ISTANBUL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY  FACULTY OF AERONAUTICS AND ASTRONAUTICS

DEVELOPMENT OF A ROCKET FLIGHT SIMULATOR

GRADUATION PROJECT

Ömer UÇAR

Department of Astronautical Engineering

Anabilim
Thesis Advisor: Dalı
Asst. : Herhangi
Prof. Dr. KemalMühendislik, Bilim
Bülent YÜCEİL
Programı : Herhangi Program

JULY, 2020

i
ISTANBUL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY  FACULTY OF AERONAUTICS AND ASTRONAUTICS

DEVELOPMENT OF A ROCKET FLIGHT SIMULATOR

GRADUATION PROJECT

Ömer UÇAR
(110150142)

Department of Aeronautıcal Engineering

Thesis Advisor: Prof. Dr. Name SURNAME

Anabilim Dalı : Herhangi Mühendislik, Bilim
Programı : Herhangi Program

JULY, 2020

ii
 Ömer UÇAR, student of ITU Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronauticsstudent ID
110150142, successfully defended the graduation entitled “DEVELOPMENT OF
A ROCKET FLIGHT SIMULATOR”, which he prepared after fulfilling the
requirements specified in the associated legislations, before the jury whose signatures
are below.

Thesis Advisor : Asst. Prof. Dr. Kemal Bulent YUCEİL ..............................

İstanbul Technical University

Jury Members : Prof. Dr. Alim Rüstem Aslan .............................

İstanbul Technical University

Dr. Bülent TUTKUN ..............................

İstanbul Technical University

Date of Submission : 13 July 2020

Date of Defense : 22 July 2020

iii
To my family,

iv
FOREWORD

I would like to thank to the people who has contributed and made Istanbul Technical
University such a privileged institute. Those contributions gave me a change to get a
real engineering education not just by the courses given also with its environment and
community.

I give my most sincere gratitude to Prof. Dr. Alim Rüstem ASLAN for his guidance
and support throughout my entire education at Istanbul Technical University. Also I
would like to thank to Asst. Prof. Dr. Kemal Bülent YÜCEİL for his guidance on this
graduation project.

Moreover I like to express my gratitude to my business partners and best friends Ege
TÜRKYILMAZ and Tegin Berkay BUDAK for their guidance and support on this
study and throughtout my education.

Lastly, I would like to thank to my family for all their support and encouragement that
bring me to present.

JULY 2020 Ömer UÇAR

v
vi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................... vii

ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................. viii
SUMMARY ............................................................................................................... xi
ÖZET......................................................................................................................... xii
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1
1.1. Purpose of Research ............................................................................................ 1
1.2. Rocket Motors and Rocket Propulsion ............................................................. 1
1.2.1. Chemical Rocket Motors ........................................................................... 4
1.2.1.1. Solid rocket motors ............................................................................. 5
1.2.1.2. Liquid rocket engines .......................................................................... 5
1.2.1.3. Hybrid rocket engines ......................................................................... 6
2. AERODYNAMICS OF ROCKETS ..................................................................... 8
2.1. Aerodynamic Forces and Moments ................................................................... 8
2.2. Velocity Regions .................................................................................................. 9
2.3. Drag Coefficients ............................................................................................... 10
2.3.1. Skin friction drag ..................................................................................... 10
2.3.2. Base drag .................................................................................................. 11
2.3.3. Wave drag ................................................................................................ 12
2.4. Aerodynamic Surfaces ...................................................................................... 13
2.4.1. Nosecones ................................................................................................ 14
2.4.2. Fins ........................................................................................................... 18
3. ROCKET FLIGHT .............................................................................................. 20
3.1. General Sounding Rocket Trajectory ............................................................. 20
3.2. Forces and Moments ......................................................................................... 22
3.3. Rocket Stability ................................................................................................. 23
3.3.1. Center of Gravity ..................................................................................... 24
3.3.2. Center of Pressure .................................................................................... 25
4. DESIGN OF A SOUNDING ROCKET ............................................................. 26
4.1. Mission ............................................................................................................... 26
4.2. Launch Environment ........................................................................................ 26
4.3. Motor Selection.................................................................................................. 27
4.4. Mechanical Design ............................................................................................ 29
4.4.1. Inner layout .............................................................................................. 30
4.4.2. Mass budget ............................................................................................. 31
5. SIMULATION ..................................................................................................... 34
5.1.Calculation of Atmospherical and Aerodynamical Properties ...................... 34
5.2.Dynamic Simulation ........................................................................................... 36
6. SIMULATION RESULTS AND COMPARISONS.......................................... 37
6.1. Results ................................................................................................................ 37
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 41
APPENDIX ............................................................................................................... 42

vii
ABBREVIATIONS

DoF : Degree of Freedom

ICBM : Intercontinental Ballistical Missile
CG : Center of Gravity
CP : Center of Pressure
SI : International System of Units

viii
LIST OF TABLES
Page

Table 2.1 : Mach regions ............................................................................................. 9

Table 2.2 : Flow type according to Reynolds number .............................................. 11
Table 2.3 : Haack series nose cones [4] .................................................................... 17
Table 3.1 : Sounding rocket mission events.............................................................. 21
Table 4.1 : Test rocket inner layout .......................................................................... 31
Table 4.2 : Aerodynamic surfaces and structural parts ............................................. 32
Table 4.3 : Electronic system parts ........................................................................... 32
Table 4.4 : Recovery system parts ............................................................................ 33
Table 4.5 : Solid rocket motor .................................................................................. 33
Table 4.6 : Total mass budget ................................................................................... 33
Table 6.1 : Sımulation outputs comparison............................................................... 40

ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Page

Figure 1.1 : General rocket motor representation.[1] .................................................. 4

Figure 1.2 : Solid rocket motor representation[1]. ...................................................... 5
Figure 1.3 : Liquid rocket engine representation[1].................................................... 6
Figure 1.4 : Hybrid rocket engine representation.[1] .................................................. 7
Figure 2.1 : Conical nosecone cross-section.[4] ....................................................... 14
Figure 2.2 : Parabolic nosecone cross-section[4]. ..................................................... 15
Figure 2.3 : Elliptical nosecone cross-section [4]. .................................................... 15
Figure 2.4 : Ogive nosecone cross-section[4]. .......................................................... 16
Figure 2.5 : Haack nosecone cross-section [4].......................................................... 16
Figure 2.6 : Nosecone performance according to Mach number.[5] ........................ 18
Figure 2.7 : Trapezoidal fin cross section. ................................................................ 19
Figure 3.1 : Sounding rocket mission profile. ........................................................... 21
Figure 3.2 : Deployment trajectories. ........................................................................ 22
Figure 3.3 : Rocket on a launch rail. ......................................................................... 22
Figure 3.4 : Static margin of a rocket [7] . ................................................................ 24
Figure 4.1 :Satellite image of launch site [8]. ........................................................... 27
Figure 4.2 : M1845 rocket motor thrust curve [11]. ................................................ 29
Figure 4.3 : Aluminum trapezoidal fin. .................................................................... 30
Figure 4.4 : Cross section of test rocket .................................................................... 30
Figure 5.1 : Drag coefficient calculation function block diagram ............................ 36
Figure 6.1 : Total acceleration comparison graph ..................................................... 38
Figure 6.2 : Mach number comparison graph ........................................................... 38
Figure 6.3 : Altitude comparison graph .................................................................... 39
Figure 6.4 : Total drag coefficient comparison graph ............................................... 39

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DEVELOPMENT OF A ROCKET FLIGHT SIMULATOR

SUMMARY

Sounding rockets are one of the key instruments of the scientific research in aerospace
engineering and other discliplines. With ease of implemenetation and low launch costs,
sounding rockets are used for acceptance test of many mission subsystem and used for
launching atmospherical science instruments. Since sounding rockets does not
complete a complete orbit around the world, many of the research and amateur rockets
are considered as sounding rocket.
Simulation helps rocket engineers to see the performance of their rocket and reduces
the development costs by reducing the number of tests needed. Those savings creates
an opportunity to create more advanced systems.
With the vast improvements in the computer sciences in the last decades, many of the
personal computers become capable to run average engineering programs. This
improvement led to development of computer and science programs for personal
computers. Recently rocket simulators for atmospheric sounding rockets has come to
use. Those programs lets users to design and simulate their sounding rockets. None the
less, this design and simulation process has a certain amount of uncertainty. Moreover
there are many restrictions in the current simulators due to computational limits and
common usage characteristics. For users that are eager to simulate off-design
conditions and non-common design characteristics, a simulator has been created in
MATLAB environment.
Besides some of the commonly used simulators, simulator developed in this study
performs simulations in 3-DoF rather than 6-DoF. In order to simulate a atmospheric
rocket flight, users has to provide the properties of the launch site and the rocket. Input
rocket properties has to include a rocket motor thrust curve, rocket geometrical data
and mass data. Launch site properties has to include coordinates, elevation from sea
level and atmospheric properties of the desired launch time. Simulator takes inputs as
functions, this way users can switch between the locations and rockets and rocket
motors easily.
Sımulator computes aerodynamic forces with respect to International Standart
Atmospher model and calculates drag coefficients for that specific conditions. For
gravitatinal force calculations “GWS84” gravitation model is used. With drag force
and gravitational force 3-DoF calculations are made, but in order to calculate the flight
path angle of the rocket, which has a tramendous effect on rocket trajectory, gravity
turn approach has been added.
In order to compare the simulator results OpenRocket software is choosen and a test
rocket has been designed. Test rocket delivers 8 kg of payload to 3000 m altitude. Both
simulators gave the similar results in terms of acceleration and Mach number. There
has been a minor difference in altitude. That difference occurs mainly from drag
coefficien and flight path angle calculations. It is concluded that for sounding rockets
3-DoF simulations can provide efficent results.

