Lab No 3

Combination of resistors
Apparatus:
● Two resistors of different values for example,
R1 = 1Ω, R2 = 2Ω.
● Battery of 6 volt
● Ammeter, plug key, connecting wires, a piece of sand paper, voltmeter and rheostat.

Introduction:
● Resistors can be connected in series or in parallel.
● In series connection the current flows through them one after another. The circuit given
below shows three resistors connected in series, and the direction of current is indicated by the
arrow.

● Since the current travels through only one path/route hence the current flowing through
each of the resistors is the same. The total current flowing through the circuit is always the
same in series.
● Also, the voltage drops across the resistors must add up to the total voltage supplied by the
battery. The voltage across each resistor would be V1, V2, and V3. Hence the total voltage is:
Vtotal = V₁ + V₂ + V3

The total number of electrons moving from one end of the battery and reaching the other end
of the battery is same. But the speed with which the electrons are flowing from each resistor
would be different. Depending on the path the electrons get to flow through each resistor.

Aim:
Experiment to determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in series.

Theory:
● Resistance of a wire can be increased or decreased depending on its combinations and
connections in a circuit.
● Resistors are joined in the circuit in two different methods, i.e., in series and in parallel.
● If two resistors named as R, and R₂ are joined end to end they are said to be connected in
series.

In such a case the ammeter reading, i.e., current flowing through all two resistors will be same
but the potential difference across each resistor will be different. Hence, the total potential
difference V is the combination of two different volts obtained across each resistor.
If R1 and R2, are connected in series,
R=R₁+R₂
Where current I = constant
But potential difference V = V₁ + V₂
On applying Ohm 's law to the three resistors separately, we get
V₁ = IR1 ...(1)
V₂ = IR₂ ...(2)
Total V = V₁ + V₂
V = IR1 + IR₂
V = I(R₁+R₂)
This proves that total resistance R for connection in series combination is:
R = R₁ + R₂

Procedure:
1. Make the connections according to the diagram given below.
2. Do not 'on' the key.
3. Connect ammeter in series and voltmeter in parallel and rheostat in series in the Circuit.
4. Carefully check the +ve and -ve terminals of the battery, voltmeter and ammeter, and the
connections as shown in Fig. 1.
5. Record the ammeter reading and the voltmeter reading by inserting the key.
6. By adjusting rheostat note three readings.
7. Now connect voltmeter in parallel one by one to individual resistance as shown in Fig. II and
note down the readings.
8. Plug the key. Measure the potential difference across the first resistor. Let it be V 1.
9. Similarly, measure the potential difference across the Let the value be V₂.
10. Calculate the relationship between V, V1 and V2

B = battery (6V) K = KEY

A = ammeter V = voltmeter
R=1 Ω R=2Ω
Rh = Rheostat V 1 , V2 = voltmeter readings for individual
resistors

Observation Table For Resistance In Series:

Current Voltage Resistance
(A) (V) (R)
R1 0.0345 5.0 147

R2 0.12 5.0 41

R3 0.11 5.0 45

Compare to the known resistances

Experimental Known Percent Error

result Resistance
R1 147 150 9.6 %

R2 41 50 1.3 %

R3 45 50 0.2 %

V = V 1 + V2 + V3
V = 3.49 + 10.04 + 1.0
V = 14.53 V

Result
1. The calculated value of R = R1 + R2 = 3Ω
2. The experimental value of R = 3Ω
3. The above two values are close to each other Hence, R = R1 + R2 is verified
Lab no 4
Combination of resistors in parallel

Introduction

 When resistors are connected such that they branch out from a single point and join up
again in the circuit. This is known as a parallel connection.
 The three resistors in the figure given below shows that the path for current to flow
through the circuit can be in three different routes.

Aim
To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in parallel.

Theory
● When the resistors are connected in parallel with a combination of cells or battery. in such
case the total current I, is equal to the sum of the separate value of current through each
branch of the combination

i.e., I = I1 + I2 + I3 +………..

● In the above circuit let R be the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination of resistors.

:. By applying Ohm's Law we have

I = V/R
● On applying Ohm's law to each resistor we get
I 1 = V / R1
I 2 = N / R2
I = I 1 + I2
V / R p = V / R1 + V / R2 (from equation 1, 2, and 3)
1 / R p = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2
  When resistors are connected in parallel combination the total resistance is reciprocal
sum of the individual resistances.
i.e., /Rp = (1/R₁) + (1/R₂)
 Current is constant in series circuit. Hence, we cannot connect bulb and room
 heater in series because their current requirement is different.
 Hence such devices are connected in parallel so that the current is divided through the
different electrical gadgets.
 The total current is always decreased when resistors are connected in parallel.
 When the resistors are connected in parallel then the equivalent resistance of the
 parallel combination of the resistors is always low.

Materials Required
A battery, a plug key, connecting wires, an ammeter, a voltmeter, rheostat, a piece of sand
paper and two resistors of different value

Procedure
1. Keep the key off and make all the connections as shown in the given figure 1.
2. When the circuit is connected appropriately insert the key.
3. Note three readings of ammeter and voltmeter for the resistors R 1 and R2 separately.
4. Now connect the circuit as shown in figure II below.
5. The resistors are connected in parallel and voltmeter is also connected in parallel.
6. Use rheostat and record three different readings of ammeter and voltmeter.
7. Remove the key.
8. Do the calculations from the observation table.

