Polarizations

E field E field E field

 Linear Polarization: E field
kറ = k zƸ
E1 = E10 ei(ωt−kz+ϕ1) xො ϕ1 − ϕ2 = ± nπ n = 0, 1, 2, ⋯
E2 = E20 ei(ωt−kz+ϕ2) yො = ± E20 ei(ωt−kz+ϕ1) yො

⇒ E = E1 + E2 = ( E10 xො ± E20 yො ) ei(ωt−kz+ϕ1)

2
E0 = E10 + E220
|E20 |
α=tan−1
|E10 |

p. 366 AM antenna Electric field perpendicular to the ground vertical

TV antenna Electric field parallel to the ground horizontal
 Circular polarization
π
E10 = E20 = E0 ϕ1 − ϕ2 = ±
2
E = E1 + E2 = E0 ( xො ± i yො ) ei(ωt−kz+ϕ1)

⇒ E𝑥 = E0 cos(ωt − kz + ϕ1) E2𝑥 + E2𝑦 = E20

|E |
E𝑦 = ±E0 sin(ωt − kz + ϕ1) α = tan−1 𝑦 = ωt “+” positive helicity
|E𝑥 | Counter-clockwise

The radiated waves by the FM broadcast stations

Elliptical polarization
π
E10 ≠ E20 ϕ1 − ϕ2 = ±
2
⇒ E𝑥 = E10 cos(ωt − kz + ϕ1)
“-” negative helicity
E𝑦 = ±E20 sin(ωt − kz + ϕ1) Clockwise

E𝑥 2 E𝑦 2
( ) +( ) =1
E10 E20
Circular polarizations
 Example for an elliptical polarization
1 -1
i( ωt−1z) k=
2
m ω = 𝑐𝑘 = 1.5 × 1010 rad/s
E = ( 3 xො + 4i yො ) e 2 V/m
1
E𝑥 ( z, t ) = 3 cos(ωt − z) E𝑦
2 E𝑥 2 E𝑦 2
⇒( ) +( ) =1
1 3 4
E𝑦 ( z, t ) = − 4 sin(ωt − z)
2 t=0
To determine the direction of the rotation, E𝑥

At z=0
For t=0 E𝑥 ( 0, 0 ) = 3 E𝑦 ( 0, 0 ) = 0
π
π π π t=
2ω
For ωt = t= E𝑥 ( 0, )=0
2 2ω 2ω
π
E𝑦 ( 0, )=−4
2ω
 Fields in simple conducting media Back to p. 341

For the time-harmonic electric field |E| ∝ eiωt

⇒ ∇ × H = Jറ + iω𝜖 E = ( σ + iω𝜖 ) E Jറ = σ E
= iω𝜖c E
σ
𝜖c = 𝜖 − i = 𝜖′ − i 𝜖′′ Complex permittivity
ω
𝜖′′ σ
σ tan δc = = loss tangent
𝜖′ ω𝜖
A good insulator 𝜖≫ σ ≪ ω𝜖
ω δc：loss angle
σ
A good conductor 𝜖≪ σ ≫ ω𝜖
ω Go to p. 367

𝑘 = ω μ𝜖c A complex number

Similarly, μc = μ′ − i μ′′
kc = β − i α Complex wavenumber

A ferromagnetic material μ′ ≫ μ′′ α：attenuation constant (Np/m)

β：phase constant (rad/m)
For a source-free lossy medium, Go to p. 368

∇2E + kc 2 E = 0 ⇒ E = E0 e−ikc nෝ ∙ r
For a simple case,

E( z ) = E𝑥 xො = E0 e−ikc z xො = E0 e−i ( β−i α ) z xො

E( z, t ) = E( z ) eiωt = ( E0 e−α z ) ei( ωt−βz ) xො

1
The skin depth 𝛿 = e−1 ~ 0.37
α
z-direction
(i) Plan wave in a good dielectric (low-loss) 𝜖′′ σ
≪1 =tan δc ≪ 1 μ′′ → 0
𝜖′ ω𝜖
𝜖 ′′
kc = β − i α = ω μ𝜖c = ω μ𝜖 ′ 1 − i ′
𝜖
′′ ′′
1 𝜖 1 𝜖 (1−x )1/2
x x2
≈1− +
≈ ω μ𝜖 ′ 1 − ( i ′ ) + ( i ′ )2 2 8
2 𝜖 8 𝜖 as x ≪ 1
′′ ′′
1 𝜖 𝜖
= ω μ𝜖 ′ [1 − ( ′ )2 ] − i ′
8 𝜖 2𝜖