xi
DEVELOPMENT OF A ROCKET FLIGHT SIMULATOR

ÖZET

Sonda roketleri, havacılık ve uzay mühendisliği ve diğer disiplinlerdeki bilimsel

araştırmalar için kilit araçlardan biridir. Uygulama kolaylığı ve düşük fırlatma
maliyetleri ile, birçok görev alt sisteminin kabul testi için sonda roketleri ve atmosfer
bilimleri araçlarının fırlatılması için kullanılır. Sonda roketleri Dünya etrafında tam
bir yörüngeyi tamamlamadığından, araştırma roketlerinin ve amatör roketlerin çoğu
sonda roketi olarak kabul edilir.
Simülasyon, roket mühendislerine roketlerinin performansını görmeleri konusunda
yardımcı olur ve gerekli test sayısını azaltarak geliştirme maliyetlerini azaltır. Bu
tasarruflar sayesinde daha gelişmiş sistemler yaratma imkanı ortaya çıkmaktadır.
Son yıllarda bilgisayar bilimlerindeki büyük gelişmelerle birlikte, kişisel
bilgisayarların çoğu ortalama mühendislik programlarını çalıştırabilir hale gelmiştir.
Bu gelişme kişisel bilgisayarlar için mühendislik ve bilimsel hesap programlarının
geliştirilmesine yol açmıştır. Yakın zamanda atmosferik sonda roketleri için roket
simülatörleri kullanılmaya başlandı. Bu programlar kullanıcıların sonda roketlerini
tasarlamalarını ve simüle etmelerini sağlamaktadır. Ancak bu tasarım ve simülasyon
sürecinin belli bir belirsizliği vardır. Ayrıca, mevcut simülatörlerde hesaplama sınırları
ve genel kullanıma yönelik özellikleri nedeniyle birçok kısıtlama vardır. Standart
tasarım dışı koşulları ve genel tasarım kıstasları dışarısındaki özellikleri simüle etmeye
istekli kullanıcılar için MATLAB ortamında bir simülatör oluşturulmuştur.
Yaygın olarak kullanılan bazı simülatörlerin yanı sıra, bu çalışmada geliştirilen
simülatör, 6 serbestlik derecesi yerine 3 serbestlik derecesinde simülasyonlar
gerçekleştirmektedir. Atmosferik bir roket uçuşunu simüle etmek için, kullanıcılar
fırlatma alanının ve roketin özelliklerini sağlamalıdır. Simülasyon girdileri olarak
roket özellikleri, roket motoru itki verisi, roketin geometrik özellikleri ve kütle
verilerini içermelidir. Fırlatma sahası özellikleri, koordinatları, deniz seviyesinden
yüksekliği ve istenen fırlatma gününün atmosferik koşullarını içermelidir. Simülatör
girişleri fonksiyon olarak alır, böylece kullanıcılar fırlatma konumları, roketler ve
roket motorları arasında kolayca geçiş yapabilirler.
Simülatör Uluslararası Standard Atmosfer modeline göre bulunulan koşullara ait
sürükleme katsayılarını hesaplar. Yerçekimi kuvveti hesaplamaları için “GWS84”
yerçekimi modeli kullanılmaktadır. Sürükleme kuvveti ve yerçekimi kuvveti ile 3
serbestlik derecesinde hesaplamalar yapılmaktadır, ancak roket yörüngesi üzerinde
büyük bir etkisi olan roketin uçuş yolu açısını hesaplamak için yerçekimi dönüşü
yaklaşımı eklenmiştir.
Simülatör sonuçlarını karşılaştırmak için OpenRocket yazılımı seçilmiştir ve bir test
roketi tasarlanmıştır. Test roketi 3000 m yüksekliğe 8 kg faydalı yük bırakmaktadır.
Her iki simülatör de ivme ve Mach sayısı açısından benzer sonuçlar vermiştir. İrtifa
verilerinde küçük bir farklar görülmektedir. Bu fark esas olarak sürükleme katsayısı
hesaplamalarından kaynaklanmaktadır. Sonda roketleri için 3 serbestlik dereceli
simülasyonlarının etkili sonuçlar sağlayabileceği sonucuna varılmıştır.

xii
xiii
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Purpose of Research

With the vast improvements in the computer technologies, almost every personal
computer has become capable of running general engineering software. Also, same
improvements, made the knowledge more accessible for internet users. With the help
of the online social platforms, competitions, and papers; model rocketry and high-
power rocketry spread across the world in the last decade. Most of this model
rocketeers are curious individuals without a relevant education. Since model rocketry
is mostly about systems engineering, most of the rocketeers spend their time on
design of recovery systems, communication systems, and manufacturing the relevant
parts. Besides these applications in many disciplines, there has to be dedicated flight
analysis. To execute this flight analysis and breakdown relevant flight events, a flight
simulator is needed. With this need there has been many open sourced and licensed
simulators released in the last decade.

In present research, a rocket simulator has been developed for atmospheric rocket
flight. Simulator coded in MATLAB environment with ITU Library TAH license. The
original form of the simulator is for model or high-power rockets. But properly
changing the initial conditions and assumptions it is possible to simulate a ballistic or
tactical rocket with passive control. Thus, the main purpose of this research is to create
a simulator for preliminary design of a rocket system. Users can determine many of
the preliminary parameters to start working with detailed design of their system, such
as; thrust, Mach number, altitude, maximum acceleration. The ease of modification of
the simulator code is a fine aspect of the code that will help users to simulate their
unique case conditions.

1.2. Rocket Motors and Rocket Propulsion

From the starting of the powered flight to the present day. Propulsion systems are
generally based on chemical propulsion which is a process that involves combustion.
In order to start a combustion reaction oxidizer and fuel is needed. Fundamentally aero

1
engines stores fuel in the fuel tank and sucks the air from freestream and uses it as a
oxidizer source. Chemical Rocket motors distinguishes from aero engines as they store
both oxidizer and fuel on board and does not need any other source of chemical or
mass from outside. Another distinction between rocket motors and aero engines are is
rocket motors creates thrust from directly accelerating the combustion gasses from
combustion chamber with a isentropic nozzle. By this way rocket motors turns
chemical energy to kinetic energy. On the other hand, aero-engines transfers the
chemical energy to kinetic energy but does not uses that kinetic energy, instead uses it
to spin the compressor blades, fan blades, propellers etc.

With the capability to store both oxidizer and fuel on board, first rocket motors came
to use in ancient china as fireworks boosters. Those motors were the primitive form of
solid rocket motors. After the World War I vast improvements in aero engines lead the
birth of the modern rocket motors. On board oxidizer and fuel let the engineers to
adjust the thrust in certain limits. With that adjustments rocket motors gave higher
thrust to weight ratio than aero-engines, thus higher acceleration and speed. As a result,
first ballistic missiles were born, which later leads to development of ICBM’s (inter-
continental ballistic missiles). Until the ICBM’s rocket motors were used only for
military applications. ICBM technology has the power the reach to space, so with the
effect of the cold war ICBM race turned in to space race and rocket motors started to
used for scientific purposes.

Fundamentals of rocket motors are based on Newton’s third principle. Thrust is created
by conservation of momentum principle.

𝑚1𝑣1 = 𝑚2𝑣2 (1.1)

Where 𝑚1 is the mass of the rocket, 𝑚2 is the mass of the propellant that is accelerated
through nozzle at that instant, 𝑣1 is the velocity of the rocket and 𝑣2 is the velocity of
the exhaust gasses. Mass of propellant decreases as time passes. Decrease in mass of
propellant can be expressed as mass flow rate of the rocket which is in the units of
kg/s. When the equation (1.1) modified, mass of the propellant becomes mass flow
rate of the propellant, which is represented by 𝑚̇, equation becomes momentum thrust
equation which is expressed in equation (1.2).

2
 𝐹𝑚 = 𝑚̇2𝑣2 (1.2)

There can be pressure difference between the nozzle exit and the environment that
rocket motor that is used in. This difference affects the instantaneous thrust that is
exerted by the rocket. In present study, this thrust that is induced by pressure
difference, is called pressure thrust which is expressed in equation (1.3).

𝐹𝑝 = 𝐴(𝑝3 − 𝑝2 ) (1.3)

Where 𝑝3 is atmospheric pressure and 𝑝2 is nozzle exit pressure and A is the nozzle
exit area. Combining equations (1.2) and (1.3) yields to total thrust force which is
expressed in equation (1.4).

𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑣2 − 𝐴(𝑝3 − 𝑝2 ) (1.4)

This detailed expression is not frequently used for practical reasons. To simplify
effective exhaust velocity is used, which is represented by "𝑐". This term involves both
momentum and pressure thrust.

𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑐 (1.5)

In order to determine performance of a rocket engine two main parameters are

frequently used. First one is the mass flow rate of the propellant. Second one is the
velocity of the exhaust gas. First one can be achieved by simply pumping more
propellant. To achieve the second one isentropic nozzles are needed. Isentropic nozzles
compresses and accelerates the combustion gasses until the Mach number is equal to
1 at the throat. After the throat flow accelerates by expanding at supersonic speed.

3
 Figure 1.1 : General rocket motor representation.[1]

Effective exhaust velocity is a distinctive parameter regarding to mass flow rate

because, high mass flow rate with low exit velocity means more fuel and heavier
rocket. Also, in order to achieve higher mass flow rates there need to be additional
systems to pump the fuel and this means even higher mass. So desired rocket motor is
the one with lower dry mass and higher exit velocity. To compare the rockets and
rocket motors in terms of performance. Two parameters are often used. First one is
mass ratio 𝑀𝑅 , it is the ratio of the rockets mass after all the propellant is consumed
,which is represented by 𝑚𝑓 , to rockets initial mass which is represented by 𝑚0 .

𝑚
𝑀𝑅 = 𝑚𝑓 (1.6)
0

Where Second one is specific impulse 𝐼𝑠𝑝 it is just a performance parameter and does
not have a real physical meaning. 𝐼𝑠𝑝 is effective exhaust velocity divided by sea level
gravitational acceleration 𝑔0 , or it can be represented as in equation (1.7).

