutions
with a view to promote their general welfare.
5. To institute and award scholarships, medals and prizes in the prescribed manner.
6. To organize and promote extra-curricular activities on and for recognized institutions.

Committees of Boards
In order to run their business, the Boards constitute the following committees: a. Academic
Committee

• Committee of Courses
• Committee for Recognition of Institutions
• Committee for the Appointment of Paper Setters and Head- Examiners
• Examination Conduct Committee for the Appointment of Supervisory Staff
• Re-checking Committee
• Unfair means Committee

28
 • Appellate/Appellant Committee
• Finance Committee
• Appointment Committee
• Such other Committees as may be prescribed by the Board

Difficulties/problems Faced by the Boards

The Boards have to perform their statutory responsibilities under the provision of the Acts and
Ordinances. The BISE Multan, Bahawalpur, Gujranwala, Karachi, Hyderabad, Sukkur, and
Peshawar did not indicate or identify any difficulty in the performance of statutory responsibilities.
The BISE Lahore, Sargodha, Rawalpindi and Quetta are facing some difficulties in the performance
of their statutory duties. Difficulties indicated by different boards are listed below:

a) Competent, honest and responsible teachers, lecturers refuse to accept the assignments
because they avoid facing the presence of anti-social elements.

Recognition of Institutions by the Boards:

The Boards of Intermediate and Secondary Education recognize/affiliate high schools and
intermediate colleges. Institutions applying for recognition have to fill up a detailed questionnaire
available with Boards. They are required to answer questions about accommodation, laboratories,
libraries, educational qualifications of the staff and various other physical facilities provided by the
institutions to students and teachers. Boards are authorized to recognize institutions located within
their jurisdiction. The Boards accord recognition from either the Ministry of Education or an
Education Department. In general, the Government schools are recognized on the basis of reports
received from the Director of Education. Recognition of institutions may be withdrawn on the basis
of adverse reports received from the authorities mentioned above.

Rules regarding recognition of schools/colleges are often too vague and one can easily deviate from
these rules. Enforcement of some strict rules may lead to closure of most of the institutions.
Examples of such rules are quoted below:

1. “That admission to any class or section of a class shall be limited to maximum of 45 in a class
or section of class in case of a high school and 75 in case of institutions other than high
school”.
2. “That the school shall be provided with suitable equipment and furniture, including necessary
apparatus for science subjects and other subjects in which practical work in conducted in
accordance with the list prescribed by the Board”.
3. “That the school maintains a library containing minimum number of books prescribed by the
respective Board and undertakes to spend at least Rs. 500/- per year”.
4. “That the teachers are suitable as regards their character, number and qualifications”.
5. “That the school is housed in a building which is suitable as regards accommodation, sanitary
arrangements and location and it according to the prescribed criterion”.
6. “That whole-time teacher whether in a Government or non-Government recognized
institutions shall not draw less than the salary prescribed by the Government for different
categories of teachers”.

29
2.8 Administrative Structure of the Boards
The business of the Boards is run by a large number of employees. The Chairman and Secretaries
of the Boards are appointed by the respective Governments on deputation.

Other staff including Controllers, Deputy Controllers, Deputy Secretaries, Assistant Controllers,
Secrecy Officers, Director of Physical Education, Directors/Deputy Directors/Assistant Directors
Research/Research Officers, Statistical Officers, Audit Officers, Accounts Officers and the lower
staff is appointed on the recommendation of the Appointment Committee of the Board.

2.9 Controlling Authorities

The Federal/Provincial Government exercise great influence over the Boards, Appointment,
Finance, Recognition and some other Committees constituted by Boards are headed by senior
officers of the ministry of Education/Provincial Education Departments.

The Ministry of Education coordinates the activities of the Boards through inter Boards Committee
of Chairman which was established in 1972. This Committee is headed by a full time officer
appointed by the Federal Ministry of Education. The main functions of IBCC are: to exchange
information, to create coordination among Boards in the field of examinations and other relative
matters dealt with by the Boards.

2.10 Administration of Examinations

Boards are empowered under their Acts to conduct examinations both in theory and practical
papers. Conduct of examination involves the following steps:

Paper Setting:
1. Appointment of Paper Setters
2. Settings of Question Papers.
3. Printing and packing of Question Papers
4. Dispatch of Question Papers.

Conduct of Examination
1. Announcement of Date Sheet
2. Earmarking of Examination Centers
3. Appointments of Supervisory Staff i.e. Inspectors, Superintendents, Deputy Superintendents,
Invigilators.

Assessment of Answer Books

1. Appointment of Examiners, i.e. Head Examiners, Sub-Examiners, Single Examiners,
Practical Examiners, Assistants to help the Head Examiners
2. Evaluation of answer books
3. Compilation of results

30
Tabulation
1. Appointment of Tabulators
2. Tabulation of results
3. Announcement of results

The above steps are completed within 4 to 6 months. Details of the procedure are given below:

Conduct of Examinations
Inter Boards Committee of Chairmen, being the coordinating agency of the BISE, announces,
through mass media, the schedule of examinations of all the boards, which once declared, is strictly
adhered to. However, in case of natural calamities the schedule for a particular area is changed.

Particulars of trustworthy, honest, reliable and hardworking teachers are invited form heads of
institutions on the performas. Separate forms are also provided to the teachers of different
categories of educational institutions for selection of supervisory staff. After checking their
antecedents and eligibility, consolidated list are placed before Committee of Courses/Supervisory
Conduct Committee/Examination Committee for selection of staff for performing supervisory duties.
However, only Boards of Intermediate and Secondary Education Peshawar appoint the supervisory
staff on the recommendations of the Education Department.

Examination Centers are then established keeping in view the physical facilities available there. The
Superintendent and Assistant Superintendent (invigilators) supervise the conduct of examinations.
Inspectors inspect the Examination Centers off and on. Mobile squads/teams constituted by the
Boards pay surprise visits to the Examination Centers. Heads of institutions where examination is
conducted are authorized by some Boards to act as Resident Inspectors. All these measures are
adopted to check the mal practices

2.11 Examination, Promotion and Certification

Boards of Intermediate and Secondary Education (BISE) and universities are the examining bodies.
Following certificates/diplomas/degrees are awarded after the completion of certain level of
education: Secondary School Certificate (after 10 Years of schooling); Higher Secondary School
Certificate (after 12 years schooling); Bachelor’s Degree (after 14 years schooling); Master’s Degree
(after 16 years schooling). Universities confer MPhil and PD Degrees on the candidates who
complete certain requirements of the concerned level of studies. These certificates degrees are
awarded after completion of general streams. Education system of the country has been presented
in Figure below.

There is a public examination system in the country. Some boards and universities are following the
conventional system of awarding certificates and degrees on the basis of: Third division (33-44%),
Second division (45-59%) and First division (60% and above).

Some boards and universities have introduced grades as: A(70% AND ABOVE),B (6069%); c (50-
59%); D (50-59%), F (Fail below) At the same time , there are institutions in private sectors preparing
the students for O level and A level examinations of British Education System

31
2.12 National Bureau of Curriculum and Textbooks
Curriculum development was never visualized as a distinct and specialized function. The entire
curriculum activity was done through committee. Before 18th amendment curriculum and text books
development was the responsibility of Federal. After the 18th Constitutional Amendment the role of
all provincial Textbook Boards has changed.

The devolution of curriculum provides a significant set of opportunities to the provinces in regard to
introducing changes in the curriculum which could not only make their curriculum more competitive
but bring it in consonance with their particular culture and environment

The formation of curriculum wing at Ministry of Education in 1976 was followed by the establishment
of four Provincial Curriculum Bureaus (one in each province) to ensure provincial collaboration and
evolve consensus in all activities falling within the purview of the Federation. The Provincial Text
Book Boards were also established subsequently. Under the auspices of Federal Ministry of
Education National Curriculum was developed in 2006-7. The omission/removal of the concurrent
list under the eighteenth amendment has devolved the key roles of educational policy, planning and
curriculum in the exclusive legislative jurisdiction of the provinces.

Table: Pre-Eighteenth Constitutional Amendment:

Curriculum Development Process
Curriculum Wing, Ministry of Regional/Provincial level School level
Education • Local authorities • Heads
• Inspectors • Teachers
• Teacher’s choice • Communities
Aims and National aims, as reflected in Evaluation/study reports of Some aims of effective
objectives the National Education Policy curriculum centers provide domain are suggested by
change direction Teachers
Curriculum Plan National Framework syllabus Introduce unique cultural/ Scheme of work,
and weightage regional aspects, including adjustment of time table,
mother tongue provision of co-curricular
activities, exams
Methods and Teacher training courses are Teachers’ colleges Practice different
approaches to designed, also in-service implement training methodologies
learning teacher training programs (pre-service)
Materials Provincial textbooks are Provincial Textbooks Representation of
reviewed/approved by Federal Boards commission teachers in the National
Ministry through writers and select Review Committee
National Review Committee materials on merit basis
Evaluation and Inter Board Committee Boards of education hold Trained teachers set the
examination Chairman, coordinate exams papers and evaluate the
activities of the Exam Boards script

Table: Status after Eighteenth Amendment

Old Status New Status
Curriculum, Syllabus – Federal and Provincial Joint Function Transferred to provinces

Planning Policy – Federal and Provincial Joint Function Transferred to provinces

Center of Excellence, Area Study Centers, Pakistan Study Centers and Sheikh Zaid Transferred to provinces
Islamic Centers – Federal

Standards of education – Federal and Provincial Joint Function Transferred to provinces

Islamic education – Federal and Provincial Joint Function Transferred to provinces

32
Unit–3
Types of Schools at Secondary Level

3.1 History, Status and Functions of Federal Directorate of Education (FDE) ....... 34

3.2 Organizational Structure of Federal Directorate of Education .......................... 35

3.3 Beaconhouse School System ............................................................................. 36

3.4 Certificate of Professional Studies in Education ............................................... 41

3.5 Teacher Training ............................................................................................... 42

3.6 Beaconhouse National University ..................................................................... 43

3.7 The Educators ................................................................................................... 44

3.8 Concordia College ............................................................................................. 44

3.9 The City School ................................................................................................ 44

3.10 Curriculum & Academic Philosophy ................................................................ 45

3.11 Early Childhood Education ............................................................................... 46

3.12 Values Education Program ................................................................................ 46

3.13 Technology and Innovation; Moving from Good to Great on a Journey of

Excellence ......................................................................................................... 47

3.14 Professional Development ................................................................................ 48

3.15 Foundation Year ................................................................................................ 48

3.1 History, Status and Functions of Federal Directorate of Education (FDE)
Federal Directorate of Education was established in 1967 as an attached department of Federal
Ministry of Education with the responsibility to provide educational facilities to the children of Federal
Government employees and the residence of Islamabad and its adjoining rural areas, comprising
133 villages. The Directorate is headed by Director General. It has four Directors, namely Director
(Colleges), Director (Planning and Development and Administration), Director (Schools) and
Director (Model Institutions). They are assisted by Deputy Directors, Assistant Directors, Admn,
Officers and other ancillary staff.

Immediately after its inception, the Directors started acquiring plots from CDA for construction of
educational institutions in different sectors and initiated development of these institutions in a
phased program and established 23 schools and 2 (Male and Female) colleges up to 1973-74. In
June, 1974, 139 rural schools were taken over from the Government of Punjab. One College for
Men housed in H-9 sector and also taken in the fold of Federal Government in 1974.

Expansion of educational facilities continued over the years and at present there are 419 institutions
working under Federal Directorate of Education. After Eighteenth Amendment Act 2010, Ministry of
Education was devolved; Federal Directorate of Education started working as attached department
of Capital

Administration & Development Division (CA&DD) since April 2011. The status of CA&DD was
changed to Ministry of Capital Administration & Development in May 2012. The new government
formed after General Election 2013, the Mo CA&D was again changed to Capital Administration and
Development Division w.e.f. June 2013.

FDE endeavors to provide conducive environment of teaching and learning with focus on academic
excellence, surging desire for knowledge, attitudinal change including tolerance and compassion,
developing a sense of purpose and high achievement with the vision for tomorrow.

Functions of FDE:
FDE continually envisages generating and sustaining an enabling educational environment with a
view to:

• Tap innate potential of students.

• Nurture core values with due regard to socio-cultural moorings.
• Develop dynamic and productive Pakistanis capable of competing in the evolving
international scenario.
• Inculcate the spirit of community service (through Scouting and Girl Guiding)

FDE’s reforms and Measures to improve quality of Education:

• In-service Teachers’ Training

• Uni - system of Education
• Introduction of IT Education at various levels
• English Teachers for Primary Classes
• Institution of Parent Teacher Association (PTA)
• Promulgation of Education Code
• Free Text Books
34
3.2 Organizational Structure of Federal Directorate of Education
The structure of federal directorate of education has been described through organogram below:

Stream and Level Wise Number of FDE Institutions

Category / Stream Edu Sector Primary Middle SSC HSSC Grad P.Grad TOTAL
IMS/IMCs (Former FGSs) Bhara Kau 31 18 20 10 79
City -
IMS/IMCs (Former FGSs) Urban 60 11 36 9 116
IMS/IMCs (Former FGSs) Nilore 37 8 13 9 67
IMS/IMCs (Former FGSs) Sihala 37 14 11 12 74

35
IMS/IMCs (Former FGSs) Tarnol 26 9 17 3 55
TOTAL IMSs / FGHSS 191 60 97 43 0 0 391
City -
Islamabad Model Colleges Urban 11 4 4 19
Islamabad Model Colleges Sihala 1 1
TOTAL MODEL COLLEGES
12 4 4 20
City -
FG Colleges Urban 3 5 8
FG Colleges Sihala 2 2
FG Colleges Tarnol 1 1
TOTAL FG COLLEGES 1 5 5 11

GRAND TOTAL 191 60 97 56 9 9 422

3.3 Beacon House School System

Beacon house School System (BSS) in Pakistan is the Pakistan-based branch of an international
company with the same name. It is a group of private feepaying academic institutions located
throughout 30 cities in Pakistan. BSS provides preschool education, primary education, secondary
education and preparation for the international General Certificate of Education (GCE) and local
Secondary School Certificate (SSC) examinations.

The Beacon house School System has its origin in the establishment of Les Anges Montessori
Academy, which was founded in 1975. As soon as the Government of Pakistan permitted the
establishment of private schools, the first Beacon house Public School was set up in Lahore so that
the students of Les Anges would be able to continue and complete their schooling in the same type
of educational environment.

Les Anges Montessori Academy, the factor nursery for Beacon house Public School, Lahore was
established in Lahore in November 1975; Beacon house Public School, Lahore, followed in April
1978. Beacon house, Karachi was established in January 1979, Beacon house, Islamabad, in April
1982, Beacon house, Rawalpindi and Beacon house, Clifton, Karachi in 1985 and Beacon house,
Peshawar in 1986. Since then, schools have been opened in Hyderabad, Quetta, Multan,
Faisalabad, Satellite Town (Rawalpindi), Gujranwala, Hafizabad, Sheikhupura, Gujrat, Abbottabad,
Wah Cantt, Sargodha, Jehlum, Sadiqabad, Rahimyar khan and Bahawalpur, and further branches
have been opened in Lahore, and Karachi bringing the total number of branches in the country to
83 in 1998. The student strength of the System as a whole is nearing 35,000 and teacher to student
ratio of about 1 to 15, a figure that compares favorably with international standards.

The Beacon house group has around 274,000 fulltime students in eight countries and is possibly
the largest school network of its kind in the world. Established in November 1975 as the Les Anges
Montessori Academy with 19 toddlers, Beacon house has since grown into an international network
of private schools, imparting distinctive and meaningful learning to students all the way from birth
through its partnership in Pakistan with Gymboree Play & Music to post-graduation, through the
Beacon house Nation.

36
Of these students, close to 105,000 study at the flagship network, the Beacon house School System,
in Pakistan as well as overseas, while the remaining are largely enrolled at The Educators, a parallel
school network operated by the group with over 168,000 students.

The Beacon house of today is thus much more than just a stand-alone school. Through distinct and
independent divisions across multiple destinations including the UK, Malaysia, Thailand, the
Philippines, Oman, the UAE, Pakistan and Belgium, it caters to the education and training needs of
a large and diverse group of individuals of varying ages, socioeconomic backgrounds, and
nationalities, with its activities also extending beyond education in some countries.

Beacon house has always laid tremendous emphasis on the development of human capital. From
its initial association in the 1980s with The Moray House Institute of Education in Scotland to its
more recent teaching training links with the University of Bradford and MARJON, Beacon house has
institutionalized in-service teacher training like no other school.

So, with rigorous standards that demand up-to-date teaching skills and a range of challenging
programs, the Beacon house School System brings success within the reach of every student.

Beacon house: Organization and Resources

A school that is part of a System has many advantages over a school that operates on its own:

• The system provides a wide variety of staff development programs.

• New ideas and improved methods spread readily form one school to another.
• The Head of the school is relieved of much routine administration, and is able to concentrate
more of his/her energies on the academic and educational aspects of the school.
• And, of course, many parents welcome the case of inter-city transfer of their children from
one Beacon house School to another.

Regions
The Beacon house School System’s Head Office remains in Lahore, where the System began. The
growth of the System, however, made it necessary to divide the administration into three Regions:
a Northern Region based on Islamabad, a Central Region based in Lahore, and a Southern Region
based in Karachi. The Regional Offices act as academic support centers and are responsible for
coordination, teacher training, school evaluation and planning and development activities in schools
in the representative regions. Each school is administratively independent unit headed by a
Principal/Head Teacher. The school operates under the policy and guidelines provided by the Head
Offices.

Staff Development Centers:

The staff Development Centre is a vital part of each Regional Offices. Its purpose is to provide
training and co-ordination for teachers, and to assist them in becoming ever more proficient in their
work. Each Center has a well-stocked library of educational books, journals, video tapes and other
resources, plus reprographic equipment, rooms for meetings, workshops and seminars and an
experienced staff. Regular co-ordination meetings of Heads and teachers at all levels take place at
each Center.

37
Staff Training: The Beacon-house Bradford Link
Well-trained teachers are the backbone of a successful school. The in-service training for teachers
is designed to meet this need and has been growing and developing steadily for several years.

The most ambitious in-service training program so far, is being run in conjunction with the
Department of Teaching Studies of the University of Bradford in the U.K and has already contributed
to the professional development of staff. Many teachers from throughout the System are taking part
in specially designed courses, leading to the Branford University Certificates in Professional Studies
in Education, which can be followed by an Advanced Diploma and then by an Honors Degree. These
courses are very practical and concentrate on good teaching practices, one of the aims being that
each student should be an active participant in his or her own education. Final assessment and
validation of each participant is carried out by visiting members of the Department of Teaching
Studies of Bradford University, thus ensuring that standards of international quality are maintained.

Besides this, induction courses are held for new teachers and workshops are organized to deal with
more specialized needs. Beacon house teachers also take advantage of local resources where
these are available, such as the Teachers’ Resource Centre in Karachi.

Foreign Experts: In order to keep abreast with areas where essential educational research has
been carried out in other parts of the world, or what specialist skills are needed, the Beacon house
School System has not hesitated to call on the services of experts from varying periods. Their
experts are on permanent staff and others have visited for varying periods. Their advice and
assistance has been of great value in improving the curriculum design and development in academic
administration, in in-services teacher training, in personnel evaluation and in many other related
fields.

Head Teacher Training: In the past, all school heads used to train on the job which worked fairly
well up to a point. In the rapidly changing educational environment, Head Teachers all over the world
are required to have training into the latest methodologies and techniques of educational
administration. In-house expertise in this area and Head Teacher training has already begun.

Beacon House Academic Conference:

The Beaconhouse Academic Conference meets at intervals to consider academic matters affecting
the Beacon House School System as a whole. It is attended by all Directors, principals and Heads
and senior Teachers of schools in the Beacon House School System. Over the last ten years it has
grown in size from a small group who could all sit round one table, to a major conference with an
attendance of almost two hundred.

Academic

General

The objective of the Beaconhouse School System is to provide sound and broad based academic
education to all its students. To facilitate the School makes the learning process more and more
student centered. The students are required to be active participants in their own education and not
just passive receivers of instruction.

38
School curriculum

The curriculum reflects the School’s belief that the students should be exposed to a wide variety of
disciplines and experiences. In order to achieve this goal, the School gives utmost importance and
priority to selection of its curriculum and syllabus to maintain the high standard of education offered
to tis students. The main subject areas covered up to and including Lower Secondary levels are
English, Urdu, Mathematics, Science, Social Studies (including History and Geography, and
Islamiyat. In the Senior Secondary and ALevel Classes, a guided choice of subjects is available,
allowing students to concentrate their attentions on, for example Science for Engineering or
Medicine, or Business Subjects.

Curriculum Development

Work on the curriculum, especially designed for Beaconhouse, was initiated in March 1997. The
curriculum document, when completed, will be the most significant achievement of Beaconhouse. It
will be the first of its kind in Pakistan, based on indigenous research suited to our educational needs.
The curriculum document may be considered of value by other schools in the private and public
sectors as well and perhaps, it could lead to the forming of a National Curriculum in the future.

Religious and Cultural Education

The is a concern among some sections of the public that schools using English as the medium of
instruction may not devote enough time into the teaching of Islamiat and other subjects related to
the life and culture of Pakistan. At Beaconhouse, close attention is paid to the teaching of Islamiat
(for children from Muslim families), Urdu and Pakistan studies. Well qualified teachers were
employed for this purpose. The School realizes that if insufficient attention is paid in this respect,
the students will be ill prepared to meet the demands of the society in which they have to live. These
subjects are, therefore, compulsory and the School takes pride in its instruction.

Library

In the aim of Beaconhouse to provide well-stocked libraries in all schools. The building up of a large
and versatile library takes time, but the development of school libraries, to act as the main resource
center for each school, is one of the prime targets. Most schools now have a wide range of excellent
books and magazines available for students to read and borrow, and an accelerating program of
continuous expansion is underway throughout the system.

It is the aim of Beaconhouse to provide well-stocked libraries in all schools and there is an ongoing
comprehensive program of library expansion. Most of the BSS schools now have a wide range of
excellent books and magazines available for students to read and borrow. Beaconhouse is planning
to make CD-ROMs available in libraries as an additional resource. In due course of time, access to
libraries around the world will also be made available through the Internet. This will facilitate research
work by students and teachers alike.

Kitchen Laboratories
Modern and fully equipped kitchen labs are being set-up in schools where they have introduced
Food and Nutrition as subjects for the ‘O’ levels.

Public Examinations

39
For well over a decade the Beaconhouse School System has entered candidates for the University
of Cambridge G.C.E. ‘O’ level examinations and for the Matriculation Examinations offered by local
Boards. Schools in Lahore, Karachi and Islamabad also offer ‘A’ level facilities for students. Subjects
offered in these examinations vary slightly from school to school, according to local and regional
requirements.

The great majority of Matriculation and ‘O’ level candidates have achieved excellent results over
hen years, thus enabling them to gain admissions into the leading colleges and universities in
Pakistan, as well as in the USA and UK.

Laboratories

It is firmly believed that the best way for students to grasp scientific principles to experience these
themselves. All senior Beaconhouse school offering Physics, Chemistry and Biology, therefore,
have properly equipped laboratories to prepare students in these subjects. As with libraries, a
program of progressive laboratory development is taking place.

Computer and other IT facilities

State-of-the-art computer laboratories have been set up in almost all BSS schools. The computers
in schools are upgraded from time to time to keep abreast with the latest developments in
information technology. Besides those in computer labs, computers have also been installed in
separate resource rooms and in the libraries for research work by both students and teachers. Every
Beaconhouse student has access to computers. A decade ago, Beaconhouse introduced the C3
initiative which aimed at integrating computer aided learning into the curriculum. This has now been
replaced by ETAC (Emerging Technologies across the Curriculum).

Internal assessment and reporting

Formal and informal assessment system is followed to monitor students’ progress. It is evident that
formally designed tests and examinations can be used only to measure specific area of a students’
development that’s why teachers evaluate their students in different other ways using different
assessment methods. In-service teachers training is arranged time by time to abreast them with
new techniques of assessment. Parents are kept well informed about the progress of their children.
Parents are strongly encouraged to attend the regular Parent/Teacher Meetings, where they can
discuss all aspects of a child’s progress in more detail. In case of any serious issue, parents can
meet the teacher at other times too with the permission of Principal or Head Teacher.

• Selection

In classes up to and including Class VIII, all students follow the same curriculum. At the end of Class
VIII, students continue either in the Cambridge or the Matriculation stream according to laid down
criteria.

• Promotion

In normal circumstances a student is promoted to the next class at the end of a school year. This
promotion depends on their overall performance throughout the year, and not solely on any final test
or examination. If a student’s progress and performance is unsatisfactory (for example, if they have
failed twice to obtain promotion at the end of a school year), the student will be suspended from the
school. The decision of the Head of the school will be final in these matters.
40
Merit Scholarship Scheme

A Merit scholarship scheme was announced in the newsletter from the Chief Executive,
Beaconhouse School System on the occasion of Pakistan’s 50th Anniversary of Independence on
August 14, 1997. The Merit Scholarship has been introduced and is effective from August 98.

Scholarship schemes cover a number of circumstances based on merit and means. Each school is
allocated a certain number of scholarships to be given annually, therefore the decision of the school
in the awarding of scholarships is final. The school reserves the right to withdraw the scholarship
scheme at any time and/or amend the rules governing the scholarship scheme at its sole discretion.

School Evaluation

School Evaluations are carried out to inspect the quality of the school management and leadership,
the quality of teaching, learning and assessment, and the school's own planning and self-review.
The institution has set up a systematic school monitoring and evaluation program based on modern
principles of assessment and development in schools. Beaconhouse schools are evaluated by
teams sent from the head and the regional offices. This evaluation is carried out at regular intervals
and schools are evaluated against pre-determined standards. These standards will be continuously
revised keeping in view the rapidly changing educational needs. These evaluations focus on many
aspects, including teaching, curriculum instruction, extra-curricular activities, libraries and facilities,
general management, parent teacher student relationships, enrolment and recruitment, staff
development, finances, community involvement, resources, career guidance and technology.

3.4 Certificate of Professional Studies in Education

Introduction

Aim
To provide a foundation course of professional studies in education which supports teacher
development within the context of the school?

Objectives:
Through participation in the core program a teacher will:

1. Develop her/his understanding of the role of teacher.

2. Identify some of the issues involved in managing learning.
3. Be aware of some of the principles underlying the theory and practice of education and the
management of learning.
4. Demonstration competence in managing learning in the classroom.
5. Demonstrate an ability to link principles and practice through the process of reflection and
analysis.
6. Show willingness to extend and develop current practice in the search for more effective
learning.
7. Demonstrate a commitment to quality of opportunity in educational provisions in her/his work

41
Course Program:
The course comprises a number of elements which together provide the framework for assessment.
Core Program Course Personal Development Teaching Program in
Tutorials and private study Diary School

ASSESSMENT
3.5 Teacher Training
Beacon-house has established a comprehensive in-house training programme in collaboration with
several UK universities.

The training department works with University College Plymouth St. Mark & St. John to offer
teachers two certificates: the Certificate in Professional Education and the Post Graduate Certificate
in Professional Development. Teachers can earn a master’s at Leeds Metropolitan University.

Professional Development Pathway

Teachers with less than one year’s experience take an induction course. All teachers take the five-
day foundation course, which follows the induction course, in one of the following areas: Early Years,
Primary, and Secondary.

After finishing the foundation course, teachers can apply for the Certificate in Professional Education
(CPEd) offered by University College Plymouth St. Mark & St. John. Classes for this 120 credit
course are held on 15 days spread over seven months. Classes are taught by teachers accredited
by the University.
42
After finishing the CPEd, teachers interested in becoming teacher-trainers enroll in the two-year
Post Graduate Certificate (PGCert) in training offered through University College Plymouth St. Mark
& St. John.

Teachers who pass the PGCert with a distinction are given a scholarship to enroll for their MEd at
Leeds Metropolitan University.

This chart illustrates the program structure:

In-house Trainers
The training department provides a professional pathway for teachers interested in becoming
teacher-trainers. It supports the trainers, trainees and tutors through their continuous professional
development.
Trainees are split into two streams: Award Bearing Program Trainers and School Based Trainers.
The Award Bearing Program Trainers scheme lasts five to six years, depending on the trainee. The
trainee observes and teaches classes for two cohorts - each cohort lasts nine months - then is
appointed a trainer for the third and the fourth year of the program. In the fifth year, the enrolled
trainee is then appointed a tutor. This program is accredited by University College Plymouth St.
Mark & St. John.
The School Based Trainers program is similar to the Award Bearing Program, except that the
enrollees are trained in-house and are only recognized by Beaconhouse.

3.6 Beaconhouse National University

The group contributed an amount of over six million dollars as seed money for the establishment of
the not-for-profit Beaconhouse National University. While Beaconhouse was the original sponsor of

43
the university, other stakeholders from the public and private sectors have also contributed
generously.

Beaconhouse National University (BNU) was set up in September 2003. Based in Lahore, BNU is
Pakistan’s first broad-based liberal arts university with faculties ranging from Liberal Arts and Social
Sciences, Media and Communications, and Education, to Architecture and Design, Visual Arts, and
Information and Computer Technologies. It has an international faculty from as far afield as England,
Holland, Canada, France, Germany and other countries, apart from some of Pakistan’s most
renowned academics and intellectuals.

3.7 The Educators

Established in November 1975 as the Les Anges Montessori Academy for toddlers, Beaconhouse
has since grown into a global network of private schools, institutes, and universities, imparting
distinctive and meaningful education to students from pre-school to post-graduation. The Educators,
a project of Beaconhouse, has completed eleven years of service to educational development
across the country with remarkable success. Established in 2002, it now has 800+ campuses & the
market leader in Pakistan's educational landscape with a presence in over 225+ cities and a student
strength exceeding 175,000+. This makes The Educators outreach the largest compared to any
other private school in the world.

