1

C ALCULUS
F UNCTION A NALYSIS

Arun Umrao
www.sites.google.com/view/arunumrao

D RAFT COPY - GPL L ICENSING

0.1. FUNCTION 1

0.1 Function
0.1.1 Set
A set is collection of elements, placed between curly brackets. For example, a
set of four numbers is shown below:

A = {5, 7, 10, 14}

The elements of the set may be symbols, names or numbers. This type of set
denomination is called “roster method”.

0.1.2 Ordered Pair

(a1 , b1 ) and (a2 , b2 ) are said to be ordered pairs. In ordered pair, first element
of an ordered pair is belong to set A and second element of the ordered pair is
belong to set B. The set of all ordered pairs whose first entry is in some set A
and whose second entry is in some set B is called the Cartesian product of A
and B. Some time the second element of the ordered pair has a unique relation
with the first element of the ordered pair. For example, in set

X = {(1, 2), (3, 6), (5, 10)}

second element of the ordered pair is twice of the first element of the ordered
pair.

0.1.3 Set Builder Notation

Set-builder notation is used to describe a set that is defined by a logical relation
or a logical formula (i.e. predicate) which is true for an element of the set, and
false otherwise. In other words, set builder notation is used to describe a huge
discrete data in one or two mathematical word lines. Set-builder notation has
three parts: a variable, a colon, and a rule. For example, a set

A = {1, 2, 3, . . .}

is written as
A = {x : x > 1}
If set is an ordered pair and it may be written as set building form, then logical
relation or logical rule may form the function for the given set. Take ordered
paired set
X = {(1, 2), (3, 6), (5, 10)}
Take, first element of ordered pair as x and second element of the ordered pair
as y, then we can write it in set building form as

X = {y : y = 2x, x ∈ {1, 3, 5}}

2

Now, y = 2x or y = f (x) = 2x is a logical relation or function for the given set

X.

x y = f (x)
1 2
3 6
5 10

Table 1: Tabulated form of ordered pairs of set X.

In mathematics, ordered pairs are also arranged in tabulated data having

one column for independent variable and second column for dependent variable
and both columns have a logical relation as given in table ??.

Solved Problem 0.1 Write the set X = {(2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16), (5, 25)} in tabu-
lated form and construct its set building form.
Solution The tabulated data of the given set X is given below:

x y = f (x)
2 4
3 9
4 16
5 25

Table 2: Tabulated form of ordered paired set X =

{(2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16), (5, 25)}.

The second column value is square of the first column value, hence each
second element of the ordered pairs of set X is square of the first element of the
corresponding ordered pair of the set X. So, its set building form is

X = y : y = x2 , x ∈ [2, 5]


Solved Problem 0.2 Construct ordered pair set from the tabulated data given
below and represent in set building form. Deduce the logical relation used in
this tabulated data. Find the value of second element of the ordered pair if first
element is 4.5.
Solution
0.1. FUNCTION 3

x y = f (x)
3 9
4 12
5 15
6 18

Table 3: Tabulated data.

The ordered pair set of the tabulated data is given as

X = {(3, 9), (4, 12), (5, 15), (6, 18)}

The second column value is thrice of the first column value, hence each second
element of the ordered pairs of set X is three times of the first element of the
corresponding ordered pair of the set X. So, its set building form is

X = {y : y = 3x, x ∈ [3, 6]}

The logical relation used in this set is y = 3x. Now the value of the second
element of ordered pair for first element x = 4.5 is

y = 3 × 4.5 = 13.5

0.1.4 Discrete & Continuous Function

A discrete function accepts only discrete inputs and give result based on the
function logic. The input size of the discrete function is finite. A continuous
function accepts discrete values as well as intermediate values. The input size of
continuous function is infinite. A continuous function is also a discrete function
but a discrete function may or may not be continuous function.

x y = f (x)
3 9
4 12
5 15
6 18

Table 4: Tabulated data.

From the above tabulated data discrete function can be written as

f (x) = 3x; x ∈ [3, 6] and x ∈ I

4

It means, the input size of this discrete function is only 4 and input values
would be only integer from 3 to 6. A continuous function accepts the input
values which are in [3, 6], like 3, 3.5, 5 and 5.55 etc. So, a continuous function
can be written as

f (x) = 3x; x ∈ [3, 6] and x ∈ R

This shows that continuous function has infinite input size.

Discrete Values
Take function f (x) of variable x for reference purposes. Take upper and lower
limits as x ∈ [1, 2]. Now, we can find many numbers of function values within
the given limit, by selecting appropriate type of domain of x. For example, if
x ∈ I then there are only two function values at x = 1 and x = 2. If domain of x
is selected as x ∈ R then there are infinite numbers of function values as x may
have infinite numbers of values within given limits as x = 1, x = 1.1, x = 1.11,
x = 1.111 and so on. To avoid the limitless function values, we take limited
numbers of x values either separated in equal distances or unequal distances
within the given limits. The finite function values at these limited x points are
called discrete values. Discrete values are identified by their positions, i.e. first,
second, third, fourth etc, rather that order of variable x and position of discrete
value is identified by the number inside square bracket, [ ]. First discrete value
and function value at point x = 1 both are different.

Solved Problem 0.3 Find the four discrete values of the function f (x) = 2x for
x ∈ [1, 3] and x ∈ I.

Solution From the given problem, we have only three x values which are
x = 1, x = 2 and x = 3. The function values at these three points are f (1) = 2,
f (2) = 4 and f (3) = 8. If we start counting function values from one then three
discrete function values are f [1] = 2, f [2] = 4 and f [3] = 8.

Discrete Summation
Summation of definite discrete function values is called discrete summation. For
example, consider function values of function

f (x) = 2x

as f (1) = 2, f (2) = 4, f (3) = 6, f (4) = 8, f (5) = 10. Discrete summation of

these function values is given by
X
f (x) = f (1) + f (2) + f (3) + f (4) + f (5) = 30
X
The symbol is use to symbolised the discrete summation.
0.1. FUNCTION 5

Solved Problem 0.4 Find the four discrete values of the function f (x) = 2x for
x ∈ [1, 3] and x ∈ I and find their sum.

Solution From the given problem, we have only three x values which are
x = 1, x = 2 and x = 3. The function values at these three points are f (1) = 2,
f (2) = 4 and f (3) = 8. If we start counting function values from one then three
discrete function values are f [1] = 2, f [2] = 4 and f [3] = 8. The sum of these
three (n = 3) discrete values is
X
f [n] = f [1] + f [2] + f [3] = 2 + 4 + 8 = 14

This is desired result.

Cumulative Summation
Cumulative summation of definite discrete function values is defined as sum
of current function value with the total sum of all previous function values.
Cumulative summation is written for all current function values. For example,
consider function values of function
f (x) = 2x
as f (1) = 2, f (2) = 4, f (3) = 6, f (4) = 8, f (5) = 10. Their cumulative
summation (csum) is given by

x 1 2 3 4 5

f(x) 2 4 6 8 10

csum[f(x)] 2 6 12 20 30

Solved Problem 0.5 Find the four discrete values of the function f (x) = 2x for
x ∈ [1, 3] and x ∈ I, and find their cumulative sum.

Solution From the given problem, we have only three x values which are
x = 1, x = 2 and x = 3. The function values at these three points are f (1) = 2,
f (2) = 4 and f (3) = 8. If we start counting function values from one then three
discrete function values are f [1] = 2, f [2] = 4 and f [3] = 8. The cumulative
sum of these three (n = 3) discrete values is

x 1 2 3

f(x) 2 4 8

csum[f(x)] 2 6 10
6

This is cumulative sum of the function values.

Indexed Summation
Indexed summation of definite discrete function values is defined as sum of
function values located at the given indices only. For example, consider function
values of function
f (x) = 2x
as f (1) = 2, f (2) = 4, f (3) = 6, f (4) = 8, f (5) = 10. The indexed form of these
function values is given below:

n 1 2 3 4 5

x 1 2 3 4 5

f(x) 2 4 6 8 10

Table 5: Indexed Discrete Data - n ≥ 1.

In this form, index counting is started from ‘1’. Indexed summation is

X3
represented by symbol , where lower suffix shows the initial index value
1
while upper suffix shows the final index value. Indexed summation of the given
data will be
X3
f (x) = f [1] + f [2] + f [3] = 2 + 4 + 6 = 12
1

Sometime index counting is also started from ‘0’ as shown below:

n 0 1 2 3 4

x 1 2 3 4 5

f(x) 2 4 6 8 10

Table 6: Index Discrete Data - n ≥ 0.

Now indexed summation will be changed as discrete value at index 1 is

different in ?? than the discrete value at index 1 in ??. So
3
X
f (x) = f [1] + f [2] + f [3] = 4 + 6 + 8 = 18
1
0.1. FUNCTION 7

Solved Problem 0.6 Find the four discrete values of the function f (x) = 2x for
2
X
x ∈ [1, 3] and x ∈ I, and find f [x].
1

Solution From the given problem, we have only three x values which are
x = 1, x = 2 and x = 3. The function values at these three points are f (1) = 2,
f (2) = 4 and f (3) = 8. If we start counting function values from one then three
discrete function values are f [1] = 2, f [2] = 4 and f [3] = 8. Indexed summation
of the given function is
2
X
f [x] = f [1] + f [2] = 2 + 4 = 6
1

This is indexed summation of the function values.

Solved Problem 0.7 Find the four discrete values of the function f (x) = 2x for
3
X
x ∈ [1, 3] and x ∈ I, and find f [x].
2

Solution From the given problem, we have only three x values which are
x = 1, x = 2 and x = 3. The function values at these three points are f (1) = 2,
f (2) = 4 and f (3) = 8. If we start counting function values from one then three
discrete function values are f [1] = 2, f [2] = 4 and f [3] = 8. Indexed summation
of the given function is
3
X
f [x] = f [2] + f [3] = 4 + 8 = 12
2

This is indexed summation of the function values.

Solved Problem 0.8 Find the X four discrete values of the function f (x) = 2x for
x ∈ [1, 3] and x ∈ I, and find f [x].
[1,3]

Solution From the given problem, we have only three x values which are
x = 1, x = 2 and x = 3. The function values at these three points are f (1) = 2,
f (2) = 4 and f (3) = 8. If we start counting function values from one then three
discrete function values are f [1] = 2, f [2] = 4 and f [3] = 8. Indexed summation
of the given function is
X
f [x] = f [1] + f [3] = 2 + 8 = 10
[1,3]

This is indexed summation of the function values.

8

0.1.5 Function
A function f relates with each element of x of a set, say Df , with exactly one
element y of the another set, say Rf . Here Df is called domain of function f
and Rf is called range of function f . Here x is independent variable while y is
called dependent variable. f has single and definite value for every value of x
in its domain.
√
Solved Problem 0.9 Assume a function f (x) = x − 2, where x ∈ I
√
Solution Let x ∈ I then for real value of f (x), x − 2 must be positive
and x − 2 ≥ 0. Which gives x ≥ 2. The domain of all real number of x is

x = {2, 3, 4, . . . , ∞}

The range of function is

n √ o
R = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , ∞

respectively. The table is given below.

x 2 3 4 5 ... ∞
√ √ √ √
f (x) 0 1 2 3 ... ∞
√
Table 7: The data table of the function y = x − 2.