𝑐 = 𝐼𝑠𝑝 𝑔0 (1.7)

1.2.1. Chemical Rocket Motors

Chemical motors use two fundamental compounds for the combustion; oxidizer and
fuel. Reaction of oxidizer and fuel creates hot combustion gasses. Chemical rocket
motors create thrust by accelerating the hot combustion gasses through an isentropic
nozzle. With the current rocket propulsion technology only chemical rocket motors are
capable to escape from earth’s gravitational field. Besides those chemical rocket
motors have higher thrust to weight ratio than any other alternative. This quality makes
4
the chemical rockets only available choice for today’s atmospheric rockets. Chemical
rocket motors can be categorised in three types.

1.2.1.1. Solid rocket motors

Solid rocket motors store the oxidizer and fuel as a mixed solid compound at the
combustion chamber. Solid motors are relatively mechanically simpler than other
types of rocket motors. Propellant is kept in a combustion chamber as solid until the
ignition, after the ignition combustion gasses accelerates in the combustion chamber
and expands through the nozzle and creates thrust. Since it is not possible to control
the mass flow rate during combustion, thrust curve is arranged with propellant
geometry and different propellant configurations. Further more solid rocket motors
generally storable for longer storable for long durations. For example military missiles
motors generally have 10 years of shelf life. Because of the storability solid rocket
motors generally used in military applications. For space missions solid motors
generally used as atmospheric booster, since there is no throttling or shut-down needed
in that process.

Figure 1.2 : Solid rocket motor representation[1].

1.2.1.2. Liquid rocket engines

Liquid rocket engine stores the oxidizer and fuel in separate propellant tanks. When
the engine is started, oxidizer and fuel starts to pump in to the combustion chamber
and combustion starts. In order to drive the propellants and control the mass flow rate
of the propellants pressurization systems could be used. Turbo pumps and high-
pressure gasses can be given as example. Main advantage of liquid engines is to ability
to restart through the mission. Furthermore, liquid rocket engines provides the best
specific impulse among the chemical rocket engines. Main reason is that liquid rocket
engines can use lighter propellants as hydrogen and oxygen as a fuel and accelerate
5
them at higher speeds. Another reason is pumping the propellants to combustion
chamber as fluid and ionizing them with the injectors increases the combustion
efficiency. Downside of the liquid rocket engines are system complexity and dry mass
due to tanks, pumps valves etc. As a result of this extra dry mass liquid rocket engines
does not used in small rockets despite their high specific impulse. Storable liquid
engines generally used in long duration space missions, and the cryogenic liquid
engines are generally used in space rockets due to their high 𝑰𝒔𝒑.

Figure 1.3 : Liquid rocket engine representation[1].

1.2.1.3. Hybrid rocket engines

Hybrid rocket motors stores one of the propellant in a tank as a liquid or a gas and
stores other propellant as a solid in the combustion chamber. Mostly solid propellant
is the fuel and the liquid or gas propellant is the oxidizer. In general, oxidizer is
6
pumped in to combustion chamber after passing through the injector and reacts with
the solid fuel. This system makes hybrid rocket engines simpler and safer than liquid
rocket engines. It is safer because propellants are in different phases, so in case of a
leak it is harder for propellants to mix. And also it is simpler because only one of the
propellants is kept in a fuel tank, other one is in kept in the combustion chamber. This
generally means that less mechanical parts and less dry mass. So, hybrid rocket engines
are in between the liquid rocket engines and solid rocket motors in terms of
complexity.

Figure 1.4 : Hybrid rocket engine representation.[1]

7
2. AERODYNAMICS OF ROCKETS

In this chapter main aerodynamic parameters that affects the sounding rocket’s
trajectory will be explained. Rocket aerodynamics is an extended subject. For that
reason, this chapter is focused on the preliminary aerodynamic calculations and kept
as simple as possible. Those calculations are based on the assumption of inviscid flow,
since in inviscid flow there are no boundary layers, pressure distribution with zero
angle of attack will be even.

2.1. Aerodynamic Forces and Moments

When designing aerodynamic surfaces, the two fundamental aerodynamic forces
must be considered; lift and drag forces. For a rocket which is symmetrical along its
symmetry axis which can also be called axisymmetric, upstream creates equal
pressure at every surface since the angle of attack is assumed to be zero, consequently
lift force is also assumed as zero. Lift caused by wind is also neglected to simplify
the calculations as wind’s velocity is negligible when considering a flight with a
velocity nearly speed of sound.

It could be concluded that key design parameter for rocket aerodynamics is drag force.
General formula for drag and lift forces are given in the equations (2.1) and (2.2).

𝐷 = 0.5𝐶𝑑 𝜌𝑉 2 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓 (2.1)

𝐿 = 0.5𝐶𝑙 𝜌𝑉 2 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓 (2.2)

where 𝜌 is density of the air, 𝑉 is the free stream velocity, 𝐶𝑑 is drag coefficient 𝐶𝑙 is
lift coefficient and 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓 is reference area which is calculated using the largest diameter
of the diameter of the rocket. Since reference area changes by parts of the rocket it is
possible to calculate it for each part of the rocket but for simplicity purposes, it is
convenient to use this formula for preliminary design with 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓 is equal to body tube
diameter. 𝜌 is a function of the altitude and 𝐶𝑑 and 𝐶𝑙 are variables of flight conditions.

8
2.2. Velocity Regions

Aerodynamic velocity regions are defined with Mach Number, which is a function of
speed of sound and free stream velocity. Mach number can be calculated from equation
(2.3).

𝑉
𝑀=𝑎 (2.3)

Where 𝑉 is free stream velocity and 𝑎 is speed of sound. Speed of sound at a medium
can be calculated from equation (2.4).

𝑎 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇 (2.4)

Where 𝜸 is the specific heat ratio and typically 1.4 for air, 𝑹 is gas constant and it is
𝑱
typically 𝟐𝟖𝟕 𝒌𝒈.𝑲 and T is temperature in Kelvin. Velocity regions listed on the table

(2.1) are rough description of velocity regions. Indicated boundaries are not strictly
sharp, but the accuracy is good enough for the calculation of forces using these
boundaries. As it is stated in the first chapter most of the calculations used in present
study are preliminary calculations and not detailed. Most of the sounding rockets and
missiles fly slower than hypersonic speeds. Regarding to that calculations and
explanations about hypersonic region are not mentioned. Transonic region is complex
region which requires detailed solutions. It would be wise to avoid transonic flight in
sounding rockets. It could be achieved by flying around at 0.8 Mach or exceeding 1.2
Mach as soon as possible. With these conditions, preliminary calculations could be
done for two main regions subsonic and supersonic.

Table 2.1 : Mach regions.

Mach Number Region

0.8 > M Subsonic
1.2 ≥ M ≥ 0.8 Transonic
5 > M > 1.2 Supersonic
M≥5 Hypersonic

9
2.3. Drag Coefficients

Drag coefficient 𝐶𝑑 is a comprehensive coefficient that includes all the affects that
causes drag. Those are friction drag, base drag, wave drag. There are numerous
approaches for drag force estimations. Literature survey has been done to find the
optimum approach for drag coefficient calculation. Approach by the Eugene Fleeman
is found to be most optimum for the simulation calculations [2].

Therefore, Fleeman’s approach is used for the drag coefficient calculations throughout
the present study.

2.3.1. Skin friction drag

Skin friction drag is caused by the fluid’s viscosity, thus creating a friction around the
body of the rocket. As mentioned in the previous chapters, present study is focused on
the simulation with the assumption of inviscid flow around the rocket body. Since the
skin friction have a significant role over the total drag force of the rockets that fly in
the subsonic Mach number regime, skin friction of the rocket body is added to the
simulator in order to ensure the accuracy of simulation.

Skin friction is directly affected by the fact that whether the flow around the body is
turbulent or laminar. Transition from laminar boundary layer to turbulent boundary
layer is described using Reynolds number, which is represented in the equation (2.5)
by means of values that can be expressed as 𝜌 is the air density, 𝑉 is the velocity, 𝐿 is
the characteristic length which is length of the rocket in this calculation for flat plate
assumption, 𝜇 is the dynamic viscosity of air.

𝜌𝑉𝐿
𝑅𝑒 = (2.5)
𝜇

Flow remains undisturbed to a certain point. That point is called transition to turbulent
flow. According to flat plate flow assumption the transition turbulent flow occurs at
some point and its corresponding Reynolds number is equal to 5𝑥105 [3].

The limits of laminar and turbulent flow according to flat plate flow assumption is
expressed in the table (2.2).
10
 Table 2.2 : Flow type according to Reynolds number.

Flow Type Reynolds

Number
Laminar flow Re < 5 𝑥105
Turbulent flow Re > 5 𝑥105

The approach of Fleeman consists of 2 parts: skin friction of the body and skin friction
of the wing/fins.

(𝐶𝑑 )𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (𝐶𝑑 )𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝐵𝑜𝑑𝑦 + (𝐶𝑑 )𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 (2.6)

Which can be explained in detail in equations (2.7) and (2.8).

(𝐶𝑑 )𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝐵𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 0.053 (𝑙 /𝑑)[𝑀 / 𝑞𝑙]0.2 (2.7)

𝑀 0.2 2𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
(𝐶𝑑 )𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = 𝑛𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 [0.01333 [𝑞𝐶 ] ]( ) (2.7)
𝑚𝑎𝑐 𝑆𝑟𝑒 𝑓

Where 𝑛𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 is number of wings, 𝑀 is Mach number, 𝑞 is dynamic pressure, 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 is

mean aero chord length, 𝑙 is length of the rocket body, 𝑑 is diameter of the rocket body,
𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 is area of one wing, 𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓 is reference area. Those skin friction equations are
based on the assumptions that change of free stream speed of sound and viscosity of
the air is comparatively small and the boundary layer is turbulent. Turbulent boundary
layer assumption can result in significant error in low Mach number regimes and very
high altitudes.