3.8 Concordia College

Concordia Colleges under the umbrella of the Beaconhouse Group aspire to offer world class
education in an innovative and technology-enabled environment at an economical cost.
Beaconhouse is the largest and most successful school system in Pakistan.

3.9 The City School

Background:
Until the late 1970’s the provision of English-medium education was very limited with only a few
such elite of Pakistan’s society. With the denationalization of private schools in 1978, parental
demand of English-medium education has been responsible for rapid growth in this sector of
education.

Beginning:
Established in Karachi in 1978. The implementation and maintenance of rigorous standards in both
the academic and administrative spheres gave TCS a reputation for quality education that enabled
it to complete with long-established schools. The City School is today one of the largest private
school networks in Pakistan with branches in all the major cities across the country. It currently has
185 schools in 52 cities with over 126,000 students in 458 owned and franchised schools. The City
School continues to expand its reach to meet the demands for quality education. The knowledge
and skillsbased curriculum derived from the UK national curriculum guides students from Nursery
to Cambridge International Examinations (for the 16 and 18 year age group), qualifying them for the
IGCSE, and O and A Level examinations. The uniform implementation of the curriculum gives
parents, students, and teachers the advantage of a smooth and efficient transfer from one school to
another within the system.

44
History
The City School was founded in Karachi in 1978. As it is evolved and grew, its name came to be
synonymously with qualities of vision, action and change which have made it a unique force in the
field of education in Pakistan today.

As parents became increasingly discerning in their search for ever higher standards of academic
excellence for their children, more and more branches of The City School opened their doors.
Progressively senior educational levels were accommodated with the major emphasis continuing to
be placed on the latest teaching techniques and on a curriculum comparable with the best in the
world.

During the 1980s, The City School continued to grow nation-wide, every new branch subscribing to
the common commitment to provide equal learning opportunities for students and to maintain
standards of professional excellence in the recruitment and training of teaching staff. This latter
objective led, even in the formative years of the School, to the In-service Faculty Training.

During this decade, matriculation classes as well as Oxford/Cambridge ‘O’ and ‘A’ Levels were
introduced with The City School becoming a registered examination center for these British
examinations.

In 1993, this state of affairs persuaded the management of The City School to initiate its Higher
Education Program (H.E.P_ in Karachi, in response to the desperate need for such a college. The
Northern Consortium of British Universities and The City School agreed on a number of degree
courses as well as on a one year Foundation Course, through which second year intermediate
student could obtain ‘A’ Level equivalent.

The establishment of the H.E.P. represents a quantum leap for The City School, which now caters
for students all the way from Pre-Nursery through the first year of a British degree.

Today, The City School has multiple Schools and a continuous expansion program. The prestigious
campus of the City School-PAF-Chapter, currently being purpose-built, is the newest acquisition
and unquestionably a model of its kind.

3.10 Curriculum & Academic Philosophy

Graduates from The City School secure positions in top universities worldwide. The students,
according to Cambridge International Examinations annual results analysis, are amongst the highest
achievers in their city, their country and, in some cases, in the world. The curriculum encourages a
student-centered approach where learners have an active role in their learning process and develop
the skills and ability to make a significant contribution to society. Its particular strength lies in the
integration of digital media and ICTs in an array of learning programs. The City School provides
more than 120 courses each year across the age ranges and revises them in accordance with the
cumulative experience of its teachers and pupils. The selection of teachers is based on their
experience as curriculum developers and syllabus writers. In addition, City School regularly appoints
curriculum consultants from the UK to lead teams of The City School teachers in revising their
curriculum and syllabi. The City School curriculum and methodology is designed specifically to
ensure a smooth transition in teaching and learning from the primary sector through the middle years
and on to the final two years of the public examinations’ syllabi. Digital media and ICTs in The City

45
School Network are shaping the methodology of delivering online education and adding efficiency,
convenience, interactivity and outreach to the array of learning programs. The City School has taken
the initiative of implementing a state-of-the-art Classroom/ Learning Management System capable
of providing its students with academic resources anytime, anywhere, and in any circumstances.
The City School promotes and encourages cocurricular activities in all of its campuses. Students
are encouraged to learn new skills, take responsibility, assume leadership, work under a leader,
organize events, conduct programs and experience real-life situations.

Its primary school is based on curriculum derived from the UK's National Curriculum, while its
secondary school education is divided between the local Pakistani curriculum and the Cambridge
regulated international GCE programs.[4] Founded in Karachi in 1978, the school's head office is
based in Lahore with regional offices in Karachi and Islamabad.[5] In collaboration with various other
national institutions it also runs the The City APIIT.

3.11 Early Childhood Education

Children who have access to high quality education in their Early Years develop much better social,
emotional and thinking skills. The City School therefore aims to always increase and sustain the
quality of Early Years opportunities so children are more able to fulfill their potential.

The carefully planned curriculum provides teachers with a framework for interacting with children,
planning their lessons, and assessing and monitoring child’s learning.

The teachers enjoy developing young children and constantly reflect and re-evaluate all that they
do to nurture and develop them physically, mentally, morally and spiritually.

The Early Years Education EYE is about three things:

• The child
• The context and environment in which learning takes place
• The child’s knowledge and understanding.

Children in Early Years learn by playing and exploring, and through creative activities that develop
their critical thinking abilities. The Early Years education approach employs teaching practices that
aid the holistic development of the child through:

• High levels of academic content

• Appropriate learning environment and tools
• A consistent daily routine
• Effective and appropriate teaching practices

3.12 Values Education Program

Values Education has been adopted in school systems all over the world. In Pakistan, The City
School (TCS) is the pioneer in incorporating values education into its curriculum. City School is
actively engaged in a values-centered approach to learning, teaching and administration. This area
has been slightly neglected in the education system.

46
The City School ventured into Values Education to create global learners who can effectively
participate and contribute in the rapidly changing international world. City school is building a
network of values-centered schools under the Values Education Program ̶ a unique collaboration
with the Hong Kong based Living Values Education Program in which an enriching exchange of
dialogues, workshops and ideas is taking place.

Values Education is an approach that gradually permeates the school environment, and its success
becomes evident in the positive school ethos and in the personal qualities and behavior that
students, teachers and management display in the community.

The City School is moving forward with skills-based curriculums that incorporate 21st century skills.
However, with the inclusion of the Values Education Program, these curriculums are developing
character and positive behavior as well.

City school understands that education is so much more than simply equipping students with specific
skills. With an education system based on universal positive values, City school believes that
students can develop their own self-esteem, confidence, and commitment to personal advancement,
while learning to take greater responsibility for others and becoming socially aware.

The Values Education Program is modeled on a ‘whole school approach’, where all key stakeholders
are involved in students’ all round development. The educational philosophy of Values Education is
based on valuing self and others. It introduces a values vocabulary that the students can identify
with, and demonstrate understanding of, in everyday conversations and activities.

By integrating Values Education in curriculum, City school develops the students’ character and
personality and encourages positive behavior.

3.13 Technology and Innovation; Moving from Good to Great on a Journey

of Excellence
The Technology and Innovation unit is part of the Department of Studies; it includes Instructional
Technology, ICTech and IDEAL AIMS.

The convergence of collaborative constructivist ideas and instructional technology is transforming

education systems all over the world. Instructional technology broadens the scope of education
beyond textbooks and the integration of ICT in the teaching and learning process recognizes the
need to have a seamless flow between learning at school, at home, at work and at play.

The City School System has been incorporating ICT in its classrooms for over a decade and it took
the initiative to establish a separate Instructional Technology Unit to facilitate its teachers and
students in integrating ICT in subject instruction and, in so doing, promote critical thinking skills. The
Instructional Technology Unit designs projects in a way that allows students to participate in their
learning process and acquire 21st century skills, thus creating a Meaningful Learning Environment.
Whole class activities, group learning tasks, and online sharing of class-based projects encourage
students to engage in a collaborative learning experience, both in a local context and globally.
Through global partnership with schools around the world, students develop into e-citizens and
become creators and propagators of new knowledge and information. Purposeful integration of ICT
makes the classroom a genuine learning place and leads students into a meaningful application of
the IT skills acquired in the ICTech lessons.

47
The Technology and Innovation department provides meticulous training and ongoing support and
assistance through facilitation sessions to the teachers and the school administration. This helps
them in identifying the level of technology integration in their schools, keeping pace with the latest
IT trends, and purposefully planning their strategies regarding ICT integration.. An online forum
enables teachers to share their students’ work.

IDEAL AIMS (Ideal Academic Information & Management System) is an assessment tool for
teachers that enable them to manage the results of students’ work. It can also be used as a
diagnostic tool for the teachers. They can plan necessary improvements to their students’
performance based on the results collated on IDEAL AIMS.

In the Technology and Innovation Unit, it is all about finding ways of using technology to promote
meaningful learning for the students at The City School.

3.14 Professional Development

Training philosophy builds on the TCS vision and commitment to promote and enhance learning
through the continuous professional development of its human resource. TCS undertakes to offer
opportunities and training through the process of convergence, synthesis, evaluation and formation
of knowledge and skills that enable people at TCS to achieve personal satisfaction and progress,
and contribute positively towards the growth of the organization.

Trainings are designed to enhance capacities in the following areas:

• Academics
• Corporate
• Business
• Instructional Technology

3.15 Foundation Year

The City School in agreement with U.K universities offers a Foundation or Access year which
enables the students to attain equivalency with A-Level students. The courses lasts for one
academic year (September to June) and successful completion enables a student to progress to the
first year of the Degree with the Higher Education programs or proceed to any of the 12 British
Universities or an affiliated University.

Study in Pakistan for a Foreign Degree (each Credit for Transfer to leading American universities).

The City School through its Higher Education Program is offering one or two years of study in
Pakistan which will allow Credit and Time Transfer with major universities in the USA.

• Kansas University (KU): Lawrence, Kansas

• University of Missouri (UMKC): Kansas City
• Baldwin-Wallace College, Berea, Ohio

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Foundation Year
A Foundation Year gains A-Level equivalence for Intermediate students. Science and Commerce
subject options available. Up to 60 credits may be earned through the multiple subjects in courses
making it possible to shorten the study time in the USA by as much as two years.

First Year Degree:

A one-year degree course for A-Level and local degree students offering credit transfer.

Course Offered in First Year:

• Accounting
• Computer Science
• Business Management
• Economics

Scholarships are possible for meritorious students to complete their studies in the USA.

The graduating last year, (1996) in the United Kingdom of the first class of students (1993-94) who
transferred from foundation and First University (Hons) Degree Years to any of twelve widely
recognized British universities forming the Northern Consortium (U.K) and some of whom have
remained in British to do further work towards Diplomas and Masters.

The City School-PAF Chapter

In August, 1997 began an entirely new chapter in the annals of education in Pakistan in general and
of the history of The City School in particular. This was the inauguration of latest campus, a joint
venture between the city school and the Pakistan Air Force.

This model campus, entirely being developed on a 7.5 acre site just off the flyover on the Shahrah-
e-Faisal and Shaheed-e-Millat road junction in Karachi, is already set to be the flagship of the entire
school network. When finally completed in the first year of the new millennium, the PAF chapter
school will offer premium English medium education to 3500 students through to A Level. Currently
it caters from Junior-I through ‘O’ Level classes.

Designed and landscaped by one of the country’s top architects, this ultra-modern campus will offer
academic, cultural, and social and sports facilities of unparalleled excellence to its students. On
completion, its 250,000 square feet of covered area will incorporate purpose-built classrooms, well-
stocked multi-media libraries and science laboratories and art and music rooms, all planned as well-
integrated elements of a cohesive whole. A 500-seat gymnasium, a high-tech auditorium and an
outdoor amphitheater will enhance and complement the long term academic objectives of the School
with facilities which allow limitless scope for extracurricular activities. The separate cafeterias,
especially craft areas for senior students and bookshop will add extra distinction to this unique
campus.

49
Unit–4
Curriculum Development At Secondary Level In Pakistan

4.1 What is Curriculum? ................................................................................ 51

4.2 Curriculum Theory .................................................................................. 51

4.3 Curriculum Approaches .......................................................................... 52

4.4 Aims and Objectives of Curriculum Development at Secondary Level . 53

4.5 Characteristics of Curriculum .................................................................. 57

4.6 Curriculum and syllabus ......................................................................... 57

4.7 Principles of Curriculum Construction ................................................... 59

4.8 Evaluation of the Curriculum................................................................... 60

4.9 Determination of curriculum ................................................................... 61

4.10 International Aspects of Curriculum Development ................................ 63

4.11 Some Aspects of Curriculum Development in Pakistan .......................... 63

4.12 Mechanism for Curriculum Development in Pakistan ............................. 63

4.13 Textbooks ................................................................................................ 64

4.14 Criteria for the Selection of Books ......................................................... 64

4.1 Curriculum
Curriculum, Word is derived from “Latin” language that means:

A racecourse/A prescribed course to follow /A series of courses to complete a program of studies.

Most modern definition of curriculum shared in 1920 says that “Curriculum is a process not a
product”. Curriculum includes: topics, syllabus, list of subjects, course of study, content, method,
and items of knowledge to be covered, time table, organization of teaching and learning. In short,
the sum total of all the experiences a pupil undergoes is called the curriculum.

Many scholars have given the definitions of curriculum, some of which are as follows:

Bobbit (1924), “all the organized and unorganized educational experiences students encounter”.

Tyler (1957), “all that is planned and directed by teachers to achieve the educational goals”.

Glatthorn (1987), “plans for guiding teaching and learning”.

English (1992), “a work plan that includes both content and strategies for teaching and learning
process.” Tanner & Tanner (1995), “the reconstruction of knowledge & experience under the
guidance of school.”

Curriculum or curricula are used in educational contexts without qualification, specific examples, or
additional explanation, it may be difficult to determine precisely what the terms are referring to mainly
because they could be applied to either all or only some of the component parts of a school’s
academic program or courses.

4.2 Curriculum Theory

Curriculum theory and theorizing may be characterized as being a rather formative condition, for
essentially there are no generally accepted and clear-cut criteria to distinguish curriculum theory
and theorizing from other forms of writing in education.

Philosophies of education, according to Frankeman are either analytical or normative. That is the
reason, they are essentially attempting to describe, discriminate, and establish meanings for terms,
or they are essentially sets of statements about what should or should not be included in education
and what should or should not be done during the educational process.

Curriculum theorists have found such neat categories difficult to parallel, since the concerns of
curriculum at sometimes must be related to what is learned by persons. Thus, curriculum always
has action implications with a broad directional concern for outcomes. Under these circumstances,
one is always involved in assumptions and implicit statements which could be classified at various
times and places as ontological; axiological, and epistemological. Concern for the nature of human
“being,” value theory, and the nature of knowledge are intricately interwoven in action contexts. But
in many ways curriculum theorizing can be conveniently categorized as oriented toward statements
about knowledge, statements about the curriculum realities, and statements about valued activity.

51
4.3 Curriculum Approaches
Curriculum practitioners and implementers may use one or more approaches in planning,
implementing and evaluating the curriculum. Even textbook writers or instructional material
producers have different curricular approaches.

The following are the five curriculum approaches:

1. Behavioral Approach
This is based on a blueprint, where goals and objectives are specified, contents and activities are
also arranged to match with the learning objectives. The learning outcomes are evaluated in terms
of goals and objectives set at the beginning. This approach started with the idea of Frederick Taylor
which is aimed to achieve efficiency. In education, behavioral approach begins with educational
plans that start with the setting of goals or objectives. These are the important ingredients in
curriculum implementation as evaluating the learning outcomes as a change of behavior. The
change of behavior indicates the measure of the accomplishment.

2. Managerial Approach
In this approach, the principal is the curriculum leader and at the same time instructional leader
who is supposed to be the general manager. The general manager sets the policies and priorities,
establishes the direction of change and innovation, and planning and organizing curriculum and
instruction. School administrators are less concerned about the content than about organization
and implementation. They are less concerned about subject matter, methods and materials than
improving the curriculum. Curriculum managers look at curriculum changes and innovations as
they administer the resources and restructure the schools.

Some of the roles of the Curriculum Supervisors are the following:

1. Help develop the school's education goals

2. Plan curriculum with students, parents, teachers and other stakeholders
3. Design programs of study by grade levels
4. Plan or schedule classes or school calendar
5. Prepares curriculum guides or teacher guides by grade level or subject area
6. Help in the evaluation and selection of textbooks
7. Observes teachers
8. Assist teachers in the implementation of the curriculum
9. Encourages curriculum innovation and change
10. Develops standards for curriculum and instructional evaluation
3. Systems Approach
This was influenced by systems theory, where the parts of the total school district or school are
examined in terms of how they relate to each other. The organizational chart of the school
represents a systems approach. It shows the line-staff relationships of personnel and how
decisions are made. The following are of equal importance:

1. administration
2. counseling
3. curriculum
4. instruction
5. evaluation
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4. Humanistic Approach
This approach is rooted in the progressive philosophy and child-centered movement. It considers
the formal or planned curriculum and the informal or hidden curriculum. It considers the whole
child and believes that in curriculum the total development of the individual is the prime
consideration. The learner s at the center of the curriculum.

4.4 Aims and Objectives of Curriculum Development at Secondary level

Lewy (1977) has pointed out that the selection of objectives is a matter of choice and therefore
must be considered as representing the value judgments of those responsible for the schools.
Nevertheless, the selection of curriculum objectives can be facilitated by certain considerations.

• Contemporary life outside the school.

• Manpower employment patterns.
• New behavior requirements in welfare, politics and social activities.
• The needs of the learner. .
• Subject matter.

Aims, goals and objectives

Aims

Goals
Objectives

General / Unit

Specific / Instructional Strategies

One of the major difficulties of curriculum process is the transition from general aims to the particular
objectives of the class room. Whether the aims of the educational process are stated as part of the
curricular process, or, as is more usual, in isolation from it, they are of little use in the day to day
learning’s situations in classroom or school (Rashid, 2000). A useful way to think about educational
aims is to consider them as statement of societal expectations and desires. More particularly, aims
are broadly phrased statements of educational intent aims states what is to be hopefully achieved
by the curriculum. They are purposely stated generally because they are developed for a general
level of education and by society. Mostly aims are considered to be developed at a system level
such as an education department or system. Aims are long term in nature and may cover a time
span of many years, even the entire school life of a child. Goals are more specific, precisely worked
statements of curriculum intent and are derived from aims, usually phrased in non-technical
language, goals are directed towards student achievement by emphasizing content and skills.
Another way to conceptualize goals is to consider them as the ways institutions and organizations
53
within society facilities the achievement of educational aims. That is, if an aim of an education
system is to make students literate and numerate, then goals are the ways by which educational
institutions generally address those aims. Curriculum developers often devise goals, as do others
working at higher levels of curriculum development such as subject syllabus committees. Goals,
medium to long term depending upon how they have been translated from aims. The statement of
goals embraces teacher and pupil actions including a statement of the kinds of learning outcomes,
which are anticipated. Goals ‘derive’ from the situation analyzed only in the sense that they represent
decisions to modify that situation in certain respects and judgment about the principal ways in which
these modifications will accrue.

The Classification of Objectives

Several attempts have been made to develop a classification scheme for education objectives.
These classification schemes have served, apart from anything else, as a tool for examining the
balance of the curricular objectives of a particular programme. The most widely used classification
scheme is known as the Taxonomy of educational objectives, in which three domains are
identified:

(i) The cognitive

(ii) The affective

(iii) The psychomotor.

Those categories within each domain which frequently appear in the framework of curriculum
development will be mentioned here.

a) The cognitive domain

According to present teaching practice, most educational objectives are of a cognitive nature; the
cognitive taxonomy has become the most widely used. The six major categories of the taxonomy
are frequently clustered into two groups: lower mental functions and higher mental functions
(Bloom et al., 1956).
1. Knowledge: the recall of information. A specific fact of a generalization may constitute the
information recalled. It should be emphasized that knowledge means recall only, and not
application of the information in a particular situation.

2. Comprehension: understanding of the message of a communication and the ability to

explain or summarize it.

3. Application: the ability to use a principle rule or method in a concerted situation.

4. Analysis: the ability to break down a communication into its constituent elements and
ability to clarify its content.

5. Synthesis: the ability to combine elements so as to form a whole. This category contains
the notion of creativity, which has in recent years been strongly emphasized as worthwhile
educational objectives.
6. Evaluation: Judging the value of material and methods for given purpose.

54
b) The affective domain
Affective objective emphasizes feelings, emotions and the degree of acceptance or rejection of
given phenomenon. These objectives occupy limited space in the more traditional sets of
curricular objectives, but their importance is now becoming more widely recognized. Attitudes,
values and interests are types of affective behaviors (Krathwohl et al., 1964). Only the first three
categories of this domain are mentioned here, because only they appear frequently in the formally
stated lists of curricular objective.

1. Receiving (attending): This category is concerned with being aware of the existence of
certain phenomena and revealing willingness to tolerate a stimulus. Thus, for example,
being aware of the existence of classical music and being able to differentiate it from music
of other types of constitutes an example of receiving.

2. Responding: This is more than merely being aware of a phenomenon. It means active
participation, such as going to a concert of classical music or purposefully listening to a
classical record.

3. Valuing: Behavior categorized at this level is stable and consistent. Thus a sustained
interest in classical music, repeated visits to concerts, etc constitute signs of valuing
classical music.

c) The psychomotor domain

Several objectives related to the acquisition of practical skills and habits appear in a number of
curriculum areas, for example, practical and laboratory work in science subject; work experience
as a part of extended general education; handicrafts; psychomotor components of reading and
writing, etc. A classification scheme of psychomotor skills has been developed by Dave (1969).
The scheme is based on the concept of co-ordination between psychic and muscular actions and
between different muscular actions performed by various parts of the body. The five categories of
the scheme are listed below:
1. Imitation: Activities which do not require muscular co-ordination.

2. Manipulation: Following directions, acting according to instructions.

3. Precision: The ability to increase speed of action, and to introduce modifications according
to specific needs of a particular situation.

4. Articulation: Co-ordination of series of acts by establishing appropriate sequence,

developing efficiency to perform a number of related acts simultaneously and sequentially.

5. Naturalization: Reutilizing the act to such an extent that it results in automatic and
spontaneous response.

Criteria for development of curriculum objectives

Pratt (1980) described that there are seven main criteria that curriculum objectives should meet.
Three of them -outcome specification, consistency, and precision have to do with the derivation and
55
specification of objectives. Four feasibility, functionality significance and appropriateness - relate to
the value of objectives. The major characteristics of objectives are as under:-

a) Objectives should identify a learning outcome

An objective is an intended learning (or training) outcome of a curriculum. Objective that begins
with “the student will study” or “the student will learn about”, usually refer to the student's means of
single behaviors, such as the student will write one page, or the student will demonstrate refer not
to outcomes but to performance criteria.

b) Objectives should be consistent with the curriculum aims

Objectives should conform to the aim from which they are derived. In much the same way, "value
clarification" and "critical thinking" tend to be promiscuously claimed as objectives by history, social
studies, English, and health education courses. If an objective meets the other criteria but is not
consonant with the curriculum aim, there are two paths of action open: change the aim, or include
the objective in a more suitable curriculum.

c) Objectives should be precise

Objectives are useful only if they are sufficiently precise that different people obtain from them the
same understanding of the intended learning outcome. Students will observe intelligent health
practices, for example, is so vague and ambiguous that its usefulness is severely limited.

d) Objectives should be feasible

Unfeasible objectives are relatively rare. Most curricula -probably more than 99 percent – are aiming
at objectives that are known to have been achieved through other curricula, and are therefore
feasible in principle. In selecting objectives, designers tend to be unduly timid rather than the
reverse, maintaining somewhat low expectations of what can be accomplished. For this reason, of
the seven criteria this is the one least frequently violated.

e) Objectives should be functional

Objectives should be personally and socially functional. An objective is personally functional if its
attainment is likely to benefit the learner at once or in the future. It is socially functional if it benefits
people other than the learner.

f) Objectives should be significant

It is not hard to make a case for the functionality of almost any objective. Objectives must be selected
according to criteria of relative value. The criterion of significance requires that every objective
selected be of greater value than any alternative objective that could be, but is not being, pursued
in the curriculum.

g) Objectives should be appropriate

An objective may be functional and significant in principle and yet be inappropriate in a given
curriculum. Appropriateness is primarily significance for particular learners, which is affected by such
factors as the learner's background, interests, and the development level.

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4.5 Characteristics of Curriculum
The Characteristics of a Good Curriculum are as follows:

1. It should faster the growth of development of attitude and skills required for maintaining a
planned social order of democratic type. To put more concretely, it should contribute towards
democratic living.
2. It should not be narrowly conceived but dynamic and forward looking, sample adequately
both the scientific content and the abilities of the pupils to the developed, should cater to the
right use of leisure later on and should be related to the environment in which the children
live. Consequently, it will then become exiting, real and imaginative.
3. It is tested and improved through research.
4. It should aim at bringing about an intelligent and effective adjustment with the environment
itself. Further, it should enable pupils to acquire relevant scientific information of subsequent
use in the significant areas of human living.
5. It should be psychologically sound. It should take into account the theories of learning
relevant to science teaching. Further, children's capacities and capabilities, if taken into
account, will lead to the development of differentiated curriculum. Incorporating geographical
difference in it will be another innovation.
6. It should provided sufficient scope for the cultivation of skills, interest, attitudes and
appreciations.
7. It must be mostly based upon the first hand experiences of the pupils from all the significant
areas of human living. These experiences are characterized by newness, novelty, challenge,
stimulation and creativity. Science Content receives increasing emphasis as the children
move to the higher grades.

4.6 Curriculum and Syllabus

A curriculum is the set of courses, and their content, offered at a school or university. The term,
‘curriculum’ is derived from the Latin word "Currere" which means to run/to proceed. Currere refers
to the ‘course of deeds and experiences through which children grow to become mature adults.’
A curriculum as:

• The aggregate of courses of study given in a school, college, university, etc. The school is
adding more science courses to its curriculum.
• The regular or a particular course of study in a school, college, etc.
• A general curriculum, in the broadest sense of the word, may list all courses offered at a
specific school.

A curriculum is prescriptive, which means that is issued by the governing body and lists topics the
must be understood by the student at the end of the course, and what level to achieve a particular
grade or standard. It may also refer to a defined and prescribed course of studies students must
fulfill in order to complete the course. An individual teacher may refer to the curriculum to ensure
that her lessons are covering all the topics as required by the curriculum.

The various purposes served by a curriculum:

• May refer to all courses offered at a school

• May refer to a defined and prescribed course of studies

57
 • Lists course of studies which students must fulfill in order to pass a certain level of education
• May discuss how the sum of lessons and teachings will help students learn the basics

Syllabus
Essentially, a syllabus is a descriptive outline and summary of topics that are to be covered in an
education or training course. The syllabus will usually provide specific information about the said
training course and is often drafted by the governing body or by the instructor of the course.
Syllabi, on the other hand, are the plural form of a syllabus.
A syllabus is:

• An outline or other brief statement of the main points of a discourse, the subjects of a course
of lectures, the contents of a curriculum, etc.
• A short summary of the legal basis of a court's decision appearing at the beginning of a
reported case.
• A book containing summaries of the leading cases in a legal field, used especially by
students.
• A typical syllabus will contain information on how, where and when to contact the lecturer
and teaching assistants; an outline of what will be covered in the course; a schedule of test
dates and the due dates for assignments; the grading policy for the course; specific classroom
rules; etc.

Purpose of syllabus
The purpose of a syllabus is to ensure consistency between courses thought at different colleges
under the same governing body. A syllabus issued by the governing body, i.e. the board of
education, the head of department, etc, may be modified by the instructor as long as it is consistent
with the curriculum.

The syllabus also serves as a means for the students to be aware and understanding what they will
be thought in the duration of the course.

Difference between Syllabus and Curriculum

The main difference between a syllabus and a curriculum is that a curriculum is a more generalized
or an overview of the subjects or topics that the students are meant to learn. However, a syllabus is
a more detailed overview of the subject of study. For example: a math curriculum may list basics of
algebra, basics of geometry and basics of trigonometry. While, the class syllabus will list what topics
will be covered under each of the basic topics, what will be the concepts that students may
understand by the end of each topic, and it may even list what exercises or problems in the textbook
will be covered during class. Hence, it can be said that syllabus is a subset of curriculum.

Key Differences between Syllabus and Curriculum.

The basic differences between syllabus and curriculum are explained in the point given below:

• The syllabus is described as the summary of the topics covered or units to be taught in the
subject. Curriculum refers to the overall content, taught in an educational system or a course.
• Syllabus varies from teacher to teacher while the curriculum is same for all teachers.
• The term syllabus is a Greek origin, whereas the term curriculum is a Latin origin.

58
 • The curriculum has a wider scope than the syllabus.
• The syllabus is provided to the students by the teachers so that they can take an interest in
the subject. On the other hand, normally the curriculum is not made available to the students
unless specifically asked for.
• Syllabus is descriptive in nature, but the curriculum is prescriptive.
• Syllabus is set for a particular subject. Unlike curriculum, which covers a particular course of
study or a program.
• Syllabus is prepared by teachers. Conversely, a curriculum is decided by the government or
the school or college administration.
• The duration of a syllabus is for a year only, but curriculum lasts till the completion of the
course.

4.7 Principles of Curriculum Construction

The main principles of curriculum construction may be mentioned as under:

1. Principle of Child Centeredness: As modern education is child-centered the curriculum

should also be child-centered. It should be based on the child's needs, interests, abilities,
aptitude, age level and circumstances. The child should be central figure in any scheme of
curriculum construction. In fact, curriculum is meant to bring about the development of the
child in the desired direction so that he can adjust well in life.