′′ ′′ 1 ′′
𝜖 ω𝜖 μ 𝜖
α ≈ ω μ𝜖 ′ × ′ = ∝ω β ≈ ω μ𝜖 ′ [1 − ( ′ )2 ]
2𝜖 2 𝜖 ′ 8 𝜖
slightly different from ω μ𝜖 ′

μ μ 1 μ 𝜖 ′′
ηc = = ≈ (1 + i ′ )
𝜖c 𝜖′ 𝜖 ′′ 𝜖 ′ 2𝜖
1− i( ′ )
𝜖
 p. 369
σ
(ii) Plan wave in a good conductor (high-loss) 𝜖′′ ≫ 𝜖′ =tan δc ≫ 1 μ′′ → 0
ω𝜖
𝜖 ′′ 1 σ
′ ′′ ′′ 1 1
𝜖c = 𝜖 − i 𝜖 ≈ −i 𝜖 = = ( ) i= e𝜋i/2 = e𝜋i/4 = +i
i i ω 2 2

μσ 1 ωμσ ωμσ
kc = β − i α = ω μ𝜖c ≈ ω = ωμσ = = (1−i)
iω i ( 1 + i ) 2
ωμσ 2
⇒α=β= = 𝜋 f μσ ∝ ω
2
μ ωμ 1 + i ωμ 𝜋fμ α 𝜋 ωμ
ηc = ≈ i =( ) = (1+i) = ( 1 + i ) = e4i
𝜖c σ 2 σ σ σ σ
𝜋
|E| e −
4
i
|H| = = |E| The phase of H lags behind that of E by 45 degree.
ηc α
2( )
σ

1 1 1 λ′
The skin depth 𝛿 = = = =
α π f μσ β 2π
Take copper as an example, σ = 5.8 × 10 7 S/m μ ≈ 4π × 10 −7 H/m

f = 3 MHz = 3 × 10 6 Hz (λ = 100 m in free space)

∴α=β= π × 3 × 10 6 × 4π × 10 −7 × 5.8 × 107 = 2.62 × 10 4 1/m

2π
λ′ = ≈ 2.4 × 10 −4 m
β
1
𝛿= = 3.8 × 10 −5 m = 38 μm
α
For an NMR experiment,

f = 90 MHz = 9 × 10 7 Hz 𝛿 = 7 μm
f = 10 MHz = 1 × 10 7 Hz 𝛿 = 21 μm
 Example 8-4 Seawater ϵr = 72 μr = 1 σ = 4 S/m

E = 100 cos( 10 7 πt ) xො V/m z = 0 Above the sea level

7
ω
ω = 10 π → f = = 5 × 10 6 Hz = 5 MHz λ = 60 m
2π
σ σ 4
= = = 200 ≫ 1 good conductor!
ω𝜖 ω𝜖0ϵr π × 10 7 × ( 1
) × 72
36π × 10 9
(a)
α= 𝜋 f μσ ≈ 8.9 (Np/m) β = α = 8.9 (rad/m)

πfμ α 𝜋 ωμ
i 𝜋
ηc = ( 1 + i ) = ( 1 + i ) = e4 = π e4 i (Ω)
σ σ σ ωμ
= π2
σ
2π 2π 1 1
λ′ = = ≈ 0.71 (m) 𝛿 = = ≈ 0.11 (m) e−1 ~ 0.37
β 8.9 α 8.9

1 1 4.8
(b) 1% = = e−α z1 ⇒ z1 = ln 100 = = 0.52 (m)
100 α 8.9
(c) E( z ) = 100 e−αz e−iβz xො

E( z, t ) = 100 e−αz cos( ωt − βz ) xො (V/m) Under the sea

z = 0.8 m E( 0.8 m, t ) = 100 e−0.8×8.9 cos( π × 10 7 t − 0.8 × 8.9 ) xො

= 0.082 cos( π × 10 7 t − 7.11 ) xො (V/m)

7.11 = 2π + 0.83
E𝑥 (z) 100 e−0.8α e−i×0.8β α = β = 8.9 (1/m)
H𝑦 (z) = = 𝜋
ηc π e4i