2.3.2. Base drag

One of the significant part of the drag that occurs on a rocket is base drag. Base drag
occurs because of the flow separation that occurs at the back of the body. Flow
separation causes the pressure to drop, creating a low-pressure wake region, at the back
of the body and causes drag force.

11
The base drag is deeply affected by the fact that the flight is whether powered or
unpowered, which can be also called coasting flight. The subsonic coasting flight base
drag is calculated using the equation (2.8).

(𝐶𝑑 )𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒,𝐶𝑜𝑎𝑠𝑡 = 0.12 + 0.13𝑀2 (2.8)

The supersonic coasting flight base drag is calculated using the equation (2.9).

(𝐶𝑑 )𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒,𝐶𝑜𝑎𝑠𝑡 = 0.25/𝑀 (2.9)

The subsonic powered flight base drag is calculated using the equation (2.10).

𝐴𝑒
(𝐶𝑑 )𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒,𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 = (0.12 + 0.13𝑀2 )𝑥 (1 − ) (2.10)
𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓

The supersonic powered flight base drag is calculated using the equation (2.11).

0.25 𝐴𝑒
(𝐶𝑑 )𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒,𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 = ( ) 𝑥 (1 − ) (2.11)
𝑀 𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓

Where 𝑀 is Mach number, 𝐴𝑒 is nozzle exit area, and 𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓 is reference area.

2.3.3. Wave drag

Another contributor to the total drag a rocket is wave drag. Wave drag is the resultant
force that is exerted because of the shock wave formation in front of a rocket. That
means supersonic flow causes wave drag. Shock wave formations can also be seen in
transonic flow regime starting from Mach number 0.8 but to keep things as simple as
possible the Fleeman’s approach on wave drag estimation is used. The wave drag is
zero when the flow is not supersonic according to the approach. When the flow
becomes supersonic, wave drag changes with Mach number, length of the nose cone
and diameter of the body/nose cone. The equation of wave drag of the body can be
seen in the equation (2.12) where 𝑙𝑁 is the length of nose cone, 𝑑 is diameter of the
rocket body, where 𝑀 is Mach number.

12
 1.69
0.5
(𝐶𝑑 )𝐵𝑜𝑑𝑦,𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒 = (1.586 + 1.834/𝑀2 ) (𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [ 𝑙𝑁 ]) (2.12)
𝑑

The Fleeman’s approach calculates the wave drag of wings based on the Mach number
of leading edge which is calculated using the equation (2.13).

𝑀𝛬𝐿𝐸 = 𝑀 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛬𝐿𝐸 (2.13)

The equation of wave drag of the wing can be seen in the equation (2.14), 𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 is
number of planform surfaces which is directly 2 times number of wings, 𝛾 is ratio of
specific heats, 𝛿𝐿𝐸 is leading edge section angle, Λ 𝐿𝐸 is leading edge sweep angle, 𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑐
is thickness at the mean aero chord, 𝑏 is wing span which is directly 2 times height of
the wing, 𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓 is the reference area. If the 𝑀𝛬𝐿𝐸 is lower than 1, wave drag of the
wings is zero.

𝛾
(𝐶𝑑 )𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔,𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 [ 2/(𝛾𝑀Λ2𝐿𝐸 )]{{[( 𝛾 + 1)𝑀Λ2𝐿𝐸 ]/2}𝛾−1

{( 𝛾 + 1)/[2𝛾𝑀𝛬2𝐿𝐸 − ( 𝛾 − 1)]}1/(𝛾−1) -1} (2.14)

𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑐 𝑏
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝛿𝐿𝐸 )𝑐𝑜𝑠(Λ 𝐿𝐸 ) 𝑖𝑓𝑀𝛬𝐿𝐸 > 1
𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓

It should be noted that, all estimations for drag coefficient by Eugene Fleeman are
based on Imperial Units. In present study all equations are given in their original
form as it is given in the book. Since present study is done using the SI Units, all
calculations are adjusted to be used in SI Units in the simulation code.

2.4. Aerodynamic Surfaces

General aerodynamic parts of rockets are nosecone, canards, wings, fins and body
tubes. From those body tube and nosecone are the ones that common for most of the
rockets although some rockets might have blunt noses. Fins are the most preferred
surfaces for sounding rockets, since they are generally passive controlled, they do not
need any more surface than fins. Canards and wing are chosen for active control or
stabilization of upper stages.

13
2.4.1. Nosecones

Nosecones are the upper surfaces of the rockets, first part of the rockets that interacts
with upstream flow. The fundamental shape of the nosecones are the cones like in the
word. The determination of the shape of the cone is done according to flight conditions.
More specifically Reynolds number and Mach number. To define a nosecone geometry
two initial parameters are needed, length and the base diameter. Since the base
diameter is generally determined according to payload and body tube. Length and
shape of the nosecone should be determined with aerodynamic considerations.

Conical nose cone is a simple conic geometry with a constant slope. Manufacturing of
such shape is easy, compared to other nose cone geometries.

Figure 2.1 : Conical nosecone cross-section.[4]

The shape of the nose cone depends whether on the slope or on the half angle. The
corresponding equations can be seen on the equations both (2.15) and (2.16).

𝑥𝑅
𝑦= (2.15)
𝐿

𝑅
𝛷 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) (2.16)
𝐿

Parabolic nose cones are created taking a part of the parabola and revolving around a
line that is parallel to parabola’s latus rectum. Nose cone of this kind have sharp nose
tip.

14
 Figure 2.2 : Parabolic nosecone cross-section[4].

Parabolic nose cone’s shape is determined using the equation (2.17).

𝑥 𝑥 2
2 (𝐿 ) − 𝐾 ′ (𝐿 )
𝑦 = 𝑅( ) , 1 ≥ 𝐾′ ≥ 0 (2.17)
2 − 𝐾′

The 𝐾 ′ varies between 0 and 1, 𝐾 ′ equals zero basically means the shape is a cone.
Elliptical nose cone shape is basically half of an ellipse. The 3D model of elliptical
nose cone is generated using the corresponding cross-sectional area and revolving
around ellipse’s major axis.

Figure 2.3 : Elliptical nosecone cross-section [4].

Elliptical nose cone’s shape is determined using the equation (2.18).

𝑥2
𝑦 = 𝑅 √1 − (2.18)
𝐿2

Among the model rocketry enthusiasts, the ogive shaped nose cone is the most
recognized and used. The cross-sectional area of ogive shape is created using a part of
a circle.

15
 Figure 2.4 : Ogive nosecone cross-section[4].

Ogive nose cone shape is created using the equations (2.19) and (2.20):

𝑅 2 + 𝐿2
𝜌= (2.19)
2𝑅

𝑦 = √𝜌2 − (𝐿 − 𝑥)2 + 𝑅 − 𝜌 (2.20)

Haack series nose cone shapes are specifically derived for the purpose of decreasing
drag force. These shapes are not tangent to the rocket body at their base, but the
transition is nearly smooth.

Figure 2.5 : Haack nosecone cross-section [4].

Haack series nose cone shape is constructed using the equations (2.21) and (2.22).

16
 2𝑥
𝜃 = arccos (1 − ) (2.21)
𝐿

𝑅 sin(2𝜃)
𝑦= √𝜃 − + 𝐶sin3 (𝜃) (2.22)
√𝜋 2

The value C in the equation (2.22) is the main aspect of Haack series nose cones. The
types of the Haack series nose cones can be seen on the table (2.3).

Table 2.3 : Haack series nose cones [4].

Type C
LD-Haack (Von Karman) 0
LV-Haack 0.333
Tangent 0.667
The LD-Haack is the shape generated when the value of C is zero and the “LD” means
the shape has lower drag than nose cones with same length and diameter. The LV-
Haack is the shape generated when the value of C is 0.333 and the “LV” means the
shape has lower drag than nose cones with same length and volume [4].

Summarized nose cone shapes can be used in variety of flow regimes. The
performance parameters of the nose cones in various flow regimes is summarized in
the figure (2.6) where 1 means the best performance, 2 means good performance and
3 means decent performance:

17
 Figure 2.6 : Nosecone performance according to Mach number.[5]

2.4.2. Fins

Fins are aerodynamic surfaces that are mainly used for passive stabilization of
atmospheric sounding rockets. They are placed behind of the center of pressure in
order to pull it behind of the center of gravity, details of rocket stability are mentioned
in next chapter. In order to maintain the symmetry fins are placed symmetrically
number of three or more also to meet the mission requirements more than one set of
fins could be used.

The commonly used fin shapes are the ones with trapezoidal cross section, other types
are triangle and elliptical fins. To draw a trapezoidal, certain parameter must be known.
Tip chord, root chord, height must be known. And also, either one of the sweep length
or sweep angle is needed.

18
Figure 2.7 : Trapezoidal fin cross section.

19
3. ROCKET FLIGHT

In this chapter rocket flight will be reviewed based upon atmospheric sounding
rockets. General trajectory and events of a sounding rockets will be explained in order
to analyse the approaches used for modelling sounding rockets. All of the six forces
and moments are reviewed in this section although simulation is performed based on
only 3-DoF. Rocket stability is reviewed in the last part of this chapter, it is the key
design parameter of a sounding rocket. It has not been implemented in the simulator,
but it is considered before for each of the rockets that has been simulated by the
simulator at the development phase of the simulator.

3.1. General Sounding Rocket Trajectory

Sounding rocket trajectory could be divided into two main parts until reaching apogee.
First one is the powered flight. For a nominal flight, powered flight starts with the
ignition at the launch rail and ends when all the propellant is consumed. While rocket
is moving at the rail, movement of the rocket is restricted. Rocket can only move with
one degree of freedom. It can only go upwards with the thrust force or it maintains it’s
position in case of a failure.