2. Principle of Community Centeredness: Though the child's development and growth is the
main consideration of curriculum construction, yet his social behavior is also to be suitably
developed, both the individual development and the social development of the child deserve
equal attention. He is to live in and for the society.
Therefore, his needs and desires must be in conformity with the needs and desires of the
society in which he is to live. The values, attitudes and skills that are prevailing in the
community must be reflected in the curriculum. However, the society is not static. It is
dynamic. Its needs and requirements are changing with the rapid developments taking place
in all fields. While working for the development, this factor cannot be ignored.

3. Principle of Activity Centeredness: The curriculum should center around the multifarious
activities of pupils. It should provide well selected activities according to the general interests
and developmental stages of children. It should provide constructive, creative and project
activities. For small children, play activities should also be provided.
The purposeful activities both in the class-room and outside the class-room should be
provided. It is through a network of activities that the desired experiences can be provided
and consequently desirable behavioral changes can be brought about in children.

4. Principle of Variety: The curriculum should be broad-based so as to accommodate the

needs of varied categories of pupils, so that they are able to take up subjects and participate
in activities according their capacities and interests.
The needs of pupils also change from place to place. For example, the pupils in rural areas,
urban areas, and hilly areas will have different needs. The needs of boys and girls are also
different. So these considerations should be reflected in the curriculum.

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 5. Principle of Co-ordination and Integration: The pupils are to be provided with selected
experiences through various subjects and activities but these must be well integrated.
Various subjects and activities should serve the same ultimate purpose, the achievement of
the aims of education. The activities and subjects should not be put in after-tight
compartments but these should be inter-related and well-integrated so as to develop the
whole child.

6. Principles of Conservation: One of the main functions of education is to preserve and

transmit our cultural heritage. This is essential for human progress. Culture consists of
traditions, customs, attitudes, skills, conduct, values and knowledge. However, the curriculum
framers must make a suitable selection of the elements of culture, keeping n view their
educational value and the developmental stage of pupils.

7. Principle of Creativity: The conservation of culture helps to sustain the society. The culture
should not be simply transmitted but also enriched. There should be provision in the
curriculum to develop he creative powers of the child so that he becomes a contributory
member society. Raymont says, "In curriculum that is suited to the needs of today and of the
future, there must be definitely creative subjects."

8. Principle of Forward Looking: Education is to enable the child to lead a successful social
life. The curriculum should not cater to the present needs of the child alone. The needs of his
future life should also be considered. The curriculum should also include knowledge, skills,
experiences, influences etc. which will develop in the child abilities and power to make
effective adjustments in the later life.

9. Principle of Flexibility: In our age, rapid developments are taking place in various fields.
Consequently, the needs of society are hanging. The content of curriculum cannot be same
for all times to come. It should not be static. It must be dynamic and change with the changing
times. It should reflect the latest trends in the field of education and psychology.

10. Principle of Balance: The curriculum must maintain a balance between subjects and
activities, between direct and indirect experiences, between academic and vocational
education, between compulsory and optional subjects, between formal and informal
education, between individual and social aims of education etc.

11. Principle of Utility: Curriculum should be useful rather than ornamental. It should not only
include subjects which owe their place in it to tradition. The curriculum must have practical
utility for students. So there should be some provision for technical and vocational education
in the curriculum.
The various principles of curriculum construction should be kept in mind. Various regional and
national conditions should also be considered. It fact, all considerations which will help in
achieving the aims of education should be given due consideration.

4.8 Evaluation of the Curriculum

Curriculum evaluation is a necessary and important aspect of any national education system. It
provides the basis for curriculum policy decisions, for feedback on continuous curriculum
adjustments and processes of curriculum implementation.

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The fundamental concerns of curriculum evaluation relate to:

• Effectiveness and efficiency of translating government education policy into educational

practice.
• Status of curriculum contents and practices in the contexts of global, national and local
concerns.
• The achievement of the goals and aims of educational programs.

A fundamental measure of the success of any curriculum is the quality of student learning. Knowing
the extent to which students have achieved the outcomes specified in the curriculum is fundamental
to both improving teaching and evaluating the curriculum.

Evaluation
The term “evaluation” generally applies to the process of making a value judgment. In education,
the term “evaluation” is used in reference to operations associated with curricula, programs,
interventions, methods of teaching and organizational factors. Curriculum evaluation aims to
examine the impact of implemented curriculum on student (learning) achievement so that the official
curriculum can be revised if necessary and to review teaching and learning processes in the
classroom. Curriculum evaluation establishes:

• Specific strengths and weaknesses of a curriculum and its implementation

• Critical information for strategic changes and policy decisions
• Inputs needed for improved learning and teaching
• Indicators for monitoring

Curriculum evaluation may be an internal activity and process conducted by the various units within
the education system for their own respective purposes. These units may include national Ministries
of Education, regional education authorities, institutional supervision and reporting systems,
departments of education, schools and communities. Curriculum evaluation may also be external or
commissioned review processes. These may be undertaken regularly by special committees or task
forces on the curriculum, or they may be research-based studies on the state and effectiveness of
various aspects of the curriculum and its implementation. These processes might examine, for
example, the effectiveness of curriculum content, existing pedagogies and instructional approaches,
teacher training and textbooks and instructional materials.

4.9 Determination of Curriculum

In Pakistan Curriculum development encompass the following aspects:

• Curriculum objectives.
• Development of scheme of studies.
• Development of syllabus of each subject.
• Development of textbook, instructional material.
• Teacher training.
• Implementation

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1. Developing Objectives:
Objectives are derived from

• National Level Seminars

• Recommendation of the National Education Policy
• Research studies
• Inter Board Committee of Chairmen

2. The studies scheme is based on three key factors:

• The national education policy

• Market demand
• Global issues

3. Development of syllabus:
It is based on objectives and scheme of study. Subject specific syllabi is prepared in consultation
with: > Subject expert > Psychologist > Serving teacher

Syllabi must satisfy the following conditions:

• Based on the needs of learner.

• Content should be focused on attaining the objectives

4. Textbook Development > Establish a list of text book writers.

Provincial Text Book Boards (PTBB) are responsible for the development of the text-books
according to the approved syllabi.

How textbook is developed?

• Establish a list of text book writers.

• Invitations are sent to the writers to submit the material within the syllabus parameter.
• Selection is made on the basis of relevance of material.
• The selected material is transformed into a textbook.

5. Teacher Training:
Teacher training for curriculum implementation is the responsibility of the provincial government.

• It is now stressed that each textbook must have a teacher's guide.

• In some cases assistance in the training of the masters trainers is provided to provincial
government.
Federal Government took the responsibility to determine the curriculum text boards, policy,
planning and standards of education.

6. Implementation:
The curricula designed is printed and sent to universities/ institutions for its adoption/implementation
after the approval of the Authority.
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4.10 International Aspects of Curriculum Development
In narrow view of Curriculum there is content and examination. Wider view of curriculum includes
aims, learning methods and subject matter sequencing.

There is a sophisticated blend of:

• Educational Strategies
• Course content
• Learning outcomes
• Educational experiences
• Assessment
• Educational environment besides
• The individual students’ learning style
• Personal timetable and the program of work

In the time of information explosion, the curriculum planners must not only decide what should be
taught but also what can be eliminated from the curriculum, hence the need is to define minimum
essential knowledge and skills i.e. core knowledge and skills.

4.11 Some Aspects of Curriculum Development in Pakistan

The major issue of the Pakistan in 1947 was re-establishment of suitable education specimen.
Federal government has brought a lot of changes in planning, policies, suggestions and
reconstruction process of education. Some of these changes were accepted and some others were
rejected. Ministry of Education has been supervising the curriculum and the text books. This special
wing of Ministry of Education is called Curriculum Wing. There are bureaus and centers are following
the instruction of curriculum wing in accordance with the succeeding forms.

The present curriculum wing of Ministry of Education is the advance form of National Bureau of
Curriculum and Text Book. The purpose of this department is to evaluate and coordinate the work
of education in different provinces. It also works for the equal standard of curriculum in schools,
colleges and universities of all provinces.

The first function of curriculum wing is to help the government in construction and implementation
of National Policies regarding planning of curriculum development, education of teachers and its
evaluation. The next function of this wing is to give a hand in the activities of provincial bureau’s
center. It also arranges researches on various types of curriculum. This wing is also helpful for
guiding text books boards and authors in writing text books. This wing also keeps link with national
educational institutions as well as international NGOs such as UNESCO, IBE, UNICEF, ILO.

4.12 Mechanism for Curriculum Development in Pakistan

The curriculum wing of Ministry of Education exceeds a proposal to the provincial curriculum centers.
These centers are bound to revise the curriculum in accordance with criteria given by the curriculum
wing. Then subject committee including subject specialists are formed for the sake of consideration
and revision of curriculum. The newly prepared draft is sent to curriculum wing for approval. Then
curriculum of all subjects from all provincial centers is presented to national review committee. After
approving it, this committee put up their draft to Education Secretary for notification. The approved
curriculum is provided to text book boards for the publication of text books.
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4.13 Textbooks
According to the Collins English Dictionary (1998), “textbook” is a book used as a standard source
of information on a particular subject. . While answering the question, “What is a textbook? Hamilton
(1990) in “Paradigm - a Journal of the Textbook Colloquium” argues that a textbook may be any
book or a book substitute, including hard-covered or paperback books, workbooks designed to be
written in and used up, certain newspapers, news magazines and manuals which a student is
required to use as a text or a text-substitute in a particular class or programme as a primary source
of study material intended to implement a major part of the curriculum. What constitutes a school
text book is a debatable point of discussion in the literature. Questions have been raised such as
whether the material in school and local library are text books or reference books. Similarly it can
also be asked whether the novel that had been studied in different classes are text books or not.
Warren’s (1981) answered to such questions by providing the definition, “a text books is printed
instructional material in bound form, the contents of which are properly organized. (p.43).From the
above discussion we conclude that text book is the reflection of the decision taken by the curriculum
developers.

Textbooks in educational institutions have been the authority on the subject matter and essential
tools for the subjects, as well as guidance in the methods and procedures to be followed by the
teacher and the student. Textbook is the most commonly used instructional material because it is
the cheapest and the best source of graded instruction and practical exercises, a convenient source
of material for discussion and study and a helper for unskilled teacher in class management,
enabling him not to bother about duplicated exercises and dictated directions .

4.14 Criteria for the Selection of Books

a) Significance to an organized field of knowledge
The content in the subject matter should belong to the broad areas of knowledge for the purpose
providing broader basis of understanding of the world. Since the school curriculum should also deal
with the specialization as well as broad areas of knowledge, there should be general areas of
knowledge and core curriculum with specialized knowledge (Mamidi and Ravishankar, 1986).

Therefore, the curriculum should consist of a number of carefully selected principles, ideas and
concepts, which constitute the basic core of a subject matter.

b) Does the subject matter stand the test of survival?

The status of knowledge also needs to be considered while selecting the content. The information
which is tested and tried and which can be applied to the present day situation only should be
selected. According to Hilda Taba (1962) the knowledge should be valid and significant to the extent
that it reflects the contemporary scientific knowledge. The information should also stand the test of
survival. Such useful information should be identified and included in the curriculum.

c) Utility of the subject content

The content of the curriculum has often become the target of severe criticism by one and all in the
society. It is mostly criticized for the heavy load of information which has no relevance to the pupils,
for deadwood of information which has no utility, which is full of facts, dry and arid, the learning of

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which encourages rote memorization or cramming, without leaving any scope for intelligent
reasoning.

d) Interest and ability

One should also consider factors like interest, aptitudes and abilities of pupils while selecting the
content. Unless the content is interesting to the pupils, there will not be any learning at all. Interest
depends upon the aptitudes and grasping capacity of the pupils. It is again a matter of age and
intelligence of the pupils. The theories of learning and intelligence in educational psychology throw
much light on the factors that develop interest among the pupils. Selection of content suitable to the
understanding capacity of the pupils will result in efficient learning.

e) Growth and development of a democratic society

This concept also includes social development and assumes that the social change, which is taking
place very rapidly, should be controlled and directed towards desirable directions. A careful selection
of the content that can build knowledge and abilities is required to deal intelligently with the problems
associated with social change. This includes controlling the development of fissiparous tendencies
among the pupils and other antisocial behavior that creates chaos and confusion in the society, and
development of social values among pupils.

Review the Approval Textbooks review parameters

National review committee comprises on five or six members:

• At least one expert form the syllabus Formulation Committee.

• Two subject experts.
• Two school teachers

Textbooks review parameters

• The books truly reflect the curriculum.

• It meets the objectives stated in the curriculum.
• Book does not contain any material against Islamic and Pakistani ideology.
• In case of approval, textbook is sent for publishing and distribution.
• In case of objection, complaints are relayed with revision recommendations.

Summary
Curriculum and Syllabus are the terms of education, imparted to the students by teachers. It means
the knowledge, skills or qualifications that are passed on from one generation to another. A subject
syllabus is a unit of the curriculum. The two terms differ in a sense that curriculum is a combination
of some factors which helps in the planning of an educational program, whereas a syllabus covers
the portion of what topics should be taught in a particular subject.

The process of curriculum construction is a cooperative effort. In this national agencies, regional
and local level agencies, principals and the teachers as well as community members are involved.

Curriculum evaluation may also be external or commissioned review processes. These may be
undertaken regularly by special committees or task forces on the curriculum, or they may be

65
research-based studies on the state and effectiveness of various aspects of the curriculum and its
implementation. These processes might examine, for example, the effectiveness of curriculum
content, existing pedagogies and instructional approaches, teacher training and textbooks and
instructional materials.

There are several obstacles affecting the quality and effectiveness of curriculum development
process in Pakistan.

o Lack of subject area expert.

o Textbook often do not reflect the curriculum
o Lack of follow-up of actual curriculum implementation
o Curriculum often different from the official curriculum documentation

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Unit–5
Evaluation At Secondary Level

5.1 Evaluation ........................................................................................................ 68

5.2 Internal/external Examination ........................................................................... 59

5.3 Textbooks ......................................................................................................... 71

5.4 Evaluative Process in the Evaluation System .................................................. 73

5.5 Examination Reforms Test Developments and Research ................................ 74

5.6 Examination Promotion and Certification ........................................................ 75

5.7 Weaknesses ....................................................................................................... 76

5.8 Shortcomings .................................................................................................... 77

5.1 Evaluation
Evaluation is one of broad and important process. Commonly it is associated with the word “test”
which refer our attention towards marks, grades and teacher ratings. However, tests provide basis
for evaluation but this limited approach focus our attention only on products and ends of
education. Evaluation is a broad term which analyze the performance of educational process in
the light of designed educational objectives.

5.1.1 Meaning of Evaluation

Evaluation is the determination of worth and value of something. It is an appraisal of the outcome
of student learning in all of their ramifications which is accomplished through testing, measurement
and assessing pupils’ achievement. The role of evaluation in schools is to judge the merits of all
the administrative and managerial arrangements and practices and the structures within which the
educational institution itself operates.

5.1.2 Definitions of Evaluation

According to L.R. Gay (1985): Evaluation is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing
data in order to determine whether and to what degree, objectives have been or are being
achieved.

According to William Wiersrna and Stephen G. Jurs (1990): Evaluation is a process that includes
measurement and possibly testing but it also contains the notion of a value judgment. If a teacher
administers a test to a class and computes the percentage of correct responses, it is said that
measurement and testing taken place. The score must be interpreted which may mean converting
them to values and so on or judgment them to be excellent, good fair or poor. This process is called
Evaluation in which value judgments are being made.

According to Norman E Gronlund (1990): Evaluation is a systematic process of collecting, analyzing

and interpreting information to determine the extent to which pupils are achieving instructional
objectives.

In short, evaluation is considered to be the process by which is determined the degree and quality
of achievement appraised in terms of purpose and within the system of existing conditions in order
to make better and effective decisions.

5.1.3 Importance of Evaluation

• Evaluation can be effective for determining the academic progress of students.

• It can motivate the students in terms of moving ahead to gain better grades.
• It can br helpful for classification of students.
• It can make content organization and development easy.
• It can be helpful to make decisions about students promotion to the next class.
• Evaluation can determent the selection of right candidate for jobs.
• Evaluation can take part in research processes for making future educational decisions
regarding educational process.

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5.2 Examination
The term “examination” is derived from the term “examen” which means the tongue of a balance,
and it is ordinarily used to denote a systematic test of knowledge or skill, which is carried out
under the authority of some public body or conducted by the teacher themselves (Wilbrink, 1997).
It measures the students’ capabilities against a required standard and determines his skill of
answering the questions under the conditions imposed upon him by the examiner. Examinations
tend to check whether the prescribed objectives are obtained or not. Whether the students has
grasp full command over the contents of education or not, whether the selected method of
teaching is fully worked or not. Thus the examination system remained an integral part of our
teaching learning process.

5.2.1 Internal and External Examination

At present different examination systems are used in our country to test the mental ability of the
students, to evaluate the work of students and to promote the students in next grades. But three
systems of examinations are commonly used in our country i.e. internal system of examination,
external system of examination and combination of internal and external system of examination.
The examination which is conducted by the educational institutions themselves or examination
which is conducted by the teachers themselves, in order to assess the progress and achievements
of their students at different stages in their course is called internal examination. The examination
which is conducted by the external agencies or the examination which is conducted by outside
authority, having no direct relation with teaching of the examinee, sets questions and evaluates
the answers is called external examination.

5.2.2 Historical background of the examination system in Pakistan

Pakistan is governed under the Islamic, Democratic, Federal Constitution of 1973 and the
governance extends to four autonomous provinces: Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pukhtunkhwah and
Baluchistan. Education in Pakistan is essentially a provincial affair; however, certain educational
functions are the responsibility of the Federation via the Federal Ministry of Education.
Examinations in Pakistan are a legacy of the past, inherited from the British system. Following the
model of the University of London, an external final examination, called matriculation was
instituted at the end of the high school stage in the 1880s (Shirazi, 2004). It was initially
administered by the London University. After the establishment of universities in Bombay, Calcutta
and Madras in the 1857 the matriculation examination was conducted by these universities. Major
features of management and conduct of examinations replicated the University of London
examination. Matriculation became a gateway to government service and an entrance to higher
education with the promise of a lucrative job throughout life. Another factor which consolidated the
hold of external examinations was the system of financial grants-in-aid which was first adopted for
the institutions of primary, secondary and higher education, based on the principle of „payment by
results‟ the amount of grant to be given to an institution depended upon its results in external
examinations.
The Indian Education Commission (1882) observed that „the system makes examinations the
main object of the thought of pupils and teachers alike‟. Thus the examination came to dominate
the curriculum and teaching process. It became the main objective of the primary cum secondary
school education (GoP, 1971). The Hartog Committee (1929) exposed the myth of the middle
(Grade VII) certificate and matriculation then set a standard of achievement. It rather served both
an immediate qualification for service and as a gate to further education. The Committee further

69
observed that the lure of government service through matriculation was still potent. However
various curriculum reforms in the preindependence period failed to dislodge the hold of the
external examination. It still holds sway in full force in all the regional Boards of Intermediate and
Secondary Education (BISE) and in universities. Since a degree or certificate was a key to a job
and further education, the pressure to get a degree somehow or the other intensified. The
inadequacies of the pedagogy, lack of proper teachers, poor infrastructure all culminated in
encouraging unfair means for getting the certificate/degree (Nurullah and Naik, 1951).

Post-independence (after 1947)

The function of the external examination and assessment did not change with independence and
subsequent developments over the years have strengthened the hold of examinations and
assessments in the education system of the country. Immediately after independence, the vacuum
created by the departure of Hindus and the need for manning the increasing number of
administrative posts further reinforced the position of internal and external examinations and the
degree or certificate became the most sought-after document. In 1947 there was no Board of
Intermediate and Secondary Education in the country. Later on in 1950 Karachi BISE was
established and in 1954 the Lahore BISE (Shirazi, 2004). By the late sixties, ten BISEs were
conducting their examination assessments without trained personnel and other facilities (Shirazi,
2004). The Sharif Commission (1959) introduced the internal examination and assessment system
in schools but it did not impact positively on students‟ performance due to inadequate teachers‟
training in examination and assessment.

The performance of the education system can be measured by its examination results. Our public
examination results indicate that out of 100 students entering in year only 50% pass in the secondary
examination. Out of this 40% pass the higher secondary examination, out of this exceptional group
of survivors, only 5% manage to enter higher education, thus leaving behind 95% (GoP, 2007)
According to the Ministry of Education during the years 19982008 only 70% of school-going children
enrolled in primary schools (male 85%/female 57%), 46% in middle schools (male 56%/female
35%). These figures show that less than half of the students in primary schools are retained up to
middle and secondary level. Again a number of factors were involved such as a deficient teaching
and learning process, the medium of instruction, transition from school to college level, and a poor
examination and assessment system are blamed for this wastage (Khan, 2011). Examinations in
Pakistan involve high stakes because they open a gate to move to the next grade, profession and
other permanent work. Success in examinations gets glorified while failure is a stigma for life. All
doors of opportunity are closed to failed candidates and they become social Pariahs. Since passing
examinations is a goal of the Pakistani education system rather than assessing knowledge, all
instruction in the schools is geared to that objective (Erfan, 2000). The system is therefore riddled
with malpractices which, among others, include; leakage of question papers, impersonation (stand-
in candidates), external assistance, smuggling the unauthorized material, copying from a nearby
candidate, intimidation, collusion, ghost centers, substitution of scripts and irregularities of
supervisory staff by allotting more time to some students. In the context of widespread malpractices,
it is not surprising that a review of 29 separate government and nongovernmental reports and policy
papers in Pakistan concluded that the public examination and assessment system „had become
devoid of validity, reliability and credibility‟ (Erfan, 2000).

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5.3 Textbooks
5.3.1 What is a textbook?
Text is designed to teach students what the educators believe ought to exists in other words,
textbooks “tell children what their elders want them to know” (Kalmus, 2004) and these books are
the visible, tangible and practical manifestation of the curriculum (Husain & Mahmud, 2002).
According to The Collins English Dictionary (1998), “textbook” is a book used as a standard
source of information on a particular subject.
There is also some debate in literature over what constitutes a school textbook. Questions have
been raised about whether textual materials held in school and local libraries are textbooks or
reference books. Similarly it can be asked whether novels studied in classrooms are textbooks or
not. Warren's (1981) answer to such questions provided the following definition. “A textbook is
printed instructional material in bound form, the contents of which are properly organized and
intended for use in elementary or high school curricula.” (p. 43) Apart from the obvious statement
about textbooks’ bound form, this definition emphasizes that it is the planned use which
determines whether a book is a textbook or not. If we accept Warren's definition, any book which
is specifically written for use in classroom instruction can be considered a school textbook.
Likewise, if a book is used in the teaching and learning process it can be considered a textbook
while it is being used in that way. As a result novels, anthologies of poems, collections of plays
and short stories, as well as reference books can be classified as textbooks depending upon the
situation and purpose for which they are being used.

5.3.2 Why textbooks?

Being the base material used in teaching and learning process, textbooks play an important role in
improving education. All-Wright (1999) views textbooks as “resource books for ideas and activities”
rather than as “instructional material” (p.25). This perspective is supported by Cunningsworht (1984)
as he believes that “published material provides the initial framework, which must be adapted by
each individual teacher to match the needs of their students” (p. 65).

The textbooks have an enormous influence on what is taught in primary, elementary and secondary
classes and how it is taught. These are the backbone of classroom instruction, especially at the
primary level in developing countries including Pakistan. Research shows that a majority of teachers
use textbooks as their principal curriculum guide and source of lessons (St. John, 2001). New and
in-experienced teachers, or those who lack adequate time for lesson planning, may actually teach
from the first page of the textbook to the last, skipping little or nothing (Tyson, 1997). Sheldon (1988)
believes that textbooks are heavily utilized. He identified three main reasons for it: firstly, developing
their own classroom materials is an extremely difficult and arduous process for teachers; secondly,
teachers have limited time in which to develop new materials is just not possible due to the nature
of their profession; and thirdly, external pressure restricts many teachers. “An approved textbook
may easily become the curriculum in the classroom” (Lime, 1991, website). Skier so (1991)
concedes that “most of teachers tend to follow the text’s sequence, methodology, pacing and
vocabulary to the letter” (p.432). This extremeness in the utilization of textbooks expected a lot from
the materials utilized in them especially with respect to comprehension in terms of content and
pedagogy; gradually ascending vocabulary; ambiguity free sentence structures; relevant, attractive
and self explanatory illustration; nature and pleasant design; horizontal and vertical coordination etc.
(Husain & Mahmud, 2002).

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5.3.3 Examination assessments.
Examination assessments are based on textbooks and they try to test the knowledge part of the
curriculum and to provide evidence of its success or failure. Although the national curriculum has
to be followed throughout the country, the language of instruction varies from province to province
and so do the textbooks, which have been produced in keeping with the geographical location and
local environments of these provinces. Keeping in mind the curriculum, the government generally
prescribes textbooks for each class according to its demographic context. In practice, however,
there is little uniformity in the use of these books, especially in primary schools (Khan, 2011).
The secondary schools‟ curriculum puts the focus on three subject areas, a) science, having
seven compulsory subjects and one elective subject from a total of 39 elective subjects, b)
humanities, containing six compulsory subjects and two elective subjects from a list of 46 subjects,
c) technical, comprising six compulsory subjects and two elective subjects from the list of 37
elective subjects. This plethora of options creates problems for students in selecting a relevant
and interesting curriculum2. UNESCO (2004) found that the curriculum in Pakistan is gender-
biased and residentially biased and has more representation from males and urban residents.
Additionally, students in Pakistan find the curriculum boring. It has been recognized that the
curriculum in Pakistan does not presently cater for the diverse conditions in the education sector
itself (multi-grade groups), as well as the variations within the geographical breadth of the country
(GoP, 2009).

Historical Background
When Pakistan came into being, the use of multi-textbooks was a very common practice in the
country. However, this practice was stopped after the establishment of Textbook Boards in the
government sector. The quality and effectiveness of textbooks requires a healthy competition in
their development. In the mid 80s keeping in view the positive effects of using multiple textbooks
around the Globe, the use of multi-textbooks in Pakistan was also allowed (Govt. of Pakistan 1992
& 1998) in all schools both government and private. Under this policy decision the Ministry of
Education, Curriculum Wing (MoECW) Government of Pakistan has been approving various
textbook series for classes 1 to 5 developed by private publishers along with the Textbook Boards
during 2001-2004.

Textbook development and their approval in Pakistan

A centralized curriculum is being followed in Pakistan. The MoECW, in consultation with the
provinces, develops curriculum for each grade and subject up to grade 12. This curriculum is
called National Curriculum and follows throughout the country. Whosoever wants to develop
textbooks for government and private schools affiliated with public examination bodies of Pakistan
has to follow the National Curriculum. As mentioned earlier, responsibility of the textbook
development in Pakistan remained with the Textbook boards until recent past. These days’ private
publishers are also developing textbooks inspired by the provision given under the recent National
Educational policies. The Textbook Boards and the private publishers develop textbooks following
the guidelines given in the intact National Curriculum. Some of the guidelines are specifically for
publishers. For example MoECW guides:
“For creating interest among the students, the textual materials should be presented through
attractive and proper diagrams/ maps/illustrations. Font size and setting of the textual materials
should properly be checked. It should be with respect to the age level of the students. The

72
arrangement of pages, exercises and model test items at the end of each chapter should be
correct.” (Govt. of Pakistan, 2002, p-16)
Both the Textbook Boards and the private publishers have to follow the guidelines given in the
National Curriculum but they have their own procedure for textbook development. They develop
textbooks and present these books to MoECW for their review and approval. The MoECW constitute
a National Curriculum Review Committee (NCRC) for this purpose. Each time on a presentation of
a series of textbooks (or a book) a new NCRC is constituted. The textbook development and
approval procedures are given in following figures 1 & 2 for Textbook Boards and private publishers
respectively.

5.4 Evaluative Process in the Evaluation System

The examination and assessment system in Pakistan The concept of examination is as assessment
of ability, achievement or present performance in a subject. Instruments of assessment can log in
to easy or mixed form of assessment, may be used for qualifying for entrance to professions and
higher education (Page and Thomas (1978:17) Since the time of Pakistan’s independence, seven
different education policies have been implemented in the country. The main thrust of all these
policies was to promote quality education and the improvement of pedagogy. Yet, the improvement
in these areas has not been achieved and is quite unsatisfactory (Rizvi, 2000). In Pakistan,
assessments do not judge real competence or genuine educational accomplishment of the students.
Instead, the Pakistani educational system encourages those who can best reproduce what they
have learnt during lessons and fails those who are unable to do that. It seems as if the whole system
of education revolves around examinations. Such types of assessment and evaluation are narrow
in scope (Khan, 2006).

5.4.1 Process of evaluation

The process of evaluation consists of nine steps. The figure below elaborates the process and its
steps.