0.082 e−0.83i
= = 0.026 e−1.61i
π e0.78i

Phase difference
∴ H( 0.8 m, t ) = 0.026 cos( π × 10 7 t − 1.61 ) yො (A/m)
1.61− 0.83 = π/4
Submarine communication ϵr = 72 μr = 1 σ = 4 S/m
σ
f = 60 Hz ≫1
ω𝜖
α= 𝜋 f μσ ≈ 0.03 (1/m)

𝛿 ≈ 32 m

One needs an extremely low frequency (ELF)

communication technology for a long-distance
communication to a submarine.
8-3-3 Ionized gases
Ionized gases with equal electron and ion densities

Plasmas (電漿，等離子體) A neutral charge system

Ignore the motion of ions & collisions between electrons and atoms and/or molecules

For a time-harmonic field E ∝ eiωt

The displacement of the electron xറ ∝ eiωt (Linear response)

d2xറ q
F = qE = m 2 = −mω2 xറ xറ = − E
dt mω 2

Such of the displacement gives rise to an electric dipole 𝓅റ

q2
𝓅റ = qറx = − E
mω2
nq2
The polarization vector P = n𝓅റ = − E n = volume density
mω2
In a plasma system

D = ϵ0 E + P ne2
ωp = ∝ n
ne2 mϵ0
= ϵ0 1− E
mω2ϵ0
ωp 2 ωp 1 ne2
= ϵ0 1− 2 E fp = = Plasma frequency
ω 2π 2π mϵ0

The equivalent permittivity of the plasma

ωp 2 fp2
ϵp(ω) = ϵ0 1 − 2 = ϵ0 1− 2
ω f

μ μ 1 η0
η= = = μ~μ0
ϵp ϵ0 f 2 fp2
1 − p2 1− 2
f f

fp2
k = ω μϵ0 1− 2
f
(i) f → fp k→0 η→∞

E exists in the plasma but D = 0 Plasma oscillation

(ii) f < fp k = β − i α = pure imaginary β=0

without ei( ωt−βz ) No propagation (Reflection)

(iii) f > fp k = pure real α=0 No attenuation (Penetration)

fp：cutoff frequency fc
|e| = 1.6 × 10 −19 C

1 e2 m = 9.11 × 10 −31 kg
fp = n ≅ 9 n Hz 1
2π mϵ0 ϵ0 = F/m
36π × 10 9

Example 8-5 n = 2 × 10 8 1/cm3 = 2 × 1014 1/m3

∴ fp = 9 2 × 1014 = 12.7 × 107 Hz = 127 MHz

 Ionosphere (電離層) The ionosphere is the ionized part of Earth's upper
atmosphere, from about 48 km (30 mi) to 965 km
(600 mi) altitude.

Appleton won the Nobel Prize in

Physics in 1947 for his seminal
work proving the existence of the
ionosphere during experiments
carried out in 1924.
阿普爾頓 (Appleton)
In 1926, Scottish physicist Robert 1892-1965 (蘇格蘭)
Watson-Watt introduced the term
n ~1010 − 1012 1/m3 ionosphere in a letter published
only in 1969 in Nature.
∴ fp ~ 0.9 − 9 MHz

f < 0.9 MHz

Robert Watson-Watt
No propagation (Reflection) 1892-1973 (英)

f > 9 MHz
No attenuation (Penetration)
電漿清洗是一種經過驗證、有效、經濟且環保的關鍵表面處理方法。與傳統的濕
式清潔方法相比，使用電漿進行離子清洗可消除奈米級的工業/天然油脂(oil)與油
膏(grease)，並減少6 倍的汙染，包括溶劑清潔殘留物本身。 經電漿清洗，表面回
歸未受汙染狀態，可在無有害廢料情況下進行黏合或進一步製程。

在電漿中產生的紫外線光能有效破壞表面汙染物的有機鍵結，這有助於分解油脂
(oil)與油膏(grease)，接著由電漿中產生的高能氧物質進行清洗。 這些物質與有機
污染物反應，主要形成水和二氧化碳，在處理過程中，這些物質會從腔室中持續
被排出。
如果要電漿清洗的部件由容易氧化的材料(如銀或銅)組成，反應氣體則使用惰性
氣體（如氬氣或氦氣）代替。 這些經電漿活化的原子和離子，可以分解有機污染
物，汙染物則在處理過程中再次蒸發並從腔室中排出。

Electric arc (電弧)