This data is plotted in the graph in Polar form as well as Cartesian form as
shown below.
y

x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

√
Figure 1: Polar (blue) & Cartesian (red) plot of the function y = x − 2.

x
Solved Problem 0.10 Assume a function f (x) = , where x ∈ I.
x2 −4

Solution Let x ∈ I then for real and finite value of f (x), x2 − 4 must not
be zero. The domain of all real number of x is −∞ to ∞ except x = 2 and
x = −2. At x = ±2 the value of f (x) is tends to ±∞. The range of function is
−∞ to ∞. The table is given below.
0.1. FUNCTION 9

x −∞ ... -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 ... ∞
f (x) 0 ... -0.6 −∞ -0.33 0 0.33 ∞ 0.6 ... 0

The data is plotted as show below.

y
3

x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1

−2

−3

x
Figure 2: Plot of the function y = .
x2 − 4

Solved Problem 0.11 Assume a function f (x) = x4 − x2 , where x ∈ I.

Solution Let x ∈ I then for real and finite value of f (x), the domain of all
real number of x is −∞ to ∞. The range of function is −0.25 to ∞. The table
is given below.

x −∞ ... -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 ... ∞

f (x) −∞ ... 0 -0.19 0 0.19 0 ... ∞

This data is plotted as shown below.

x
−1 1

Figure 3: Plot of the function y = x4 − x2 .

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Single Variable Function

A single variable function has one independent variable and one dependent
variable. For example,
f (x) = mx2 + c
is a single variable function of x. Here, m and c are constants.

Solved Problem 0.12 Draw a xy-plane for a function y that depends only on
x and take four auxiliary points for x numerically. Find the function value at
these points and show them in xy-plane. Function is y(x) = x2 − 2.

Solution The given single variable function is

y(x) = x2 − 2

Take four auxiliary points in x-axis, i.e. say horizontal number lines as

x = {−1.75, −0.5, 0.5, 1}

y
b
1

x
−2 −1 1

−1 b

b b

Now function values at these x-points are

y(−1.75) = (−1.75)2 − 2 = 1.0615

y(−0.5) = (−0.5)2 − 2 = −1.75

y(0.5) = (0.5)2 − 2 = −1.75
y(1) = (1)2 − 2 = −1
Now four coordinate points (x, y(x)) are (−1.75, 1.0615), (−0.5, −1.75), (0.5, −1.75)
and (1, −1). These four points are shown in above figure.

Solved Problem 0.13 Draw a tr-plane for a function t that depends only on t
and take four auxiliary points for t numerically. Find the function value at these
points and show them in tr-plane. Function is r(t) = t − 2.

Solution The given single variable function is

r(t) = t + 0.5
0.1. FUNCTION 11

Take four auxiliary points in t-axis, i.e. say horizontal number lines as

t = {−1, −0.5, 0.5, 1}

r b

b
1

b
t
−1
b
1

−1

Now function values at these t-points are

r(−1) = (−1) + 0.5 = −0.5

r(−0.5) = (−0.5) + 0.5 = 0

r(0.5) = (0.5) + 0.5 = 1
r(1) = (1) + 0.5 = 1.5
Now four coordinate points (t, r(t)) are (−1, 0.5), (−0.5, 0), (0.5, 1) and (1, 1.5).
These four points are shown in above figure.

Multi Variables Function

A single variable function has more than one independent variables and one
dependent variable. For example,

f (x, y) = mx2 + cy

is a multi variables function of x and y. Here, m and c are constants.

Solved Problem 0.14 Draw a xy-plane for a function f that depends on x and y
both, and take four auxiliary coordinate points numerically. Find the function
value at these points and show them in xy-plane. Function is f (x, y) = x2 − 2y.

Solution The given single variable function is

f (x, y) = x2 − 2y

This is two variable function, hence we need pairs of two input values for each
independent variable. Four two values auxiliary ordered pairs in xy-plane are
(−0.5, 0.5), (−0.5, 0), (0, 1) and (1, 1). These four ordered pairs are coordinate
points in xy-plane.
12

y z
[−1]
1 b b x
[−2] b

[−1.25] b −0.25

b bcb x y b
b

[−0.25] −1
−1 1 −1.25

−2

Now function values at these points are

f (−0.5, 0.5) = (−0.5)2 − 2 × 0.5 = −1.25

f (−0.5, 0) = (−0.5)2 − 2 × 0 = −0.25

f (0, 1) = (0)2 − 2 × 1 = −2
f (1, 1) = (1)2 − 2 × 1 = −1
Now four function values are obtained which are −1.25, −0.25, −2 and −1.
These four points are shown in above figure. Numerical value inside square
bracket are function values at that (x, y) coordinate point.

Solved Problem 0.15 Draw a ij-plane for a function f that depends on i and j
both, and take four auxiliary coordinate points numerically. Find the function
value at these points and show them in ij-plane. Function is f (i, j) = i2 − 2ij.
Here i and j are real variables, NOT imaginary numbers as used in complex
number system.
Solution The given single variable function is

f (i, j) = i2 − 2ij

This is two variable function, hence we need pairs of two input values for each
independent variable. Four two values auxiliary ordered pairs in ij-plane are
(−0.5, 0.5), (−0.5, 0), (0, 1) and (1, 1). These four ordered pairs are coordinate
points in ij-plane.

j z
0.75
[−1] b
b b
1 0.25
[0] b

[0.75] b b x
0
bcb
b
i
[0.25]
−1 1 b
y −1

Now function values at these points are

f (−0.5, 0.5) = (−0.5)2 − 2 × −0.5 × 0.5 = 0.75

0.1. FUNCTION 13

f (−0.5, 0) = (−0.5)2 − 2 × −0.5 × 0 = 0.25

f (0, 1) = (0)2 − 2 × 0 × 1 = 0
f (1, 1) = (1)2 − 2 × 1 × 1 = −1
Now four function values are obtained which are 0.75, 0.25, 0 and −1. These
four points are shown in above figure. Numerical value inside square bracket
are function values at that (i, j) coordinate point.

0.1.6 f > 0, f < 0 and f = 0

A two dimensional function, like f (x) = ax2 + bx + c is plotted in xy-plain,
with variable x in x-axis and f (x) in y-axis. A function f > 0 represents that
all values of ax2 + bx + c for ∀x ∈ R are above the x-axis. For example,
f (x) = x2 + x + 1 is plotted above the x-axis irrespective of the x values.

y
f(
x)

2
=
x
2
+

1
x+
1

x
−2 −1 1

A function f < 0 represents that all values of ax2 + bx + c for ∀x ∈ R are

below the x-axis. For example, f (x) = −x2 + x − 1 is plotted above the x-axis
irrespective of the x values.

x
−2 −1 1
f(
x)

−1
=
−x
2
+

−2
x−
1

−3

Case f = 0 is special case. At this condition, there are few values of x for
which f is zero. If other x values are put in the function, function may be
either above or below the x-axis. This condition is used to find the roots of the
14

function. Note that, function intersects to x-axis if it has more than one real
roots. If it has only one real root, then function will only touch the x-axis.

2
x+
2

−3
)= 2
x
1

f (x
x
−1 1 2 3

For example, f (x) = x2 − 3x + 2 is plotted above and below of the x-axis.

At x = 1 and x = 2, function intersects to the x-axis. For 1 < x < 2, function
f (x) is plotted below the x-axis and ∀x ∈ {(−∞, 1) ∪ (2, −∞)}, function f (x)
is plotted above the x-axis.

0.1.7 Square Root

All of we know about the square root of a number. For example, square root of
the number k 2 would be written as
√
y = k2

Here, k 2 is a perfect square root number, say like 4, 9 etc. Solution of above
relation is √
y = k 2 = ±k
Now which value is exactly the real answer, +k or −k or both ±k? The answer
depends on the problem where
√ we are using k. For example, if k is used only
as positive numbers then k 2 would be equal to +k not −k. Similarly, if k is
within −∞ ≤ k ≤ ∞ then its both values (±k) would be the answers. In short,
the result value of k would be based on the domain of function y. Square root
values which are beyond the acceptable range are discarded from results.

√ Problem 0.16 In the number series 1, 2, 3, . . ., which value of the relation

Solved
y = 16 would be perfectly fitted?
√
Solution From the given relation y = 16, y = ±4. Now, only +4 is fall
within the given series 1, 2, 3, . . ., hence only +4 value would be fitted in the
given series.

Solved Problem √0.17 In the number series . . ., −1, 0, +1, . . ., which value of
the relation y = 4 would be perfectly fitted?
0.1. FUNCTION 15
√
Solution From the given relation y = 4, y = ±2. Now, both −4 and
+4 are fall in the given series . . ., −1, 0, +1, . . ., hence both −4 and +4 values
would be fitted in the given series.

0.1.8 Decreasing/Increasing Function

A function f (x) is said to be decreasing function if its values are decreasing when
we moves from left to right in number line for x values. The function values
may be above the x-axis or below the x-axis. If xi and xi+1 are two consecutive
x values in x ∈ R, then f (xi ) > f (xi+1 ). Take example f (x) = x2 − 3x + 2,
which is plotted above and below of the x-axis.

2
x+
2

−3
x2
)=
1

f (x
x
−1 1 2 3

Function values are constantly decreasing when we move from −∞ to 1.5. A

function f (x) is said to be increasing function if its values are increasing when
we moves from left to right in number line for x values. The function values may
be above the x-axis or below the x-axis. If xi and xi+1 are two consecutive x
values in x ∈ R, then f (xi ) < f (xi+1 ). For the given function f (x) = x2 −3x+2,
function values are constantly increasing when we move from 1.5 to ∞.

0.1.9 Types of Function

There are two types of functions. Algebraic and Transcendental. An
equation, f (x) is said to be algebraic if it is purely a polynomial in x
and is said to be transcendental if f (x) contains trigonometric, loga-
rithmic or exponential function.

Algebraic/Polynomial Function
A function is said to be algebraic or polynomial function, if its all terms have only
exponents and constants, and it is a purely polynomial of independent variable.
For example, f (x) = ax2 +bx+c is an algebraic function. A polynomial function
may have any degree and there may be missing of a particular term. The
linearity, homogeneity of a polynomial function depends on the characteristics
16

of polynomial. A polynomial function is given as

n
X
f (x) = ai xi
i=0

If n = 0 then polynomial function is constant function. If n = 1 then polynomial

function is line function. If n = 2 then polynomial function is quadratic function
which is also known as parabolic function and so on.

Trigonometric Function
A function is said to be trigonometric function, if its all terms have only trigono-
metric function and constants. For example, f (x) = sin x+cos x+c is a trigono-
metric function.
Phase in Trigonometric Functions A trigonometric function is in its general
form y1 = a sin θ. Another trigonometric function y2 is said to have a phase of
φ with the function y1 if it is written as

y2 = a sin(θ + φ)

It means that y2 is always lead to y1 by an angle φ to y1 . The function value is

instantaneous1 value at any angle θ. The relative peak values of trigonometric
functions, which are in phase, are measured by graph method or by simple
computation method.

Solved Problem 0.18 Plot the trigonometric function y = sin x within 0 ≤ x ≤

π.
Solution To plot the function y = sin x, we shall construct a data table,
in which we shall take radian values of x, converts them into equivalent degrees
and find the sine values. Though the sine values may be find by either using
radian form of angle or degree form of angle yet be careful while you putting
angle values and don’t be confused in radian and degree. Then we will plot the
graph between x and sin x.
180
xd = × xr
π
The tabulated form of data table is given below:
1
Independent from previous values, memoryless.
0.1. FUNCTION 17

xr xd (◦ ) sin(xd )
0.000 0 0.000
0.314 18 0.309
0.628 36 0.588
0.942 54 0.809
1.256 72 0.951
1.570 90 1.000
1.884 108 0.951
2.198 126 0.810
2.512 144 0.589
2.826 162 0.310
3.140 180 0.000

y y
b
b b b
b
sin x b
b b b
b
sin x
b b b b

b b b b

b b
x b b
x
π 2π π 2π
3 3 π 3 3 π

First we will plot the graph in dotted form taking ordered pairs (x, sin x) for
each row, in which x represents to abscissa2 in x-axis and sin x represents to
ordinate3 in y-axis. This plot is shown in first part of above figure. After that
we draw a smooth hand curve as shown in second part of the above figure.