Figure 5.1. Process of evaluation

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5.5 Examination Reforms Test Developments and Research
Quality of education, especially at school level, has become a serious concern in the era of
globalization. Owing to lack of human and material resources and their underutilization, ill-planning,
lack of proper implementation and weak monitoring has resulted in low quality of education in the
developing countries like Pakistan. Coupled with these factors, problems exist with the basic
elements of educational process objectives, curriculum, teaching methodology, and assessment
and evaluation. Perhaps assessment and evaluation lies at the central position in the sense that it
is closely linked with measuring the quality of learning outcomes and providing feedback to the main
actors in the educational process students and teachers. Improvement in the system of education
particularly the curriculum and the instructional strategies is made in the light of feedback provided
by the assessment. Although assessment may not be a panacea for all ills, it can definitely be used
to improve the quality of education by conducting it effectively and providing feedback to the
stakeholders in timely manner. In principle, the process of assessment is subservient to the overall
system of education and is carried out at the end of the cycle comprising delineation of objectives,
selection of the content, learning experiences provided to the students. However, in actuality, the
assessment system has completely taken over the education process and is controlling all other
activities of the educational process. Hence, instead of assessing what we teach, we teach what we
have processed?
This is the whole crux of the problem. Currently eight BISEs are working in Punjab one each at
Divisional/Regional level; another BISE is on the way of its establishment in Sahiwal. There is no
denying the fact that some reforms have been carried out at BISEs level in Punjab for the last few
years.For example, the weighting of purely essay or subjective-type question have been reduced
and a balance between objective and subjective type questions has been provided. Consequently,
MCQs (30pc), short answer (40pc), and essay-type items (30pc) are included in the examination
papers administered by all boards in the Punjab in various subjects at secondary school and higher
secondary school examination. But still there is a need for further improvement. The problems and
issues arise at the stage of construction of paper and its marking. During the construction of various
tests, the emphasis is still on the lower cognitive levels - knowledge and comprehension. The higher
cognitive skills such as problem solving and analytical skills are rarely touched. More than 50 per
cent of the questions assess students recall or mere rote memorization, which is one of the main
reasons for the poor quality of education and its ultimate product. Many times students who attain
very good or excellent grades in BISE at secondary or higher secondary level cannot apply the
knowledge and skills attained in the classroom to the real life situations. This system of examination
cannot truly assess the learning outcomes envisaged in the national curriculum. The situation is
almost similar at secondary and higher secondary levels and across all disciplines. In order to
improve the construction of question papers, a training was provided to paper setters and
coordinators of different subjects in two different batches for secondary and higher secondary
examiners. During training session, one was amazed to observe learn that the paper setters and
coordinators demonstrated a lot of resistance and they were not ready to accept new ideas and
rules and procedures for construction of quality papers. They relied upon their intuitive knowledge
regarding the quality of the items particularly the MCQs. In view of the above-mentioned
unsatisfactory situation and in the context of examining students learning outcomes in line with the
National Curriculum, there is a need to bring more reforms to ensure the quality of question papers
and marking mechanisms. Following recommendations may be instrumental in bringing positive
change in this regard: BISEs need to tag the internal or continuous assessment of the students

74
made by their teachers at school/college level with their achievement in terminal examination
conducted by the BISEs at HSC and HSSC levels.

The Government should establish a body for test development and reporting which should be
responsible for the continuous training of coordinators, paper setters and examiners in test item
development and analysis, and develop guidelines for evaluation of answer sheets by the
evaluators/examiners.

Teachers having required expertise in subject matter, assessment skills, especially test
development and analysis of results should be appointed in that body through a high powered
Selection Committee. The occasional training workshops for the paper setters will not serve the
purpose of enhancing quality of papers; training should be an ongoing activity of the BISEs.

The construction of good papers revolves command over the subject matter, knowledge of the rules
and principles for test construction and the skillful application of all these rules. The above mentioned
body should involve the experts in the field of assessment and psychometrics to provide ongoing
training to the paper setters as well as analysis of results for providing feedback to the individuals
as well as schools in order to improve their future performance. There is a provision of a Research
cell in each BISE, which has either not been established or has failed to achieve the desired
objectives of conducting research and providing insight to BISEs for improvement of assessment
system. The new proposed body should acquire this role.

It should also organize training workshops for coordinators, paper setters and examiners in different
subjects at secondary and higher secondary levels. The existing weighting given to MCQs, short
answer and essay-type is good but the need of the hour is to include more questions which can
assess student’s higher cognitive abilities. Context dependent question should be set on the pattern
of O and A Levels. Unnecessarily lengthy questions should be avoided; instead emphasis should
be on assessing problem solving, analytical and reasoning abilities. Writer is Dean, Faculty of
Education, University of the Punjab, Lahore and Member, Working Group, Examination Reforms in
Punjab Boards.

Reform attempts are discussed under eight categories: syllabus review and revision; increased
frequency of public examinations; introduction of internal assessment; development of question
banks; changeover to a grading system; seme sterisation; improving the efficiency of the public
examination bureaucracy, and, creation of autonomous colleges. Most of the impetus for reforming
the examination system came from the availability of Western experts at very little cost to India and
admiration for American and British practices among Indian higher education authorities. The failure
of most of the reforms provides salutary lessons regarding educational borrowing for reform.

5.6 Examination Promotion and Certification

Public examinations are conducted in many countries of the world and have been considered to
play a significant role in determining what goes on in the classroom in terms of ‘what’ and ‘how’
teachers teach and students learn, and can have an impact on both teaching and learning.
In Pakistan the first public examinations are held at class IX and X levels which are called Secondary
School Certificate Exams (SSCE) and then at grade XI and XII called Higher Secondary School
Certificate Exams (HSCE). Boards of Intermediate and Secondary Education conduct these
examinations. Students of public, most private, NGOs and community based schools sit for these
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exams. There also exist a different system of public examination at parallel grade levels run by
Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) and Edexcel International London Examinations for O’
Level (Ordinary level) and A’ Level (Advanced level). Some private elite schools follow this system
only. Yet other private schools go for both the systems and select ‘bright’ students whose parents
can afford to pay for Cambridge system, whereas, others are asked to go for Metric system. Both
systems are poles apart in terms of syllabi, choices of subjects from any discipline, conduct of
exams, style and type of papers, reliability and credibility (Naqvi, 2002).
The purpose of public examinations conducted by these Boards is clearly that of promotion,
selection and certification and indicates the extent to which learners have covered a prescribed
syllabus. For stakeholders at schools it is to pass them with good grades and to bring good name
to school. For some schools, teachers and students, passing examination with highest positions
become a question of prestige and yet some other may want to get through them by any means.
Implicit are accountability purposes on part of school administration especially in non public schools
and teachers are rewarded or otherwise depending on the level of achievements. One cannot agree
more with Gipps (1996) who points out, ‘Assessment carried out for these purposes is likely to be
more superficial and needs to be more ‘objective’ or reliable …’ (p.251). These exams are sole
determinants of students’ future career in pursuing further or higher education or getting into the job
market.

5.7 Weaknesses
the crucial role in determining the impact of pedagogy, public examinations and assessment in
Pakistan have more demerits than merits (Rehmani, 2003). Moreover, modern assessment
techniques are not being used to measure students‟ achievements and hence dependency on
traditional learning processes yields a low quality of education in the country (Christie and Khushk,
2004).
Examination questions are repeated at least every three to five years and hence questions can be
predicted. There are „model papers‟, or „guess paper guides‟ available in the market with
readymade answers based on the question papers of the previous five years. Teachers and
students tend to rely on such guides and students commit their content to memory. Assessment
questions in the papers contain only a combination of objective and subjective types of questions.
Regurgitation seems to be the only key for students to pass the examinations rather than creative
thinking and independent analyses. The irony is that those students who can reproduce better score
higher marks.

Assessment in Schools in Pakistan

According to Murray Print (1989)
“Assessment involves the interpretation of measurement data. It makes sense of the data collected
on student performance”

The examination and assessment system in schools in Pakistan that is applicable from primary
through to secondary education (Year X). It begins with a brief background of the Pakistani
examination system established by its colonial masters; it then describes the present education
system with special reference to the assessment process of students. An overview of the curriculum
development and curriculum reforms in the country expands our understanding of the moribund
assessment system in state schools the assessment system in primary and secondary education
and to assess the present rectification measures being put in place by the education authorities.
76
5.8 Shortcomings
The assessment system in Pakistan is defective due to the following: (a).No single body is
responsible for assessment at secondary level, and examinations at this level are the responsibility
of many Boards. This results in a lack of coordination among the working of these Boards. (b) Papers
of different subjects can be scheduled to be written at the same time. (c) Results are not reliable
because students use deceitful and indulge in malpractices in the examination. (d) Deficiencies in
marking takes place.
There has been an increase in the incidence of the recurrence of questions and selected material
is tested again and again in our pubic examinations. This leads toward selective studies because
the understanding of a little content helps the students to get good marks in the final examination
and nobody seems to take this fact seriously. Assessments in examinations mainly focus on easy,
straight and very simple questions and they ignore high levels of cognition involved in such items
as comprehension, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. In this situation, students keep focusing on
retention and rote memorization as examination tactics.

Research in testing highlights the decline in the examination system, its ineffectiveness, and
unreliability in diagnosing students‟ weaknesses and in assessing their abilities.

Testing is not viewed as a vital component of teaching and is considered quite distinct from teaching
and learning as well as practice.

Reliability and validity of examination papers in terms of coverage of curriculum, selection of paper
setters, and lack of training or otherwise of the paper setters and examiners, marking system and
preparation of results, are considered dubious.

The questions after each lesson of the textbook are based on literal levels that measure only low
order thinking skills he centralized marking at Matriculation and Intermediate levels is also replete
with faults. The education boards in their pursuit of preparing result in a short span with cheap labour
do not put a limit on maximum number of papers to be checked per day. And examiners mark
maximum number of papers in order to make money. This practice has opened flood gates of
reckless marking which certainly affects the quality of evaluation.

Some of the suggestions in this regard are as follows:

Some sort of internal evaluation system should be evolved instead of annual exams. Class room
lectures should be supplemented by student-centred activities such as presentations, group
discussions, simulations and role playing. A complete record of student’s activities and aptitude
should be kept to judge his sustained intellectual development. The system of prescribing text books
should be revised in such a manner that students are obliged to read more than mere text books.

To sum up examination can be the index of ability if they are conducted in the words of Burke on
the principles of ‘restraint and discipline’. As far as so long the present system of education
continues, the present system of examination is inevitable. Any change in one involves the change
in other. This is the real point. So the change should come from the top. The exams will always
horrify the students but if conducted in a right manner they can produce a talented generation of
such people who could lift their heads with pride that they are no cheats and know what their degrees
symbolize.

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Unit–6
Secondary Education In Comparative Perspective
6.1 Why Comparative Education? .......................................................................... 79

6.2 Purpose of Studying Secondary Education in Comparative Perspective .......... 79

6.3 Secondary Education in UK .............................................................................. 80

6.4 Secondary Education in USA ............................................................................ 82

6.5 The formal System of Education in Japan ........................................................ 84

6.6 The formal System of Education in Germany ................................................... 86

6.7 Secondary Educating System in Indonesia ....................................................... 88

6.8 Secondary Educating System in Malaysia ........................................................ 89

6.9 The formal System of Education in People’s Republic of China ...................... 90

6.10 The Formal System of Education in Sri-Lanka ................................................ 92

6.1 Comparative Education
Comparative education has been defined in different ways by various authors but what is common
in the definitions is the emphasis on the use of data from another educational system. Getao (1996)
defined Comparative Education as a discipline, the study of educational systems in which one seeks
to understand the similarities and differences among educational systems. Noah and Eckstein
(1969) defined comparative education as follows: Comparative Education is potentially more than a
collection of data and perspectives from social science applied to education in different countries.
Neither the topic of education nor the cross-national dimension is central to any of the social
sciences; nor are the social science concerns and the cross-national dimension central to the works
of educators. The field of comparative education is best defined as an intersection of the social
sciences, education and cross-national study.

6.2 Purpose of Studying Secondary Education in Comparative Perspective

There are various reasons that justify the purpose of studying secondary education in comparative
prospective especially for students of education teachers in the making (or to-be), practicing
teachers, policy makers, education planners and managers and all interested parties. Some of the
reasons include;
• Enhance one's own understanding:
To enable us understand our own education systems in a better way by knowing its routes and how
it has been influenced by others to be what it is today.

• To generalized educational concepts:

To enable us make general statements about how education develops and test how universally
applicable existing theories in education are.

• To know other people:

Through comparative education one develops a reservoir of knowledge which satisfies one
intellectual curiosity besides enhancing ones intellectual enlighten. Thus, it broadens our thinking
when dealing with educational issues and problems thus, think globally and act locally.

• To improve education at home:

By studying other people’s systems of education, we get to develop a better perspective of our own
education system. We compare education systems to discover which reforms are desirable and
possible and how best to implement them and what successes to borrow and what failures to avoid.

• To make people practical:

We compare education systems to get exposure to knowledge in other disciplines in humanities and
social sciences that also study human affairs to enable us have a holistic picture of education.
Education in this regard is a consumer good. It therefore must have practical utility for example,
ability to read and write. The task of making education practical is the duty of the government and
the educationist.

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 • Contribute to International understanding and goodwill:
By comparing the education systems fosters international understating, peace and co-operation
among nations of the world. By discovering and appreciating what exists elsewhere it replaces
national pride and prejudice with the objectivity of judgment that facilitates international harmony.

• Humanitarian reasons:
The contemporary world is characterized by a big quest for knowledge, peace, equality and better
life. The concern is how education can provide these qualities. In many countries, the question of
peace and equality are key issues in education. The discipline therefore satisfies our natural desire
to learn more about the origins and development of such contemporary and educational issues in
various countries including ours.

• Problem solving:
All countries face educational problems that require solutions. By comparing education systems its
helpful us to understand differences and similarities between our own education system and others.
In this regard one can appreciate the fact that countries develop educational systems to serve their
own national objectives, interests, values and aspirations, based on their unique contexts and hence
solve problems facing them.

• International standards:
To achieve international standards in education, comparatively education makes us aware of the
international trends in education and guides countries on how to give their people or citizens a
universally conscious and relevant education that fits in the global village today.

• To expose people to innovations:

Today people are using various media to conduct education activities by use of televisions,
teleconferencing, radio, e-learning and internet. By studying other system, one learns how to use
such media and their benefits and this helps to bring the necessary reforms in one's own education
system.

6.3 Secondary Education in UK

I) Education System

Compulsory Education: Secondary Schools

Secondary education lasts for another five to seven years. Students who are between 12 and 16
years old are legally required to attend a secondary school in the UK. This stage of compulsory
education is called “lower secondary”.

Upon completing lower secondary, students should be ready to start a job and take up vocational
training, in or outside of the workplace. Or they go on to “upper secondary” or “sixth form”, where
16-year-old to 18-year-old teens prepare for university.
On the Road to University: A-Level Exams
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Most British students will probably opt for the A-level degree rather than the Diploma. A-level exams
are the main admission requirement for an undergraduate degree at universities in the UK.

Students prepare for their A-levels during year 12 and 13 in school, the upper secondary stage. For
historical reasons, these last two years of education are still called “sixth form”, or “lower sixth” and
“upper sixth”, in many places.

In year 12, most students study four subjects of their choice: One of them is completed at the end
of that year as an AS level and dropped afterwards. The other three subjects lead up to three full A-
levels after year 13. However, some students may choose to complete four A-levels, despite the
extra workload.

Assessment for grading a student’s A-levels is based on coursework, written exams, and – in some
cases, e.g. art – their practical skills. The selection and number of A-level courses may already
influence a student’s success in applying for university. But no matter how impressed the admission
office is with a candidate’s academic skills, he or she will only get a “conditional offer” for a place in
a degree course.

Nationwide A-level results are normally published in August. Then students know if they can indeed
attend their university of choice. If they don’t get the necessary grades, they may be forced to give
up their place at university and select a different course.

II) Curriculum

Comprehensive, Grammar and Specialist Schools

In theory, all state secondary schools should be comprehensive. Their students should therefore be
a representative cross section of the UK’s young population, with a wide range of abilities. In reality,
the competitiveness of the former system, with traditional “grammar schools” for selected children,
lives on in quite a few areas.

The historical name of many “grammar schools” implies that their idea of secondary education used
to feature a heavy emphasis on Latin and Ancient Greek, with all the grammar lessons these
languages entailed. Today, secondary schools that are still called grammar schools don’t
necessarily teach Latin anymore. However, they often have more rigorous admission standards and
selection criteria than many comprehensive schools.

Grammar school or no, the curriculum for any secondary school includes all subjects taught in
primary education. Students also must learn at least one foreign language, take citizenship classes,
and attend personal, social and health education.

Moreover, lots of state schools are “specialist schools”. They focus on one or two areas of the
curriculum. So, if your kids are gifted in math and science, or if they have a special talent for music,
it makes sense to choose their secondary school accordingly. Until 2010, specialist schools received
an official designation from the UK government, as well as extra funding to go with their new status.
Though this program was phased out several years ago, plenty of secondary schools still focus on
selected areas and continue to build upon their previous reputation.

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One note, though: Specialist schools are not to be confused with “special schools”. The latter provide
special needs education for children with learning difficulties and other disabilities. If you think that
your child requires special needs education, please contact the Independent Parent Special
Education Advice Center to make the necessary arrangements.

Basic Qualifications: GCSEs and Diplomas

After three years in secondary school, kids are officially assessed by their teachers. Students then
need to choose their subjects for the nationwide GCSE exams. GCSEs are mandatory examinations
at the end of year 11, i.e. the students’ fifth year in secondary school.

Students usually have to take tests in English, math, and science, and they have to choose classes
from the fields of arts, humanities, modern languages, technology, and vocational studies as well.
After passing their GCSEs, students can leave school, attend another two years of upper secondary,
or obtain a Diploma — a new kind of qualification in the UK.

The new British Diploma focuses on practical training, work experience, and a vocational approach
rather than academic studies. It can be taken in around 20 different subjects, such as engineering,
IT, or creative and media.

The Diploma is available on four levels with increasing qualifications (foundation / higher /
progression / advanced). Each of these levels is equivalent to a certain number of GCSE or A-level
credit points. However, the qualification was mainly introduced for those teenagers who struggle
with the academic outlook of the “from GCSE to A-levels to university” path. They should benefit
from a more hands-on approach to foster their vocational skills and help them with applying for a
job in the UK.

6.4 Secondary Education in USA

1. Education System

After completion of five grades of education in primary school, students will enter high/secondary
school. The tenure of secondary school will be about six to seven years, by which students will be
completing their 12 grades.

Secondary education in the US starts after sixth grade which however, again varies from state to
state. Students completing secondary education after 12th grade are certified with High School
Diploma. In the US education system, students should obtain a high school diploma before applying
to college or university. International students who would like to attend an American college or
university must have completed coursework and equivalent years of education as taught at an
American high school.

2. Curriculum

The curriculum widely varies in quality and rigidity; for instance, some states consider 70 (on a 100-
point scale) to be a passing grade while others consider it to be as low as 60 or as high as 75. The
following are the typical minimum course sequences that one must take in order to obtain a high
school diploma; they are not indicative of the necessary minimum courses or course rigor required
for attending college in the United States: Science (biology, chemistry, and physics), Mathematics
(usually three years minimum, including algebra, geometry, algebra II, and/or pre-calculus /
trigonometry), English (four years) , Social Science (various history, government, and economics
82
courses, always including American history) , Physical education (at least one year). Many states
require a ‘Health course’ in which students learn anatomy, nutrition, and first aid; the basic concepts
of sexuality and birth control; and why to avoid substances like illegal drugs, cigarettes, and alcohol.
Most high and middle schools offer honors or gifted classes for motivated and gifted students, where
the quality of education is usually higher and more demanding.

There are also specialized magnet schools with competitive entrance requirements. Type of school
providing this education: High Schools (Grades 7-12 or 8-12) Length of program in years: 6 Age
level from: 13 to 18 Certificate/diploma awarded: High School Diploma (Regular/Standard,
Vocational, Honor/Regents, College Preparatory) Junior Secondary Type of school providing this
education: Junior High Schools (Grades 7-8, 7-9 or 8-9) Length of program in years: 3 Age level
from: 13 to: 15 Certificate/diploma awarded: Practice varies. Awards may be given in States/Districts
where secondary education is divided into lower and upper divisions. Upper Secondary Type of
school providing this education: High Schools, Senior High Schools (Grades 9-12 or 10-12) Length
of program in years: 4 Age level from: 15 to: 18 Certificate/diploma awarded: High School Diploma
(Regular/Standard, Vocational, Honor/Regents, College Preparatory) Secondary education takes
place in grades 7-12, depending upon the laws and policies of states and local school districts.
There is no national structure, curriculum or governing law; all laws and policies are set and enforced
by the 50 state governments and the over 14,000 local school districts. All states and school districts
have set the secondary school graduation level as the completion of 12th grade, and the common
name for the secondary graduation qualification is the High School Diploma. This diploma name
covers a variety of awards for different curricula and standards. There are Honors/Regents,
academic/college preparatory, vocational, and general/basic high school diploma tracks. There are
a statewide minimum course requirement and other graduation requirements in each State which
usually correspond to the general/basic track. Vocational and academic/college preparatory or
honors/Regents diplomas usually have additional set curricular requirements and/or standards
which aspiring graduates must meet or exceed.

Advanced Placement (AP) program

In addition, many US secondary school districts and private schools allow students to participate in
the Advanced Placement (AP) programme of the College Board. This programme allows qualified
students to take college level introductory courses in selected subjects taught by certified faculty.
Examinations are offered in each AP subject at the end of an academic year; a score of 3 or higher
generally results in universities awarding advanced standing in that subject - exempting the student
from distribution requirements. There are currently over 35 AP subjects with more being planned.

A growing number of public and private secondary schools also offer the International Baccalaureate
(IB) as an optional track; completion of IB requirements usually requires an additional summer or
semester of study beyond the 12th year. The contents of an individual student's programme at any
grade level or upon obtaining a diploma or an online RN to BSN degree are contained in the record
of studies called a Transcript.

Transcripts are official documents authenticated with the seal of the school or institution and signed
by the registrar.

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6.5 The Formal System of Education in Japan
I) Education System
Education is compulsory and free for all schoolchildren from the first through the ninth grades. The
school year begins on April 1 and ends on March 31 of the following year. Schools use a trimester
system demarcated by vacation breaks. Japanese children attend school five full weekdays and
one-half day on Saturdays. The school year has a legal minimum of 210 days, but most local school
boards add about thirty more days for school festivals, athletic meets, and ceremonies with
nonacademic educational objectives, especially those encouraging cooperation and school spirit.
With allowance made for the time devoted to such activities and the half-day of school on Saturday,
the number of days devoted to instruction is about 195 per year.

The Japanese hold several important beliefs about education, especially compulsory schooling: that
all children can learn the material; that effort, perseverance, and selfdiscipline, not academic ability,
determine academic success; and that these study and behavioral habits can be taught. Thus,
students in elementary and lower-secondary schools are not grouped or taught based on their
ability, nor is instruction geared to individual differences.

The nationally designed curricula expose students to balanced, basic education, and compulsory
schooling is known for its equal educational treatment of students and for its relatively equal
distribution of financial resources among schools. However, the demands made by the uniform
curricula and approach extract a price in lack of flexibility, including expected conformity of behavior.
Little effort is made to address children with special needs and interests. Much of the reform
proposed in the late 1980s, particularly that part emphasizing greater flexibility, creativity, and
opportunities for greater individual expression, was aimed at changing these approaches.

Textbooks are free to students at compulsory school levels. New texts are selected by school boards
or principals once every three years from the Ministry of Education's list of approved textbooks or
from a small list of texts that the ministry itself publishes. The ministry bears the cost of distributing
these books, in both public and private schools. Textbooks are small, paperbound volumes that can
easily be carried by the students and that became their property.

Almost all schools have a system of access to health professionals. Educational and athletic facilities
are good; almost all elementary schools had an outdoor playground, roughly 90 percent have a
gymnasium, and 75 percent have an outdoor swimming pool.

Lower-Secondary School
Lower-secondary school covers grades seven, eight, and nine-- children between the ages of
roughly twelve and fifteen--with increased focus on academic studies. Although it is still possible to
leave the formal education system after completing lower secondary school and find employment,
fewer than 4 percent did so by the late 1980s.

Like elementary schools, most lower-secondary schools in the 1980s were public, but 5 percent
were private. Private schools were costly, averaging ¥558,592 (US$3,989) per student in 1988,
about four times more than the ¥130,828 (US$934) that the ministry estimated as the cost for
students enrolled in public lower secondary schools.

The teaching force in lower-secondary schools is two-thirds male. Schools are headed by principals,
99 percent of whom were men in 1988. Teachers often majored in the subjects they taught, and
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more than 80 percent graduated from a four-year college. Classes are large, with thirty-eight
students per class on average, and each class is assigned a homeroom teacher who doubles as
counselor. Unlike elementary students, lower secondary school students have different teachers for
different subjects. The teacher, however, rather than the students, moves to a new room for each
fifty-minute period.

Instruction in lower-secondary schools tends to rely on the lecture method. Teachers also use other
media, such as television and radio, and there is some laboratory work. By 1989 about 45 percent
of all public lower-secondary schools had computers, including schools that used them only for
administrative purposes. Classroom organization is still based on small work groups, although no
longer for reasons of discipline. By lower-secondary school, students are expected to have mastered
daily routines and acceptable behavior.

II) Curriculum
All course contents are specified in the Course of Study for Lower-Secondary Schools. Some
subjects, such as Japanese language and mathematics, are coordinated with the elementary
curriculum. Others, such as foreign-language study, usually English, begin at this level. The
curriculum covers Japanese language, social studies, mathematics, science, music, fine arts,
health, and physical education. All students also are exposed to either industrial arts or
homemaking. Moral education and special activities continue to receive attention.

Students also attend mandatory club meetings during school hours, and many also participate in
after-school clubs. Most lower secondary students say they liked school, although it is the chance
to meet their friends daily--not the lessons--that is particularly attractive to them.

The ministry recognizes a need to improve the teaching of all foreign languages, especially English.
To improve instruction in spoken English, the government invites many young native speakers of
English to Japan to serve as assistants to school boards and prefectures under its Japan Exchange
and Teaching Program. By 1988 participants numbered over 1,000.

As part of the movement to develop an integrated curriculum and the education reform movement
of the late 1980s, the entire Course of Study for Lower-Secondary Schools was revised in 1989 and
took effect in the 1992-93 school year. A main aim of the reform is to equip students with the basic
knowledge needed for citizenship. In some measure, this means increased emphasis on Japanese
history and culture, as well as understanding Japan as a nation and its relationships with other
nations of the world. The course of study also increased elective hours, recommending that electives
be chosen considering individual student differences and with an eye toward diversification.

Two problems of great concern to educators and citizens began to appear at the lower secondary
level in the 1980s: bullying, which seemed rampant in the mid-1980s but had abated somewhat by
the end of the decade, and the school-refusal syndrome (toko kyohi-manifested by a student's
excessive absenteeism), which was on the rise. Experts disagreed over the specific causes of these
phenomena, but there is general agreement that the system offers little individualized or specialized
assistance, thus contributing to disaffection among those who can not conform to its demands or
who are otherwise experiencing difficulties. Another problem concerns Japanese children returning
from abroad. These students, particularly if they have been overseas for extended periods, often
need help not only in reading and writing but also in adjusting to rigid classroom demands. Even
making the adjustment does not guarantee acceptance: besides having acquired a foreign

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language, many of these students have also acquired foreign customs of speech, dress, and
behavior that mark them as different.

6.6 The Formal System of Education in Germany

The rapid aging of Germany’s population of 82.1 million is another looming concern. In 2015,
Germany had the world’s second oldest population after Japan, with 28 percent of its citizens aged
60 years or over. The Federal Statistical Office of Germany estimates that the population will decline
to a total of 67.6 to 78.6 million people by 2060. Even in the best-case scenario, the decline would
result in a decreased working-age population, which could undermine the government’s ability to
fund public services and weaken the country’s economic foundations.

I) Education System

Secondary Education
The secondary education system includes multiple programs at both the lower secondary and upper
secondary levels. These programs emphasize either vocational skills or preparation for tertiary-level
education, depending on the track.

Lower-Secondary Education – Vocational Track

Lower-secondary education along the vocational track imparts basic general education and
prepares students for entry into upper-secondary vocational programs. The two most common
school types in this track are the “Hauptschule” and the more popular “Realschule”.

• Hauptschule programs usually end after grade 9 and conclude with the award of the “Zeugnis
des Hauptschulabschlusses” (certificate of completion of Hauptschule).
• Programs offered at the Realschule are academically more demanding and last until grade
10. Students graduate with the “Zeugnis des Realschulabschlusses” (certificate of completion
of Realschule), sometimes also called “Mittlere Reife” (intermediate maturity). This certificate
gives access to a wider range of vocational programs and allows for access to university-
preparatory upper-secondary education.

Upper-Secondary Education – The Vocational “Dual System”

Germany has a variety of different vocational programs at the upper secondary level. One subset of
these programs is similar to programs in the general academic track in that students receive full-
time classroom instruction.

The most common form of secondary vocational education, however, has a heavy focus on practical
training. More than 50 percent of German vocational students learn in a work-based education
system. This so-called “dual system,” which combines theoretical classroom instruction with
practical training embedded in a real-life work environment, is often viewed as a model for other
nations seeking to address high rates of unemployment, particularly among youth. In times of high
youth unemployment in many OECD countries, Germany has the second-lowest OECD youth
unemployment rate after Japan – a fact often attributed to the dual system.

Students in the dual system are admitted upon completion of lower-secondary education. The
system is characterized by “sandwich programs” in which pupils attend a vocational school on a
part-time basis, either in coherent blocks of weeks, or for one or two days each week. The remainder
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of students’ time is devoted to practical training at a work place. Companies participating in these
programs are obligated to provide training in accordance with national regulations, and to pay
students a modest salary. The programs last two- to three-and-a-half years, and conclude with a
final examination conducted by the responsible authority in the field, often regional industry
associations like the Chambers of Industry and Commerce and Chambers of Crafts.

The final credential awarded to dual system graduates is typically a formal, government recognized
qualification certifying students’ skills in regulated vocations. In 2015, there were 328 such official
vocations with titles ranging from “carpenter” to “tax specialist” to “dental technician” or “film and
video editor.”

Many vocational schools also offer students a pathway to tertiary education via double qualification
courses. Students who take this pathway earn a “Zeugnis der Fachhochschschulreife” (university of
applied sciences maturity certificate), which qualifies them for access to a subset of higher education
institutions, the so-called universities of applied sciences, as well as regular universities in a small
number of states. The theoretical part of this program is commonly completed after 12 years.

Upper Secondary Education – University-Preparatory Education

When Germans refer to university-preparatory study, they often think of the “Abitur”, the important
final examination, which concludes upper secondary education – and which often has a significant
impact on students’ academic careers. Abitur programs predominantly take place at a dedicated
type of school called the “Gymnasium.” Study at this school usually begins directly after elementary
school. Programs include a lower secondary phase (until grade 10) and an upper-secondary phase
of two or three years. Together, lower, upper, and secondary education typically last 12 or 13 years.
(See section below, Shortening of Upper Secondary Schooling: A Reversal of Reforms? for
additional discussion of the duration of secondary programs.)