Circuit Diagrams
Observation

Current Voltage Resistance

(C) (V) (R)
R1 0.047 5.0 106.4

R2 0.014 5.0 357.4

R3 0.146 5.0 34.0

Compare the known resistances

Experimental Known Resistance Percent Error

Result

R1 106.4 100 1.067 %

R2 357.2 300 1.082 %

R3 34.0 33 1.030 %

I = I1 + I 2 + I 3
I = 0.047 + 0.014 + 0.146
I = 0.207 A
Result:
1. The calculated value of 1/Rp = (1/R1) + (1/R₂) = 1.5 Ω
2. The experimental value of 1/Rp = 1.5 Ω
3. The equivalent resistance (Rp) is less than the individual resistance (R1 or R₂)
Lab No 5:

Verification of Kirchhoff's current law

Objective:
To verify Kirchhoff's Laws by comparing voltages obtained from a real circuit to those predicted
by Kirchhoff's Laws.

Introduction:
A simple circuit is one that can be reduced to an equivalent circuit containing a single resistance
and a single voltage source. Many circuits are not simple and require the use of Kirchhoff's Laws
to determine voltage, current, or resistance values. Kirchhoff's Laws for current and voltage are
given by equations 1 and 2.

∑ I =0 , Junction Law (equation 1)

Junction

∑ ∆ V =0 , Loop Law( equation2)

Loop

In this experiment, we will construct two circuits with 4 resistors and a voltage source. These
circuits will not be simple, thus Kirchhoff's Laws will be required to determine the current in
each resistor. We will then use a digital multi-meter to obtain an experimental value for the
voltage across each resistor in the circuits. Kirchhoff's Laws will then be applied to the circuits
to obtain theoretical values for the current in each resistor. By applying Ohm's Law, we can
then obtain a theoretical value for the voltage across each resistor. The experimental and
theoretical voltages can then be compared by means of % error.

Equipment:
Proto-board
4 resistors: (R1 = 68kΩ, R2 = 47kΩ, R3 = 15kΩ, R4 = 1000kΩ)
Digital multi-meter
Variable power supply
Wire leads and alligator clips

Experimental Procedure Part 1:

. 1. Using the proto-board, the 4 resistors, the variable power supply, and the wire leads and
alligator clips; construct the circuit shown in Figure 2.
2. Turn on the power supply. Connect the multi-meter across the power supply and adjust
the voltage to 8.0 volts.
3. connected the multi-meter across each of the 4 resistors record these4 values of voltage in
the data table.
4. turn the power supply off and disconnected the circuit

Experimental procedure part 2

1) first add second power supply to the circuit as shown in figure
2) turn on the power supplies Adjust the voltage v0 and v1 to 4.0 voltage
3) connect the multimeter across each of the 4 resistors record these 4 values of voltage the
data table
4) turn the power supply off and disconnect the circuit

Observations:
I 1 = I2 + I3
We have
I 1 = V 1 / R1
I 2 = V 2 / R2
I 3 = V 3 / R3
V1 = 4.86 R1 = 800 Ω
V2 = 0.12 R2 = 100 Ω
V3 = 0.12 R3 = 22 Ω
put values in formula
I1 = V1 / R1 = 4.86 / 800 = 0.022
I2 = V2 / R2 = 0.12 / 100 = 0.0018
I3 = V3 / R3 = 0.12 / 22 = 0.0055
(I1 = I2 + I3)

Analysis:
1.for the first circuit, the equation 1 and 2 to write a system of linear equation that may be
solved for the current in each branch of circuit Then solve the system to obtain a theoretical
value for each current
2. using the current obtain in the step 1 of the analysis, apply ohm’s law to determine the
theoretical voltage across each resistor
3. compare the theoretical voltage obtained in step 2 of the analysis to those measured in the
actual circuit
4. Repeat step 1 to 3 for the second circuit
5) Record the theoretical voltage, the experimental voltage and the error in the result table.

Result:

PART # 1 V (THEORITICAL) V (EXPERIMENTAL) % ERROR

R1 800

R2 100

R3 22

R4
Lab no 6
Verification of Kirchhoff’s voltage law

Object: -
To verify Kirchhoff's Voltage Law practically and using mathematical calculation

Equipment:
 Digital Multimeter
 Broad Board
 Connecting Wires
 DC power supply
 Connecting Probes

Theory:
Kirchhoff's Voltage law KVL states that the algebraic sum of the voltage around any closed path
in a given circuit is always zero.

Procedure:
 Connect the circuit as shown in Diagram.
 Measure the voltages across the resistors.
 Observe that the algebraic sum of voltages in a closed loop is zero.

Mathematically:
V = V 1 + V2 + V3

Circuit Diagram:
Observation: -
Applying KVL

V+ V1 + V2 + V3

I1 = I2 = I3 = 1 (in Series) V = V₁
+ V₂+…..

V=5

V1= 4.86 R1 = 220 Ω

V2= 0.12 R2 = 600 Ω

V3 = 0.12 R3 = 200 Ω

V1 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

I = V / R1 + R2 + R3 = 5 / 200 + 600 + 800 = 0.000542 A

V1 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

V1 = (0.000542) (22) + (0.00542) (100) + (0.000542) (800)

V1 = 0.119 + 0.542 + 4.33 = 4.99 V

Precautions:
 Avoid loose connections.
 Keep all the knobs in minimum position
 while switch on and off of the supply.