After the launch rail rocket continues to ascend with the thrust of the motor. When the
motor shuts down, in other words the thrust force is equal to zero, unpowered part of
the flight starts. This makes the second part of the sounding rocket trajectory until
apogee. Rocket gains altitude until the apogee. At the apogee, rocket will have zero
vertical velocity and it will be parallel to the ground. Sounding rockets are designed to
deploy their payload at the apogee, this has two main reasons. First, it is the maximum
altitude that the rocket can reach, so that rocket is designed for that altitude. Second
one is the low air speed, since the rocket has zero vertical speed at the apogee, it
requires less power to deploy the parachutes and the payload. Thus, less power means
less deployment system mass, and this means more payload.

After the apogee, rockets are generally recovered with parachute system. Parachute
system configuration could vary depending on the mission or system design. One of
the general system configuration is to open one or more parachute at the apogee and
recover the rocket afterwards. Other commonly used configuration is to open one or

20
more drogue parachute at the apogee then open a bigger main parachute when the
rocket is closer to ground. This method is generally used to ensure the landing location
to be as close to launch area as possible. Recovering a rocket with dual deployment
will prevent the drifting of the rocket from the launch site. Which has a simple
principle. The first deployment will release a parachute called drogue parachute which
slows down the rocket to a certain level but not much, ensuring the closeness of the
launch site and landing site.

Figure 3.1 : Sounding rocket mission profile.

Sounding rocket mission profile consist of 8 main parts. Those mission steps are given
in table (3.1).

Number Event
1 Launch
2 Powered flight
3 Coasting flight
4 Apogee
5 First deployment
6 Descent with drogue parachute
7 Second deployment
8 Recovery

Table 3.1 : Sounding rocket mission events.

The concept of dual deployment can be seen on the figure (3.2):

21
 Figure 3.2 : Deployment trajectories.

Figure 3.3 : Rocket on a launch rail.

3.2. Forces and Moments

To understand the forces and moments on a sounding rocket, the assumptions need to
be declared.

• Rocket is axisymmetric
22
 • Angle of attack is zero

• Thrust is exerted on the symmetry axis

Gravity force is the force due to rockets mass, and it always acts towards the earth
center. Thrust force is the force from the rocket motor and it creates the force for flight.
And it always acts on the rocket’s axis of symmetry, independent of the launch angle
or flight path angle. Since the angle of attack is assumed to be zero, drag force acts on
the symmetry axis but in the reverse direction of the thrust.

At the rest on the launch rail, only gravitational force acts on the rocket. Drag force is
generated due to air speed, and the air speed is due to the thrust that exceeds gravity’s
component on the rocket’s symmetry axis.

Theoretically roll moment is not suppose the be created for a axisymmetrical and
passively controlled rockets. But it will occur due to small pressure differences along
the body and imperfections of the alignment of CP. Thus, rockets usually have rolling
moment which gives them stability and also reduces their energy and maximum
available apogee altitude.

Pitch moment is mainly created by gravitation, since angle of attack is assumed as

zero, lift is assumed zero to. It is often called "gravity turn" rockets nose turns towards
the ground as it gains altitude. At the apogee rocket is parallel to the ground. Pitch
angle is assumed as flight path angle. Pitching is calculated by gravity turn approach.

𝑑𝛾 𝑣2
𝑣 = − (𝑔 − ) cos 𝛾 [6] (3.1)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝑒 + ℎ

𝑑𝛾
Where v is the speed of the rocket relative to the ground. is rate of change of flight
𝑑𝑡

path angle with respect to time. 𝑔 is gravitational acceleration 𝑅𝐸 is radius of the Earth
and ℎ is the altitude of the rocket.

Yaw moment is mostly created by aerodynamic forces and mass misalignments.

Because of the above assumptions yaw moments are neglected in this study.

3.3. Rocket Stability

Rocket stability is a concern for rockets under aerodynamic forces. Stability of a rocket
is measured by the distance between rockets CG and CP. Distance is directly used in
23
order to create a dimensionless parameter, distance between CP and CG is divided by
the rockets maximum body tube diameter. This number is often called static margin of
the rocket.

Figure 3.4 : Static margin of a rocket [7] .

3.3.1. Center of Gravity

Center of gravity is the point is the point which resultant gravitational force acts on.
For sounding rockets, it generally lies in the center of the cross section of the rocket.
It is calculated by multiplying all components mass with their distance to the tip of the
nosecone and dividing the sum to the total mass. If center of gravity does not lie on
the center of the cross section it could be calculated with same approach on the other
axis.

24
3.3.2. Center of Pressure

In powered flight, while the propellant is burning out CG will move towards the nose
cone of the rocket. With the same aerodynamic conditions this will result an increase
in stability of the rocket in units of caliber. So, it possible to say that minimum stability
is achieved when rocket is on the launch rail. In practice, since the rocket is stationary
it will not have a center of pressure. As a result make this values comparable CP is
calculated either by geometrical assumptions by neglecting the air speed, or it is done
by a constant value such as Mach number is equal to 0.3, a value rocket most likely
exceed before burn out. Therefore, the stability value at the launch rail is considered
as minimum value and it is a key design parameter for sounding rockets. When the
critical stability level is passed with static value, it can be said that rocket will perform
its flight in between proper stability margin values. Also, this value is a good
estimation parameter for preliminary design, further analysis can be done with
considering the wind and calculating the center of pressure during launch. Even the
moderate wind speeds (around 10 to 20 m/s) could dramatically change the position of
the CP during launch with low launch rail speed.

25
4. DESIGN OF A SOUNDING ROCKET

A single-staged solid rocket motor propelled sounding rocket is designed for this
study. Aim of this chapter is to give specifications of a rocket in order to compare the
results from different simulators and give a further explanation of design parameters.
Design of a sounding rocket is an iterative process. For simplicity purposes, only last
iteration is mentioned in this chapter. It should be noted that design process is not
focused on founding the optimal design, instead it is focused on designing a rocket that
has the mean characteristics of its class.

4.1. Mission

Mission is chosen similar to a rocket competition mission, but there is one difference,
in sounding rocket competitions generally sounding rockets carries a 4 kg of payload.
This mission has a 8 kg payload which is aimed to delivered altitude of 3000 meters
from ground level. Rocket will be launched from a launch rail wich has 5 degrees
difference from ground normal. This difference of 5 degrees decreases performance in
terms of altitude reached with same configuration but it is crucial for safety purposes.
Main reason is that if a launch failure occurs, rocket will fall down a bit away from the
rail, so it will be possible to protect rail from possible damages. Another aspect of the
5 degrees launch angle is safety of the launch crew. Launching with wind directly
towards the rail will create a pitching moment through the launch rail’s direction. This
will make it possible to determine the possible crash areas in case of a failure during
launch. Pre-determined crash areas will let launch crew to determine safe areas during
launch. After a safe launch rocket will reach the apogee point. Apogee altitude is the
altitude to deploy the payload and where the recovery starts. Typical sounding rockets
opens parachutes and recover all the parts of the rocket and payload in order to ensure
the reusability. Thus, reusable sounding rockets has to have recovery system and
avionics in order to control the recovery and locate the rocket.

4.2. Launch Environment

Launch location is chosen as Hisar Range at Aksaray Province of Turkey. This site
used for air defence missile tests and experimental sounding rocket launches. Also,
Teknofest Rocket Competition takes place every September in this range since 2018.
Because of the great plain areas of the Lake Tuz and the distance from the settling

26
areas this site is suitable for rocket launches. Weather conditions are available for
launch in September. Thus, September 15, 2020 is chosen as launch date. Approximate
coordinates of the launch rails are 38.398 N, 33.711 E and elevation from sea level is
919 meters.

Figure 4.1 : Satellite image of launch site [8].

Weather conditions for September is gathered from meteorological history data.

Average wind speed from 50 meters above ground is between 4.5 and 5.5 m/s [9].
Mean temperature at September is 18.6 degrees Celsius [10].

4.3. Motor Selection

Commercial solid rocket motors consist of several main parts. Those are; hardware
set, insulation, nozzle and solid propellant grains. Most of hardware sets are reusable.
On the other hand, nozzle and insulation parts are not reusable since the amount of
heat and pressure absorbed during combustion process results in deformation on those
parts.

There are two reliable manufacturers in the commercial solid rocket motor market;
Aerotech and Cesaroni. Each manufacturer classifies their hardware based on outer
diameter of the motor case. Another specification of the hardware is the length of the
motor case. Manufacturers provide certain amount of propellant types, with variation
of diameter and amount of grains in a motor, it is possible to find a motor for variety
of missions.

27
Typical sounding rockets have thrust to weight ratio between 5 to 15. This ratio
generally decreases with increasing launch mass due to mechanical loading concerns.
Thrust to weight ratio directly affects the off-rod velocity of the rocket. Off-rod
velocity is the rocket’s velocity when it is completely out of the launch rail. It could
be simplified as the velocity of the rocket when it has a displacement equal to launch
rail length. Assuming almost constant thrust from the rocket motor during launch it is
possible to make a preliminary assumption for the rocket motor that will be used.
Those assumptions will reduce the number of iterations with the simulation software.
Another assumption is that rocket has a constant mass until leaving the launch rail.
Final assumption is that rise time of the thrust as zero, it means that combustion gasses
reaches sonic condition at the throat at zero seconds after ignition. Combining those
assumptions lead to constant acceleration during launch. Constant acceleration launch
is represented in equation (4.1) where 𝐹𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 is the thrust of the motor during launch,
𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙 is the constant acceleration of the rocket during launch and the 𝑚𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 is the
mass of the rocket during launch.

𝐹𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙 . 𝑚𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 (4.1)

Selecting thrust to weight ratio as 8 with a 28 kg rocket results in 2200 N of thrust.

Creating thrust curves with 2200 N of constant thrust and different times starting from
t is equal to 1 to 8 and running those thrust curves with simulator in or to find the
closest apogee point near to 3000 meters results in a impulse between 3 and 4 seconds
where they mean 6600 N.s and 8800 N.s of total thrust respectively. After a search
through the available rocket motor database, Aerotech M1845 solid rocket motor is
chosen. Which has 8093 N.s of total impulse and 4.5s of burn time [11].