Tertiary Education
In recent years, Germany has experienced increased participation rates in university education in
general, and a growth of enrollments at private institutions. The German Office of Statistics reported
that the number of newly registered students (excluding foreign students) in the first semester of a
degree program increased by more than 34 percent in the last decade – from 290,307 in 2005 to
391,107 in 2015. According to the statistics provided by the German Science Council, the total
number of students attending German tertiary institutions in the fall of 2016 is 2,718,984.

Types of Institutions
In addition to non-tertiary higher education and government schools, Germany currently has 396
state-recognized higher education institutions. The institutions are of two types: 181 universities and
university-equivalent institutions, including specialized pedagogical universities, theological
universities, and fine arts universities; and 215 so-called universities of applied sciences
(Fachhochschulen).

The main difference between the two types of institutions is that the first set of institutions are
dedicated to basic research and award doctoral degrees, whereas
Fachhochschulen (FHs) are more industry-oriented and focused on the practical application of
knowledge. Both institutions award Bachelor and Master degrees, but FHs do not have the right to
award doctoral degrees. FH programs usually include a practical internship component and tend to
be concentrated in fields like engineering, business, and computer science.
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A further distinction lies in the admission requirements: Whereas a certificate of general university
maturity is required for unqualified access to universities in most states, study programs at
Fachhochschulen can be entered with a university of applied sciences maturity certificate earned in
the vocational track.

In terms of enrollments, more than 60 percent of students in 2015 (1.756,452) studied at universities,
while about one third of students (929,241) attended Fachhochschulen.

6.7 Secondary Education System in Indonesia

1. Education System
According to the National Education Law No. 2/1989 and the Government Regulation No. 28/1990,
basic education is a general education program with a duration of nine years—six years of primary
education and three years of junior secondary education. The nine-year Compulsory Basic
Education Program attempts to provide an education for every Indonesian in the 7 to 15 age group.

Academic Year: At the primary and secondary levels the school year lasts 38 weeks on the
average. The average length of teaching periods on the primary level is 30 minutes in grades one
and two, 40 minutes in grades three to six, and 45 minutes in junior secondary school.

2. Curriculum
Classroom instruction is provided in the national Bahasa Indonesian language Curriculum
Development Secondary School Education: The general secondary school curriculum is determined
by the 25 February 1993 decree of the Minister of Education and Culture No. 061/U/1993. This
program covers study materials and subjects required for Class l and II students: Pancasila
education and citizenship, religious education, Indonesian language and literature, national and
general history, English language, physical and health education, mathematics, natural sciences,
social sciences, and arts education. The language program consists of four subjects: Indonesian
language and literature, English language, other international languages, and cultural history. The
natural science program includes physics, biology, chemistry, and mathematics. The social science
program offers economics, sociology, public administration, and anthropology. These subjects are
aimed at improving pupils' abilities and stimulating interactive relationships with the social, cultural,
and natural environment.

Built on foundational courses in Class I and II, the special teaching program implemented in Class
III can be selected by pupils according to their abilities and interests. This program prepares students
to continue to higher education in the academic or professional field.

Apart from general and special programs, there are also extracurricular activities that are offered
outside the teaching hours. These activities—such as scouting, school health activities, sports, and
first aid—along with the theoretical knowledge gained in the curricular program are intended to
develop the whole person.

Vocational Secondary Education:

This curriculum was set forth by the Minister of Education and Culture in Decree No. 080/U/1993.
The objective of vocational education is to prepare students to enter employment and to develop
professional skills and to prepare students to choose a career, to instill the ability to compete and

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develop independently, and to foster a national workforce to meet the manpower needs of business
and industry.

Vocational secondary school implements education programs according to the perceived present
and future demands for employment types. The vocational secondary school curriculum program is
envisioned to be completed in three to four years. The curriculum is divided into six groups: the
agricultural and forestry group, for occupations in such areas as agribusiness, agronomy, animal
husbandry, fisheries, and agriculture production management; the industrial technology group,
offering professions in building construction, mining, marine engineering, graphics, textiles,
informatics, and industrial instrumentation; the business and management group, leading to careers
in accounting, office management, finance and banking, trade, and secretarial work; the community
welfare group, targeting employment with social services, community health, and community
development; the tourism group, whose graduates move into the hotel, catering, fashion, and beauty
occupations; and the arts and handicraft group, whose skills are focused on applied arts, visual arts,
and the handicraft industry.

6.8 Secondary Educating System in Malaysia

The Malaysian education system encompasses education beginning from pre-school to university.
Pre-tertiary education (pre-school to secondary education) is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of
Education (MOE) while tertiary or higher education is the responsibility of the Ministry of Higher
Education (MOHE).

The vision of the Government is to make Malaysia a center of educational excellence.

Primary and Secondary Education

Primary education (a period of 6 years) and secondary education (5 years which encompasses 3
years of lower secondary and 2 years of upper secondary) make up 11 years of free education.

Post-secondary Education
Upon completion of secondary education, students can opt to pursue 1 to 2 years of postsecondary
education. This is the university entrance preparatory course. In total, the 12 years of school
education serves as the basic entry requirement into Year One of a bachelor’s degree programme
in higher educational institutions.

The admission age to the first year of primary education is seven. Primary schooling is mandatory
for all children between the ages of 7 and 12. Students sit for common public examinations at the
end of primary, lower secondary and upper secondary levels.

Government-funded Educational Institutions

The Government provides more than 95% of primary and secondary education as well as about
60% of the tertiary education, with the private sector providing the balance.

Private-funded Educational Institutions

The private education providers in Malaysia can be broadly grouped into 2 categories, depending
on the levels of education offered, ranging from pre-school to tertiary education.

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6.9 The Formal System of Education in People’s Republic of China
To serve the needs of over 1 billion people, China has developed a vast and thorough state
administered public education system. The Chinese education system offers schooling from pre-
school to graduate school and mandates that every child receive a basic education.

However, with such a large population, there is extreme pressure put on the students to excel, as
space in the best senior secondary schools and universities are limited. Students who desire higher
education must take two very difficult tests, each only offered once a year.

The Ministry of Education, headquartered in Beijing, is the state department responsible for the
education system in China. In their mission to "modernize China through education", they certify
teachers, standardize textbooks and curriculum, and enforce national education standards.

I) Education System
The Law of Nine-Year Compulsory Education

The Law of Nine-Year Compulsory Education took affect July 1, 1986 and established deadlines
and requirements in an effort to attain a universal education for all school aged children. The law
requires that all children attend school for a minimum of nine years. Although the bill authorizes
tuition free education for the compulsory nine years, this remains a target rather than a reality. The
government does work to reduce the cost of tuition and supplies and also provide stipends for poor
families.
Modern Education System

The modern education system of China is composed of three parts: pre-school education, basic
education and higher education. The Chinese government made a law for a free nine-year
compulsory education (six years of primary education and three years of secondary education) on
July 1, 1986, which established the requirements for attaining a universal education and guaranteed
school-age children the right to receive at least nine years of education. Its considered to be a crime
for the parents to deprive their children of this right in cities of China.

Schools in China are divided into four levels

• Primary school, for children ages 6 to 11, covers the first six years of their compulsory
education.
• After primary school, students continue on to junior middle school. In junior middle school
students will complete grades 7, 8, and 9, as well as their compulsory education requirement.
• If students choose tom continue with their education they will advance to senior middle
school, the equivalent of high school in the United States, and finish grades 10, 11, and 12.
• Afterward, they will have the option of attending university or entering the workforce.
The elementary school system is slightly different between urban and rural areas of China. The
elementary schools have six grades (from grade one to grade six) in urban areas and five grades
(from grade one to grade five) in some rural areas. The entrance examination from elementary
school to junior high school has been canceled since the 1990s in cities.

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Junior High School Education
The junior high school education usually starts at age 13 and ends at age 15. There are three ways
for pupils to enter junior high school from elementary school in cities: by a computer aided allocation
system, by selecting a school and by the proximity principle. Computer aided allocation means the
pupils are randomly distributed to a junior high school, which is comparatively equal for everybody.
Most parents would rather select well-equipped schools (both in hard and soft infrastructures) for
their children although they would need to pay some extra money. The proximity principle means
the pupils prefer entering a junior high school in their neighborhood.

Senior High School Education

The senior high school education usually starts at age 16 and ends at age 18. The junior high school
graduate students can either study in a senior high school or at a vocational school. Owing to the
high tuition fees of senior high schools (usually ranging from 4,000 to 6,000 RMB each year), most
students from rural areas choose to study in vocational schools so as to get a job as soon as they
graduate.
Senior high schools are very popular among the cities of China, through which most parents hope
their children will go to college. Usually, only those who get high scores in the (senior high school)
enrollment examination can enter the key senior high schools. Senior high school is divided into
three stages: elementary stage in Senior One, transitory stage in Senior Two and the college
entrance exam preparation stage in Senior Three. Bureaus of education at all levels in China
stipulate that Saturday and Sunday are rest days for all the senior high schools. However, most
senior high schools have their own countermeasures, and they make it a rule for students to self-
study in the mornings and evenings and even on weekends.
The senior high students are overloaded with studies and a lack of rest, with the aim of passing the
college entrance examination held in June each year.

II) Curriculum
The curriculum of elementary school includes Chinese, math, English, PE (physical education),
music, drawing, science, and morality and ethics in primary schools. However, only Chinese, math
and PE are set up in many rural areas.

The curriculum of junior high school consists of Chinese, math, English, physics, chemistry, history,
politics, geography, biology, PE, IT (information technology), music and drawing, which is also
combined with practical work experience around the school. The students whose final grades of all
subjects are above 60 are allowed to graduate from junior high school and are admitted to senior
high school, and those who fail it will stay down at the same level for one year.

The curriculum of senior high school consists of Chinese, math, English (Russian or Japanese in
some urban areas), physics, chemistry, biology, geography, history, morality and ethics, PE, health
and IT.

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6.10 The Formal System of Education in Sri-Lanka
I) Education System
Despite years of civil war between Sri Lanka’s ruling Sinhalese majority and the Tamil minority, the
country boasts one of the most literate populations in the developing world. Almost 91 percent of
the adult population and over 97 percent of the youth population are literate, according to the
UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2006). This compares to a South and West Asian regional average
of 62 percent and 80 percent respectively (2008).

Sri Lanka’s current system of education is still influenced by its colonial past. The British, who
incorporated the South Asian nation as part of its empire from 1796 to 1948, had a major influence
on the development of Sri Lankan education. Until the 1960s, all university instruction was
conducted in English, and until this day, school examinations and curricular content remain modeled
on the British examinations of the same names (Sri Lankan GCE O-Levels and A-Levels).

The right to a free education was enshrined in the Sri Lankan Constitution of 1978, which also
mandates compulsory schooling between the ages of five and 14. The current school system – in
place since 1985 – is 13 years total and based on a structure of: 5 + 4 + 2 + 2 (primary, junior
secondary, senior secondary, collegiate or pre-university). Higher education is based on a structure
of 3+2+2 to 5.

The academic year runs from October to June at the university level, while school education is
conducted from January to December and divided into three terms.

The Ministry of Education is responsible for setting and maintaining education policies and
managing public institutions of education at the primary and secondary level. School administration
is delegated to eight provincial departments of education, which operate under the purview of the
ministry. These departments are responsible for the oversight of 9,074 schools, while the ministry
administers directly the 336 elite national schools (2009, MOE). The Department of Examinations is
responsible for administrating O-Level and A-Level examinations.

Compulsory Education

All children aged six through 14 are required by law to attend the first nine years of Sri Lankan
schooling. This includes five years of primary education and four years of junior secondary
schooling.

At the primary level, female school attendance is essentially universal, according to government
statistics, while it stands at 99 percent for boys. All children are entitled to attend school free of
charge, a provision that includes free books and free school uniforms up to Year 11.

Junior Secondary

Junior secondary schooling runs from Year 6 to Year 9 (typically ages 10 -14), with Year 6 being
considered a transitional year between primary and secondary education. Students are assessed
through a series of school-based exams, projects and practical work.

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Senior Secondary

Years 10 and 11 are the senior secondary stage of schooling in Sri Lanka. These two years are
focused on preparing students for the General Certificate of Education (GCE) Ordinary Level (O/Ls)
examinations.

Students who wish to continue their studies at the tertiary level must pass the GCE O Levels in
order to enter the Collegiate Level to study for another two years (Years 12-13) to sit for the GCE
Advanced Level (A/L) examinations.
‘Collegiate ’or ‘Pre-University’

Upon completion of Year 11, students can finish their secondary schooling in one of the four main
A Level streams: Arts, Commerce, Biological Science or Physical Science. Typically, students will
take three subjects linked to their stream, and these choices will have a strong bearing on the
program of study that they will pursue at university.

The GCE A Level examinations are taken at the end of Year 13. In addition to individual subject
exams, students are expected to take a common general paper and an examination in English.

Schools
National Schools

National Schools are funded and administered directly by the Ministry of Education. Most of these
schools were established before independence from British rule and are limited in number compared
to provincially administered schools. Most of these institutions are considered elite schools, with
better facilities and teaching staff than most public schools. In recent years, some newer schools
and central colleges have been upgraded to national schools. The ministry currently (2009) counts
a total of 336 national schools nationwide.

Provincial Schools

Most secondary schools in Sri Lanka are administered and funded by provincial authorities and local
governments. There are over 9,000 provincial schools in Sri Lanka.

Private schools

There are a total of 66 private schools in Sri Lanka, according to government figures, and all were
established before independence from colonial rule. Approximately half of these schools are funded
by tuition fees and they are entirely autonomous from the government, while the other half receives
funding from the state and charge only limited tuition fees.

In addition to private schools, Sri Lanka also hosts a network of international schools, which typically
charge tuition fees. The schools are mainly for the children of the expatriate community, are
autonomous from ministry control, and charge high tuition fees. Most schools follow either the British
Edexcel curriculum and examinations system, the Cambridge International Examinations system or
the International Baccalaureate curriculum.

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Religious Schools

Monastic schools, or Piriven, are funded and administered by the ministry of education. The 560
schools are primarily focused on training Buddhist priests, although students also follow academic
curricula.

II) Curriculum
The two main languages of instruction are Sinhala and Tamil. English is taught as a compulsory
subject through all 13 years of school study. International private schools typically offer instruction
in English. At the tertiary level, Sinhala and Tamil are the official languages of instruction; however,
English is frequently used, especially in universities.

The curriculum at most public schools at junior Secondary includes instruction in the student’s first
language, English, a second national language, mathematics, religion, history, science and
technology, health and physical education, practical and technical skills, social studies, life
competencies and aesthetic studies.

Students must pass five O Level subject examinations, including first language and mathematics,
with 3 credits in order to advance to the Collegiate Level. One of these credits must be in the subject
stream that the student wishes to pursue in the final two years of schooling.

The GCE ‘O’ Level is the final school certificate for most students and the conclusion of the general
phase of school education. A little over a third senior secondary school students go on to pre-
university studies. Most students take eight to 10 subject examinations for their O Levels.

The senior secondary curriculum includes most of the same subjects covered at the junior secondary
level, but with the addition of some technical subjects such as woodwork, agriculture and home
economics.

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Unit–7
Secondary Education In Pakistan

7.1 Quaid-e-Azam’s Message ................................................................................. 96

7.2 Secondary Education Its Dual Nature .............................................................. 97

7.3 National Aims of Education and Their Realization ......................................... 98

7.4 Lesson from the Sixth-Five Year Plan (1983–1988) ........................................ 101

7.5 Perspective Plan (1988–2003) ........................................................................... 103

7.6 Seventh Five-Year Plan (1988–93) ................................................................... 103

7.7 Eighth Five-Year Plan (1993–98) ..................................................................... 106

7.8 Economic Surveys, 1996-97 & 1997-98 .......................................................... 108

7.9 Aims and Objectives — National Education Policy 1998–2010 ...................... 109

7.10 Secondary Education — National Education Policy 1998–2010 ...................... 111

7.1 Quaid-e-Azam’s Message to the Pakistan Educational Conference
All-Pakistan Educational Conference, held in Karachi on 27th November, 1947

“I am glad that the Pakistan Educational Conference is being held tomorrow in Karachi. I welcome
you all to the Capital of Pakistan and wish you every success in your deliberations, which I sincerely
hope will bear fruitful and practical results.

You know that the importance of education and the right type of education cannot be over-
emphasized. Under foreign rule for over a century, in the very nature of things, I regret, sufficient
attention has not been paid to the education of our people, and if we are to make any real, speedy
and substantial progress, we must earnestly tackle this question and bring our educational policy
and program on the lines suited to the genius of our people, consonant with our history and culture,
and having regard to the modern conditions and vast developments that have taken place all over
the world.

There is no doubt that the future of our State will and must greatly depend upon the type of education
and the way in which we bring up our children as the future servants of Pakistan. Education does
not merely mean academic education, and even that appears to be of a very poor type. What we
have to do is to mobilize our people and build up the character of our future generations. There is
immediate and urgent need for training our people in the scientific and technical education in order
to build up future economic life, and we should see that our people undertake scientific commerce,
trade and particularly, well-planned industries. But do not forget that we have to compete with the
world, which is moving very fast in this direction. Also I must emphasize that greater attention should
be paid to technical and vocational education.

In short, we have to build up the character of our future generations which means highest sense of
honor, integrity, selfless service to the nation, and sense of responsibility, and we have to see that
they are fully qualified or equipped to play their part in the various branches of economic life in a
manner which will do honor to Pakistan”.

Summary
Quaid-i-Azam believed that Education is the key factor in safeguarding the national independence
and molding the character of a people. The system of education must be truly national in order to
meet the needs and aspirations of the people in national education lies the only sure and permanent
guarantee of national defense and national strength. No country can have an ignorant population
and be free and strong at the same time. Also economic development and cultural advancement
depend directly on the type of instructional programmes at different levels. The quality of the process
of educating the younger generation will depend upon the quality of the teacher and his work-the
way he works with the learners and brings them up as informed and skilled individuals and as a
community of responsible citizen ready to enter the world of work.

Hence the Quaid-i-Azam desired that the educational policy of Pakistan should be brought on the
lines suited to the genius of the nation, consonant with its history and culture, and having regard to
the modern needs and requirements and vast developments that had taken place all over the world.

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7.2 Secondary Education — Its Dual Nature
The secondary level of education generally serves a dual purpose as a terminal stage for a large
number of students and as a preparatory stage for higher education for others. The content of
studies of the existing secondary programme is dominated by a curriculum of a general nature which
serves mainly as a preparation for higher education. The increasing need for middle-level skilled
workers in the developing economy of the country and the enrolment of a growing proportion of the
age group in secondary schools warrant that secondary education should have a pronounced
scientific, technical and vocational bias and be terminal for a considerable number of students. In
view of the terminal and preparatory nature of the secondary stage, the courses and curricula should
cater to these dual requirements. Therefore, Secondary Education pattern would include:
• Shift to Scientific, Technical and Vocational Education

The emphasis in secondary education should be shifted to science, technical and vocational
education so as to achieve a ratio of 40:60 between the general streams on the one hand and the
science, technical and vocational streams on the other. It should be noted that sciences form an
integral part of courses in technical and vocational education and also serve as a basis for higher
technological education. The general education stream also should follow a curriculum with an
adequate content in science and mathematics.
• Science and Mathematics

Teaching of science and mathematics which should form an essential part of all form of secondary
education should improve through necessary changes in curricula, adequate laboratories and
improving teachers, competence. For a general improvement of the teaching of science and
technical subjects, the mass communication media, particularly the television and radio should be
effectively utilized.
• Equitable Development

The pattern of the secondary system should be such as to maintain a minimum standard of facilities
and teaching staff in all schools. It is suggested that the emphasis should be on equitable
development of all secondary schools according to a well-designed plan. All government and
government aided educational institutional should be open to all children on the basis of merit.
• National Training Scheme

For those students who will not go into secondary education or will drop out from schools, non-
formal avenues of training should be provided. An adequate training scheme should be introduced,
which will include various forms of part-time and full-time vocational training for acquiring various
types of employable skills.
• Future Plan Targets

It is proposed that during the future plan periods additional facilities of secondary education (classes
IX-X) would be created for increasing enrolment. These additional facilities will mainly be in the fields
of science, technical education, agriculture, service trades and home economics.

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7.3 National Aims of Education and their Realization (National Education
Policy 1979)
The 1979 Education Policy was presented one year after the launching of the Fifth Five Year Plan,
with a change of target dates. The basic aim of the implementation of this policy was the
harmonization of education in Pakistan with concepts of Islam. Basic change which was introduced
through this policy was the national language used as the medium of instruction. National education
policy aimed at giving desired ideological direction to education. Hence it was estimated that an
additional provision of 255.57 million required a part for fifth plan of allocation implementation on the
proposal of policy started in1979. The medium instruction was switched over to Urdu in Govt.
Schools and policy of nationalized was reserved. Private schools were allowed to have English as
medium of instruction, since they were to ultimately prepare students for foreign examination.

Aims of the policy

The national aims of education and their implementation strategies are as follows:

• To make the Quranic principles and Islamic practices an integral part of curricula so that the
message of the Holy Quran could be disseminated in the process of education and training;
to educate and train the future generation of Pakistan as a true practicing Muslim who would
be able to usher into the next millennium with courage, confidence, wisdom and tolerance.
• To achieve universal primary education by using formal and non-formal techniques and to
provide a second opportunity to school drop-outs by establishing basic education community
schools all over the country.
• To meet the basic learning needs of children in terms of learning tools and contents.
• To expand basic education qualitatively and quantitatively by providing the maximum
opportunities for free access of every child to education; imbalances and disparities within
the system will be removed to enhance the access with increased number of middle and
secondary schools.
• To ensure that all boys and girls desirous of entering secondary education will get this basic
right because of the availability of the schools.
• To lay emphasis on diversification so as to transform the system from supplyoriented to
demand-oriented; to attract educated youth in the world of work is one of the policy objectives
so that they may become productive and useful citizens and give their positive contributions
as members of the society.
• To make curriculum development a continuous process and to make arrangements for
developing a uniform system of education.
• To prepare students for the world of work, as well as for entering professional and specialized
education.
• To increase the effectiveness of the system by institutionalizing in-service training of
teachers, teacher trainers and educational administrators; to upgrade the quality of pre-
service teacher training programmes by introducing parallel programmes of longer duration
at the post-secondary and post-degree levels.
• To develop a viable framework for policy, planning and development of teacher education
programmes, both in-service and pre-service.
• To develop opportunities for technical and vocational education in the country for producing
trained manpower, commensurate with the needs of industry and economic development
goals.

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 • To improve the quality of technical education so as to enhance the chances of employment
of technical and vocational education graduates by moving from a static, supply-based
system to a demand-driven system.
• To popularize information technology among children in order to prepare them for the next
century, emphasizing the different roles of computers and employing information technology
in the planning and monitoring of educational programme.
• To encourage the private sector to enroll a percentage of poor students giving them a
possibility of free education.
• To achieve excellence in the different fields of higher education by introducing new disciplines
and emerging sciences in universities, and to create new centres of advanced studies,
research and extension.
• To upgrade the quality of higher education by bringing the teaching, learning and research
processes in line with international standards.

Recommendations for Secondary education

• 2000 new secondary institutes will have opened and converted 1000 middle
• schools into secondary institutes
• In the curriculum of secondary education new subject will have added
• Scope of secondary education will have intended so that students found take part in
productive activities
• Secondary education will have considered from nine class to second year

Features
It was said in nation policy 1979 that education is a continuous process. Any educational policy
cannot complete without education. Main features of recommendation are given below.

• Masjid schools

It was planned in national educational policy that masjid schools masjid will have opened in these
schools other subjects will have together alongside primary education. Moreover it was decided to
open 5000 masjid schools.

• Mohallah schools

It was recommended to open Mohallah schools for those girls that could not get admissions in formal
educational institutes. For this purpose 5000 school were opened.

• Women education

It was recommended in policy to establish separate women university. Main point was to get
attention of women towards education.

• Establishment of private institutions

In national policy establishment of private institute were allowed in this way education of inhabitants
of country will have increased.

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 • Religious education

Arabic will have compulsory up to 8th class. It will have taught as a compulsory subject.

• Special education

It is also recommend in policy that central government will have prepared plans for the education of
blinds, handicap able. Such person will have prepared to earn their livelihood.

• Village workshop schools

It was recommended in policy to open workshops schools for those children who leave study. Main
purpose was to enable them to earn their livelihood.

• Medium of instruction

It was planned in policy that all English medium school that get government aids will consider Urdu
language as a medium of instruction.

Impact
The impacts of the recommendation are given below.

• Clear foundation of education

In national educational policy Islamic Ideology of life was considered as base of education.

• University Grant Commission

It was decided in policy to give university grant commission to university to save their problems
moreover it was said that government would bear expenses of university and these amount were
given a grant commission.

• Islamic madrasa

According to the decision of national policy those people were held for public services that have
certificate from Islamic Madrasa’s in this way benefits of madras increased and preached Islam.

• Urdu language

It also decided in educational policy that all official work will have performed in Urdu language. It
was compulsory for English medium schools that get government aids to adopt language selected
bay provincial government.

• Teacher welfare

Residential colony was constructed for rural teachers. For getting external& in internal education
scholarship was given to teachers.

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Mile Stones Achieved by Education Policy 1979

• The medium of instruction was switched over to Urdu in government schools.

• Private schools were allowed to have English as the medium of instruction. This led to the
operation of two different systems of education within the country, one for those who could
afford private education, and one for the rest of the nation. This two tier system contributed
to a widening socio-economic inequity with the consequent feeling of injustice and
resentment.
• The policy of nationalization was reversed.
• The private sector was encouraged to open schools.
• The funding of universities was made through the Federal government

7.4 Lesson from the Sixth Five Year Plan (1983–1988)

Sixth Five Year Plan was launched proclaimed: “Education is the most vital investment for any
programme of socio-economic development. Its neglect can cost generations. No uneducated
society has ever achieved the heights of economic and political power. No educated society has
ever been left behind in the relentless march of history.” Incidentally, almost the same statement
had also been made in the Second Plan.

Reviewing past performance, including that of the predecessor Fifth Plan, it again repeated the
lament that:

“Thirty-five years after independence, Pakistan has a literacy rate below 25 per cent and less than
half the primary schools going age children are in schools. These indices place Pakistan amongst
the least developed nations ... At the scale at which it persists; illiteracy is a blot on our social image
and the chief impediment to our long-term economic and technological advance."

In the Fifth Plan period, “despite higher investment ... enrolment increased only marginally. Worse,
the participation rate actually declined from 54 per cent in 1977-78 to 48 per cent in 1982-83 and
the female participation rate remained far less than the coverage. The share of government
expenditure on education as a proportion of the GNP also declined from 1.8 per cent in 1977-78 to
1.5 per cent in 1982-83."

The Sixth Plan claimed to approach primary education:

“with the earnestness and urgency that it has always deserved but never received. Serious efforts
will be made to institute universal education by ensuring that all boys and girls of the relevant age
group get enrolled in class-I latest by the terminal year of the Plan. The timing for the attainment of
this goal in various parts of the country will however, depends on the present level of enrolment in
the respective areas and their state of preparedness towards the attainment of this goal. A minimum
of five years of schools will be made obligatory to begin with and the tenure will gradually be raised
to 10 years." The Plan targeted to raise the participation rate of children in primary schools from 48
per cent in 1982-83 to 75 per cent in 1987-88. This implied that over 5 million additional children
were to be provided with primary schooling, an increase of over 80 per cent over the base year
enrolment of 6.8 million children. Larger increases were planned for the more neglected sections for
rural areas and for the girls.

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Mass literacy received special attention as in the earlier policies, but for the first time in a five year
plan. “A marked, short-term improvement in literacy would necessarily require programmes covering
the mass of the illiterate population which has already gone past the primary school age”, it stated.
It announced the launching of a mass literacy programme, aimed at “coverage of 15 million persons,
the greatest concentration of which would be on women in rural areas.” A sum of Rs 7.8 billion was
provided for primary education and mass literacy programmes, compared with an outlay of Rs 1.4
billion during the Fifth Plan period; an increase of five and half times. Fifty per cent of this amount
was to be provided under the programmes of the Provinces and other executing agencies, while the
remaining fifty per cent was earmarked for Special Development Programme of Primary Education.
It was expected that “through the proposed Federal grants for Special Primary Education
Programme the momentum for the expansion of primary education will gain the desired impetus.”

Major Components of the Programme

The major components of the programme were:

• utilization of mosques to accommodate Classes I to III of new schools and overcrowded

existing schools.
• provision of school buildings both for existing and shelter less schools and for classes IV and
V after completing class III from mosque schools.
• construction of sheds/buildings in urban areas to supplement the space available in the
mosques for opening new schools.
• introduction of the system of mixed enrolment in all new and existing schools in classes I to
III.
• provision of separate girls schools wherever mixed enrolment is not possible.
• provision of two teachers in each mosque school including the Imam, and one teacher each
for class IV and V in all schools against the present system of one or two teachers for all five
classes.
• creation of a separate implementation agency for primary education at Federal, provincial
and subsequent levels.

The focus of the Sixth Plan was on the expansion of primary education and a reduction in illiteracy.
To achieve these objectives, 40,000 new mosques schools were to be opened and 15 million
persons were to be made literate during the plan period. These targets could not be attained. Only
17,193 new mosque schools could be opened while the literacy programme could not make much
progress due to the absence of an appropriate strategy. Enrolment in class I-V could only increase
by 2.6 million, raising the participation rate from 53 to 64 percent. Enrolment in classes VI-X
increased by 849,000 during the plan raising the secondary school participation rate from 22 to 26
percent.

