Circuits Unit 2
Circuits Unit 2
Circuits Unit 2
Basic Laws
1. Introduction:
Unit one introduced basic concepts such as current, voltage, and power in an
electric circuit. To actually determine the values of these variables in a given circuit
requires that we understand some fundamental laws that govern electric circuits.
These laws, known as Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws, form the foundation upon
which electric circuit analysis is built.
2. Ohm’s law:
Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the flow
of electric charge. This physical property, or ability to resist current, is
known as resistance and is represented by the symbol R. The resistance of
any material depends on A and its length l, as shown in Figure below:
Where:
: is known as the resistivity of the material in
ohm-meters
l : is the length of the material.
A : Cross sectional area.
The table below presents the values of for some common materials and shows which
materials are used for conductors, insulators, and semiconductors.
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Ohm’s law
states that the voltage V across a resistor is directly proportional to the current I flowing
through the resistor.
VI
V= I.R
..............(1)
V V
So from (1) I= R=
R and I
A short circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching zero.
An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching infinity.
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3. Series Resistors and Voltage Division:
Resistance in Series: When some conductors having resistances R1, R2 and R3
etc. are joined end on-end, they are said to be connected in series. It can be proved that
the equivalent resistance or total resistance between points A and D is equal to the sum
of the three individual resistances.
V = V 1 + V2 + V3
= I.R1 + I.R2 + I.R3 ....Ohm’s Law
But
V = I.Req
Then
Req = R1 + R2 + R3
also
1/Geq=1/G1+1/G2+1/G3 as G = 1/ R
The equivalent resistance Req of any number of resistors connected in series is the sum
of the individual resistances.
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As seen from above, the main characteristics of a series circuit are :
R1
V 1=V .
R 1+ R 2+ R 3
R2
V 2=V .
R 1+ R 2+ R 3
R3
V 3=V .
R 1+ R 2+ R 3
2
V 1=24. =4 V
2+ 4+6
4
V 2=24. =8 V
2+ 4+ 6
6
V 3=24. =12 V
2+ 4+ 6
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4. Parallel Resistors and Current Division:
Two resistors, as joined in the Figure are said to be connected in parallel. In this case
Voltage across all resistances is the same
Current in each resistor is different and is given by Ohm’s Law and
The total current is the sum of the two separate currents.
I = I1 + I2
V V
= +
R1 R2 ........... Ohm's Law
V V V V
= +
Req R 1 R 2
Since I = R
by Ohm's Law
1 1 1 R 1. R 2
= +
Req R 1 R 2 R 1+ R 2 = Req
For the case of a circuit with N resistors in parallel, the equivalent resistance is:
Note that Req is always smaller than the resistance of the smallest resistor in the
parallel combination.
R
If R1 = R2 = ..........= RN = R then N = Req
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Current Divider Rule:
R2
I 1=I .
R 1+ R 2
R1
I 2=I .
R 1+ R 2
Example:
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For the circuit shown in figure determine:
a) The battery voltage V.
b) The total resistance of the circuit.
c) The values of resistance of resistors R1, R2 and R3, given that the voltage across
R1, R2 and R3 are 5V, 2V and 6V respectively.
Solution:
Example:
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For the given circuit determine:
a) The reading on the ammeter.
b) The value of resistor R2.
Solution:
Solution:
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Example:
Find Req for the circuit shown in figure below:
Figure (2)
Figure (3)
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Practice Problem:
Examples
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5. Nodes, Branches, and Loops:
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6. Kirchhoff’s Laws:
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL:) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a
node (or a closed boundary) is zero.
Where N is the number of branches connected to the node and In is the nth current
entering (or leaving) the node. By this law:
I1 – I2 + I 3 + I 4 – I5 = 0
Then
I1 + I3 + I4 = I2 + I5
The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving
the node.
Consider another example on KCL, the current sources in the below figure combined
together. Applying KCL yields:
IT + I2 = I1 + I3
Or
IT = - I2 + I 1 + I 3
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Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) : states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a
closed path (or loop) is zero.
Where M is the number of voltages in the loop and Vm is the mth voltage.
To illustrate KVL, consider the circuit in Figure below. The sign on each voltage is
the polarity of the terminal encountered first as we travel around the loop.
We can start with any branch and go around the loop either clockwise or
counterclockwise
Suppose we start with the voltage source and go clockwise around the loop as
shown; then the sign would be the sign of the terminal which is met first.
– V1 + V2 + V3 – V4 + V5=0
Or
V2 + V3 + V5= V1 + V4
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7. Wye-Delta Transformations:
1- Delta to Wye Conversion:
Each resistor in the Y network is the product of the resistors in the two adjacent
branches, divided by the sum of the three resistors
Each resistor in the network is the sum of all possible products of Y resistors taken
two at a time, divided by the opposite Y resistor.
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