28
 Figure 4.2 : M1845 rocket motor thrust curve [11].

4.4. Mechanical Design

It is known that the drag force is proportional with rocket diameter. Thus, for
performance considerations rocket diameter should be close to the motor diameter.
With a rocket motor with 98 mm diameter and 8 kg payload capacity 120 mm diameter
is suitable for both mechanical and aerodynamical aspects. Since 22 mm diameter
difference is enough assembling the rocket motor. After determining the rocket
diameter, rocket length has to be determined.

Nosecone is selected as Haack series with the value of C equals to zero. Which gives
the nose cone shape of LD-Haack, also called Von Karman nose cone. The “LD” in
the name of the shape indicates lower drag than similar length and diameter nose cones
[4].

It is known that high fineness ratio of the nose cone is excellent in aerodynamics point
of view [2]. Fineness ratio is given in equation (4.2) and 𝑳𝑵 indicates the length of the
nose cone and 𝑫 indicates the diameter at the base of the nose cone:

𝐿𝑁
𝑁𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = (4.2)
𝐷

29
Fineness ratio of the nose cone is selected as 5, as it is a high fineness ratio resulting
in low aerodynamic drag. The rocket’s diameter is 120 mm. Thus, this makes the nose
cone length 600 mm. Material is selected as fiberglass-epoxy composite. Nose cone is
designed with integrated shoulder for ease of assemble. Nose cone tip is chosen as
aluminum because of complexity of manufacturing closed composite geometries.

Trapezoidal fins are designed with sweep angle of 54 degrees. Since flight regime is
expected to be subsonic, fins are selected as rounded flat plate. Fin thickness is chosen
as 2mm considering both ease manufacturing and amount of drag force. Four fins are
assembled with 90 degrees of spacing.

Figure 4.3 : Aluminum trapezoidal fin.

4.4.1. Inner layout

After completing initial design iterations body tube length is determined as 1900 mm.
Considering manufacturing and assembly, body is divided into two body tubes which
are aluminum. One has length of 1150 mm and other has length of 750 mm. Body
tubes are connected with an aluminum coupler tube which has outer diameter of the
body tubes and length of 250 mm.

Inner layout of the designed rocket can be seen from the figure (4.4) and corresponding
figure can be summarized as in the table (4.1).

Figure 4.4 : Cross section of test rocket.

30
 Table 4.1 : Test rocket inner layout.

Number Part Name

1 Payload parachute
2 Payload
3 Drogue parachute
4 Main parachute
5 Recovery system
6 Avionics
7 Solid rocket motor

4.4.2. Mass budget

Inner layout of the designed rocket is discussed in the section 4.4.1. For a complete
design of a system, mass budget is a needed. Therefore, mass budget tables for all
systems and parts of the rocket have been created in order to summarize the design.

The sounding rocket divided into 4 main systems:

• Aerodynamic Surfaces and Structural Parts

• Electronic System Parts

• Recovery System Parts

• Solid Rocket Motor

Aerodynamic surfaces and structural parts are the parts that are used for aerodynamic
consideration or main structure of the sounding rocket. System’s parts are summarized
in the table (4.2).

31
 Table 4.2 : Aerodynamic surfaces and structural parts.

Part Name Mass (g)

Nosecone w/ shoulder 1147
Nosecone Tip 15
Body Tube 1 2396
Body Tube 2 1563
Coupler 503
Centering 1 12
Centering 2 12
Centering 3 12
Fin 1 124
Fin 2 124
Fin 3 124
Fin 4 124
Motor Plate 996
Mechanical Connection Elements 150
TOTAL 7302
Electronic system parts consist of the main avionics and other parts to operating the
flight computer. System’s parts are summarized in the table (4.3):

Table 4.3 : Electronic system parts.

Part Name Mass (g)
Avionics Bay 350
Li-po Battery 400
Flight Computer 350
Cables 400
TOTAL 1500

Recovery system and its corresponding parts are categorized as “Recovery System
Parts”. Parts consist of parachute, recovery system structural parts, black powder and
connection equipment. System’s parts are summarized in the table (4.4):

32
 Table 4.4 : Recovery system parts.

Part Name Mass (g)

Black Powder Capsule1 106
Black Powder Capsule2 106
Pressure Plate 166
Recovery Plate 178
Payload Parachute 350
Drogue Parachute 400
Main Parachute 1100
Shock Cords 1000
Recovery Connection equipments 1000
TOTAL 4406

The thrust element of present sounding rocket is a solid rocket motor and it’s parts are
summarized in the table (4.5):

Table 4.5 : Solid rocket motor.

Part Name Mass (g)
Motor Hardware ( M1845 ) 2910
Solid Propellant 3772
TOTAL 6682
When the main systems summed, the total mass of the sounding rocket without
payload becomes 19.89 kg. It is decided that present sounding rocket carries 8 kg of
payload to the given altitude. With the addition of payload, total mass budget is
summarized in the table (4.6):

Table 4.6 : Total mass budget.

Part Name Mass (g)
Aerodynamic Surfaces and
7302
Structural Parts
Electronic System Parts 1500
Recovery System Parts 4406
Solid Rocket Motor 6682
PAYLOAD 8000
TOTAL 27890

33
5. SIMULATION

Rocket simulator operates in MATLAB environment. Simulator consists of a main

code and functions. Users has to provide the properties of launch site and rocket. For
simplicity purposes input data are functionalized. Location information, rocket
properties can be saved as a function, after that it is possible to call desired location
and rocket for simulation. Besides the rocket properties, users has to provide the rocket
motor thrust data in a excel document. Simulator reads the thrust and time data from
the excel file and use it to calculate the instantaneous acceleration.

Mass flow rate data of the commercial motors are not available, and the mass of the
propellant is not negligible. Thus, mass of the propellant, which is available, is
assumed to decrease linearly with burn time. Calculations are made with built in
MATLAB function called “linspace”.

When the launch site and rocket properties are read. Simulation starts with given
initial conditions and it ends when the altitude from the ground level becomes zero
again. After the termination of calculations simulator gives the simulation results in a
dialog box also displays the related graphs.

5.1. Calculation of Atmospherical and Aerodynamical Properties

The performance of a sounding rocket directly related to the properties of atmosphere.

At low density and pressure air creates lower resistance to the rocket body than high
density and pressure. Thus, affecting the aerodynamic force exerted on sounding
rocket. This made it necessary to model the atmospheric properties.

There are couple of models that can be used. It is seen that it would be wise to use a
model created to use with the altitude as a variable. There are equations to be used that
relies on variable of altitude which is derived from International Standard Atmosphere

34
Model. Those equations are used for the calculation of temperature, density, and
pressure for every instant of the flight.

𝑇 = 15.04 − 0.0649ℎ (5.1)

𝑇 + 273.1 5.256
𝑃 = 101.29 ( ) (5.2)
288.08

𝑃
𝜌= (5.3)
0.2869(𝑇 + 273.1)

Atmospheric calculations are given in equations (5.1), (5.2) and (5.3). Where 𝑻 is
temperature in Celsius, 𝒉 sea level altitude in meters 𝑷 is pressure in kilopascals and
𝒌𝒈
𝝆 is density in 𝒎𝟑 .

Temperature data have been used for the calculation of Mach number for every instant
of the rocket flight. One of the major forces that is present in the flight is drag force.
Drag force on the rocket is calculated using the drag coefficient. Drag coefficient
model and its formulas are mentioned in the section 2.3. Drag coefficient is calculated
in parts. There are 2 major parts in the rocket that is responsible for the drag on the
rocket: body and wings. Wave drag coefficient, base drag coefficient and friction drag
coefficient is calculated for the body with mentioned model. Wave drag coefficient
and friction drag coefficient is calculated for the wings with the mentioned model.
Then, all calculated drag coefficients made a total drag coefficient that is used for the
drag force calculations. It should be noted that all the calculations mentioned used for
2-dimensional drag force calculation, which x and y axes are placed respect to launch

35
area. Then, the 2-dimensional total drag force is divided into its x and y axes
components.

Another drag force is calculated by estimating the wind velocity from available data
of the launch site. The wind data is then used to find the drag at the side view planform
area. This is the z axis component of the drag force.

Figure 5.1 : Drag coefficient calculation function block diagram.

5.2. Dynamic Simulation

Simulator starts calculations with mass and thrust data, with those data it calculates
the instantaneous acceleration velocity and location. In this process simulator
calculates aerodynamic properties drag force for each time step. At the same time
simulator calculates the gravitational force acts on the rocket, by using the longitude
latitude and altitide data. Gravitational force calculations are made with a MATLAB
Aerospace Toolbox function “gravitywgs84” which is based on which is based on
1984 Earth Gravitational Model.

With gravitational force, drag force and thrust force it is not possible to determine the
pitching of the rockets. Since simulation is not performed on 6-DoF pitching moment
is calculated with “gravityturn” function which based on equation (3.1). This function
calculates the pitching rate with instantaneous flight path angle, velocity and
gravitational force. Details of the function is given in appendix.

36
6. SIMULATION RESULTS AND COMPARISONS
After the development of the simulation code and design of the test rocket, test run
was made in both the simulation code and openRocket. OpenRocket is a software
that is highly recognized and used by amateur and high power rocketeers. Thus, it
would be wise to test the developed simulation code with such popular software.
In present chapter all outputs of the developed code compared with the results of the
openRocket software in order to test the accuracy of developed code. Details of the
test rocket and its corresponding design phases are given in the chapter 4.

6.1. Results

Developed simulation code run for the test rocket. Test rocket was also modeled using
the openRocket software and openRocket’s built in simulation section used for the
data graphics. The comparison made with following data:

• Total acceleration with time

• Mach number with time

• Altitude with time

• Drag coefficient with time

37
Figure 6.1 : Total acceleration comparison graph.

Figure 6.2 : Mach number comparison graph.

38
 Figure 6.3 : Altitude comparison graph.

Figure 6.4 : Total drag coefficient comparison graph.