Summary
Although the sixth plan achievements were lower than the targets, yet considerable progress was
made in the education sector. In case of literacy, there was only a three percentage point increase
and the strategy of mass literacy through functional programmes for adult did not achieve the results
envisage and the short-cut methods employed to improve literacy were expensive. Apparently, the
increase in literacy rate during the Sixth plan was via primary education route.

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7.5 Perspective Plan (1988–2003)
The second Perspective Plan was prepared in the context of the domestic and international
economic framework discussed above, and in the light of the experience gained in the first
Perspective Pan. Its main purpose was to provide a long term economic and social policy framework
so that the objectives to be achieved over a much longer period could be incorporated in the
medium-term framework. Within the longer term perspective, there existed areas which needed to
be addressed in the short-term. There were: population control, the eradication of illiteracy, the
elimination of load-shedding, development of appropriate technologies, reduction of the budgetary
and balance of payment imbalances, improvement in the savings performance, complete control
over water logging and salinity, the introduction of structural changes conducive to efficient growth
and the creation of more employment opportunities, particularly for the educated unemployed.

Objectives of the Perspective Plan

With these objectives in mind, the major development targets of the Perspective Plan were:

• to reduce the rate of population growth from 3.1 percent in 1987-88 to 2.6 percent by the year
2003;
• to eradicate illiteracy among youth by the end of the Eight Plan, through full enrolment of the
primary age population;
• to provide the entire population with access to clean water;
• to provide all the urban areas and 60 percent of the rural areas with access to sewerage
facilities;
• to provide telephones to about 50 percent of the population;
• to increase tertiary roads from about 80,000km at present to about 140,000 km by the year
2003, against an estimated total requirement of 200,000 km;
• to provide a Rural Health Centre (RHC) for each Union Council;
• to gradually extend the level of health care facilities such as ambulances with a radio and
radio links;
• to increase the installed capacity for power generation to fully meet growing demand; and
• to provide town development schemes, to accommodate the rapidly growing urban
population.

7.6 Seventh Five Year Plan (1988–1993)

Although much has been accomplished, the education system still suffers from the chronic
deficiencies. These issues will be specifically addressed in the Seventh Plan. About 40 percent of
the children do not have access to education. This has perpetuated a high rate of illiteracy. Primary
education facilities are available to only 60 percent of the children in the age of 5 to 9 years. Primary
schools lack physical facilities, about 29,000 primary schools have no building and 16,000 schools
have only one classroom. The target of one teacher and one room for every class, the minimum
essential requirement for quality education, appears difficult to achieve even in the next few years.

Although significant expansion has taken place in secondary education, it remains inequitably
distributed among income groups and regions in the country. The long distances involved in the
availability of middle or high school facilities, is another important factor responsible for the low
enrolment ratio, especially in the case of girls. Every education policy and plan had recommended
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that classes XI and XII be made part of secondary education. Not much had been achieved in actual
implementation.

A large majority of students, graduating from classes VIII and X have acquired no remarkable skills
for absorption in the economy. Classroom instructions focus on external examinations which
encourages rote memorization. A great deal needs to be done to improve the teaching of science
and mathematics. A large number of secondary schools face a serious shortage of laboratories,
science equipment and qualified science and mathematics teachers.

One of the greatest assets of the country is its manpower. The education system helps to develop
technical and vocational abilities for the creation of a productive society. The existing system of
education is producing the mass of unemployable youth. At present 81 percent of matriculates go
for higher education. Of these, one forth are enrolled in technical and vocational institutions while
three-fourth seek admission in art and science colleges table given below shows that enrolment in
the technical/vocational and professional education has not increased in proportion the increase in
enrolment in general education.

Annual enrolment in technical/vocational and general education after matriculation

1972-73 1977-78 1982-83 1987-88

Technical/ vocational courses 17.8 35.6 43.0 56.4
Art and science colleges 68.4 95.2 125.5 175.0
Total annual intake 86.2 130.8 168.5 231.4
Percentage of those who join
20.6 27.2 25.5 24.4
technical/ vocational courses

Objectives of Seventh Five Year Plan

The objectives of Seventh Five Year Plan in the education and training sector were as follows:

• Broaden the resource base for education.

• Universalize access to primary education
• Substantially improve training and vocational training facilities.
• Improve the quality of education at all levels and in particular of university education.

With the universalization of primary school facilities, secondary level education will be expanded so
as to absorb the larger output from the primary schools. To provide quality education, each district
will have one model school each for boys and girls. For this purpose, selected secondary schools
will be upgraded to model schools in districts where such schools do not exist.

Secondary Education during Seventh Plan Period 1988–93

The Seventh Plan will further extend the secondary education facilities to absorb the increased
output from primary schools. The curriculum at secondary level will be changed so that students
leaving the system after classes VIII or X possess some useful skills to enable them to earn a living.
In classes VI, VII and VIII, students may be required to opt for one skill-oriented subject such as

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agriculture, home economics, metal work, electricity, woodwork or furniture making etc. this will
enable a class VIII graduate to practice that skill or enroll in the vocational school for further training.

Skills training in classes IX-X will be bracketed with the two elective art subjects so that schools
which are enable to offer any skill training may continue to offer traditional optional subjects. Skills
training in classes IX-X will be more sophisticated in order to turn out laboratory technicians, dental
technicians, typists, accountants, etc. where technical teachers are not available, local artisans will
be engaged on a part-time basis. During the seventh plan, the participation rate will increase from
30.4 percent to 41.6 percent to 24.1 percent at the high stage. The overall participation rate for
classes VI-X will rise from 25.7 percent to 35.3 percent. It is expected that girls’ enrolment will
increase more rapidly than that of boys.

A large number of primary and middle schools for girls will be upgraded. Admission to class IX will
be selective, based on the student’s cumulative record, including class VIII examination and other
tests such as scholastic and aptitude tests. Construction of additional classrooms and improvement
of existing building of middle and high schools will be carried out to cater for additional enrolment
coming from the primary schools. In urban areas a second shift in secondary schools will be
introduced, wherever possible. Major physical achievements of secondary education during 1988-
89 are shown as under.

Estimates of major physical achievements for Primary and Secondary education during 1988-89

Percentage
Programmes Target Achievements
Achievements
Up gradation of Middle Schools to High Level
635 635 100
Establishment of New High Schools 18 15 83
Consolidation of Middle High Schools 401 401 100
Addition of classes XI-XII in High Schools
116 116 100

Physical targets and estimated achievements of Secondary education (Federal and Provincial) 1993-94

Targets Estimated
Secondary Education
(Numbers) Achievements
Addition of class XI-XII in High Schools 52 52

Establishment of New High Schools 3 3

Reconstruction of Buildings of Middle Schools and High Schools

699 699
Consolidation of Existing Secondary Schools 145 145

Participation rate
During the current year participation or enrolment rate at the secondary/high school stage the overall
participation rate for both sexes stood at 29.1 percent – male 37.9 percent and female 19.4 percent.
These ratios reveal that the participation rate for girls at all stages is about half of those for boys
indicating low literacy rate among females.

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 Sex-wise participation rate

1992-93 1993-94
Both Male Female Both Male Female

stage
Secondary/High
28.1 37.0 18.4 29.1 37.9 19.4
classes (IX-X)

Enrolments
The additional enrolment at the primary level during 1993-94 is 1,412 thousand with 1,066 thousand
male and 346 thousand female children. At the middle level additional enrolments during the current
year comes to 330 thousand –188 thousand male and 142 thousand female students. Total high
level additional enrolment has been estimated at 99 thousand out of which 37 thousand were male
and 62 thousand female students. At college level the additional enrolment during the current year
is 34 thousand (13 thousand male and 21 thousand female) students. The additional increase in the
enrolment at primary level during the current year is 9.1 percent of the overall enrolment at this level.
At the middle stage, it is 8.6 percent and at the high level7.3 percent. At college level the additional
increase in enrolment is 5.7 percent of the overall enrolment. Estimated enrolment for 11993-94 and
additional percentage increase is reflected in the following table:
Estimated enrolment in education Institutions by kind, level and sex (progressive)

Change %age in Total

1992-93 1993-94 during Enrolment
Level of education
(Estimated) (Estimated)
1993-94
Total high level (classes IX-X) 1,255 1,354 99 7.3
Male 822 859 37 4.3
Female 433 495 62 12.5
Total Arts and Science Colleges 561 595 34 5.7
Male 341 354 13 3.6
Female 220 241 21 8.7
Source: Ministry of Education

7.7 Eighth Five Year Plan (1993–1998)

Substantial expansion of education facilities took place in the country since independence.
Enrolment at primary level increased from 0.77 million in 1948 to 12.414 million in 1993. About 60
Polytechnics, 540 colleges and 20 new universities were established. Despite these achievements
in absolute terms, more remains to be accomplished. Almost half of girls and one-fifths of boys of
the relevant age group (5-9) are not enrolled in primary school; the adult literacy rate is still barely
35 percent, far below that of other South Asian countries with similar levels of economic
development; and there are severe gender and rural-urban imbalances both in the availability and
quality of education. In general, Pakistan’s social development has lagged far behind its economic
growth.

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The National Educational Policies and Five-Year Plans of Pakistan have emphasized
universalization of primary education at the earliest possible, improving the relevance of curricula,
reforming the examination system, expansion of technical and higher education, promotion of
research particularly in science and technology at the universities and enhancing the quality of
education in general. Despite substantial growth in the number of educational institutions, the
desired goals could only be partially achieved due to rapid population growth and resource
constraint. The Eighth Plan will, therefore, focus on the following major aspects:

• Universalizing access to primary education for all boys and girls of 5-9 years of age.
• Enactment and enforcement of legislation for compulsory primary schooling for all children of
the relevant age group, wherever the primary school facilities become available at a
reachable distance.
• Quantitative expansion and qualitative improvement of technical and vocational education to
equip the youth with demand-oriented skills.
• Removing gender and rural-urban imbalances.
• Reforming the management and financing of the universities, de-politicizing their campuses
and eliminating duality of their administrative control by the provincial government and
financial control by the federal government.
• Qualitative improvement of physical infra structures, curricula (by making the courses
demand-oriented), textbook, teacher training programmes and examination system at all
levels of education.
• Broadening of the resource base for financing of education through increased allocation and
encouraging private sector’s participation in provision of educational facilities at all levels.

During Eighth Plan period, 5.548 million additional primary school children (including 3.4 million
girls) and 2.4 million additional secondary school children (including 1.0 million girls) will be enrolled.
The participation rate for boys at primary level will increase from 84.8% to 95.5% while for girls it will
increase from 53.7% to 81.6%.

The accelerated enrolment at primary level will increase the demand for secondary education.
Secondary school facilities will be expanded so as to absorb the increased output of primary schools.
At secondary level (grade VI-X), the participation rate for boys will increased from 49.7% to
54.5%and for girls it will increase from 25.6% to 30.2%. The curricula of secondary schools will be
reformed to make it demand oriented. A parallel system of vocational and skill training secondary
schools will be started on experimental basis and replicate if found successful. Building of selected
schools will also be used to provide training in vocational skills in the evening shift on demand basis
to the dropouts of the general school system. Private sector will be encouraged to establish new
quality education institutions. Each district will have at least on model school for boys and each
division will have one such institution for girls in the public, or preferably in private sector.
Government will establish new model schools in only less developed districts where such institutions
do not exist. The Eighth Plan emphasis will be on improving quality of all secondary schools.

Secondary education
Facilities for secondary education will be expanded to absorb the increased output from primary
schools. For this purpose about 2.4 million additional seats in classes VI-X will be created by
upgrading primary and middle schools, establishment of new high schools and adding classrooms
in the existing schools. Construction of additional classrooms and improvement of the existing
building of the schools will also be carried out. In urban areas, second shift will be introduced in
selected secondary schools where ever feasible. During the plan period, the participation rate at the
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secondary level will be raised from 50% in1992-93 to 55% for boys and from about 26% to 30% for
girls. (Detailed are given in table below). Private sector is estimated to accommodate about 15% of
the target enrolment at secondary level.

Participation rate at the Secondary level

Addl.
Enrolment (000) Enroll. Enrolment Ratios (%)
(000)
Benchmark 1992- Target 1997-98 Benchmark Target 1997-
93 1992-93 98
Boys 3463 4906 1443 49.7 54.5

Girls 1647 2609 962 25.6 30.2

Total: 5110 7515 2405 38.1 42.7

Summary
The Eighth Plan will encourage spread of quality education institutions to remote areas of the
country. By the end of the Eighth Plan, each district will have a model school for boys and each
division will have such an institution for the girls in the public and private sector. Private sector will
be encouraged to establish the quality education institutions. Government will establish model
schools only in district where such institutions do not exist under public and private sector. Efforts
will be made to upgrade the quality of all secondary schools through provision of better qualified
teachers and physical facilities.

7.8 Economic Surveys, 1996-97 & 1997-98

Educational facilities has been expanding over time, but have not kept pace with the requirement of
a modernizing polity. The literacy rate which is estimated at 38.9% (50 percent male and 27 percent
female) in 1996-97, is still behind other countries of the region.
Estimated enrolment in education Institutions by kind, level and sex (progressive) (000 Nos.)
Change %age in total
1995-96 1996-97
Level of education during Enrolment
(Estimated) (Estimated) 1996-97
Total high level (classes IX-X) 1,447 1,546 99 6.8
Male 967 1,006 39 4.03
Female 480 540 60 12.5
Total Arts and Science Colleges 735 830 95 12.9
Male 461 513 52 11.3
Female 274 317 43 15.7

Physical Targets and Achievements of Public Sector Programme

During the period under review 1996-97, 13 new high schools were established. Building of middle
and high schools were reconstructed, 1880 new rooms in secondary schools were added. Moreover,
600 secondary schools were conso1idated and improved as shown under:

Target Estimated Achievements

Programmes
(No.s) Achievements (Percentage)
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Establishment of New High Schools 13 13 100
Reconstruction of Buildings of Middle And High
122 122 100
Schools
Addition of Classes in Existing OverCrowded Schools
1880 1880 100
Consolidation of Existing Secondary
600 600 100
Schools
Source: Planning and Development Division
Participation rate
During the eighth plan at higher level, a complementary pyramid of participation rate has been fixed
for terminal year (1997-98) of the plan, which gives the specific target of 48.8 percent at middle
stage and 32.5 percent at high stage. By the year 1996, the participation rate had been estimated
as 31.6 percent at middle and 29.7 percent at higher stage. During 1997-98, participation rate for
secondary/higher stage classes (IX-X) is estimated as 34 percent for both the sexes, 43 percent for
male and 25 percent for female.

Participation rates
High Stage (class IX-X) 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98
Overall Participation 28.7 29.7 34
Boys 35.9 36.2 43
Girls 20.4 22.3 25

7.9 Aims and Objectives — National Educational Policy 1998–2010

(a) Aims:
Following are the aims of National Educational Policy 1998–2010.

• Education is a powerful catalyzing agent which provides mental, physical, ideological, and
moral training to individuals, so as to enable them to have full consciousness of their mission,
of their purpose in life and equip them to achieve that purpose. It is the instrument for the
spiritual development as well as the material fulfillment of human beings. Within the context
of Islamic perception, education is an instrument for developing the attitudes of individuals in
accordance with the values of righteousness to help build a sound Islamic society.
• After independence in 1947, efforts were made to provide a definite direction to education in
Pakistan. Quaid e Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah laid down a set of aims that provided
guidance to all education endeavors in the country. This policy, too has sought inspiration
and guidance from those directions and the Constitution of Islamic Republic of Pakistan. The
policy cannot put this in a better way than Quaid’s words. These desires of Quaid e Azam
have been reflected in the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the relevant
articles are:

The state shall endeavor, as respects the Muslims of Pakistan:

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 • to make the teachings of the Holy Quran and Islamiat compulsory, in order to encourage and
facilitate the learning of Arabic languages, and to secure correct and exact printing and
publishing of the Holy Quran.
• to promote unity and the observance of the Islamic moral standards.
• Provide basic necessities of life, such as food, clothing, housing, education, and medical
relief, for all such citizens; irrespective of the sex, caste, creed, or race; as are permanently
or temporarily unable to earn their livelihood on account of infirmity, sickness, or
unemployment.
• Remove illiteracy and provide free and compulsory secondary education within minimum
possible period.
• Enable the people of different areas; through education, training, agricultural, and industrial
development and other methods; to participate fully in all the forms of national activities,
including employment in the services of Pakistan.
• The State shall discourage parochial, racial, tribal, sectarian, and provincial prejudices among
the citizens.
• Reduce disparity in the income and earnings of the individuals, including persons in various
classes of the services of Pakistan.
• Steps shall be taken to ensure full participation of women in all spheres of national life.

The vision is to transform Pakistani nation into a integrated, cohesive entity, that can compete and
stand up to the challenges of 21st century. The policy is formulated to realize the vision of
educationally well-developed, politically united, economically prosperous, morally sound and
spiritually elevated nation.

(b) Objectives:
Following are the objectives of National Educational Policy 1998–2010.

• To make the Quranic principles and Islamic practices as an integral part of curricula so that
the message of the Holy Quran could be disseminated in the process of education as well as
training. To educate and train the future generation of Pakistan as a true practicing Muslim
who would be able to usher into 21st century and the next millennium with courage,
confidence, wisdom, and tolerance.
• To ensure that all the boys and girls, desirous of entering secondary education, get the basic
right because of the availability of the schools.
• To lay emphasis on the diversification so as to transform the system from supplyoriented to
demand-oriented. To attract the educated youth with world-of-work from various educational
levels is one of the policy objectives so that they may become productive and useful citizens
and contribute positively as members of the society.
• To make curriculum development a continuous process and to make arrangements for
developing a uniform system of education.
• To prepare the students for the world of work, as well as pursuit of professional and
specialized education.
• To develop opportunities for technical and vocational education in the country for producing
trained manpower, commensurate with the needs of industry and economic development
goals.

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 • To improve the quality of technical education so as to enhance the chances of employment
of Technical and Vocational Education (TVE) graduates by moving from a static, supply-
based system to demand-driven system.
• To popularize the information technologies among the children of all ages and prepare them
for the next century. To emphasize different roles of computers as a learning tool in the
classroom, learning about computers and learning to think and work with computers; and to
employ information technology in planning and monitoring of educational programmes.
• To encourage private sectors to take a percentage of poor students for free education.
• To institutionalize the process of monitoring and evaluation at the lowest and highest levels.
To identify indicators for different components of policy, in terms of quality and quantity, and
to adopt corrective measures during the process of implementation.
• To upgrade the quality of higher education by bringing teaching, learning, and research
process in line with international standards.

7.10 Secondary Education - National Educational Policy 1998-2010

Conceptual Framework
Secondary education (IX-XII) is an important sub-sector of the entire education system. On the one
hand, it provides middle level work for the economy and on the other; it acts as a feeder for the
higher level of education. This level of education, therefore, needs to be revamped in such a way
that it prepares young men and women for the pursuit of higher education as well as prepares them
to adjust to their practical lives meaningfully and productively.

The profile of secondary education is reviewed briefly. The demand of the present time leads to the
following broad conceptual framework that needs to be kept in view, for launching the program of
reforms:

• Proper development of the personality of the student is of immense importance.

• Adequate preparation to enter the world of work as well as pursuit of higher education.
• Greater access to secondary education specially for the female population, meeting the
requirements of students from elementary education.
• Improved quality of teachers both in terms of academic and professional accomplishment.
This will also imply supply of improved teaching-learning materials and improved method of
training.
• Creating a balance between science and humanities teachers, especially in female
institutions by amending the recruitment rules and providing other incentives, wherever
necessary.
• Removing discrepancies existing in present secondary and higher secondary schools in
terms of staff and budget.
• Keeping in view our own past experiences and that of other countries, the whole question of
integrating technical and vocational education with secondary education needs to be re-
examined. The new trends emerging in the world need to be taken seriously.

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Objectives
Following are the objectives of Secondary education - National Educational Policy 1998–2010:

• To prepare the students for the world as well as pursuit of professional and specialized
education.
• To develop the personality of the student as enlightened citizens of an Islamic state and
peace loving citizens of the world at large.
• To ensure that all boys and girls, who are desirous of entering secondary education are not
deprived of their basic right because of non-availability of the schools.
• To design a system of recruitment, training, and selection of teachers in such a way that well
qualified and trained teachers are available for all subjects offered at secondary level.
• To prepare and make available such teaching-learning material which make learning
rewarding and attractive.
• To introduce a system of evaluation which emphasize learning of concepts and discourage
rote memorization.
• To remove ambiguities and contradictions in the operation of 3-tier system of education and
design rules, regulations, and practices which ensure smooth functioning of the system.
• To adopt a balanced approach towards integration of technical/vocational education and
evolve a system, which is cost-effective and practicable.

Physical Targets
The present participation rate at secondary level is 32%, which will be raised to 48% by providing
new teachers and increasing the number of schools as given in the following table:

1996-97 2001-2002

Participation rate at the secondary level 29.7% 48%

Participation rate at the higher secondary level 11% 13%

Number of secondary schools 11,000 18,000

Number of secondary schools teachers 160,000 216,000

Summary
A review of the history of educational planning in Pakistan shows that setting targets, bemoaning
the failure to achieve the same, and setting new targets with unqualified optimism has been a
continuing game policy makers have played ad nauseam and at great public expense over the last
50 years. Differences in the hues and shades of various governments – be it civilian or military,
elected or otherwise, socialist or Islamic – has made little difference to the manner in which the
game has been played. The results in all cases have been the same. And the results show that
there has been a signal lack of political commitment to literacy or education.

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Unit–8
Training Of Secondary School Teachers

8.1 Reorganization of Teacher Education ............................................................... 114

8.2 Teacher Education in Pakistan .......................................................................... 114

8.3 Training of Secondary School Teachers ........................................................... 117

8.4 B.S Education Model ....................................................................................... 117

8.5 Training through Distance Education ............................................................... 119

8.6 B.Ed (14+1) Model .......................................................................................... 119

8.7 B.Ed. (12+3) Model ......................................................................................... 121

8.8 Practice Teaching .............................................................................................. 122

8.9 In-service Training ............................................................................................ 124

8.1 Reorganization of Teacher Education
At the time of independence in 1947, the entire educational system of the country was geared to
produce class of people who would serve the bureaucracy to perpetuate the socio-economic order
in the country. The socio-economic order was designed by the colonial powers to exploit the masses
of the sub-continent. All curricula, textbooks and teaching materials were, therefore, devised to
serve the cause of the vested interests and not to cater to the creation of a dynamic and progressive
society in the country. The first serious effort to rationale the education system was made by the
commission on National Education in 1959 which conceded that ‘no system of education is better
than its teachers who serve it’. The educational philosophy of Pakistan as it pertains to teacher
education is revealed in the following objectives as recommended in the Commission’s report. The
teacher should:

• Be academically well trained in the subjects he teaches.

• Have had sound professional training in how to teach his subjects.
• Have had sound professional training in how to understand the children in his charge.
• Have a deep sense of professional honor.
• Have a security of tenure and a scale of pay commensurate with his status.
• Be working in an environment which honors him for the contribution he makes to society.

The Education Policy 1972-80, suggested that in order to meet the massive requirements of the
teachers at all stages, facilities for teacher education would be increased by reorganizing teacher
education programmes and by introducing innovative techniques. It was also mentioned that many
of the course of teacher training were out-dated and not oriented to the scientific and technological
aspects of education or the use of modern methods and techniques.

National Education Policy 1978 has remarked the teacher as the pivot of the entire educational
system and has suggested strengthening the teacher education by orienting the massive number of
teachers at all levels.

8.2 Teacher Education in Pakistan

The history of teacher education in Pakistan starts with the establishment of the country. However,
this area has been facing various challenges such as lack of consistent policy, inconsistency in
curriculum, low resources, lack of quality teachers, low quality of teaching process, lack of standard,
etc. Today, a range of public and private institutions are engaged in preparing school teachers. In
Pakistan, like many other countries, public institutions are the main source for developing teachers
through pre-service and in-service programmes. However, many studies have raised the question
on the quality of delivery mechanism of the institutions while forwarding recommendations for
improvement.

Historically, different reforms have been brought to improve the condition of teacher education in
the country. Currently, teacher education in Pakistan is passing through a transition as an innovation
has been initiated by the Government of Pakistan with the support of USAID through their Pre-
Service Teachers Education Programme (STEP) project. This reform is attempted in order to
improve the quality of teacher education by including different innovations.

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Some Reflections
The policy action related to teacher education of 2009, ‘National Education Policy’ can be
appreciated. The suggested guidelines for teacher education are the following:

1. The basic qualifications for teaching at the elementary level would be B.Ed. degree. This
programme should be completed by 2018, while the existing qualification shall be phased out
replacing it with B.Ed. (Hons) Elementary followed by B.Ed. (Hons) Secondary. There are
provisions for the less developed areas, where the existing conditions will remain till the
conditions are improved. The National Professional standards, accreditation and certification
procedures shall be standardized; curriculum of teacher education and scheme of studies will
be improved to bring them to students and social needs.
2. The merit in appointments, promotions and postings shall be ensured. Similarly Professional
development is another area, where teachers should go through this programme refreshes
their thoughts in different disciplines of teacher education. A paradigm shift will be
encouraged to conceptual understanding, problem solving approach and practical skills.
Science Kits is provided to primary schools. Another area is Academic audit and
accountability will be introduced to control absenteeism multiple Job holding and other mal
practices in the teaching profession. Research and further training will be the component in
teacher education. The social status and morale of teachers be improved in form of raising
the salaries, up-gradation, rewarded system, incentives for hard areas, special short courses
will be organized, language skills for rural areas be designed teachers’ union shall be given
due consideration in decision making especially in collective issues confronting the education
system. Public / Private partnerships will be introduced in teacher education. The age for
recruitment especially for female teachers, will be waived off.

STRUCTURE OF TEACHER EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN

P.T.C (Primary Teaching/ Teacher Certificate)
C.T (Certificate in Teaching)
J.V (Junior Vernacular (Old System)
S.V (Senior Vernacular (Old System)
Diploma (Diploma in Education)

All the above programmes meant and trained for elementary schools. There sources are Regional
Institutes of Teacher Education. Duration of training is one year.

UNIVERSITY EDUCATION/HIGHER EDUCATION

B. Ed Bachelor of Education (One Year)
B.S.Ed. Bachelor of Science Education (Three Years)
M. Ed Master of Education (One Year)
M.A Education Master of Education (Two Years)
M. Phil Master of Philosophy of Education 2-3 years
Ph. D Doctorate in Education 2-4 Years

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All the RITEs (Regional Institutes of Teacher Education and In-service Schools) produce the primary
teachers. The new system ADE has been introduced, which is Two years programme. All the Public
Sectors and Private Sectors Universities produced the Bachelors and Master as well as M. Phil and
Ph. D Teachers in Education. University of education Lahore has been established and dedicated
to only teachers Education Programmes. Allama Iqbal University produces teachers of all categories
throughout Pakistan, through distance education. Affiliated colleges are another sector. The
Curriculum of Teacher Education is designed by HEC and Provincial Bureau of

Curriculum of different Provinces. Medium of instruction is generally followed as English, but there
is frequent use of Urdu as National Language in teaching. However, the Methods & Methodology
as given in the respective syllabus, it varies from institution to institution.

National Professional Standards

The policy and planning wing Ministry of Education Govt. of Pakistan Islamabad in 2009 framed the
following Standards for teacher Education.

• Subject matter Knowledge.

• Human growth & Development.
• Knowledge of Islamic ethical values / Social life Skills.
• Instructional planning & Strategies.
• Assessment.
• Learning environment.
• Effective communication & Proficient use of Information & Communication Technologies.
• Collaboration & Partnerships.
• Continuous Professional Development & Code of Conduct.
• Teaching of English as a second language.

Each Standard has three parts i.e.

1) Knowledge & Understanding (What Teacher Knows)

2) Dispositions (Behavior / attitude / value).

3) Performance (Skills)

To accredit Teacher Education programmes of all the Public and Private Universities who offer
Teacher Education programme, the Government in 2009 & the Higher Education Commission has
constituted the National Accreditation Council for Teacher Education (NACTE), which is an
autonomous body. The conceptual framework of the standards for Accreditation of Teacher
Education is the following standards:

• Curriculum & Instruction.

• Assessment & Evaluation System.
• Physical Infrastructure / Academic Facilities & learning resource • Human Resources.
• Finance & Management.
• Research & Scholarship.
• Community Links & outreach.

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It is expected that with these Steps taken by the Govt. the quality assurance and enhancement,
visible changes may be witnessed in the field of Teachers Education in Pakistan.

Shifting Paradigm of Teacher Education

The Shifting Paradigm of Teacher Education…Adjusting systemically to new realities

• From transmission to constructivism…..teachers as active learners

• From one off training to long term systematic training opportunities at local, national and
international levels
• From dislocated training to processes in contexts and cultures making space for onservice
capacity building opportunities in lifelong teacher education continuum
• From skill training to one supported by school/curricular reforms
• From isolated/individual to collaborative processes where support groups can be developed
• From empty vessels to adult reflective practitioners seeking support from new approaches in
cognitive sciences, mental models and leaders of change
• From passive participants to thinkers and actors as key reform agents

8.3 Training of Secondary School Teacher

The institutions preparing secondary school teachers are known as Colleges of Education and those
making available advanced training and professional growth by awarding M.A. Education/M.Ed.
degrees are called Institutes of Education and Research (IER) or Department of Education and are
usually affiliated to the universities. At present there are 4 Institutes of Education and Research, 2
Departments of Education, and 11 Colleges of Education preparing secondary school teachers.
These institutes, for the professional training of teachers, bear a direct relation between the
educational changes and the role of teachers.

There are two types of programmes being offered for the training of secondary school teachers i.e.
One Year B.Ed. Programme (14+1) Model and Three Year B.Ed. Programme (12+3) Model, for one
year programme minimum qualification required for admission is B.A/B.Sc. degree. As far as the
12+3 Model is concerned the minimum qualification required for admission is F.A/F.Sc.