Solved Problem 0.19 Plot the trigonometric function y = cos x within the limits
of cosine argument 0 ≤ x ≤ π.
Solution To plot the function y = cos x, we shall construct a data table,
in which we shall take radian values of x, converts them into equivalent degrees
and find the sine values. Though the sine values may be find by either using
radian form of angle or degree form of angle yet be careful while you putting
angle values and don’t confuse in radian and degree. Then we will plot the
2
abscissa is measurement of a point parallel to the x-axis from origin, i.e. horizontal
distance of point from y-axis.
3
ordinate is measurement of a point parallel to the y-axis from origin, i.e. vertical distance
of point from x-axis.
18

graph between x and cos x.

180
× xr xd =
π
The tabulated form of data table is given below:

xr xd (◦ ) cos(xd )
0.000 0 1.000
0.314 18 0.951
0.628 36 0.809
0.942 54 0.588
1.256 72 0.310
1.570 90 0.001
1.884 108 -0.308
2.198 126 -0.587
2.512 144 -0.808
2.826 162 -0.951
3.140 180 -1.000

y y

b
1 b
b
1 b b
b

b b

b b

b
x b
x
b b
π 2π π 2π
3 3b π 3 3b π
b b
b b b
−1 −1 b

cos x cos x

First we will plot the graph in dotted form taking ordered pairs (x, cos x)
for each row, in which x represents to abscissa in x-axis and cos x represents to
ordinate in y-axis. This plot is shown in first part of above figure. After that
we draw a smooth hand curve as shown in second part of the above figure.

Solved Problem 0.20 Plot the trigonometric function y = sin(θ + π/4) within
−π ≤ θ ≤ π.
Solution In the given function y = sin(θ + π/4), π/4 is phase. It means,
when measured angle θ is zero, argument of sine operator is not zero but argu-
ment starts with π/4. Thus the argument of sine operator is shifted by angle
π/4. To plot the function y = sin(θ + π/4), we shall construct a data table, in
0.1. FUNCTION 19

which we shall take radian values of θ within given domain, i.e. −π ≤ θ ≤ π,

and find their corresponding sine values. Note that, here we can’t take degree
values of θ as phase value is given in radian unit. If you want to take degree
values of θ, first convert the phase into degree unit. Remember the sum rule for
different units. Now, we will plot the graph between θ and sin(θ + π/4). The
tabulated form of data table is given below:

θ θ + π/4 y
-3.140 -2.355 -0.708
-2.512 -1.727 -0.988
-1.884 -1.099 -0.891
-1.256 -0.471 -0.454
-0.628 0.157 0.156
0.000 0.785 0.707
0.628 1.413 0.988
1.256 2.041 0.891
1.884 2.669 0.455
2.512 3.297 -0.155
3.140 3.925 -0.706

y
y = sin(θ + π/4)
1 b
b
b

b
x
−2π −π π 2π
−π 3
b
3 3 3 π
b b
b
b
−1

First we will plot the graph in dotted form taking ordered pairs (θ, y) for
each row, in which θ represents to abscissa in x-axis and y represents to ordinate
in y-axis. After that we draw a smooth hand curve as shown in above figure.

Solved Problem 0.21 Two trigonometric basic sine functions are y1 and y2 .
Function y2 leads to y1 by a phase of 120◦. Plot these two functions in same
graph, within −π ≤ θ ≤ π.
Solution Here, y1 and y2 are basic sine functions, i.e.
y1 = sin θ; y2 = sin θ
20

But, according to the question, y2 leads to y1 by a phase 120◦ . Note that, we are
taking θ in radian, hence the phase should also converted into radian equivalent.
π 2π
φ= × 120 =
180 3
Now, the trigonometric functions are

y1 = sin θ; y2 = sin(θ + 2π/3)

To plots these functions, we shall construct a data table, in which we shall

take radian values of θ within given domain, i.e. −π ≤ θ ≤ π, and find their
corresponding function values as shown in the below table:

θ y1 y2
-3.140 -0.000 -0.866
-2.512 -0.589 -0.407
-1.884 -0.951 0.208
-1.256 -0.951 0.743
-0.628 -0.588 0.994
0.000 0.000 0.867
0.628 0.588 0.408
1.256 0.951 -0.206
1.884 0.951 -0.742
2.512 0.589 -0.994
3.140 0.000 -0.867

y
y2 = sin(θ + 2π/3) y1 = sin(θ)
b
1 b
b b

b
b b
b

b b

b
b
x
−2π −π π 2π
−π b
b 3 3 b 3 3 π
b
b b
b b
−1 b

First we will plot the graph in dotted form taking ordered pairs (θ, y1 ) and
(θ, y2 ) for each row, in which θ represents to abscissa in x-axis and y1 or y2
represents to ordinates in y-axis. After that we draw a smooth hand curve as
0.1. FUNCTION 21

shown in above figure. There may be alternate functions like:

y1 = sin(θ − 2π/3); y2 = sin θ

θ y1 y2
-3.140 0.867 -0.000
-2.512 0.994 -0.589
-1.884 0.742 -0.951
-1.256 0.206 -0.951
-0.628 -0.408 -0.588
0.000 -0.867 0.000
0.628 -0.994 0.588
1.256 -0.743 0.951
1.884 -0.208 0.951
2.512 0.407 0.589
3.140 0.866 0.000

And the corresponding plot is

y
y1 = sin(θ − 2π/3) y2 = sin(θ)
b
b
1 b b
b
b
b b
b

b b

b
b
x
−2π −π π 2π
−π b 3 3
b
b 3 3 π
b
b
b b
−1 b

This is the desired plot.

Solved Problem 0.22 Two trigonometric sine functions are y1 and y2 . Function
y2 leads to y1 by a phase of 60◦ . Plot these two functions in same graph, within
−π ≤ θ ≤ π. Find the function value of y2 when y1 is at θ = 0◦ .
Solution Here, y1 and y2 are basic sine functions, i.e.

y1 = sin θ; y2 = sin θ

But, according to the question, y2 leads to y1 by a phase 60◦ . Note that, we are
22

taking θ in radian, hence the phase should also converted into radian equivalent.
π π
φ= × 60 =
180 3
Now, the trigonometric functions are

y1 = sin θ; y2 = sin(θ + π/3)

To plots these functions, we shall construct a data table, in which we shall

take radian values of θ within given domain, i.e. −π ≤ θ ≤ π, and find their
corresponding function values as shown in the below table:

θ y1 y2
-3.140 -0.000 -0.867
-2.512 -0.589 -0.994
-1.884 -0.951 -0.743
-1.256 -0.951 -0.207
-0.628 -0.588 0.407
0.000 0.000 0.866
0.628 0.588 0.995
1.256 0.951 0.744
1.884 0.951 0.209
2.512 0.589 -0.405
3.140 0.000 -0.865

Now plot the ordered pairs (θ, y1 ) and (θ, y2 ) of each row as shown in the
below figure.

1 b
b b y1 = sin(θ)
b

y2 = sin(θ + π/3) b
b
b
b

b
b b
x
−2π −π π 2π
−π b 3 3 b 3 3
b
π
b
b b
b b
b
−1

Now, we have to find the function value of y2 when y1 is at θ = 0◦ , i.e. y2

at θ = 0◦ . The value of y2 = 0.866 as seen in the above plot.
0.1. FUNCTION 23

Logarithmic Function
A logarithmic function contains logarithmic function of any base, like ln, log
or exponential of base ‘e’. For example, f (x) = ln x + ex + c is a logarithmic
function.

Integral Function
A function that represents a polynomial equation that has only positive integral
powers to its independent variable, say t or x or θ, is called an integral function
of t or x or θ respectively. For example f (x) = 2 − x + x2 − 4x3 is an integral
function of x.

Rational Fraction
A rational fraction of a variable t (say), is a fraction whose numerator and
denominators are rational functions of the same variable t. For example

t2 − 4
f (x) =
t3 − 2
is a rational fraction. Again, note that, the degree of numerator in a rational
fraction should not be equal to or greater than the degree of its denominator.

Rational Function
A rational function of a variable x, is that algebraic function which has neither
single variable nor fractional powers. For example

x2 − 4
f (x) = 2 − x +
x3 − 2
is a rational function. While
√
x−4
f (x) = 2 − x +
x3 − 2
is not a rational function. Again, note that, the degree of numerator should not
equal to or greater than the degree of its denominator in its fractional part, i.e.

x4 − 4
f (x) = 2 − x +
x3 − 2
In this case, first we decrease degree of numerator by simplifying it.
2x − 4 2x − 4
f (x) = 2 − x + x + =2+ 3
x3 − 2 x −2
Now this is rational function.
24

Explicit & Implicit Function

Explicit functions are those functions, in which dependent variable is directly
related to the independent variable. For example, in y = x2 −4x−3, y is explicit
function of x, as y is directly related to x. Values of y can be found by solving
this relation. In implicit functions, dependent variable is not directly related to
the independent variable. For example, in the group of equations

y = x2 − 4x − 3; y + sin(y) = x

y is implicit function of x. Here, y is directly related to x. Values of y can no

be found by just solving these relations.

0.1.10 Unique Values of Function

A function gives one unique value of one or more different input values or one or
more unique outputs of one input value. It depends on the function. A function
which has root part, may give two or more unique outputs which function free
from root parts gives one unique output for two or more inputs.

Solved Problem 0.23 Find the unique outputs of the function y = x2 − 1 for
x ∈ {2, 3}.

Solution As x ∈ {2, 3}, hence, the unique values of x shall be only 2 and
3. Therefore, unique value of the function y = x2 − 1 are y = 3 at x = 2 and
y = 8 at x = 3 respectively. These unique values of the function are obtained
by just substituting the value of x.
p
Solved Problem 0.24 Find the unique outputs of the function y = x2 + 2x + 1
for x ∈ {2, 3}.

Solution As x ∈ {2, 3}, hence, the unique values

p of x shall be only 2 and
3. Therefore, unique value of the function y = x2 + 2x + 1 are y = 3 at
x = 2 and y = 4 at x = 3 respectively. These unique values of the function are
obtained by just substituting the value of x.

0.1.11 Monotone Function

A function which always increases or decreases can be called monotonically
increasing or monotonic decreasing function. If x1 < x2 then f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) is
abide for monotonically increasing function in the domain of x. A monotonic
function is strictly increasing or strictly decreasing function if f (x1 ) < f (x2 )
and f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) respectively for values x1 , x2 in domain of x.
0.1. FUNCTION 25

0.1.12 Odd & Even Function

Odd Function A function is said to be odd function if it becomes negative

when its independent variable is substituted by negative independent variable.
For example if f (x) is a function of x then it said to be odd function if
f (x) = f (−x) = −f (x) (1)
Odd functions do not plot symmetrical plots about any axis, this is why, it is
also called anti-symmetric function.
Even Function A function is said to be even function if it remains same
when its independent variable is substituted by negative independent variable.
For example if f (x) is a function of x then it said to be even function if
f (x) = f (−x) = f (x) (2)
Even functions are plotted symmetrical about the axes, this is why, it is also
called symmetric function.