39
 Table 6.1 : Sımulation outputs comparison.
Maximum Maximum Apogee Time to
Mach Accleration Altitude Apogee (s)
𝑚
Number ( 𝑠2 )

Simulator 0.74 80.6 2856 25.0

OpenRocket 0.75 80.5 2974 25.2

40
REFERENCES

[1] Sutton, G. P., & Biblarz, O. (2001). Rocket Propulsion Elements (7th ed.). John
Wiley & Sons.
[2] Fleeman, E. L. (2001). Tactical Missile Design (2nd ed., AIAA Education
Series). Reston, VA: AIAA.
[3] Çengel, Y. A., & Ghajar, A. J. (2015). Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals
& Applications (5th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.
[4] Crowell Sr., G. A. (1996). The Descriptive Geometry of Nose Cones.
[5] Chin, S. S. (1961). Missile Configuration Design. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill
Book Company.
[6] Curtis, H. D. (2005). Orbital Mechanics for Engineering Students (1st ed.,
Elsevier Aerospace Engineering Series). Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.
[7] Barrowman, J. (1988). Stability of a Model Rocket in Flight (Vol. 30, Technical
Information Report). Phoenix, AZ: Centuri Engineering Company.
[8] Google. (n.d.). [Google Earth Satellite Image of Launch Location in Hisar Range
near Aksaray]. Retrieved 27.06.2020, from
https://earth.google.com/web/search/38.398,33.711/@38.31431697,33.767074
93,911.002452a,108902.76527954d,35y,34.07454003h,45.68725749t,0r/data=
ClEaJxIhGWzn-
6nxMkNAIV66SQwC20BAKg0zOC4zOTgsMzMuNzExGAIgASImCiQJBG
B8mWPsQ0ARqZbKAKuCQkAZ1y9HGaMUQkAhRs8t0tLVPUA.
[9] Url-1 < https://www.mgm.gov.tr/genel/ruzgar-atlasi.aspx >, date retrieved
05.06.2020
[10] Url-2 < https://www.mgm.gov.tr/veridegerlendirme/il-ve-ilceler-
istatistik.aspx?m=AKSARAY >, date retrieved 05.06.2020.
[11] Url-3 < http://www.thrustcurve.org/simfilesearch.jsp?id=1747 >, date retrieved
17.05.2020.

41
APPENDICES

APPENDIX A.1: Main code

APPENDIX A.2: Rocket properties function
APPENDIX A.3: Motor interpolation function for non-commercial motors
APPENDIX A.4: Mach number calculation function
APPENDIX A.5: Launch location properties function
APPENDIX A.6: Variable initialization function
APPENDIX A.7: Gravitu turn function
APPENDIX A.8: Drag force calculation function
APPENDIX A.9: Atmospheric properties calculation function
APPENDIX A.10: Drag coefficient calculation function
APPENDIX A.11: Simulation results plot function
APPENDIX A.12: Simulation results report function

42
APPENDIX A.1

%-------------Vectors From Thrust Curve-------------%

Motordata=xlsread('M1845'); % Imports thrust data from excel sheet
Time=Motordata(:,1); % Burn time of the motor
Impulse=Motordata(:,2); % Thrust of the motor [N]
timp=find(~Impulse); % Time when the engine has no thrust

%[Time,Impulse]=MotorInterp(Time,Impulse); % Interpolate the thrust curve

%%
%-------------Inputs-------------%
[Latitude,Longitude,ysl,avgwind] = Location_Aksaray(); %Define Launch Environment
[m,mp,Cd,Di,L,Ln,de,nw,LEta,LEsa,Wtip,Wroot,tmaxav,Wh] = Rocket_Dummy1(); % Define
the rocket
teta=85; % Launch angle

% [teta,m,mp,Di]=userin(teta,m,mp,Di);
[acc,v,x,z,h,vx,vy,vz,wind,D,Dx,Dy,Dz] = initialize(Time); % Initialize the vectors

%%
%-------------Parameters for the for loops-------------%
yf=1e-10; % Setting final time is initially equal to initial time for loop.
it=0.01; % iteration step size
t1=length(Time); % Lenght of the time matrix from thrustcurve
t2=t1+1;
mv=m-mp; % Dry mass of vehicle[kg]
m2=linspace(m,mv,length(Time)); % Decreases the mass of the propellant linearly with
respect to burn time.
%%
i=2; % Initial iteration indice
while yf>0 %While rocket is above the ground perform the calculations
if i >= t1
Time(i)=Time(i-1)+it;
Impulse(i)=0; % Zero Impulse after motor burn
Pow=0; % Coasting flight
m2(i)=mv; % Mass of the ammunition is equal to the dry mass after motor burn
else
Pow=1; % Flight is powered
end

dt(i)=(Time(i)-Time(i-1));

g(i)=gravitywgs84(h(i-1), Longitude, Latitude, 'CloseApprox' );

%%%% ------- Dynamic Calculations ------- %%%%%

Impulsex(i)=Impulse(i)*cosd(teta(i-1)); % Impulse in x direction
Impulsey(i)=Impulse(i)*sind(teta(i-1)); % Impulse in y direction

%Acceleration at each step

accx(i)=(Impulsex(i)-Dx(i-1))/m2(i); % Acceleration in x direction [m/s^2]
accy(i)=(Impulsey(i)-Dy(i-1))/m2(i)-g(i); % Acceleration in y direction [m/s^2]
accz(i)=(Dz(i-1))/m2(i); % Acceleration in z direction [m/s^2]
acc(i)=sqrt(accx(i)^2+accy(i)^2+accz(i)^2); % Total acceleration [m/s^2]

%Velocity at each step

vx(i)=vx(i-1)+accx(i)*dt(i); % Velocity in x direction [m/s]
vy(i)=vy(i-1)+accy(i)*dt(i); % Velocity in y direction [m/s]
vz(i)=vz(i-1)+accz(i)*dt(i); % Velocity in z direction [m/s]
v(i)=sqrt(vx(i)^2+vy(i)^2+vz(i)^2); % Total velocity [m/s]

wind(i)=avgwind+(-1+rand()*2); % Wind speed acting on z direction [m/s]

%Position at each step

x(i)=x(i-1)+vx(i)*dt(i); % Position at x axis [m]
yf(i)=yf(i-1)+vy(i)*dt(i); % Position at y axis [m]
z(i)=z(i-1)+vz(i)*dt(i); % Position at z axis [m]

yf(yf < 0) = 0; % If y is a negative number sets it equal to zero

h(i)=yf(i-1)+ysl; % Sea level altitude [m]

%Gravity turn
teta(i)=GravityTurn(teta(i-1),g(i),v(i),h(i),dt(i));

43
 %%%% ------- Aerodynamic Calculations ------- %%%%%
[T(i),P(i),ro(i)]=atmosphere(h(i));

mnum(i)=Mach(T(i),v(i));
Cd(i) = Cd1 (mnum(i),h(i),L,Ln,Di,de,Pow,nw,LEta,LEsa,Wtip,Wroot,tmaxav,Wh);
[D(i),Dx(i),Dy(i),Dz(i)]=Drag3DimensionIncomp(Cd(i),ro(i),Di,L,teta(i-
1),v(i),wind(i));
i=i+1; % Increase the iteration number
end
%% Results
plotter(Time,v,acc,x,yf,mnum,teta,t1,i,Cd);
report(Time,x,yf,acc,v,mnum);

44
APPENDIX A.2

function [m,mp,Cd,Di,L,Ln,de,nw,LEta,LEsa,Wtip,Wroot,tmaxav,Wh] = Rocket_Dummy1()

% Rocket Physical properties.

m=27.740; % mass of vehicle [kg]

mp=3.772; % Propellant mass [kg]
Cd=0.3; % Drag coefficient of the body
Di=120; % Diameter of the vehicle [mm]
L=2500; % Rocket lenght [mm]
Ln=600; % Nose cone length [mm]
de=50; % Nozzle exit diameter [mm]

nw=4; % Number of wings

LEta=0; % Leading edge thickness angle [degree]
LEsa=56; % Leading edge sweep angle [degree]
Wtip=140; % Wing tip length [mm]
Wroot=350; % Wing root length [mm]
tmaxav=2; % maximum thickness at mean aero chord [mm]
Wh=90; % Height of the wing [mm]

end

45
APPENDIX A.3

function [Time,Impulse]=MotorInterp(TimeMotor,ImpulseMotor)

% Motor thrust data interpolation for big test data

mark=find(~ImpulseMotor); % Time when the engine has no thrust

burnout=TimeMotor(mark,1);

timestep=0.02;
element=fix(burnout/timestep);
Time=zeros(element,1);
k=1;

while k <= element

Time(k)=timestep*k;
k=k+1;
end

Impulse = interp1(TimeMotor,ImpulseMotor,Time);

TotalThrustReal=mean(ImpulseMotor)*max(TimeMotor);
TotalThrustInterpolated=mean(Impulse)*max(Time);
end

46
APPENDIX A.5

function [Latitude,Longitude,ysl,avgwind] = Location_Aksaray()

% Aksaray Hisar Range information
Latitude= 38.398;
Longitude= 33.711;
ysl=919 ; %Sea level altitude [m]
avgwind=5; % Average wind speed [m/s]
end

47
APPENDIX A.6

function [acc,v,x,z,h,vx,vy,vz,wind,D,Dx,Dy,Dz] = initialize(Time)