8.4 B.S. Education Model

The programme being offered for the training of Secondary Schools Teachers namely B.S.
Education also known as Concurrent programme where prospective teachers are admitted after
passing Higher Secondary School Certificate or Intermediate. This programme compromises
Academic courses of 9 credit hours, specialization of 45 credit hours, elective courses of 6 credit
hours, six professional courses of 18 credit hours and practical teaching of 13 credit hours.

1. Academic Courses:
a) Required Courses (9 Cr. Hours)
• Pakistan Studies 3 Cr. Hours
• Urdu 3 Cr. Hours
• Functional English 3 Cr. Hours

b) Specialization (45 Cr. Hours)

• General Group B.A
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 • Science Group B.Sc.
• Commerce Group B.Com
• Agriculture Group B.Sc. Agri.
• Home Economics Group B.Sc. Home Eco
• Industrial Group B. Tech

Elective Courses (6 Cr. Hours) for all and only 3 for industrial group. Any three from the following
not directly related to the area of content specialization.

• Cultural Anthropology
• Socio-Economic Problems
• Political Science and Current Affairs
• Environmental Sciences/Earth Sciences
• Human and Commercial Geography
• Military Sciences
• Islamic Culture
• Study of Literature:
o Urdu/Pashto/Punjabi/Baluchi/English/Persian/Arabic

2. Professional Courses. (Six Courses):

a) Required Courses (18 Cr. Hours)

The same as in 14+1 Model Scheme of Studies *Additional courses required for industrial group
(only 6 Cr. Hours)

• Introduction to Vocational Education

• Occupational Analysis
• School Shop Management

b) Special Methods of Teaching (6 Cr. Hours).

Any two from the following areas of specialization.

• General group
• Science group
• Agriculture group
• Home economics group
• Commerce group
• Industrial group

c) Professional electives (3 Cr. Hours).

Any one from the following.

• Educational planning
• Guidance and counseling
• Curriculum development
• Comparative education
• Education of Exceptional Children
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 • Theory and history of education
• Modern trends in teaching
• Preparation and use of instructional material
• Educational technology
• Practice teaching (13 Cr. Hours)

8.5 Training through Distance Education

Worldwide use of distance education for teacher training is a signal of success. To cope with the
problem of shortage of teachers, a large number of teachers are trained through this system. A
variety of subjects and specialization in the area for teacher education to a large number of students
is possible only through distance education. Through this system, the teacher use new technologies
and develop new instructional styles which are more effective and more satisfying.

Distance and non-formal education has emerged as an effective mode, particularly in the area of
teacher education in Pakistan. Thousands of PTC, CT, B.Ed. and M.Ed. students are enrolled in
Allama Iqbal Open University in every semester. The graph of enrollment is increasing.

The Allama Iqbal Open University has introduced a Bachelor of Education degree programme
through distance education. Thousands of students are enrolled in each semester. This programme
consists of two major components of theory and practice. In addition to assignments and final
examination, the students are required to teach at least two lessons from their areas of
specialization.

8.6 B.Ed. (14+1) Model

• Perspectives of Education in Pakistan 100
• Human Development and Learning 100
• School Organization and Management 100
• Evaluation and Guidance 100
• Society, School and Teacher 100
• Special Methods Courses (Content and Methodology Separately 400
• Individual Project 100
• Practice Teaching 200
Total marks 1200

Some of the Universities in the country developed their own programmes for the training of
secondary school teachers. In the following lines the programmes of secondary school teacher
training being run by the colleges of education within the jurisdiction of University of the Punjab is
being given:

Part I: Theory 900

Part II: Practical Teaching 200

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Part I-Theory

Compulsory Subjects.
1 Philosophy and History of Education 100
2 Educational Psychology 100
3 School Administration 100
4 Islamiyat/Islamic History and Muslim Culture(for non-Muslims only) 50
5 Pakistan Ideology 50
6 (a) Urdu Language and Literature 50
7 English Language and Literature 50

Elective Subjects.
Methods of Teaching of the two subjects to be selected from any of the following groups:
A. Humanities Group.

Content

Methods of Teaching

• Teaching of Arabic/Persian
• Teaching of Pak. Studies/History/Geography
• Teaching of Elective Math/General Math
• Teaching of Elective English/Islamiyat
• Teaching of General Science/Urdu

Note. Only one subject can be selected from each combination

B. Science Group.

Content

Methods of Teaching

• Teaching of Physics
• Teaching of Chemistry
• Teaching of Biology
• Teaching of Elective Math

Note. Only one subject can be selected from each combination

• Physics/Chemistry
• Physics/Mathematics
• Chemistry/Biology

Part II-Practice Teaching

Practice Teaching is based on the following:
i. Two demonstration lessons from both the elective subjects.
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ii. Supervised practices teaching during which every student teacher is required to teach 80 lessons
under the supervision of teacher educator of the respective college.
iii. The student teacher will be examined in two elective subjects. The student teacher will teach
these lessons in the presence of Board of Examiners. (College Prospectus 1988-89)

8.7 B.Ed. (12+3) Model

1. Academic Courses:
(a) Required Courses (9 Cr. Hours)
• Pakistan Studies 3 Cr. Hours
• Urdu 3 Cr. Hours
• Functional English 3 Cr. Hours
(b) Specialization (45 Cr. Hours)
• General Group B.A
• Science Group B.Sc.
• Commerce Group B.Com
• Agriculture Group B.Sc. Agri.
• Home Economics Group B.Sc. Home Eco
• Industrial Group B. Tech

Elective Courses (8 Cr. Hours) for all and only 3 for industrial group. Any three from the following
not directly related to the area of content specialization.
1 Cultural Anthropology
2 Socio-Economic Problems
3 Political Science and Current Affairs
4 Environmental Sciences/Earth Sciences
5 Human and Commercial Geography
6 Military Sciences
7 Islamic Culture
8 Study of Literature:
Urdu/Pashto/Punjabi/Baluchi/English/Persian/Arabic

2. Professional Courses. (Six Courses):

c. Required Courses (18 Cr. Hours)
The same as in 14+1 Model Scheme of Studies *Additional courses required for industrial group
(only 6 Cr. Hours)
• Introduction to Vocational Education
• Occupational Analysis
• School Shop Management
d. Special Methods of Teaching (6 Cr. Hours).
Any two from the following areas of specialization:
vii. General group
viii. Science group
ix. Agriculture group
x. Home economics group
xi. Commerce group
xii. Industrial group

e. Professional electives (3 Cr. Hours).

Any one from the following:
• Educational planning
• Guidance and counseling
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 • Curriculum development
• Comparative education
• Theory and history of education xvii. Modern trends in teaching
• Preparation and use of instructional material
• Educational technology
• Practice teaching (13 Cr. Hours)

It should be pointed out here that above programme were approved by National Committee on
Teacher Education and were implemented in 1978-79. But some of the universities have made
some changes at their own. In spite of all these efforts to revise the courses of studies the teacher
education programmes have invited lot of criticism. The courses which the prospective teachers
undergo are defective both in respect of content and duration (12+3 model) has been introduced in
3 colleges and is meant for science teachers only.

8.8 Practice Teaching

Practice teaching occupies a key position in the programme of teacher education. It is a culminating
experience in teacher preparation. It provides opportunity to prospective teachers to become
socialized into the profession (Furlong et.al, 1988). Performance during practice teaching provides
some basis for predicting the future success of the teacher. Outgoing popularity and centrality of
practice teaching is an important contributing factor towards the quality of teacher education
programme. During practice teaching working with students in schools provides a high degree of
emotional involvement of a mostly positive nature. Student teachers feel themselves grow through
experience and they begin to link to a culture of teaching.

Definitions of Practice Teaching

A number of terms such as the practice teaching, student teaching, teaching practice, field studies,
infield experience, school based experience or internship are used to refer to this activity. The term
practice teaching embraces all the learning experiences of student teachers in schools. It has three
major connotations: the practicing of teaching skills and acquisition of the role of a teacher; the
whole range of experiences that students go through in schools; and the practical aspects of the
course as distinct from theoretical studies (Stones and Morris, 1977).

Practice teaching is the name of the preparation of student teachers for teaching by practical
training. It is the practical use of teaching methods, teaching strategies, teaching principles, teaching
techniques and practical training and practice / exercise of different activities of daily school life.

Objectives of Practice Teaching

According to Akbar (2002) following are the objectives of practice teaching:

1 To provide the prospective teachers with an opportunity of establishing an appropriate

teacher pupil relationship.
2 To provide an opportunity for evaluating the student potential as a teacher and suitability for
the teaching profession.
3 To develop personal relationship with others: administrators, teachers, parents and students.
4 To provide the future teacher with practical experience in school to overcome the problems
of discipline and enable him / her to develop method of control.
5 To provide with an opportunity to put theories into practice and to develop a deeper
understanding of educational principles and their implication for learning.
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 6 To enable the student teachers effectively to plan and prepare lessons.
7 To develop skill in the use of fundamental procedures, techniques and methods of teaching.
8 To develop desirable professional interests, attitudes and ideas relative to teaching
profession.
9 To enable student teachers to acquire desirable characteristics / traits of a teacher and to
display appropriate behavior.
10 To provide student teachers with an opportunity to have teaching evaluated and to gain from
the benefits of constructive criticism.
11 To provide an opportunity for self-evaluation and to discover own strengths and weaknesses.
12 To develop skills in future teachers related to teaching like fluent speaking, meaningful
reading, using blackboard and other teaching material.
13 To provide an opportunity to liaise with school environment, its functioning and with
community and its resources.
14 To provide for the exchange of ideas and methods between practicing school and teacher
training institution, by teacher training institutions’ staff and students, perceiving new ideas
material and equipment in use in practicing schools and introducing new ideas, material and
equipment into the school.

Stages in Practice teaching

Following are the stages in practice teaching
1. Primary Stage

It is necessary to make a trip of student teachers to that particular school, where they are going for
practice teaching. The main aim of this tour is to see the concerned head teacher, class teachers
and school staff in order to acquire information about school and its environment. Student teachers
must observe the teaching methods of school, methods of concerned class teacher, copies or
notebooks of the students and their usual routine. On return from the tour student teachers must
have the details about scheme of studies, age of the students, strength of the class, abilities and
specific problems of the students, timing of the school, textbooks and teaching aids.
2. Preparation of Lesson

For the preparation of lesson student teachers must know the subject, the relevant books and audio
visual aids which he/she is going to teach because already prepared lessons give confidence to the
teacher. Student teachers and supervisor can reform the teaching learning process after its
evaluation.
3. Teaching in Classroom

The stage of teaching in the classroom is known as practice teaching. Student teachers while
teaching in the classroom passes through different steps of his/her teaching (Introduction,
presentation, recapitulation) and concerned teacher/ supervisor assesses/observes his/her lesson.
4. Evaluation of Teaching Practice

In order to evaluate the teaching practice supervisor observe the student teacher while teaching in
the classroom. Supervisor evaluates / observes the punctuality, lesson planning, teaching methods,
use of audio visual aids, adequacy of audio visual aids, pitch of voice, dress, start and end of lesson,
interest of the students, discipline of class, use of black/white board, students’ notebooks and
objectives of the lesson.

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Practice Teaching in Pakistan
Different teacher training programmes are being offered in Pakistan. In all the programmes teaching
practice is compulsory component except M.Ed (Master of Education). In true spirit we can produce
good teachers through this activity, but the procedure adopted in Pakistan is just to pass / kill the
time. Teaching practice duration is very short; it is about 4 to 8 weeks or teaching of 60 to 75 lessons.

During teaching practice student teachers are bound to the classrooms for teaching. They are not
trained for the other activities performed in schools. Therefore, effective learning could not take
place. Student teachers are bound to use easy principles and methods of teaching. They are just
being taught how to start the lesson, how to control the class, how to keep an eye over the students
while writing on the black/white board.

The schools where teaching practice is conducted are doing nothing but only bearing it and not
taking active part in the preparation of teachers of future. The administration and teachers of
practicing schools are not aware with the information and evaluation techniques, which are used
during teaching practice. They are not fully aware about the importance of teaching practice for
student teachers and future generations.

It is a fact that student teachers are not perfect teachers, practicing schoolteachers can’t give them
full authorities but they can trust on them. Practically two ways are being seen here in Pakistan.
Firstly these uninvited guests are consider inferiors teachers and criticized without any justification.
Secondly some teachers transfer their all burden to them. In some teacher training institutions
selection of lessons is kept up to the choice of student teachers and they select such lessons which
are very easy and in which minimum audio visual aids are used.

Conclusion
Teaching practice is an activity, which can play an important role in the preparation of teachers. Its
effectiveness is necessary for the nation. It is a milestone for professional adolescence. It is a
combination of personality, professional skills, knowledge and training, which is fuel for an endless
journey. Now it is the duty / responsibility of teacher educators and teachers of practicing schools to
make this fuel / expenditure endless.

8.9 In-Service Training (INSET)

Academics Dictionary of Education (2002) described the in-service training of teachers as; Job
related instruction and educational experiences are available to employees. In-service training
programmes are usually offered during normal working hours. Activities designed to improve the
knowledge and skills of employees and the quality of services, especially the instructional practices.
In-service training is directed at those individuals who are basically qualified and employed by school
systems. It can be presented in variety of formats.

In-service teacher training enhances the performance of a teacher. A teacher feels enrichment with
new additions of ideas, concepts and activates. In-service Training improves the overall personality
of a teacher and enables them how to respect personality. In-service training (INSET) improves the
aspects of overall performance of a teacher. It is necessary for a teacher to update his/her
profession.

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In-service training refers to the development of a person in his or her professional role. By gaining
increased experience in one’s teaching role they systematically gain increased experience in their
professional growth through examination of their teaching ability. Professional workshops and other
formally related meetings are a part of the in-service training experience. Much broader in scope
than career development, in-service training is defined as a growth that occurs through the
professional cycle of a teacher. Moreover, in-service training is designed to foster the growth of
teachers that can be used for their further development. One must examine the content of those
experiences through which the process will occur and how it will take place.

Educators must understand the concepts in processing in-service training and what it means to
education. The National Staff Development Council (2007) created a set of nine

standards that all in-service training should follow. They include

• content knowledge and quality teaching,

• research-basis,
• collaboration,
• diverse learning needs,
• student learning environments,
• family involvement,
• evaluation, data-driven design and teacher’s learning.

However, it does not determine whether accountable measures are being gathered to determine if
this information has benefited the education system as a whole. Richardson (2003) published a list
of characteristics associated with effective in-service training, stating that such programs would
optimally be:

“statewide, long term with follow-up; encourage collegiality; foster agreement among participants on
goals and visions; have a supportive administration; have access to adequate funds for materials,
outside speakers, substitute teachers, and so on; encourage and develop agreement among
participants; acknowledge participants existing beliefs and practices; and make use of outside
facilitator/staff developers.”

Practices for In-service training

In-service training is accepted as an integral part of teacher education because only a continuing
learning and training assures a high level of expertise and enables the teachers to keep their
professional skills and knowledge up-to-date. In-service training therefore should not regard only as
an obligatory activity just to meet the required 35 hours.

Just about all fields of science are progressing at a rapid pace, while the new generations have
considerably different approach to learning than the previous generations. In-service training
enables teachers to keep up with the relevant and up-to-date knowledge in their field as well as with
the newest pedagogical approaches which are adjusted to the needs of the 21st century.

Ironically, the greatest interest in in-service training show new teachers who went through an up-to-
date education and training. They view it as an opportunity to develop professionally as well as to
improve their classroom skills. Longer serving teachers are not necessarily reluctant to change their
practice but generally, they do not accept new pedagogical methods as easy as their younger
colleagues. In-service training should therefore primarily be focused on encouraging longer serving
teachers to stay in touch with the recent developments and continue to challenge their practice.
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1. Exchange of information and ideas between the teachers
There are several ways to encourage in-service training. One of the most effective and cost efficient
ways to help teachers refresh their knowledge and pedagogical practice is to encourage exchange
of information and ideas between the teachers in their own school. They should also monitor
probationers who do not only learn from longer serving teachers but often also increase enthusiasm
for teaching as well as transfer their older colleagues the up-to-date knowledge and skills in respect
to both their field and pedagogical methods.

2. Communication with other schools

Just as important is to improve communication with other schools. By meeting colleagues from
other schools, teachers will remain in touch with different teaching styles as well as advances in
their field of expertise. At the same time, sharing ideas, experience and good practice helps raise
education system on a higher level as a whole.

It prevents the new approaches from remaining isolated to particular teachers or schools which in
turn create a better approach to quality education for young people.

3. In-service training courses

Another way to ensure in-service training is to enable the teachers to take part in inservice training
courses which, however, do not always yield the desired results. There is a major concern about
quality of providers of these courses including professional institutions because the quality depends
greatly on the expertise of the trainer. Thus it is not uncommon for the teachers to be disappointed
with these courses. But if in-service training courses are used to encourage continuing learning, it
is crucial that the attendance is voluntary and that individual teachers are allowed to choose a course
they think will help their in-service training the most.

4. Online materials
In addition to the classic in-service training, teachers can also take advantage of online materials,
courses and teacher communities which are easily accessible and cost efficient. Many online in-
service training options have been shown an excellent alternative to the traditional methods;
however, there is a concern about quality of some online in-service training providers as well which
is why monitoring is required when accessing online material or courses.

Characteristics of in-service training

The studies listed previously are just some of the scientifically based research suggesting that
certain professional-learning designs can improve teaching and learning, and what features of these
designs have a significant impact. According to the research, high-quality professional-learning
opportunities for teachers contain the following five

• Aligns with school goals, state and district standards and assessments, and other
professional-learning activities
• Focuses on core content and modeling of teaching strategies for the content
• Includes opportunities for active learning of new teaching strategies
• Provides the chance for teachers to collaborate
• Includes follow-up and continuous feedback
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 • Supports not only teachers’ learning, but students’ as well.
• School leaders improve with study, reflection, practice, and hard work.

The above characteristics indicate that a professional-learning activity meshes with the work of
teaching. But the exact structure of professional learning might differ depending on the needs of the
teacher, the school, and the district. Although there are only a handful of rigorous research studies
on in-service training, these have identified activities that can have an impact on teaching and
learning. These features alone, however, are not a guarantee that teachers will improve instruction,
but instead they are activities that have influenced teaching when well implemented.

Principles of In-Service Training

In-service training is most effective in improving teachers’ practice and pupils’ achievement when it
is sustained and evaluated. Most of the in-service training programs by contrast is fragmented and
unevaluated. There are two main principles that underpin what schools, leaders and teachers need
to do to ensure in-service training is effective in improving teaching and learning:

• Focus it on evidence-based teaching practice.

• Evaluate its impact on pupil learning.

To turn these ideas in action, following ideas on improving practice are useful for increasing the
impact of in-service training:

• Practice the 20%: Apply the law of the vital few: with practice you’ll get stronger results if
you spend time practicing the most important things. Focus more on practicing the 20% of
things that most create value than the other 80% of things you could plausibly spend time on.
Practise the highest-priority things more than everything else combined.
• Design the drills: Use drills to distort the game and intensively isolate one or several skills.
The strategic decision about which skills to refine is the essence of teaching. One of the keys
is to develop the self-discipline to focus on fewer things.
• Shorten the feedback loop: One of the fastest ways to improve performance is to improve
feedback, which gives immense advantages. Feedback works best when it’s given and used
immediately. Make putting feedback into practice right away the expectation. Timing of
feedback beats strength of feedback every time.

Much of the available research on in-service training involves its relationship to student
achievement. Researchers differ on the degree of this relationship. Variables are the school,
teacher, student level related to the level of learning within the classroom, parent and community
involvement, instructional strategies, classroom management, curriculum design, student
background knowledge, and student motivation. Based upon a review of several studies, it is
concluded that the in-service training activities experienced by teachers have a similar impact on
student achievement to those of the aforementioned variables.

8.10 Summary
The history of teacher education in Pakistan starts with the establishment of the country. However,
this area has been facing various challenges such as lack of consistent policy, inconsistency in
curriculum, low resources, lack of quality teachers, low quality of teaching process, lack of standard,
etc. Today, a range of public and private institutions are engaged in preparing school teachers.

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 Historically, different reforms have been brought to improve the condition of teacher education in
the country. Currently, teacher education in Pakistan is passing through a transition as an innovation
has been initiated by the Government of Pakistan with the support of USAID through their Pre-
Service Teachers Education Programme (STEP) project. The Shifting Paradigm of Teacher
Education…Adjusting systemically to new realities:

• From transmission to constructivism…..teachers as active learners

• From one off training to long term systematic training opportunities at local, national and
international levels
• From dislocated training to processes in contexts and cultures making space for onservice
capacity building opportunities in lifelong teacher education continuum
• From skill training to one supported by school/curricular reforms
• From isolated/individual to collaborative processes where support groups can be developed
• From empty vessels to adult reflective practitioners seeking support from new approaches in
cognitive sciences, mental models and leaders of change
• From passive participants to thinkers and actors as key reform agents

There are two types of programmes being offered for the training of secondary school teachers i.e.
One Year B.Ed. Programme (14+1) Model and Three Year B.Ed. Programme (12+3) Model, for one
year programme minimum qualification required for admission is B.A/B.Sc. degree. As far as the
12+3 Model is concerned the minimum qualification required for admission is F.A/F.Sc.

The Allama Iqbal Open University has introduced a Bachelor of Education degree programme
through distance education. Thousands of students are enrolled in each semester. This programme
consists of two major components of theory and practice. In addition to assignments and final
examination, the students are required to teach at least two lessons from their areas of
specialization.

Practice teaching occupies a key position in the programme of teacher education. It is a culminating
experience in teacher preparation. Performance during practice teaching provides some basis for
predicting the future success of the teacher. During practice teaching working with students in
schools provides a high degree of emotional involvement of a mostly positive nature. Student
teachers feel themselves grow through experience and they begin to link to a culture of teaching.

Different teacher training programmes are being offered in Pakistan. In all the programmes teaching
practice is compulsory component except M.Ed (Master of Education). In true spirit we can produce
good teachers through this activity, but the procedure adopted in Pakistan is just to pass / kill the
time. Teaching practice duration is very short; it is about 4 to 8 weeks or teaching of 60 to 75 lessons.
During teaching practice student teachers are bound to the classrooms for teaching. They are not
trained for the other activities performed in schools. Therefore, effective learning could not take
place.

In-service training is most effective in improving teachers’ practice and pupils’ achievement when it
is sustained and evaluated. Most of the in-service training programs by contrast is fragmented and
unevaluated. There are two main principles that underpin what schools, leaders and teachers need
to do to ensure in-service training is effective in improving teaching and learning:

• Focus it on evidence-based teaching practice.

• Evaluate its impact on pupil learning.

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Unit–9
Problems, Issues And Trends In Secondary Education

18

9.1 Education in Pakistan ..................................................................130

9.2 Secondary Educating—Problem .................................................131

9.3 Educational Facilities ..................................................................135

9.4 Medium of Instruction.................................................................135

9.5 Non-availability of Audio Visual Aids .......................................137

9.6 The Educational System Collapsed .............................................138

9.7 Diversification of Secondary Education .....................................139

9.8 Issues ...........................................................................................140

9.9 Gender and Geographical Gaps ..................................................140

9.10 Value Education .........................................................................142

9.11 Computer and Information Technology .....................................143

9.1 Education in Pakistan
Education in Pakistan is overseen by the Federal Ministry of Education and the provincial
governments, whereas the federal government mostly assists in curriculum development,
accreditation and in the financing of research and development.

Article 25-A of Constitution of Pakistan obligates the state to provide free and compulsory quality
education to children of the age group 3 to 16 years.

"The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of five to sixteen
years in such a manner as may be determined by law".

The education system in Pakistan is generally divided into six levels: Preschool (for the age from 3
to 5 years); primary (grades one through five); middle (grades six through eight); high (grades nine
and ten, leading to the Secondary School Certificate or SSC); intermediate (grades eleven and
twelve, leading to a Higher Secondary (School) Certificate or HSC); and university programs leading
to undergraduate and graduate degrees. The education system of Pakistan is comprised of 260,903
institutions and is facilitating 41,018,384 students with the help of 1,535,461 teachers. The system
includes 180,846 public institutions and 80,057 private institutions. Hence 31% educational institutes
are run by private sector while 69% are public institutes.

Analysis of education system in Pakistan

Pakistan has expressed its commitment to promote education and literacy in the country by
education policies at domestic level and getting involved into international commitments on
education. In this regard national education policies are the visions which suggest strategies to
increase literacy rate, capacity building, and enhance facilities in the schools and educational
institutes. MDGs and EFA programmes are global commitments of Pakistan for the promotion of
literacy.

A review of the education system of Pakistan suggests that there has been little change in Pakistan’s
schools since 2010, when the 18th Amendment enshrined education as a fundamental human right
in the constitution. Problems of access, quality, infrastructure and inequality of opportunity, remain
endemic.

MDGs and Pakistan

Due to the problems in education system of Pakistan, the country is lagging behind in achieving its
MDGs of education. The MDGs have laid down two goals for education sector:
Goal 2: The goal 2 of MDGs is to achieve Universal Primary Education (UPE) and by 2015, children
everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling. By the
year 2014 the enrolment statistics show an increase in the enrolment of students of the age of 3-16
year while dropout rate decreased. But the need for increasing enrolment of students remains high
to achieve MDGs target. Punjab is leading province wise in net primary enrolment rate with 62%
enrolment. The enrolment rate in Sindh province is 52%, in Khyber Pakhtunkhawa (KPK) 54% and
primary enrolment rate in Balochistan is 45%.

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Goal 3: The goal 3 of MDGs is Promoting Gender Equality and Women Empowerment. It is aimed
at eliminating gender disparity in primary and secondary education by 2005 and in all levels of
education not later than 2015. There is a stark disparity between male and female literacy rates.
The national literacy rate of male was 71% while that of female was 48% in 2012-13. Provinces
reported the same gender disparity. Punjab literacy rate in male was 71% and for females it was
54%. In Sindh literacy rate in male was 72% and female 47%, in KPK male 70% and females 35%,
while in Balochistan male 62% and female 23%.

9.2 Secondary Educating—Problem

Secondary education in Pakistan begins from grade 9 and lasts for four years. After end of each of
the four school years, students are required to pass a national examination administered by a
regional Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education (or BISE).

Upon completion of grade 9, students are expected to take a standardised test in each of the first
parts of their academic subjects. They again take these tests of the second parts of the same
courses at the end of grade 10. Upon successful completion of these two examinations, they are
awarded a Secondary School Certificate (or SSC). This locally termed as 'matriculation certificate'
or 'matric' for short. The curriculum usually includes a combination of eight courses including
electives (such as Biology, Chemistry, Computing and Physics) as well as compulsory subjects
(such as Mathematics, English, Urdu, Islamiyat and Pakistani Studies).

Students then enter an intermediate college and complete grades 11 and 12. Upon completion of
each of the two grades, they again take standardized tests in their academic subjects. Upon
successful completion of these examinations, students are awarded the Higher Secondary (School)
Certificate (or HSC). This level of education is also called the FSc/FA or 'intermediate'. There are
many streams students can choose for their 11 and 12 grades, such as pre-medical, pre-
engineering, humanities (or social sciences) and commerce. Each stream consists of three electives
and as well as three compulsory subjects of English, Urdu, Islamiyat (grade 11 only) and Pakistani
Studies (grade 12 only).

Alternative qualifications in Pakistan are also available but are maintained by other examination
boards instead of BISE. Most common alternative is the General Certificate of Education (or GCE),
where SSC and HSC are replaced by Ordinary Level (or O Level) and Advanced Level (or A Level)
respectively. Other qualifications include IGCSE which replaces SSC. GCE O Level, IGCSE and
GCE AS/A Level are managed by British examination boards of CIE of the Cambridge Assessment
and/or Edexcel of the Pearson PLC. Generally, 8-10 courses are selected by students at GCE O
Levels and 3-5 at GCE A Levels.

The secondary education system of education is an important terminal process. There are serious
problems in the education system of Pakistan at all levels both on qualitative and quantitative terms.
The system of education in the country is so poor and outdated that there are serious reservations
about the system from all quarters of the society (Government of Punjab, 2002). The situation is not
improving. Many attempts on the parts of various successive governments to raise the quality of
system of education to acceptable national and international standards have brought no positive
results. This alarming situation indicated that the system of education is going towards collapse in
all fronts (Ashraf, 1983). There are many problems that the system of education in Pakistan is faced
with, among whom the problems of teachers are highly prominent. Teachers are the key to the
success of any education system.

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However, studies show that in Pakistan, the problems of teachers have multiplied with the passage
of time rather than being solved. It seems that no one is paying attention to these problems and
resources and energies are wasted on mere improvement of buildings and in the improvement of
the curriculum or system developments (Government of Pakistan, 1998).

There is sense of feeling of extreme alienation among the teaching community because teaching
profession is considered the most underpaid and less lucrative and unattractive professional service
in Pakistan. Teachers do not enjoy the social respect which is enjoyed by other service men in the
country (British Council, 1988). Critical analysis of the problems in the secondary school education
system of Pakistan Following is the critical analysis of the problems of the secondary school system
in Pakistan.

Financial problem
In Pakistan education is the most neglected in terms of financial support from the government side.
Government spends the least budget on education which is less than 2 percent of the Gross
Domestic Product (GDP). Due to receiving less financial support, the sector has remained the most
under paid and poor in performance. This fact has rendered the education sector as the most
unattractive profession in the country. Teacher community is the most finically poor in the society
which compels them to look for other sources of money at the cost of their professional integrity in
some case. Teachers get more than fewer salaries in the country (Zafar, 2003). Teachers are unable
to lead a decent life within the salary provided controversy of the medium of instruction came into
view in the sub-continent as soon as the English people took to them by the government. This factor
has affected the motivation level of teachers. The teachers as a whole do not take active interest in
the performance of their duties. This situation has ultimately impacted the whole process of quality
in teaching and learning in schools. In many cases teachers get salaries without attending schools.
The ratio of teacher absenteeism in government schools is higher. Many teachers run their own
businesses apart from their professional duties (Shahzadi and Perveen, 2002).