Properties of Odd-Even Functions

I. Product of odd and even function is an odd function. For example, if

f (x) and g(x) are odd and even function respectively, then F (x) = f (x) ∗ g(x)
is an odd function.
II. Product of two odd or two even function is an even function. For example,
if f (x) and g(x) are either both odd or both even functions respectively, then
F (x) = f (x) ∗ g(x) is an even function.
III. If f (x) is a function of x then it can be transformed into its odd and
even parts. Function f (x) can be written as its odd and even parts by
f (x) − f (−x)
f (x)o = (3)
2
and
f (x) + f (−x)
f (x)e = (4)
2

IV. An algebraic function is sum of its odd and even parts. ie

f (x) = f (x)o + f (x)e (5)

An even part of the pure linear algebraic function has only algebraic terms
of even degree while odd part of the pure linear algebraic function has only
algebraic terms odd degrees. But this case is not true for fractions and trigono-
metric functions.
26

Solved Problem 0.25 Show that y = sin(x) is an odd function.

Solution From the definition of the odd function, independent variable ‘x’
is replaced by ‘-x’. Now

y = sin(−x) = − sin(x)

Or
− sin(x) ⇒ −y
Hence it is an odd function.
y y

x x

sin x − sin x

Solved Problem 0.26 Show that y = cos(x) is an odd function.

Solution From the definition of the odd function, independent variable ‘x’
is replaced by ‘-x’. Now
y = cos(−x) = cos(x)
Or
cos(x) ⇒ y
Hence it is an odd function.
y y

x x

cos x − cos x

Solved Problem 0.27 Check whether y = x2 − 2x is an odd function.

Solution From the definition of the odd function, independent variable ‘x’
is replaced by ‘-x’. Now

y = (−x)2 − 2(−x) = x2 + 2x

Or
x2 + 2x ; y ; −y
0.1. FUNCTION 27

Hence it is neither odd nor even function.

y y

x x

y = x2 − 2x y = x2 + 2x

Solved Problem 0.28 Check whether function y = 10 − 6x − x2 is odd or even.

Solution To check the function being odd or even, replace ‘x’ by ‘-x’ in the
given function y = 10 − 6x − x2 .

y = 10 − 6(−x) − (−x)2 = 10 + 6x − x2

Now
10 + 6x − x2 ; y ; −y
Hence it is neither odd nor even function.

Solved Problem 0.29 Check whether function y = 9x + x3 is odd or even.

Solution To check the function being odd or even, replace ‘x’ by ‘-x’ in the
given function y = 9x + x3 .

y = 9(−x) + (−x)3 = −9x − x3

Now
− 9x + x3 ⇒ −y

Hence it is odd function.

Solved Problem 0.30 Check whether function y = x4 − 6x2 − 9 is odd or even.

Solution To check the function being odd or even, replace ‘x’ by ‘-x’ in the
given function y = x4 − 6x2 − 9.

y = (−x)4 − 6(−x)2 − 9 = x4 − 6x2 − 9

Now
x4 − 6x2 − 9 ⇒ y
Hence it is even function.
28

Solved Problem 0.31 Check whether function y = sin(x) cos(x) is odd or even.

Solution To check the function being odd or even, replace ‘x’ by ‘-x’ in the
given function y = sin(x) cos(x).

y = sin(−x) cos(−x) = − sin(x) cos(x)

Now
− sin(x) cos(x) ⇒ −y
Hence it is odd function.

Solved Problem 0.32 Transform the functions y = x4 − 2x3 + x + 4 in their odd

or even parts.
Solution To transform the function into odd and even form, relation

f (x) − f (−x)
f (x)o =
2
and
f (x) + f (−x)
f (x)e =
2
are used. Now, odd part of the function is
 4
x − 2x3 + x + 4 − (−x)4 − 2(−x)3 + (−x) + 4
  
yo =
2
It gives
x4 − 2x3 + x + 4 − x4 + 2x3 − x + 4



yo =
2
x4 − 2x3 + x + 4 − x4 − 2x3 + x − 4
yo =
2
yo = −2x3 + x
Ans-1.
Again for even part of the function is
 4
x − 2x3 + x + 4 + (−x)4 − 2(−x)3 + (−x) + 4
  
ye =
2
It gives
x4 − 2x3 + x + 4 + x4 + 2x3 − x + 4



ye =
2
x4 − 2x3 + x + 4 + x4 + 2x3 − x + 4
ye =
2
ye = x4 + 4
0.1. FUNCTION 29

Solved Problem 0.33 Transform the functions y = x4 − 5x2 − x + 7 in their odd

or even parts.
Solution Odd and even parts of the given function are
y(x) − y(−x)
yo =
2
and
y(x) + y(−x)
ye =
2
Hence odd part of the function is
(x4 − 5x2 − x + 7) − [(−x)4 − 5(−x)2 − (−x) + 7]
yo =
2
x4 − 5x2 − x + 7 − x4 + 5x2 − x − 7]
yo =
2
yo = −x
Ans-1.
We know that a function can be written as the sum of its odd and even
parts. It means the even part of the function is subtraction of the function by
odd part. Hence
ye = x4 − 5x2 + 7

Solved Problem 0.34 Transform the functions y = x8 − 2x7 + x4 + 5 in its odd

and even parts.
Solution Using the direct method, odd part of the function is

yo = −2x7

and even part of the function is

ye = x8 + x4 + 5

Solved Problem 0.35 Transform the functions y = x8 − 2x7 − x3 + x4 + 5 in its

odd and even parts.

Solution Using the direct method, odd part of the function is

yo = −2x7 − x3

and even part of the function is

ye = x8 + x4 + 5
30

Solved Problem 0.36 Express f (x) into its odd and even parts. Function f (x)
is given by
f (x) = x4 − 2x3 + x2 − 5x + 7
Also show that the function is sum of its odd and even parts.
Solution We know that the odd part of the function can be found as

f (x) − f (−x)
f (x)o =
2

x4 − 2x3 + x2 − 5x + 7 − (−x)4 − 2(−x)3 + (−x)2 − 5(−x) + 7

   
f (x)o =
 4 2
x − 2x + x − 5x + 7 − x − 2x3 − x2 − 5x − 7
3 2 4

=
2
= −2x3 − 5x

Clearly f (x)o is an odd part of the given function and contains some of the
terms of the given function f (x). Similarly even part of the function can be
found by using relation
f (x) + f (−x)
f (x)e =
2
 4
x − 2x3 + x2 − 5x + 7 + (−x)4 − 2(−x)3 + (−x)2 − 5(−x) + 7
  
f (x)e =
 4 2
x − 2x3 + x2 − 5x + 7 + x4 + 2x3 + x2 + 5x + 7

=
2
= x4 + x2 + 7

f (x)e is an even function and contains remaining terms of the given function
f (x). Now the function f (x) can be written as

f (x) = f (x)o + f (x)e

Solved Problem 0.37 Show that f (x) = x3 is a one-to-one function.

Solution If f (x) = x3 is an one to one function then the range of f (x) at

two distinct domain integer values must not be equal. For real number assume
ranges of function for two distinct integers are same. Substituting the two
domain values x1 and x2 , where x1 6= x2 and equalling ranges

f (x1 ) = f (x2 )

f (x1 ) − f (x2 ) = 0
0.1. FUNCTION 31

Substituting the function values

x31 − x32 = 0

(x1 − x2 )(x21 + x22 + x1 x2 ) = 0

Here x1 − x2 6= 0 as x1 6= x2 . And (x21 + x22 + x1 x2 ) = 0 gives
p
−x2 ± x22 − 4x22
x1 =
2
p
−x2 ± −3x22
x1 =
2
Here x1 is a complex number. Hence ranges of function are same when one
domain value is integer and other is complex number. Hence function f (x) has
no two same ranges f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) for two domain integer values x1 6= x2 . Hence
function is one-to-one.

Solved Problem 0.38 Find the inverse of f (x) = x3 .

Solution Let y = x3 and for x, x = y 1/3 which is unique solution. It is a

function of y and can be represented by

g(y) = y 1/3

And transforming it for x

g(x) = x1/3
This is the inverse of the function f (x) and written as

f −1 (x) = x1/3

The graph is shown in figure (??).

y
y = x3
y −1 = x1/3
1

x
−2 −1 1 2 3

−1

Figure 4: Inverse of x3
32

Solved Problem 0.39 Separate the function f (x) = x2 − 12x − 4 into its odd
and even parts.
Solution Using the direct method, odd part of the function is

yo = −12x

and even part of the function is

ye = x2 − 4

Solved Problem 0.40 Separate the function f (x) = x4 − 3x3 − 8 into its odd
and even parts.
Solution Using the direct method, odd part of the function is

yo = −3x3

and even part of the function is

ye = x4 − 8

x3 − 1
Solved Problem 0.41 Separate the function f (x) = into its odd and even
x+1
parts.
Solution To transform the function into odd and even form, relation
f (x) − f (−x)
f (x)o =
2
and
f (x) + f (−x)
f (x)e =
2
are used. Now, odd part of the function is
(−x)3 −1
h 3 i h i
x −1
x+1 − (−x)+1
yo =
2
It gives
x3 −1 −x3 −1
x+1 − −x+1
yo =
2
3
x +x
yo =
1 − x2
Ans-1.
0.1. FUNCTION 33

Again for even part of the function is

(−x)3 −1
h 3 i h i
x −1
x+1 + (−x)+1
ye =
2
It gives
x3 −1 3

x+1 + −x −1
−x+1
ye =
2
−x4 − 1
ye =
1 − x2

0.1.13 Homogeneous Function

A homogeneous function is function in which value of the function is scaled by
a certain factor then function is itself scaled to that factor. This property of the
function is called homogeneity (scaled everywhere not in portion of function).
A function f (x) is said to be homogeneous if

f (Cx) = Cf (x)

Why is this so? It is because, if we scaled the independent variable of a function

f (x), by a factor C, then whole function must be scaled to the same factor
C not a portion of the function. For example, we have a function f (x) = x.
Now, x is scaled by a factor 0.5 and the function becomes f (0.5x) = 0.5x. The
function graph of f (0.5x) must be scaled in same manner for domain of x.

f f

3 3

f (x)
2 2

f (x)
1 1 f (0.5x)

x x
1 2 3 1 2 3

In above figure, it is clear that f (0.5x) is half of the f (x) everywhere. This
is why, f (x) is homogeneous function. In other words, homogeneous function
does not has constant term.

Solved Problem 0.42 Write a homogeneous function which exhibits the proper-
ties of homogeneity.
34

Solution The function shows this property is f (x) = ax, where a is any
constant. Replacing x → cx, the result is

f (cx) = a × cx

Taking c as common in right hand side

f (cx) = c(ax) = cf (x)

Hence the given function is homogeneous.

Solved Problem 0.43 Show that f (x) = ax + b does not show homogeneity.

Solution The given function is f (x) = ax + b. Replacing x → cx, the result

is
f (cx) = a × cx + b
Taking c as common in right hand side
 
b
f (cx) = c ax + 6 cf (x)
=
c

Hence the given function is not homogeneous. To prove this numerically, take
a function f (x) = x + 0.5 and x is scaled by 0.5x. Now the scaled function
is f (0.5x) = 0.5x + 0.5. These two functions are graphed and they are given
below:

f f

3 3 f (x)

2 2

f (x) f (0.5x)
1 1

x x
−1 1 2 3 −1 1 2 3

In above figure, it is clear that f (0.5x) is NOT half of the f (x) everywhere.
This is why, f (x) is NOT homogeneous function. We can prove it by taking
x = −0.5 where f (x) = 0 but f (0.5x) = 0.25 and f (x) 6= 2f (0.5x).