% Parameter initializing function

% In order to use less memory parameters are initialized with zeros
%-------------Setting All Initial Quantities to Zero-------------%
acc=zeros(1,length(Time)); % Initial Acceleration [m/s^2]
v=zeros(1,length(Time)); % Initial Velocity [m/s]
x=zeros(1,length(Time)); % distance in x distance [m]
z=zeros(1,length(Time)); % Initial distance in z [m]
h=zeros(1,length(Time));
vx=zeros(1,length(Time)); % Initial Velovity in x direction
vy=zeros(1,length(Time)); % Initial Velovity in y direction
vz=zeros(1,length(Time)); % Initial Velovity in z direction
wind=zeros(1,length(Time));
% Drag force vector & components
D=zeros(1,length(Time));
Dx=zeros(1,length(Time));
Dy=zeros(1,length(Time));
Dz=zeros(1,length(Time));

end

48
APPENDIX A.7

function teta=GravityTurn(teta,g,v,yf,dt);
% Gravity turn function for 3-DoF simulation.
re=6378000; % Radius of Earth
dgdt=-(g-((v^2)/(re+yf))*cosd(teta))/v; % Gravity turn in radians
degdgdt=dgdt*(180/pi); % Gravity turn in degree
teta=degdgdt*dt+teta; % Angle between earth's surface and ammuniton's
longitudinal axis
if teta <= -89
teta =-90;
end
end

49
APPENDIX A.8

function [D,Dx,Dy,Dz]=Drag3DimensionIncomp(Cd,rof,Di,L,teta,v,vz);
%Drag force calculation
Cdp=1.2; % Planform Cd of a rocket
A=(((Di*10^(-3))^2)/4)*pi; % Cross sectional area of the vehicle [m^2]

Ap=(Di*10^(-3))*(L*10^(-3)); % Planform area of the vehicle [m^2]

D=0.5*Cd*rof*A*(v^2); % Total drag force

Dx=D*cosd(teta); % Drag force in x direction
Dy=D*sind(teta); % Drag force in y direction

Dz=0.5*Cdp*rof*Ap*(vz^2); % Drag force in z direction

end

50
APPENDIX A.9

function [T,P,ro]=atmosphere(h);
%Local atmosperic properties
T=15.04-0.00649*(h); %temperature (C)
P=101.29*((T+273.1)/288.08).^5.256; %static pressure (kPa)
ro=P/(.2869*(T+273.1)); %density (kg/m^3)
end

51
APPENDIX A.10

function Cd = Cd1 (M,h,L,Ln,d,de,Pow,nw,LEta,LEsa,Ltip,Lroot,tmaxav,wh)

%%
%Drag coefficient calculation function
% Calculations are based on the equations from
%"Fleeman, E. L. (2001). Tactical Missile
% Design (2nd ed., AIAA Education Series). Reston, VA: AIAA."

%---M Mach number

%---h Altitude (m)
%---L Rocket lenght (mm)
%---Ln Nose Cone Length (mm)
%---d Rocket diameter (mm)
%---de Nozzle exit diameter (mm)
%---Pow If flight is powered or not (0-unpowered 1-powered)
%---nw Number of wings
%---LEta Leading edge thickness angle (deg)
%---LEsa Leading edge sweep angle (deg)
%---Ltip Wing tip length (mm)
%---Lroot Wing root lenght (mm)
%---tmaxav maximum thickness at mean aero chord (mm)
%---wh height of the wing (mm)
%%
if M<0
error('The Mach Number cannot be negative, please adjust your calculations');
end

%%

%---Air Calculations with respect to ALTITUDE

if h<11000;
T=273.15+15.04-0.00649*h;
P=101290*(T/288.08)^(5.256);
elseif 11000<=h<25000;
T=-56.46+273.15;
P=22650*exp(1.73-0.000157*h);
elseif h>=25000;
T=273.15-131.21+0.00299*h;
P=2488*(T/216.6)^(-11.388);
end
ro=P*1000/(0.2869*T);
%%---The air calculations obtained from
%%---https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/atmosmet.html

%%
%%---Dynamic Pressure Calculation (2 different approach)
gamma=1.4;
q=M^2*0.5*gamma*P;
%%q=0.5*ro*V^2;

%%
%%---Reference Area Calculation
%%---(Sref-Rocket crosssectional area)
%%---(Ae-nozzle exit area)

Sref=0.25*d*d*pi;
Ae=0.25*de*de*pi;

%%
%%---Drag Coefficient Calculation
%%---1-Body Drag
%%---1-a-Wave Drag (caused by shockwaves)
if M<1
Cd0_Body_wave=0;
elseif M>=1
Cd0_Body_wave=(1.586+1.834/(M*M))*(atan(0.5/(Ln/d)))^1.69;
end

%%---1-b-Base Drag
if Pow==0
if M<1
Cd0_Base=(0.12+0.13*M*M);
elseif M>=1
Cd0_Base=(0.25/M);

52
 end
elseif Pow==1
if M<1
Cd0_Base=(1-Ae/Sref)*(0.12+0.13*M*M);
elseif M>=1
Cd0_Base=(1-Ae/Sref)*(0.25/M);
end
else
error('Pow Value must be either 1(powered) or 0(unpowered) ');
end
%%---1-c-Body Friction Drag
Cd0_Body_Friction=0.053*(L/d)*((M*47.88*304.8)/(q*L))^0.2;

%%----------------------%%
Cd0_Body=Cd0_Body_Friction+Cd0_Base+Cd0_Body_wave;
%%----------------------%%

%%---2-Fin Drag

MLe=M*cos(LEsa*180/pi);
Sw=(Ltip+Lroot)*0.5*wh; %(mm^2)
cmac=(Ltip+Lroot)*0.5;
b=wh*2;
%%---2-a-Wing Wave Drag
if MLe<1
Cd0_Wing_wave=0;
elseif MLe>=1

Cd0_Wing_wave=nw*(1/(gamma*MLe*MLe)*(sin(LEta*180/pi)^2)*(cos(LEsa*180/pi))*(tmaxav/2
5.4)*(b*645.16/(25.4*Sref))*((((gamma+1)*MLe*MLe*0.5)^(gamma/(gamma-
1)))*(((gamma+1)/(2*gamma*MLe*MLe-gamma+1))^(1/(gamma-1))))-1);
end
%%---2-b-Wing Friction Drag
Cd0_Wing_Friction=(nw)*(0.0133*M/(q*cmac/(47.880208*0.3048))^(0.2))*(Sw/Sref);

%%----------------------%%
Cd0_Wing=Cd0_Wing_wave+Cd0_Wing_Friction;
%%----------------------%%
%%
%%---Total Drag

Cd=Cd0_Body+Cd0_Wing;
End

53
APPENDIX A.11

function plots_2(Time,v,acc,x,yf,mnum,teta,t1,i,Cd);

% Simulation result plots

%%

Time=Time(1:i-1); % Takes the part of the time matrix until y=0

mev=mean(v); %mean velocity
cof=Time(t1,1); % Engine cut off time
vmax=max(v); % Maximum velocity

%% Finding the apogee %%

apogee=max(yf); % Maximum ascent from initial position
apogee_indice=find(yf==apogee);
Time_apogee=Time(apogee_indice); % Time untill apogee
disp(Time_apogee);
%%

%-------------PLOTS-------------%
figure
plot(Time,acc,'LineWidth', 3);
hold on;
yl=ylim;
line([cof cof], [yl(1) yl(2)],'color','r');
line([Time_apogee Time_apogee], [yl(1) yl(2)],'color','g');
xlabel('Time [s]','FontSize',13,'FontWeight','bold');
ylabel('Total Acceleration[m/s^2]','FontSize',13,'FontWeight','bold');
legend('Accelerration','Burnout','Apogee')
title('Total Acceleration - Time','FontSize',16,'FontWeight','bold');
grid minor;

figure
plot(Time,yf,'LineWidth', 3);
hold on;
yl=ylim;
line([cof cof], [yl(1) yl(2)],'color','r');
line([Time_apogee Time_apogee], [yl(1) yl(2)],'color','g');
xlabel('Time [s]','FontSize',13,'FontWeight','bold');
ylabel('Altitude [m]','FontSize',13,'FontWeight','bold');
legend('Altitude','Burnout','Apogee')
title('Altitude - Time','FontSize',16,'FontWeight','bold');
grid minor;

figure
plot(Time,mnum,'LineWidth', 3);
hold on;
yl=ylim;
line([cof cof], [yl(1) yl(2)],'color','r');
line([Time_apogee Time_apogee], [yl(1) yl(2)],'color','g');
xlabel('Time [s]','FontSize',13,'FontWeight','bold');
ylabel('Mach Number','FontSize',13,'FontWeight','bold');
legend('Mach Number','Burnout','Apogee')
title('Mach Number - Time','FontSize',16,'FontWeight','bold');
grid minor;

figure
plot(Time,teta,'LineWidth', 3);
hold on;
yl=ylim;
line([cof cof], [yl(1) yl(2)],'color','r');
line([Time_apogee Time_apogee], [yl(1) yl(2)],'color','g');
xlabel('Time','FontSize',13,'FontWeight','bold');
ylabel('Teta','FontSize',13,'FontWeight','bold');
legend('Flight Path Angle','Burnout','Apogee')
title('Flight Path Angle','FontSize',16,'FontWeight','bold');
grid minor;

figure
plot(Time,Cd,'LineWidth', 3);
hold on;
yl=ylim;
line([cof cof], [yl(1) yl(2)],'color','r');
line([Time_apogee Time_apogee], [yl(1) yl(2)],'color','g');
legend('Cd','Burnout','Apogee')

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xlabel('Time','FontSize',13,'FontWeight','bold');
ylabel('Drag Coefficient','FontSize',13,'FontWeight','bold');
title('Cd vs Time','FontSize',16,'FontWeight','bold');
grid minor;

end

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APPENDIX A.12

function report(Time,x,yf,acc,v,mnum);
% Reports the simulation results
s1 = sprintf('Flight time is %f s.\n',Time(length(Time),1));
s2 = sprintf('Range is %f meters.\n', x(1,length(x)));
s3 = sprintf('Apogee Altitude is is %f m.\n', max(yf) );
s4 = sprintf('Maximum acceleration is %f m/s^2.\n', max(acc));
s5 = sprintf('Maximum velocity is %f m/s.\n', max(v));
s6 = sprintf('Maximum mach number is %f .\n', max(mnum));
message = sprintf('%s%s%s%s%s%s%s%s', s1, s2, s3, s4, s5, s6);
helpdlg(message, 'Simulation Results');
end

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