Political interference
Education system of Pakistan is does not have freedom from the clutches of domestic politics. The
system of education was completely politicized since the establishment of the country. Almost all
institutions in Pakistan are under the dictation of political kings. There is no concept of institutional
freedom. The main reason behind the problem of political interference is that in many cases the
induction of teachers is made on political basis (Shah, 2003). The concept of merit is pushed behind
in the process of professional appointments. Thus, politically elected teachers cannot work
independently. This factor has grossly affected the smooth process of education in the Pakistani
schools. The teachers who do not listen to the dictations of the political actors are severely punished
in social or financial terms. This absence of professional freedom of teachers has badly affected the
degree of success of their duties. The teachers cannot creatively due to lack of professional liberty.
They work with interest and motivation (Saleem, 2002).

Social recognition
According to Rehman (2002) teaching is considered the most respectful professions in all societies
of the world. In some countries of the world teaching is taken as the most honorable profession. In
some countries of the world it is highly paid and lucrative as well. All this defines the social
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parameters of teaching profession. In Pakistan, teaching profession does not enjoy a great social
status in the society. Teaching is considered as the most underpaid and less attractive profession
as compared to other professions like medical or engineering and so on.

Malik (1991) discovers that in Pakistan social status of teachers in the society is accepted only at
the extent of Holy Scripture. For example, ideologically teaching is deemed as the prophetic
profession and teachers as the promoters of prophetic job. However, in practice this does not exist.
Teachers stand at the last edge of the social ladder in the society. This phenomenon has decreased
the self-esteem of teachers. In these conditions the profession of teaching is the most little attractive
field of service for the youth. Normally teaching is the last option in the priority list of different
professions.

Problem of accommodation
Government does not provide any residential accommodation to school teachers. Therefore,
teachers who are posted in remote areas or outstations face problem of accommodation and shelter.
The main cause of this is lack of policies of the government regarding the residential issues of
teacher community. Due to non-availability of official accommodation teachers are not able to
perform their duties with full attention and satisfaction (Hussain, 2001). It has been observed that
teachers who are posted in remote areas are more interested in return transfer to their near stations
from the time of transfer to the school. This practice negatively affects the performance of the
teachers and leads to disturbance and mental agonies. The teachers away from their families cannot
perform effectively (Government of Punjab, 2004). Many teachers cannot afford to rent houses on
the salary which is given to them. They hardly make their both ends meet. The teachers suffer from
frustrations and finally look for other sources to support their families and their own personal
expenses. All this badly affects their professional duties.

Problem of frequent transfers

Teachers in Pakistani schools are always at the sweet will of the education officers and school
administration. The transfers are usually made on the basis of favoritism and nepotism. Due to this
practice most of the teachers remain in high mental agony, disturbance and pressures (Khan, 1980).
The main cause of the frequent transfers to remote areas and places are decided on the basis of
personal relations and favors. Teachers who are transferred to new places do not find enough time
to get adjusted to the new environment. The practice of frequent transfer of teachers creates not
only disturbances for the teachers rather it also affects the quality of teaching and learning in the
schools. This directly impacts the performance of students. In this way the degree of education is
affected. This practice also badly affects the life of the teachers.
The social life of the family of the teachers especially their children remain in a state of pressure
and disturbance (Farooq, 1993).

Lack of professional development

Teaching is a profession which needs continual updating. New changes occur in the society and
around the world needs teachers to be continuously abreast with latest theories, research and other
addition to the pool of knowledge. Teachers who are not professionally sound and upgraded are not
able to cope with the different changes and challenges in the society, country and the world at large.
Those teachers who acquire latest knowledge, develop their skills effectively manage the process
of teaching and learning. They teach and learn better (Farooq, 1990). Effective teachers need to be
effective learners. The practice of professional development of teachers is less in Pakistani schools.
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Due to lack of latest knowledge and skills the teachers are found weak in solving the problems of
students in the process of schooling. It is observed that students graduating from the schools have
poor communication skills, social skills and even leadership skills to deal with problems of life.
Students in Pakistanis schools memorize the concepts for examination purpose. They lack
analytical, reflective or critical skills like their teachers. This situation has affected the overall degree
of quality of education in the country (British Council, 1988).

Staff relations
Relationship of teacher and teacher and between head teacher and the staff is essential for creating
an environment of trust. Lack of friendly relations affects the process of effective teaching and
learning. The negative effects of politics in Pakistani schools have deeply affected the system of
education. In some cases principals or head teachers give favors to only those teachers who accept
their dictations or orders without any critique. Those teachers who question them or ask for more
support are cornered and disregarded. This practice has given birth to mistrust and de-motivates
some of the teachers who dislike sycophancy. Normally the beavers of school principals are likened
to a small king and school a kingdom (Government of Pakistan, 2001). School principals generally
lack the ability of staff coordination. They lack vision which leads them to feeling of superiority over
teachers. This trend has led to situation where sometimes skirmishes take place between teacher
and principal or verbal war start. The ultimate effects of this situation fall on the students. Even the
process of quality of education in the schools is deeply affected (Khalid, 1998).

Community relations
Schools are community in miniature. Teachers are important change agents. The teachers are
academic leaders of the society. In Pakistani schools the concept of parental participation is very
poor. Teachers normally face negative remarks form the parents’ side as all performance of the
students is related to the performance of the teachers only (Muhammad, 2002).
Students who fail or show low marks in the examination, the teachers are held responsible for this
without realizing that the performance of the students is associated with the role of school
administration, parents and teachers. It is injustice to only hold teachers responsible for the bad
results of the students in examination and so on. There is lack of awareness on the part of the
parents and community that parents and community is equal stakeholder in the development of
the student (Illahi, 1986).

School politics
Malik (1991) argues that educational institutions in Pakistan are not free in terms of political
independence. The destiny of teachers is decided by the political figures in the society like other
professionals working in different public institutions. The political interference in the professional
area has eroded the quality and integrity of the system. In some cases politics has actively entered
into the corridors of education. For example, in colleges and higher education institutions in form of
political parties, small political parties are working. This has affected badly the process of smooth
education (Khan, 1998). Inside schools there are groupings and associations which define the
activities inside the schools. Under these conditions teachers are able to work in peace and
tranquility. The teachers remain in the search to join one group or another. This practice has affected
their professional duties. The political groupings in schools are joined by other groups from outside.
These situations in schools have created extremely unfavorable teaching and learning conditions
for students and teachers (Khan, 1992).

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9.3 Educational Facilities
The EFA goals focus on early childhood care and education including pre-schooling, universal
primary education and secondary education to youth, adult literacy with gender parity and quality of
education as crosscutting thematic and programme priorities.

EFA Review Report October 2014 outlines that despite repeated policy commitments, primary
education in Pakistan is lagging behind in achieving its target of universal primary education.
Currently the primary gross enrolment rate stands at 85.9% while Pakistan requires increasing it up
to 100% by 2015-16 to fulfill EFA goals. Of the estimated total primary school going 21.4 million
children of ages 5-9 years, 68.5% are enrolled in schools, of which 8.2 million or 56% are boys and
6.5 million or 44% are girls. Economic Survey of Pakistan confirms that during the year 2013-14
literacy remained much higher in urban areas than in rural areas and higher among males.

Vision 2030
Vision 2030 of Planning Commission of Pakistan looks for an academic environment which
promotes the thinking mind. The goal under Vision 2030 is one curriculum and one national
examination system under state responsibility. The strategies charted out to achieve the goal
included:

• Increasing public expenditure on education and skills generation from 2.7% of GDP to 5% by
2010 and 7% by 2015.
• Re-introduce the technical and vocational stream in the last two years of secondary schools.
• Gradually increase vocational and technical education numbers to 25-30% of all secondary
enrolment by 2015 and 50 per cent by 2030.
• Enhance the scale and quality of education in general and the scale and quality of
scientific/technical education in Pakistan in particular.

Funds for Education:

Pakistan spends 2.4% GDP on education. At national level, 89% education expenditure comprises
of current expenses such as teachers’ salaries, while only 11% comprises of development
expenditure which is not sufficient to raise quality of education.

9.4 Medium of Instruction

The hold and started governing the people in the sub-continent (Rahman, 2006; Shamim, 2011). It
arose first in Bengal between the supporters of the classical languages on the one hand and those
of English on the other hand (Nurullah and Naik, 1951; Rahman, 2006). The only relieving factor of
the situation was that the Missionary activities were conducted on a very large scale in Madrassas
and consequently English education was more extensively imparted. Looking at the majority in the
educational institutes, it was decided by the provincial governments to give education to the people
by using their mother tongues as the medium of instruction and not English (Nurullah and Naik,
1951). Therefore, the issue carries on since then. According to the UNESCO report (1953), the
child‘s initial literacy should start in his/her mother tongue. In particular, pupils should begin their
school through the medium of mother tongue, because they understand it best. Moreover, to begin
their school life in the mother tongue will reduce the gap between home and school to a noticeable
extent. People of Pakistan come across at least four languages in their life such as Arabic, English,
Urdu and their provincial languages (Sindhi, Balochi etc). Among these, Arabic is used in

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Madrassas; English is used as the official language of the country and Urdu as national language.
As Urdu is the national language of Pakistan and it serves as the lingua franca or link language for
all the regions (Rahman, 2006). The origin of Urdu can be traced to the Muslim invaders who came
to the sub-continent speaking first Turkish later Persian. As far as Sindhi is concerned, it is one of
the oldest languages of Pakistan and is spoken in Sindh and tiny portion of Baluchistan. It is also a
well-known fact that Pakistan is a country where approximately thirty-one different languages are
vocal, except a quantity of vernaculars, but unfortunately no single language is usually spoken or
understood in the entire corners of the country. According to Rahman (1996) many of the languages
are spoken by fairly miniature amount of the population among them a variety of languages and
dialects spoken are: Balouchi, Brahavi and Jugdal (also Makrani) in Baluchistan; Pushto and Hindko
in the Khaiber Pakhtoonkhuwa with local dialects of

Chitral, Gilgit and Hunza; Punjabi, Potwari and Saraiki in the Punjab; Sindhi, Saraiki and Urdu in
Sindh; Gujri and Kashmiri in Azad Kashmir. The language for the medium of instruction, in the
context of secondary education, is chosen by the government, that do not even know what the major
requirements of schools are and such decisions are made outside of schools. In a country where
different languages are spoken, language used as a medium of instruction is chosen which is spoken
by majority (Coleman and Capstick (2012). But, on the other hand, minority is also an issue. For
that, countries have to choose at a certain point or level to introduce international regional or national
language in the educational systems. Therefore, choosing a particular language is important for
basic education as it is the base for future learning. The deeply-rooted issue of the medium of
instruction carries on with the emergence of English in the sub-continent where the local languages
(called vernaculars by the English rulers) were neglected and discouraged just to uphold the English
language by the East Indian Company (Evans, 2002; Rasool and Mansoor, 2009). The Wood
Despatch 1854 was the proposal given by Charles Wood about the education of sub-continent. It
points to the core intention behind this i.e curbing the study in Indian languages. It aimed to initiate
joint venture of Indian languages and English at educational institutes to broaden proper education.
Nurullh and Naik (1951) stated that the resolution moved by Rayaningar 1915 in the Imperial
Legislative Council recommended to the Governor General in the Council to consult the provincial
governments for establishing the vernacular languages as the medium of instruction and English
language a compulsory subject for the learners in schools. Since then, English is accompanied with
Indian languages. Even after the independence, it still prevails here. The famous National
Commission on Education (NCE, 1959), which provided foundation of education in Pakistan,
emphasizes the necessity for the development of Urdu and Bengali as two official languages of the
country. However, it is a fact that in Pakistan, diversity is unavoidable and in order to satisfy the
needs of all learners, it is imperative to adopt flexible modes of teaching and learning and not to
restrict the teacher from delivering multi-lingual instructions. Multi-lingual teaching and learning
should be appreciated if individualized consideration is to be given a priority and also the
construction of knowledge is important rather than making learners to memorize information. This
will help the secondary school children to become critical thinkers and excel in problemsolving and
creative-writing and thinking. Thus, through this process, students‘ grasp of ideas will get stronger
and they will be able to learn more languages on the basis of their own language. According to the
report of National Commission of Education (1959), in Pakistan multilingual groups are present,
therefore, it would be very useful to use their (students‘) mother tongues as the medium of instruction
up to class V. However, keeping the importance of English in mind, English should be taught and
studied as a compulsory subject from class III. Primary education is the first important stage in a
child's life in Pakistan. The primary students are young and have tender minds, so their basics are
developed and enhanced in this early age. It is very important for a teacher to make sure that the
young students understand what the teacher intends to teach. Therefore, as per the researchers‘

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opinion, the teacher must not teach in one language only. Educational system using the home
language is significant in order to develop positive self-esteem. The teacher should focus on mother
tongue and lay foundations for the other languages so that by the time they grow older, they can at
least study in two languages and expand their experiences in the future. It is also inappropriate for
a teacher to converse in one language only as it is not in favour of all students because primary
students are young and are in the process of developing language skills. However, emphasis should
be laid on the indigenous language. National Education Policy (1992) was announced in the era of
Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif. In this policy, the medium of instruction issue came under discussion.
It clearly states that the medium of instruction shall be regional languages. Secondary education is
also an important level of education. It is a holistic growth of the child. It builds up foundation of the
child‘s learning and lays proper educational background for the rest of his / her life. Since secondary
level is extremely significant for the development and flourishing of the child‘s educational settings,
it is also important to ensure what type of instructions is being provided to him/her and in what
language. The role of a particular language of instructions also has a very essential responsibility.
Language is clearly the key for communication and understanding in the classroom. In the national
education policy of Pakistan from 19982010, it is predictable that the learners should depart
secondary education stage and be able to verbalize Urdu or English smoothly along with good
communication skills (The National Education Policy 1998- 2010). Therefore, it is essential to attain
mother tongue based bilingual instruction approaches in secondary classrooms to teach beginners
reading and writing skills whereas second or foreign languages should be taught in a systematic
way so that learners can gradually acquire skills from both languages.

The medium of instruction dilemma in the Pakistani educational system was also discussed in the
National Education Policy of 2009. Furthermore, the National Education policy (2009) disseminated
that this issue was discussed as a challenge to the students. The policy states that English is
undoubtedly an important global language and a great source of competition in the world as well.
And Urdu, being National Language, joins the people all over the country as it is a symbol of national
uniformmity and union. In addition, there are local vernaculars / mother tongues in the country that
are indicators of ethics, cultural richness and diversity. The above discussed details in the national
educational policies mention that there are several controversies and challenges found in the
selection of exact medium of instruction for the students so the findings and recommendations of
this study may resolve this burning issue. Hence this study aims to explore student-teacher
perceptions of the medium of instruction that may provide sound understanding of knowledge and
skills to the students.

9.5 Non-availability of Audio Visual Aids

Burden of more classes
According to Kahlid (1998), the unrealistic working conditions in Pakistani schools have added to
teacher burnout. There are no procedures of work in some schools either due to the ignorance of
the administration of laps on the part of teachers to find out the procedure of work. In some schools
there is lack of teaching staff. This creates more problems for other teachers in the schools who
have to teach more classes than their normal routine. In view of Saleem (2002) this situation has
increased more pressures on the teachers who become prone to physical discomforts. In this
situation the teachers try to cover the syllabus at the cost of the quality in teaching and learning.
Teachers cannot pay individual attention to many students which is a great psychological and social
need of students.

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Lack of physical and learning resources
Due to lack teaching and learning aids in schools teacher face many during teaching process. Some
schools even do not have basic aids such as boards and books. Some schools do not have
classrooms and library. There are no playgrounds for the physical development of students
(Qureshi, 2002). This situation has created more problems for teachers as they cannot provide the
students wider opportunities for learning and development. Teachers are expected to cover courses
well in time. In these conditions teachers fail to create meaningful learning environment in schools
(Hussain, 2001).

Lack of supervision
Rasheed (2004) has found that there is a poor concept of supervision in Pakistani schools. The
process of supervision is filled with bureaucratic underpinnings. The purpose of supervision is for
the development of teachers and improvement of the performance of teachers and students.
Conversely, in Pakistan the process of supervision is characterized with the notion of inspection.
Supervisors create fear during the process of supervision in the minds of teachers (Mohanty, 990).
The supervisors behave like kings and treat the teachers like salves and inferiors. This trend has
created mistrust and discouragement among the teachers. The supervisors instead of providing
constructive feedback give orders to the teachers and hence no improvement takes place (Khan,
1998).

9.6 The Educational System Collapsed

The issues lead to the comprehension of the problems which are faced in the development of
education system and promotion of literacy. The study outlines seven major problems such as:

Lack of Proper Planning:

Pakistan is a signatory to MDGs and EFA goals. However it seems that it will not be able to achieve
these international commitments because of financial management issues and constraints to
achieve the MDGs and EFA goals.

Social constraints:
It is important to realize that the problems which hinder the provision of education are not just due
to issues of management by government but some of them are deeply rooted in the social and
cultural orientation of the people. Overcoming the latter is difficult and would require a change in
attitude of the people, until then universal primary education is difficult to achieve.

Curriculum issues:
Curriculum development in Pakistan is a centralized activity. Curriculum is developed and schools
are supposed to implement it as it is without any manipulation. Teachers’ role is that of implementer.
They cannot contribute on their own towards the process of curriculum development or evaluation
(Hoodbhoy, 1998). This practice has left the teachers ignorant of many aspects of the curriculum
which ultimately affects not only their own performance but also the process of teaching and learning
in schools. in many cases teachers are not aware of the aims or goals of the curriculum for certain
levels. This creates gaps between understating of the curriculum and its effective implementation.
In developed countries of the world teachers are invited to participate in the process of curriculum

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design and development. Their inputs are considered vital for the right direction of the education
system (Government of Pakistan, 2001).

Issues of text books:

Text book is a vital ingredient of teaching and learning process. It is one of the important sources
which provide opportunities for improvement of reading and new knowledge for learners. Textbook
development is highly specialized area in curriculum development. A textbook as one of the sources
of content is an essential element of education (Farooq, 1993). Teachers in Pakistani schools face
problem of instruction due to non-availability of quality textbooks. There is a culture of multi-medium
of instructions in schools. This confuses both the teacher and the student. Besides, there is lack of
training of teachers on how to facilitate or explain concepts from different textbooks (Hussain, 2001).
This lack of orientation has created confusion among teachers which reflects in their poor
performances. The teachers finally lose interest in the profession and seek other sources of gaining
bread and butter. This is a highly dangerous development taking place in schools. At the same time
teachers are expected to cover the syllabus before examination by all means at their disposals
(Khalid, 1998). For this purpose teachers resort to only reading and preaching the books without
taking into account the vital aspects of teaching and learning such as development of various skills
(communication, analysis, reflection) of students and enhancing their knowledge in an effective way.

9.7 Diversification of Secondary Education

Technical Education:
Sufficient attention has not been paid to the technical and vocational education in Pakistan. The
number of technical and vocational training institutes is not sufficient and many are deprived of
infrastructure, teachers and tools for training. The population of a state is one of the main elements
of its national power. It can become an asset once it is skilled. Unskilled population means more
jobless people in the country, which affects the national development negatively. Therefore,
technical education needs priority handling by the government.

Poverty, law and order situation, natural disasters, budgetary constraints, lack of access, poor
quality, equity, and governance have also contributed in less enrolments.

Flipped Learning:
Flipped Learning is a form of blended learning where students learn their lessons at home by
watching video lectures and studying content online, and then doing their homework in class.
Basically, instead of learning directly from the teacher students learn from each other through a
process of small groups using critical problem solving.

By using Wi-Fi enabled classroom technology and various mobile-app solutions you can create the
interactive environment that students benefit the most from. The value for educators comes from
generating powerful analytics to measure student responses while also having the ability to stay
engaged with your students in and out of the classroom.

The Four Pillars of F-L-I-P:

F # Flexible learning: Flipped Learning allows for a variety of learning modes; educators often
physically rearrange their learning spaces to accommodate a lesson or unit, to support either group
work or independent study. They create flexible spaces in which students choose when and where

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they learn. Furthermore, educators who flip their classes are flexible in their expectations of student
timelines for learning and in their assessments of student learning.

L # Learning Culture: In the traditional teacher-centered model, the teacher is the primary source
of information. By contrast, the Flipped Learning model deliberately shifts instruction to a learner-
centered approach, where in-class time is dedicated to exploring topics in greater depth and creating
rich learning opportunities. As a result, students are actively involved in knowledge construction as
they participate in and evaluate their learning in a manner that is personally meaningful.

I # International Content: Flipped Learning Educators continually think about how they can use the
Flipped Learning model to help students develop conceptual understanding, as well as procedural
fluency. They determine what they need to teach and what materials students should explore on
their own. Educators use Intentional Content to maximize classroom time in order to adopt methods
of student-centered, active learning strategies, depending on grade level and subject matter.

P # Professional Educator: The role of a Professional Educator is even more important, and often
more demanding, in a Flipped Classroom than in a traditional one. During class time, they continually
observe their students, providing them with feedback relevant in the moment, and assessing their
work. Professional Educators are reflective in their practice, connect with each other to improve their
instruction, accept constructive criticism, and tolerate controlled chaos in their classrooms. While
Professional Educators take on less visibly prominent roles in a flipped classroom, they remain the
essential ingredient that enables Flipped Learning to occur.

9.8 Issues
Cost of Education
The economic cost is higher in private schools, but these are located in richer settlements only. The
paradox is that private schools are better but not everywhere and government schools ensure
equitable access but do not provide quality education.

War on Terror
Pakistan’s engagement in war against terrorism also affected the promotion of literacy campaign.
The militants targeted schools and students; several educational institutions were blown up,
teachers and students were killed in Balochistan, KPK and FATA. This may have to contribute not
as much as other factors, but this remains an important factor.

9.9 Gender and Geographical Gaps

Major factors that hinder enrolment rates of girls include poverty, cultural constraints, illiteracy of
parents and parental concerns about safety and mobility of their daughters. Society’s emphasis on
girl’s modesty, protection and early marriages may limit family’s willingness to send them to school.
Enrolment of rural girls is 45% lower than that of urban girls; while for boys the difference is 10%
only, showing that gender gap is an important factor.

An analysis of the issues and problems suggest that:

• The official data shows the allocation of funds for educational projects but there is no
mechanism which ensures the proper expenditure of those funds on education.
• The existing infrastructure is not being properly utilized in several parts of the country.
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 • There are various challenges that include expertise, institutional and capacity issues, forging
national cohesion, uniform standards for textbook development, and quality assurance.
• The faculty hiring process is historically known to be politicized. It is because of this that the
quality of teaching suffers and even more so when low investments are made in teachers’
training. As a result teachers are not regular and their time at school is not as productive as
it would be with a well-trained teacher.
• Inside schools there are challenges which include shortage of teachers, teacher
absenteeism, missing basic facilities and lack of friendly environment.
• Out of school challenges include shortage of schools, distance – especially for females,
insecurity, poverty, cultural norms, parents are reluctant or parents lack awareness.

Solutions
There is a need for implementation of national education policy and vision 2030 education goals.
An analysis of education policy suggests that at the policy level there are several admirable ideas,
but practically there are some shortcomings also.

It may not be possible for the government at the moment to implement uniform education system in
the country, but a uniform curriculum can be introduced in educational institutes of the country. This
will provide equal opportunity to the students of rural areas to compete with students of urban areas
in the job market.

Since majority of Pakistani population resides in rural areas and the access to education is a major
problem for them, it seems feasible that a balanced approach for formal and informal education be
adopted. Government as well as non-government sector should work together to promote education
in rural areas.

The government should take measures to get school buildings vacated which are occupied by feudal
lords of Sindh, Balochistan and Punjab. Efforts should be made to ensure that proper education is
provided in those schools.

The federal government is paying attention to the vocational and technical training, but it is important
to make the already existing vocational and technical training centres more efficient so that skilled
youth could be produced.

Since education is a provincial subject, the provincial education secretariats need to be

strengthened. Special policy planning units should be established in provinces’ education
departments for implementation of educational policies and formulation of new policies whenever
needed. The provincial education departments need to work out financial resources required for
realizing the compliance of Article 25-A.

Federal Government should play a supportive role vis-à-vis the provinces for the early compliance
of the constitutional obligation laid down in Article 25-A. Special grants can be provided to the
provinces where the literacy rate is low.

Pakistan is not the only country which is facing challenges regarding promotion of literacy and
meeting EFA and MDGs commitments. Education remains a subject which is paid least attention in
the whole South Asian region. UNDP report 2014 suggests that there has been an improvement in
other elements of human development such as life expectancy, per capita income and human
development index value (in past 3 years); but there has been no progress in the number of
schooling years. The expected average for years of schooling in 2010 was 10.6 years but the actual
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average of schooling remained 4.7 for all South Asian countries. In the year 2013 the expected
average of number of years increased to 11.2 but the actual average of years of schooling of South
Asian countries remained.

Regional cooperation mechanism can also be developed to promote literacy in South Asian region.
Sharing success stories, making country-specific modifications and their implementation can
generate positive results.

• Technical education should be made a part of secondary education. Classes for carpentry,
electrical, and other technical education must be included in the curriculum.
• Providing economic incentives to the students may encourage the parents to send their
children to school and may help in reducing the dropout ratio.
• Local government system is helpful in promoting education and literacy in the country. In local
government system the funds for education would be spent on a need basis by the locality.
• Corruption in education departments is one of the factors for the poor literacy in the country.
An effective monitoring system is needed in education departments.
• For any system to work it is imperative that relevant structures are developed. Legislation
and structure should be framed to plan for the promotion of education in the country. After
the 18th amendment the education has become a provincial subject, therefore, the provinces
should form legislations and design educational policies which ensure quality education.
• Unemployment of educated men and women is a major concern for Pakistan. There should
be career counseling of the pupils in schools so that they have an understanding of job market
and they can develop their skills accordingly.
• Counseling of parents is required, so that they can choose a career for their child which is
market friendly.
• There are two approaches to acquiring education: First, which is being followed by many in
Pakistan is to get education to earn bread and butter. The second approach is to get
education for the sake of personal development and learning. This approach is followed by
affluent and economically stable people who send their children to private schools and abroad
for education. The problem arises when nonaffluent families send their children to private
schools, and universities. This aspiration for sending children for higher education is wrong,
because the country does not need managers and officers only. There are several other jobs
where people are needed. Hence the mind-set of sending one’s children to university only for
becoming officers and managers needs to be changed.

9.10 Value Education

Remote Learning
This model allows students who can't make it to school still attend virtually. They attend class
through video and access content online. Other technologies can also be used including video
conferencing, class forums, pre-recorded videos, social media, and email. In the same way you can
bring in students remotely, you can also bring in teachers or subject matter experts. This provides
a higher quality of learning that would otherwise be unavailable due to distance or time. Education
becomes tailored to the needs of the student, making it accessible to everyone. The challenges of
time and distance become inconsequential when all you need is a reliable wifi network paired with
the right mobile technologies.

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Mind Mapping
Mind maps make learning interactive and multi-dimensional instead of unidirectional and passive.
It’s graphic and visual, using circled ideas that are linked together with lines, the same way the
human mind works. This makes it easier for students to understand and recall information.

By using software like Mindmeister or Brainstormer, you can engage with your students and allow
them to bounce ideas off each other. The maps can also be easily shared just like an email.

Big Data
Potentially the most important trend on this list, "Big-Data" has the remarkable flexibility and
precision to change how we teach and learn.

All of the mobile devices, applications and wireless technologies we use on a day to day basis can
now be linked together and harnessed to deliver an almost endless supply of relevant data.

Imagine having the ability to know exactly what works and what doesn't for example:

• Are your students having trouble with how a question is formatted rather than material
• Were your students more successful in the work place after graduation
• Is homework more effective at certain times of night or during certain times of the year
• How many students are understanding the curriculum and how many are falling behind

Big data gives you real-time information that can be applied to your classroom immediately. It also
can help your students by allowing you to focus on the areas they actually need help with.

In the connected and mobile age we live in data has become the low-hanging fruit all education
leaders should be leveraging to get the most out of new classroom technology.

9.11 Computer and Information Technology

Gamification
Gamification is the concept of applying game-design thinking to different classroom tasks to make
them more fun and engaging. The idea is to use the typical game system of providing challenges,
rewarding winners, then providing harder challenges with equally bigger rewards.

When you win at a game, your mind releases dopamine, a chemical in the brain that triggers
motivation and pleasure. This makes learning a positive experience, one that you won’t have to
force students to enjoy. So the main concept is to challenge the students, let them feel good about
overcoming the challenge, then challenge them more.

Digital Textbooks
Textbooks are getting more expensive and they are usually used for seven years before a new
edition comes out. A digital textbook would be more cost efficient and can easily be updated to
reflect the most recent information. For the one-time cost of a tablet and let students use devices
they already own) students are able to access every book they'll need for the year anytime and
anywhere.

Social Media
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Social media is usually considered a huge distraction when it comes to the classroom. From
Facebook to YouTube and Twitter many educators are fearful of its use, but this is a short-sided
view. With the right strategy in place and the right wireless infrastructure social media can be a very
useful and powerful tool for both students and teachers.

There are numerous ways to use social media for learning. An online group can bring students
together to work on projects and assignments together and hashtags for Twitter can be used to
organize interactive conversations based on a specific subject or problem. Of course when using
social media you have to also teach students how to properly use it, many schools have a digital
citizenship code that students must follow that reinforces a positive message around the use of
social media in school.

Summary
The reforms required in the education system of Pakistan cannot be done by the government alone,
public-private participation and a mix of formal as well as non-formal education can pull out majority
of country’s population from illiteracy. Similarly, to make the youth of the country an asset, attention
should also be paid to vocational and technical training.

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