0.1.14 Linear & Non Linear Functions

A function is said to be linear, if it satisfy the additive and homogeneity of a
function. If f (x1 ) and f (x2 ) are two functions of variables x1 and x2 respectively
0.1. FUNCTION 35

and a and b are scaling constants then those functions which satisfy following
two conditions will be said linear functions.

f (x1 + x2 ) = f (x1 ) + f (x2 )

and
f (ax1 + bx2 ) = f (ax1 ) + f (bx2 ) = af (x1 ) + bf (x2 )
This condition of additivity and homogeneity is called superposition. If the
condition of superposition is met for a function then function is linear otherwise
it will said non linear.

Solved Problem 0.44 Show that function f (x) = x is a linear function.

Solution The given function is f (x) = x. Let two points are x1 and x2 for
which f (x1 ) = x1 and f (x2 ) = x2 . Now, from the condition of linearity of the
function
f (x1 + x2 ) = x1 + x2 = f (x1 ) + f (x2 )
Choose two constants m and n (arbitrary) then

f (mx1 + nx2 ) = mx1 + nx2 = mf (x1 ) + nf (x2 )

Two conditions for linearity of function are met, hence the function is linear
function.

Solved Problem 0.45 Show that function f (x) = x2 is NOT a linear function.

Solution The given function is f (x) = x2 . Let two points are x1 and x2
for which f (x1 ) = x21 and f (x2 ) = x22 . Now, from the condition of linearity of
the function

f (x1 + x2 ) = (x1 + x2 )2 = x21 + x22 + 2x1 x2 6= f (x1 ) + f (x2 )

As first condition is not met, hence given function is NOT a linear function.

0.1.15 Time Variant & Time Invariant Functions

Time variant functions are directly dependent to the time. For time variant
functions
∂ft
= x(t) 6= 0
∂t
Time invariant function are not directly dependent to the time. For time in-
variant functions
∂ft
=0
∂t
For example, let f (t) = x(t) is a function. At t = 2s input value is x(2) at
time t = 2s and corresponding output at time t = 2s is y(2). Hence output is
directly dependent to inputs at an instant of time t. Therefore, this function is
time invariant (time independent or function not varies with time).
36

If this function is modified as f (t) = t x(t). At t = 2s input value is x(2) at

time t = 2s and corresponding output is y(2) at time t = 2s. But the same time,
input is scaled by 2 at t = 2s (function scaling depends on the time instant,
hence function varies with time). Again if we change the time t = 3s then

y(3) = 3 x(3)

Now, input value is scaled by 3 at t = 3s. It means function is scaling to time.

Hence this function is time variant (time dependent or function varies with
time). Simply saying that if variable is a scaling factor then function is said to
be time variant. Similarly, in invariant function, variable is function parameter
(argument of function).

Solved Problem 0.46 Show that whether f (x) = sin(x) is time variant or time
invariant.
Solution The function f (x) = sin(x) depends only on the instant value of
x and x is parameter (argument) of sin function. For example at x = 2, function
value is
f (2) = sin(2)
It means f (2) is function value at x = 2. Here, x is not scaling factor. Hence it
is time invariant function.

0.1.16 Function Delay

Let we have a time function as

f (t) = 2t

Where t ∈ [−5, 5]. Now function values in the given time interval are
0.1. FUNCTION 37

t f (t)
-5 -10
-4 -8
-3 -6
-2 -4
-1 -2
0 0
1 2
2 4
3 6
4 8
5 10

Table 8: Data values for f (t).

Now shift the time by 1 as t → t + 1, the function becomes

f (t + 1) = 2t + 2
Now the tabulated function values for the given time are

t f (t) f (t + 1)
-5 -10 -6
-4 -8 -4
-3 -6 -2
-2 -4 0
-1 -2 2
0 0 4
1 2 6
2 4 8
3 6 10
4 8 12
5 10 -

Table 9: Data values for f (t) and f (t + 1).

38

Comparing tables ?? and ??, we find that same function values of f (t) and
f (t + 1) are obtained at different time events. f (t + 1) is time lagging to the
f (t) for a particular function value (take 0 here). Hence f (t + 1) is delays to
the f (t).

0.1.17 Function Forward

Let we have a time function as

f (t) = 2t

Where t ∈ [−5, 5]. Now function values in the given time interval are

t f (t)
-5 -10
-4 -8
-3 -6
-2 -4
-1 -2
0 0
1 2
2 4
3 6
4 8
5 10

Table 10: Data values for f (t).

Now shift the time by 1 as t → t − 1, the function becomes

f (t − 1) = 2t − 2

Now the tabulated function values for the given time are
0.1. FUNCTION 39

t f (t) f (t + 1)
-5 -10 -
-4 -8 -12
-3 -6 -10
-2 -4 -8
-1 -2 -6
0 0 -4
1 2 -2
2 4 0
3 6 2
4 8 4
5 10 6

Table 11: Data values for f (t) and f (t − 1).

Comparing tables ?? and ??, we find that same function values of f (t) and
f (t − 1) are obtained at different time events. f (t − 1) is time leading to the
f (t) for a particular function value (take 0 here). Hence f (t − 1) is advanced to
the f (t).

0.1.18 Static & Dynamic Functions

Output of the static function always depends on the current input of the func-
tion. For example,
f (x) = sin(x)
is a static function as function value at x = 2 output at x = 2.
y(2) = sin(2)
In case of time functions like
y(t) = e−t
also called static function as output at t = 9s is equal to the value of e−t at
t = 9s. i.e.
y(9) = e−9
A dynamic function depends on the current input value as well as the previous
inputs. For example
y(t) = e−t + sin(t − 2)
is a dynamic function. At t = 9s, output is
y(9) = e−9 + sin(9 − 2)
40

Or
y(9) = e−9 + sin(7)
If t is time variable then output y depends on the value of e−t at t = 9s
(current value) and on the value of sine function at t = 7s (previous value).
For dynamic functions, it is require to memorise the previous inputs to find
the current output. This is why, dynamic functions are also called memory
functions. Functions like

y(t) = y(t − 4) + x(t)

is also a dynamic function. If we take t = 6 then

y(6) = y(2) + x(6)

Here, current value of function, y(6), also depends on the previous function
value, i.e. y(2).

0.1.19 Causal & Non Causal Functions

A function is said to be causal function (also called as non-anticipatory - means
which can not be predicted) if its output depends upon present and past inputs
and not on future inputs. For example,

y(t) = e−t + sin(t − 2)

is causal function. A function is said to be non-causal function (also called as

anticipatory or predictable function) if it depends on the future inputs also. For
example
y ′ (t) = e−t + sin(t − 2) + sin(t + 2)
is non-causal function as sine value at t + 2 (future time) is future value. Note
that y(t) and y ′ (t) both are functions of time and both get same time inputs
without any time shifting. The time argument in right hand sides are computed
time instances of function terms rather than function’s time shifting. Again, if
there were functions as y(t) and y ′ (t−1) then there is a time shifting in y ′ (t−1).
Because, at t = 4 second, in function y(t) time input for right hand side terms
will be 4 second while in function y ′ (t − 1), time input for right hand side terms
will be 3 second.

0.1.20 Stable & Non Stable Functions

A function is said to be stable (have definite limit values as bounded limits, i.e.
converging function) if its output is bounded for bounded inputs. If function
output is unbounded then function is unstable (i.e. diverging). For example

f (x) = e−x
0.1. FUNCTION 41

is stable function in [0, ∞) as at any point x ∈ [0, ∞), e−x is finite. While
f (x) = ex
is unstable function in [0, ∞) as x → ∞, ex → ∞.

Solved Problem 0.47 Show that function f (x) = x2 − 4x is unstable function.

Solution A function is said to be unstable function if it has no bounded

limit at x → ∞. So,
lim f (x) = lim x2 − 4x = ∞


x→∞ x→∞

It means this function is unstable function.

x2 − 4
Solved Problem 0.48 Show that function f (x) = is a stable function.
x2
Solution A function is said to be stable function if it has bounded limit at
x → ∞. So,
 2   
x −4 4
lim f (x) = lim = lim 1 − 2 = 1
x→∞ x→∞ x2 x→∞ x
It means this function is stable function.

0.1.21 Inverse Function

If a function f (x) with domain Df and range Rf is one-to-one, then there is an
inverse of function f (x) with domain Rf and range Df for each values of x in
Df , i.e.
Ψ[f (x)] = x
Generally Ψ is represented by f −1 and it is called inverse of function f (x).

Solved Problem 0.49 Find the inverse of the function f (x) = 3x + 4.

Solution Here f (x) is a function of x. The inverse of the function is

obtained by solving this equation for x. It gives
3x = f (x) − 4
Or
f (x) − 4
x=
3
‘x’ represents the inverse of function and f (x) is the independent variable for
this inverse function ‘x’. Now transforming this relation for easy explanation
and readability
X −4
f −1 (X) =
3
It is inverse function of the given function f (x).
42

Solved Problem 0.50 Find the inverse of the function f (x) = x2 + 4.

Solution Here f (x) is a function of x. The inverse of the function is

obtained by solving this equation for x. It gives
x2 = f (x) − 4
Or p
x= f (x) − 4
‘x’ represents the inverse of function and f (x) is the independent variable for
this inverse function ‘x’. Now transforming this relation for easy explanation
and readability √
f −1 (x) = x − 4
It is inverse function of the given function f (x).

0.1.22 Sampling of Function

Value of a function at a point is called function value. It is also known as
sampled value of the function at that point. For example, function y = sin(x)
has sample value y = sin(90◦ ), i.e. ‘1’ at x = 90◦ . Sampling of function is base
of calculus and communication engineering. Mathematically, a sampled value
of a function, f (x), is given by
y[x] = f (x) (6)

Solved Problem 0.51 Find the four sampled values of the function y = x2 within
0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
Solution The four points within 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 are 0.0, 0.3, 0.6 and 1.0. The
function values at these points are
y[0] = y0 = 02 = 0.00
y[0.3] = y0.3 = 0.32 = 0.09
y[0.6] = y0.6 = 0.62 = 0.36
y[1] = y1 = 12 = 1.00
These are four sampled values of the function.

y
b

b
b
x
1
0.1. FUNCTION 43

Solved Problem 0.52 Find the three sampled values of the function y = x2 −
3x + 1 within 0 < x < 4.
Solution Three auxiliary points taken within 0 < x < 5 are 1, 2 and 3.
The function values at these points are

y[1] = y1 = 12 − 3 × 1 + 1 = −1

y[2] = y2 = 22 − 3 × 2 + 1 = −1
y[3] = y3 = 32 − 3 × 3 + 1 = 1
These are three sampled values of the function.

y
b

x
1 2 3

b b
−1

Solved Problem 0.53 Extract four sampled values of the function y = sin(x)+ 1.

Solution The five points are 0◦ , 15◦ , 30◦ , 45◦ and 60◦ in degree abscissa.
The function values at these points are

y[0◦ ] = y0◦ = sin(0◦ ) + 1 = 1.00

y[15◦ ] = y15◦ = sin(15◦ ) + 1 = 1.26

y[30◦ ] = y30◦ = sin(30◦ ) + 1 = 1.50
y[45◦ ] = y45◦ = sin(45◦ ) + 1 = 1.70
y[60◦ ] = y60◦ = sin(60◦ ) + 1 = 1.87
These are four sampled values of the function.

y
b
b
b
b

b
1

x
15 30 45 60
44

0.1.23 Piece-wise Function

A function which satisfy different equations in different region of independent
variable, is called piece-wise function. See the following function,
(
px + q where a ≤ x ≤ b
f (x) =
rx where b < x ≤ c

Above function is a piece-wise function as it uses relation px + q in domain

a ≤ x ≤ b and relation rx in domain b < x ≤ c.
Existence of Piece-wise Function A function f (x) has a unique value at any
given point whatever method of solution is applied. For example, f (x) = x2 − 2
has unique value at x = 2, and it is f (2) = 22 − 2 = 2. In a piece-wise functions,
if break point (say x = a) is applicable for all pieces of the function, then the
values of pieces of the function at that point shall be same. Consider a piece-wise
function as given below:
(
2x + 2 where 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
f (x) =
3x where 2 ≤ x ≤ 4

Here, x = 2 is applicable for both pieces of the function. So, f (x) = 2x + 2 and
f (x) = 3x shall give same values at x = 2. Here,

f (2) = 2 × 2 + 2 = 6

and
f (2) = 3 × 2 = 6
Hence the function exists. Again, if this function is modified as
(
2x + 2 where 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
f (x) =
3x + 1 where 2 ≤ x ≤ 4

then f (x) = 2x + 2 and f (x) = 3x + 1 do not give same values at x = 2.

f (2) = 2 × 2 + 2 = 6

and
f (2) = 3 × 2 + 1 = 7
Therefore, it is not a function.

Solved Problem 0.54 Show that

(
2x + 2 where 0 ≤ x ≤ 3
f (x) =
3x where 3 ≤ x ≤ 4

is not a function. Give suitable explanation.

0.1. FUNCTION 45

Solution The piecewise relation is defined for 0 ≤ x ≤ 4. The piecewise

relation has two different expressions at the point x = 3. If this relation is perfect
function then it should have same values for its two different expressions. So

y(3) = 2 × 3 + 2 = 8

and
y(3) = 3 × 3 = 9
Here, both values are not same, hence it is not a piecewise function.

0.1.24 Discrete Sum & Product of Function Values

Discrete sum of a function is sum of all function values taken at equidistant
points between the given limits. For example take function f (x) = x2 that is
defined in [0, 1]. Let we have 10 discrete points in [0, 1] (i.e [L, U ], here L is
lower limit and U is upper limit) where function is evaluated and consequently
we shall get 10 corresponding function values. The equidistant width between
two consecutive x values is
Upper Limit − Lower Limit
h=
Number of Points − 1
And the points are
xi = Lower Limit + i × h
Where, i = 0 to i = 9 (total ten points). These ten points can be symbolised as
x0 , x1 , . . ., x9 . Note that here our count is started from i = 0 not i = 1 so that
x0 must equal to 0 (lower limit) while using relation

xi = Lower Limit + i × h

Now, we can compute h as

1−0
h= ≈ 0.111
9
It shall give x0 = 0, x1 = 0.111, x2 = 0.222, . . ., x9 = 0.999 ≈ 1. In natural
count n started from 1 and onward, we have first discrete function value is at
f (x0 ), second discrete function value is at f (x1 ), . . . and tenth discrete function
value is at f (x9 ). Finally, we are ready to construct tabulated data as given
below:
46

n xi f (xi ) f [n]
1 0.000 0.000 0.000
2 0.111 0.012 0.012
3 0.222 0.049 0.049
4 0.333 0.111 0.111
5 0.444 0.197 0.197
6 0.555 0.308 0.308
7 0.666 0.444 0.444
8 0.777 0.604 0.604
9 0.888 0.789 0.789
10 1.000 1.000 1.000

Here, n is started from 1 to 10 and you should not confuse between counting
of i and n. Now, we have 10 discrete values.
Discrete Sum of Function Values Sum of these values can be written as
10
X
Sn = f [n] (7)
n=1

In ‘i’ counting
9
X
Si = f [xi ] (8)
i=0

Both equations (??) and (??) are called discrete sum of function.
Discrete Product of Function Values Product of these values can be written
as
10
Y
Pn = f [n] (9)
n=1
In ‘i’ counting
9
Y
Pi = f [xi ] (10)
i=0

Both equations (??) and (??) are called discrete product of function.

0.1.25 Probability Density Function

As we knew that, probability of an event and probability of all events is always
positive and lies within [0, 1], irrespective of times the event is repeated. A func-
tion that represents to probabilities of events E is called probability function.
0.1. FUNCTION 47

A function is said to be Probability Density Function, if total area covered by

probability function and horizontal axis is in [0, 1]. Probability Density Function
(PDF) must obey two conditions:
1. Function should be greater than zero, i.e. f (x) > 0. It means, if function
is plotted in xy-plane, then function graph should be above x-axis, i.e. in
+y-axis.

y
2
1 f (x) = e−x

x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4

2. If the range of continuous random variable is (a, b), then function integral
(say area) for this range should be in [0, 1]. So,
Zb
0≤ f (x) dx ≤ 1
a

y
2
1 f (x) = e−x

x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4

Here, integral domain, i.e. (a, b) (lower and upper limits) may be definite
numbers or it may be infinite. This depends on the observation about
function.
For infinite continuous Probability Density Function (pdf) function, its integral
(or area between function and horizontal axis) should be in [0, 1]. A non pdf
function can also converted into pdf function by normalising it. For example,
let integral of a function f (x) in (−∞, ∞) is k. If this function is divided by
k then its integral never be greater than 1 for any limits of integration. So,
f (x)
function becomes pdf function in (−∞, ∞).
k
2
Solved Problem 0.55 Show that function f (x) = e−x is a probability density
function.
Solution A function is said to be probability density function if f (x) > 0
and its integral in whole range, say (−∞, ∞) is within [0, 1]. Now, for first
condition we check whether the function is negative.
48

y
2
1 f (x) = e−x

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3

As we see that whatever is the value of x, either it is positive or it is negative,

2
argument of exponential is always negative. From the series expansion, e−x =
2
1/ex > 0. So, first condition is satisfied. Now, for second condition,
Z∞
2
e−x dx = 1.77 > 1
−∞

Hence, it is not a probability density function.

1 2
Solved Problem 0.56 Show that function f (x) = e−x is a probability density
2
function.
Solution A function is said to be probability density function if f (x) > 0
and its integral in whole range, say (−∞, ∞) is within [0, 1]. Now, for first
condition we check whether the function is negative.

y
1 −x2
1 f (x) = e
2

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3

As we see that whatever is the value of x, either it is positive or it is negative,

argument of exponential is always negative. From the series expansion, 0.5 ×
2 2
e−x = 0.5/ex > 0. So, first condition is satisfied. Now, for second condition,
Z∞
1 −x2
e dx = 0.88 < 1
2
−∞

Hence, it is a probability density function.

Solved Problem 0.57 Convert f (x) = sin(x) into a probability density function
in local domain, i.e. 0 to π.
0.1. FUNCTION 49

Solution Function f (x) = sin(x) in domain [0, π], function has positive
shape. Now, taking integral of the function, we have
Zπ
I= sin(x) dx
0

f (x)
f (x) = sin(x)
1

x
π 2π
3 3 π

Zπ
I= sin(x) dx
0

on integral, it gives
I =2=k
This is normalisation factor (k) for the given function f (x) to make it probability
density function (pdf) F (x). So, pdf of the function f (x) will be found when it
is divided by factor k.

F (x) P (x)
sin(x)
F (x) =
2
P (x)
x x
π 2π π 2π
3 3 π 3 3 π

Now, the probability density function (pdf) of given function will be

1 sin(x)
F (x) = × sin(x) =
2 2
Using this pdf function, we can find the probability within an interval of x, say
in limit [π/3, 2π/3] as shown in second part of above figure.
2π/3
sin(x)
Z
P (x) = dx
2
π/3
50

x
e− λ
Solved Problem 0.58 Show that is a probability density function (pdf)
λ
function for x > 0 and λ > 0. Find whether it is also a pdf function or not in
−∞ < x < ∞.
Solution A function is said to be probability density function (pdf) function
for the given domain in which integral of this function is in [0, 1]. So,
Z∞ x
e− λ
P = dx
λ
0

Here x is positive and greater than zero. Limits of integration for x is in 0 <
x < ∞.

x
e− λ
f (x) =
λ
x
x→∞

∞
1 x 1 
P = × e− λ × =1
λ −1/λ 0
Hence this is pdf function for x > 0. For limit of x in −∞ < x < ∞,
Z∞ x
e− λ
P = dx
λ
−∞
∞
1 x
−λ 1 
P = ×e × ≈∞
λ −1/λ −∞

x
e− λ
f (x) =
λ
x
x → −∞ x→∞
0.1. FUNCTION 51

Integral of the given function is not conversing in [0, 1] when limits of inte-
gration for x are −∞ < x < ∞. Hence for these limits of x, function is not a
pdf function.

0.1.26 Moment Generating Function

From the definition of moment of force, we knew that, if F~ is force acting on
a body at distance ~x from axis of rotation, then moment of force is given by
F~ × ~r. Similarly, if f (x) is function at random variable x in respect of origin
(say x = 0), then its moment is given by
Z ∞
µ= (x − 0) f (x) dx
−∞

Moment may be of any order. rth order moment is define as

Z ∞
µr = xr f (x) dx
−∞

0.1.27 Unit Type Functions

Unit type functions are those functions whose final outcome is exactly one within
the given domain and zero outside the given domain. Using this property, there
are different unit functions which are given in the subsequent sections.

Unit Sample
Unit sample is used to get the instantaneous value of a function. It is also
known as sampling function. A function that is fast varying with time. To
get the “instantaneous” function value, very short width time so that we just
sample only one function value. This instantaneous time is called unit sample.
It is denoted by δ(n) and represented as

1 when n = 0
δ(n) = (11)
0 Otherwise

y
f (b)
f (a) b
b

a b
t
20 40 60

In above figure, time width is large, therefore there are two function values
which are sampled. If we reduce width of time, we again get two closure function
values.
52

y
f (a) f (b)
b b

a b
t
20 40 60

If b − a → 0 then f (a) and f (b) will be coincide and assume that f (a) =
f (b) = 1 in this case. These conditions are fulfilled by unit sample.

y
f (a) f (b)
b

a b
t
20 40 60

So, at point t = a (actually a is equal to 20 units of times), unit sample is

given by

δ(t)
1
b
1

t
20 40 60

Figure 5:

Time moves continue but we start sample counting at any instant of time (at
noon, at evening at 1030 Hrs etc). When we start sample counting, counting
is said to events of sampling and samples are counted as n = 0 (sample at
event zero), n = 1 (first sample at next event), n = 2 etc. Sample events are
also counted in backward direction as n = −1, n = −2 and so on to find the
sample just before one sampling event, just before two sampling events and
so on respectively. Sample counting used here is similar to the number line
(zero at origin, negative counts in left side and positive counts in right side in
−∞ → +∞). In continuation to the graph of figure (??), if we take n = 0 event
at time t = 20 then unit sample function will be as

δ(t) δ(n)
1 1
b b
1 1

t n
20 40 0 20

Suppose we are taking infinite numbers of events where function samples

0.1. FUNCTION 53

are being taken. For unit sample function, we have only one sample at only
one instant of event. Assume we are taking unit sample at event that occurs at
n = 0 (at origin and for time symmetrical use at time t = 0) then unit sample
function will be plotted as given below:

δ(t) δ(n)

1 b
1 b

−∞ ∞ −∞ ∞
b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b
t b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b
n
−10 −5 5 10 −10 −5 5 10

Again if we are taking unit sample at event that occurs at t = 5 (other than
origin) then unit sample function will be plotted as given below:

δ(t) δ(n)

1 b
1 b

−∞ ∞ −∞ ∞
b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b
t b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b
n
−10 −5 5 10 −15 −10 0 5

Using this graph, we can conclude a relation of unit sample in time domain
and event domain (counts). We know that at time t = 5 unit sample is obtained.
Let it is zero counted unit sample. It shows that time is 5 unit ahead to n. To
keep both at origin, root of time is t = 5 ⇒ t − 5 = 0. So, the unit sample
relation between time and count domain is
δ(t − 5) = δ(n); where t ≥ 5, & n≥0 (12)
From above discussion, it is find out that there is “only one sample” of unit
sample function in infinite duration or infinite numbers of sampling events.

Unit sample is active for infinitely small (approximately zero) time period
and is unity for that period of time. Hence, unit sample is also known as
function sample switch. For example,

f (x) = x2 − 3

is continuous function in −∞ < x < ∞. When δ(x) is multiplied with function

f (x) then we have
f (x) × δ(x) = x2 − 3 × δ(x)

δ(x) = 1 at x = 0, so

f (x) × δ(x) = 02 − 3 × 1 = −3;

x=0
 54

Note that when values of independent variable are taken from domain of
real numbers then function is said to be continuous type. Similarly, when
values of independent variable are taken from domain of integer numbers
then function is said to be discrete type. Discrete type function has “square
bracket” symbol. Here we have used “parentheses” and discrete values of
independent variable.

Solved Problem 0.59 Find the sum of unit samples of δ(t) function defined in
time domain as δ(t) = 1 at t = 0 for −∞ < t < 3.

Solution The unit sample function is defined as

δ(0) = 1

−4
X
δ(t)
δ(t) δ(t) 2
X k=−∞

δ(t)
1 b
−∞ < t < 3 1 b
k=−∞ 1 b

−∞ ∞ −∞
b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b
t b b b b b b b b b
t t
−10 −5 5 −10 −5 −5

We have to find the sum of samples for −∞ < t < 3. Sample events are
whole integers. Therefore, −∞ < t < 3 means −∞ < t ≤ 2. So,
2
X
δ(t) = δ(−∞) + . . . + δ(−1) + δ(0) + δ(1) + δ(2)
k=−∞

It gives
2
X
δ(t) = 0 + . . . + 0 + 1 + 0 + 0
k=−∞

Or
2
X
δ(t) = 1
k=−∞

2
X
This is desired result. This sum is for right side limit of t. So δ(t) will be
k=−∞
placed at t = 2 point.
 0.1. FUNCTION 55

Solved Problem 0.60 Find the sum of unit samples of δ(t) function defined in
time domain as δ(t) = 1 at t = 0 for (i) −∞ < t < −3, (ii) −∞ < t < 0, (iii)
−∞ < t < 1 and (iv) −∞ < t < 4.

Solution The unit sample function is defined as

δ(0) = 1
It means unit sample is unity at t = 0 and zero otherwise. The unit sample
graph is given below:

δ(t)

1 b

−∞ ∞
b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b
t
−10 −5 5 10

1. We have to find the sum of samples for −∞ < t < −3. Sample events
are whole integers. Therefore, −∞ < t < −3 means −∞ < t ≤ −4. So,
−4
X
δ(t) = δ(−∞) + . . . + δ(−5) + δ(−4)
k=−∞

It gives
−4
X
δ(t) = 0 + . . . + 0 + 0
k=−∞
Or
−4
X
δ(t) = 0
k=−∞

−4
X
δ(t)
δ(t) δ(t) −4
X k=−∞

δ(t)
1 b
−∞ < t ≤ −4 1 k=−∞ 1
−∞ ∞ −∞
b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b
t b b b b b
t b
t
−10 −5 5 −10 −5 −5

2. We have to find the sum of samples for −∞ < t < 0. Sample events are
whole integers. Therefore, −∞ < t < 0 means −∞ < t ≤ −1. So,
−1
X
δ(t) = δ(−∞) + . . . + δ(−2) + δ(−1)
k=−∞
 56

It gives
−1
X
δ(t) = 0 + . . . + 0 + 0
k=−∞
Or
−1
X
δ(t) = 0
k=−∞

−1
X
δ(t)
δ(t) δ(t) −1
X k=−∞

δ(t)
1 b
−∞ < t ≤ −1 1 k=−∞ 1
−∞ ∞ −∞
b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b
t b b b b b b b b
t b
t
−10 −5 5 −10 −5 −5

3. We have to find the sum of samples for −∞ < t < 1. Sample events are
whole integers. Therefore, −∞ < t < 1 means −∞ < t ≤ 0. So,
0
X
δ(t) = δ(−∞) + . . . + δ(−2) + δ(−1) + δ(0)
k=−∞

It gives
0
X
δ(t) = 0 + . . . + 0 + 0 + 1
k=−∞
Or
0
X
δ(t) = 1
k=−∞

0
X
δ(t)
δ(t) δ(t) 0
X k=−∞

δ(t)
1 b
−∞ < t ≤ 0 1 b
k=−∞ 1 b

−∞ ∞ −∞
b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b
t b b b b b b b b
t t
−10 −5 5 −10 −5 −5

4. We have to find the sum of samples for −∞ < t < 4. Sample events are
whole integers. Therefore, −∞ < t < 4 means −∞ < t ≤ 3. So,
3
X
δ(t) = δ(−∞) + . . . + δ(−2) + δ(−1) + δ(0) + δ(1) + δ(2) + δ(3)
k=−∞
 0.1. FUNCTION 57

It gives
3
X
δ(t) = 0 + . . . + 0 + 0 + 1 + 0 + 0 + 0
k=−∞

Or
3
X
δ(t) = 1
k=−∞

3
X
δ(t)
δ(t) δ(t) 3
X k=−∞

δ(t)
1 b
−∞ < t ≤ 3 1 b
k=−∞ 1 b

−∞ ∞ −∞
b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b
t b b b b b b b b b b b
t t
−10 −5 5 −10 −5 −5

These are desired results.

Unit Function
A unit function is a function whose value is ‘1’ if condition is met and ‘0’
otherwise. Unit function has function value ‘1’ for ≥ or > symbols and ‘0’ for
≤ or < symbols. Unit function in forms of unit sample is given by
x
X
u(x) = δ(k) (13)
k=−∞

In other words, unit function at event x is sum of unit samples occurs between
−∞ to x. For example, assume that unit sample is

δ(k)

1 b

−∞ ∞
b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b
k
−20 −15 −10 −5 5 10 15 20

Figure 6:

The unit function u(x) is again a function of x, so value of x shall be in

(−∞, ∞) and x ∈ I for simplicity. Now we can find the unit function for
infinite numbers of x. Take x = −2
−2
X
u(−2) = δ(k)
k=−∞
58

From figure, ??, we have δ(k) = 1 when k = 0 and δ(k) = 0 otherwise. Now,
solving above notation

u(−2) = δ(−∞) + . . . + δ(−3) + δ(−2) = 0

u(−2)

b
x
−20 −15 −10 −5 5 10 15 20

Now, take x = −1
−1
X
u(−1) = δ(k)
k=−∞

From figure, ??, we have δ(k) = 1 when k = 0 and δ(k) = 0 otherwise. Now,
solving above notation

u(−1) = δ(−∞) + . . . + δ(−2) + δ(−1) = 0

u(−1)

b
x
−20 −15 −10 −5 5 10 15 20

Now, take x = 0, we shall get the unit function as

0
X
u(0) = δ(k)
k=−∞

Or
u(0) = δ(−∞) + . . . + δ(−1) + δ(0) = 1
From figure, ??, we have δ(k) = 1 when k = 0 and δ(k) = 0 otherwise. Thus
the unit function will be like
u(0)

1 b

−∞
x
−20 −15 −10 −5 5 10 15 20
0.1. FUNCTION 59

Similarly, the unit function at x = 1 is given by

u(1) = δ(−∞) + . . . + δ(−1) + δ(0) + δ(1) = 1

The unit function atx = 1 will be as given below:

u(1)

1 b

x
−20 −15 −10 −5 5 10 15 20

For −∞ < x ≤ 1, combining all above values of u(x), unit function will be
plotted as

u(x)

1 b b

−∞
b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b
x
−20 −15 −10 −5 5 10 15 20

From figure, ??, assuming that δ(k) = 1 when k = 0 and δ(k) = 0 otherwise.
From above graph, we see that unit function is 1 for all values of x ≥ 0. Hence
for all value of x ≥ 0, unit function will be one. For −∞ < x < ∞, unit function
will be plotted as:

u(x)

1 b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b

−∞ ∞
b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b
x
−20 −15 −10 −5 5 10 15 20

Figure 7:

In summation form, unit function that is drawn in figure ?? can be written

as (
1 if x ≥ 0
u(x) =
0 Otherwise
60

δ(x)

1 b

−∞ ∞
b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b
x
a
−20 −15 −10 −5 5 10 15 20

Shifted Unit Function Shifted unit function is equal to 1 other than x = 0. If

independent variable is shifted by a, then unit function would shift from zero
to one at x = a, i.e. root of the variable is (x − a). Now, the corresponding
shifted unit step is given by u(x − a). In other words, if unit function u(x) = 1
where x ≥ a, then root (origin) for the unit function is x = a or x − a = 0. Now,
unit function is (
1 if x ≥ a
u(x − a) =
0 Otherwise
Substituting argument of unit function equal to zero, we shall get the point
where unit function changes from zero to one. Note that a ≥ 0 so that x − a
would not represent origin (initial position) in negative value. For unit function
starting point is always 0 or more. x − a ≥ 0 should be maintained for the
condition of unit function as
u(x) = 1; for x ≥ 0

Unit function is active for given time period and is unity for that period of
time. Hence, unit sample is also known as function ON switch. For example,

f (x) = x2 − 3

is a continuous function in −∞ < x < ∞. When u(x) is multiplied with

function f (x) then we have

f (x) × u(x) = x2 − 3 × u(x)

u(x) = 1 when x ≥ 0, so

f (x) × u(x) = x2 − 3 × 1

Or
f (x) × u(x) = x2 − 3; for x ≥ 0
It means f (x) × u(x) is zero for x < 0.

If u(x) is taken for the purpose of unit function then x is continuous

independent variable and its value is from real domain as x ≥ 0 and x ∈ R. If
0.1. FUNCTION 61

u(x) is under consideration of unit sample then x is a whole number as x ≥ 0

and x ∈ I. When we use it for rectangular unit function, x is real number and
while we use it for unit sample δ(x) then x and integer.

u(x)

1 b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b

−∞ ∞
b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b
x
a
−20 −15 −10 −5 5 10 15 20

Above representation of unit function may also be written as u(x−a). Where,

a that point after which the function value is ‘1’. If a = 1 then above unit
function is written as
(
1 if x ≥ 1
u(x − 1) =
0 Otherwise
This function is graphed as

x
1 2 3

Rectangular Unit Function Unit function that is closely bounded at lower

and upper ends can also defined as
(
1 if a ≤ x ≤ b
Rect[u(x)] =
0 Otherwise

u(x)

1 b b b b b b b b b b b

−∞
b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b
x
a b 15
−20 −15 −10 −5 5 10 20

A lower end (at x = a) and upper end (at x = b) bounded unit function is
called rectangular function and it is written as
Rect[u(x)] = u(x − a) − u(x − b)
62

y y y

1 1 1

−
x x x
a b a b a b
1 1 1

Assume a unit function, which is closely bounded in 0.5 and 1, then it shall
be written as (
1 if 0.5 ≤ x ≤ 1
Rect[u(x)] =
0 Otherwise
Here, unit function is closely bounded in 0.5 to 1. This function is graphed as

u(x)

x
1

Relation Between Unit Sample and Unit Function If δ(x) = 1 at x = 0 only

(i.e. δ(0) = 1 and zero otherwise) then unit sample at x = a can also be defined
in terms of unit function as
δ(a) = u(a) − u(a − 1) (14)
To prove it graphically, two functions, u(a) and u(a − 1) functions are plotted
in the figure ??.

u(x)

1 b b b b b b b b b b b

−∞
a
b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b
x
−20 −15 −10 −5 5 10 15 20
Plot of u(a) function and a = 10 (let).

u(x)

1 b b b b b b b b b b

−∞
a−1
b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b
x
−20 −15 −10 −5 5 10 15 20
Plot of u(a − 1) function and a = 9 (let)
Figure 8:
0.1. FUNCTION 63

When graph of u(a) is subtracted by graph of u(a − 1), we get unit sample
δ(a) = 1 at x = a and δ(x) = 0 for other values of x.

δ(x)

1 b

−∞ ∞
a
b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b
x
−20 −15 −10 −5 5 10 15 20

The relation
δ(a) = u(a) − u(a − 1)
has unique property of backward difference. For any value a, δ(a) is equal to
the backward difference between two consecutive values of unit function u(a)
and u(a − 1). Thus we can say that

δ(a) = ∆u(a)

If a → 0, then
d
u(a) = u̇(a) δ(a) = (15)
da
Using the properties of antiderivatives, we can also get new relation as
Z
δ(a) da = u(a) (16)

Solved Problem 0.61 A unit function is represented by u(t − 4). Find where
this unit function is transitioned. Draw the graph of the unit function.

Solution The given unit function is u(t − 4). Its transition occurs at
t − 4 = 0, i.e. t = 4s. (
1 if t ≥ 4
u(t) =
0 Otherwise
Its graph is given below:

u(t)

t
−1 1 2 3 4 5
 64

Solved Problem 0.62 A unit function is represented by u(t − 6). Find where
this unit function is transitioned. Draw the graph of the unit function.

Solution The given unit function is u(t − 6). Its transition occurs at
t − 6 = 0, i.e. t = 6s. (
1 if t ≥ 6
u(t) =
0 Otherwise
Its graph is given below:

u(t)

t
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Solved Problem 0.63 Draw the graph of unit function u(t) = u(t−0.5)−u(t−3).

Solution This unit function is subtractive nature, i.e. unit function u(t −
0.5) is subtracted by u(t − 3). To draw a graph, we must find the transition
points of the unit function parts, i.e. u(t − 0.5) and u(t − 3). So,

t − 0.5 = 0 ⇒ t = 0.5; t−3= 0⇒t= 3

So, equation of u(t − 0.5) is given by

(
1 if t ≥ 0.5
u(t) =
0 Otherwise

Similarly, equation of u(t − 3) is given by

(
1 if t ≥ 3
u(t) =
0 Otherwise

Now, plot of the given unit function is as shown below:

u(t) u(t) u(t)

−
t t t
0.5 3 0.5 3
0.1. FUNCTION 65

The equation of unit function u(t − 0.5) − u(t − 3) is

(
1 if 0.5 ≤ t ≤ 3
u(t) =
0 Otherwise

This is answer.

Solved Problem 0.64 Draw the unit function regions of the unit functions u(t−1)
and u(t − 2) and subtract the region of u(t − 1) by u(t − 2).

Solution The transition point of the unit function u(t − 1) is t − 1 = 0 ⇒

t = 1. This unit function is graphed as
(
1 if t ≥ 1
u(t) =
0 Otherwise

The graph of this unit function would be as:

u(t)

t
1

Similarly, transition point of the unit function u(t − 2) is t − 2 = 0 ⇒ t = 2.

This unit function is graphed as
(
1 if t ≥ 2
u(t) =
0 Otherwise

The graph of this unit function would be as:

u(t)

t
2

On subtracting the region of u(t − 1) by u(t − 2), we shall get region of

u(t − 1) − u(t − 2) as
66

u(t) u(t) u(t)

−
t t t
1 2 1 2

This is desired graph of u(t − 1) − u(t − 2).

Solved Problem 0.65 A unit function is represented by u(t − 4) − u(t − 6). Find
where this unit function is transitioned. Draw the graph of the unit function.

Solution The given unit function is u(t − 4) − u(t − 6). Its transition occurs
at two points where t−4 = 0 and t−6 = 0, i.e. at t = 4s and t = 6s respectively.
Note that second term of unit function in right hand side (i.e. u(t − 6) is in
subtraction from first term of unit function in right hand side (i.e. u(t − 4).
Hence this function has two bounded limits. As t = 6s > t = 4s and unit
function is defined as (
1 if 4 ≤ t ≤ 6
u(t) =
0 Otherwise
The graph of this unit function would be as:

u(t) u(t) u(t)

−
t t t
4 6 4 6 4 6

Solved Problem 0.66 Why unit function is said “Switch ON” function? A unit
function u(t − 0.5) is applied to the line function f (t) = t − 0.5. Find the output
of f (t).

Solution Unit function is also known as Switch ON function as another

function, f , is accepted as input for that period of time in which u(t) = 1 and
rejected for the period in which u(t) = 0. If f (t) = t − 0.5 is an input function
and unit function u(t − 0.5) is applied to it. The transition point for the unit
function is
t − 0.5 = 0 ⇒ t = 0.5
It means (
1 if t ≥ 0.5
u(t) =
0 Otherwise
0.1. FUNCTION 67

External function is f (t) = t − 0.5. When unit function is multiplied to it, we

get
O(t) = (t − 0.5)u(t − 0.5)
Graph of this output function is

f (t) u(t) O(t)

×
t t t
0.5 0.5

O(t) O(t)

t t
0.5 0.5

Solved Problem 0.67 A unit function u(t − 0.5) − u(t − 1.5) is applied to the
line function f (t) = t − 0.5. Find the output of f (t).

Solution Here f (t) = t − 0.5 is an input function and unit function u(t −
0.5) − u(t − 1.5) is applied to it. The transition points for the unit function are

t − 0.5 = 0 ⇒ t = 0.5; t − 1.5 = 0 ⇒ t = 1.5

It means (
1 if 0.5 ≤ t ≤ 1.5
u(t) =
0 Otherwise
External function is f (t) = t − 0.5. When unit function is multiplied to it, we
get
O(t) = (t − 0.5) [u(t − 0.5) − u(t − 1.5)]
Graph of this output function is
68

f (t) u(t) O(t)

×
t t t
0.5 1.5 0.5 1.5

O(t) O(t)

t t
0.5 1.5 0.5 1.5

Unit Function as Electrical Switch

V (t)

u(t) = u(t − 0.5) − u(t − 1.0)

V (t) +u(t − 2.0) − u(t − 2.5)
+u(t − 3.0) − u(t − 3.5)
u(t)

b 1
S
b b b

b b b t
b

R 1

2 3


 1 if 0.5 ≤ t ≤ 1.0
1 if 2.0 ≤ t ≤ 2.5

u(t) =

 1 if 3.0 ≤ t ≤ 3.5
0 Otherwise

VR (t)

In above figure, a sinusoidal potential is applied to a resistor R. An

electromagnetic switch is connected in series. It switches between ON and
OFF states by a unit function as

1 if 0.5 ≤ t ≤ 1.0





 1 if 2.0 ≤ t ≤ 2.5

u(t) =


 1 if 3.0 ≤ t ≤ 3.5


0 Otherwise

0.1. FUNCTION 69

We see that when switch is ON (u(t) = 1) we get an output voltage (VR (t))
across the resistor R. VR (t) = 0 when switch is OFF (i.e. u(t) = 0). It is
equivalent electrical example of unit function as electrical switch.

Solved Problem 0.68 A voltage function of +10V is applied to unit function

u(t − 1) − u(t − 2) and −10V is applied to unit function u(t − 2) − u(t − 3). Find
the output function.
Solution Here, unit function acts as ON switch for 1 ≤ t ≤ 3 but input
voltage is different for the ON period 1 ≤ t ≤ 2 and 2 ≤ t ≤ 3. Input voltage
is +10V for 1 ≤ t ≤ 2 and −10V for 2 ≤ t ≤ 3. Using the properties of unit
function, output is

O(t) = 10 × [u(t − 1) − u(t − 2)] − 10 × [u(t − 2) − u(t − 3)]

On solving, it we have

O(t) = 10u(t − 1) − 10u(t − 2) − 10u(t − 2) + 10u(t − 3)

Or
O(t) = 10u(t − 1) − 20u(t − 2) + 10u(t − 3)
This is output function.

Solved Problem 0.69 Plot discrete type unit function u(x) for −∞ < x ≤ 2
having unit sample function δ(k) = 1 at k = 0 only.

Solution We have to plot the discrete type unit function in −∞ < x ≤ 2.

The given unit sample function is
(
1 if k = 0
δ(k) =
0 Otherwise

The discrete unit function is given by

x
X
u(x) = δ(k); where − ∞ < x ≤ 2
k=−∞

As δ(k) = 1 at k = 0 only, so
X
δ(k) = 1; ∀k≥0

So, from the relation

x
X
u(x) = δ(k); where − ∞ < x ≤ 2
k=−∞
70

x<0
X
u(x) will be zero for each value of x < 0 as k in term δ(k) will always be
k=−∞
negative and consequently δ(k) = 0 for each k < 0. Thus unit function is one
for each value of x that is zero or positive as for each these values corresponding
k values are either zero or positive. Hence unit function will be as
(
1 if x ≥ 0
u(x) =
0 Otherwise

u(x)

1 b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b

−∞ ∞
b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b
x
−20 −15 −10 −5 5 10 15 20

We can solve it mathematically. Unit sample is one at k = 0. So, we will

find unit function values about x = 0. Now, take x = −2, we have
−2
X
u(−2) = δ(k)
k=−∞

Or
u(−2) = δ(−∞) + . . . + δ(−3) + δ(−2)
It gives u(−2) = 0. Similarly, take x = −1
−1
X
u(−1) = δ(k)
k=−∞

Or
u(−1) = δ(−∞) + . . . + δ(−2) + δ(−1)
It gives u(−1) = 0. Take x = 0
0
X
u(0) = δ(k)
k=−∞

Or
u(0) = δ(−∞) + . . . + δ(−1) + δ(0)
It gives u(0) = 1. Note that δ(0) = 1 only. Take x = 1
1
X
u(1) = δ(k)
k=−∞
0.1. FUNCTION 71

Or
u(1) = δ(−∞) + . . . + δ(−1) + δ(0) + δ(1)
It gives u(1) = 1. Take x = 2
2
X
u(2) = δ(k)
k=−∞

Or
u(2) = δ(−∞) + . . . + δ(−1) + δ(0) + δ(1) + δ(2)
It gives u(2) = 1. For each value of x ≥ 0, u(x) = 1. So, our unit function will
be like:
u(x)

1 b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b

−∞ ∞
b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b
x
−20 −15 −10 −5 5 10 15 20

Solved Problem 0.70 Simplify the output unit function given as

O(t) = u(t − 2) + u(t − 3) − 2u(t − 2.5)

and write its unit function and input function.

Solution The given output function is

O(t) = u(t − 2) + u(t − 3) − 2u(t − 2.5)

As we know that transition points of unit function are sequential and increasing
in domain of R. So, we will arrange the given unit function terms in right hand
side of the function f (t) in order to transition points. So,

O(t) = u(t − 2) − 2u(t − 2.5) + u(t − 3)

The transition points for this unit function are t = 2, t = 2.5 and t = 3. Solving
it from left to right u(t − 2.5) term is in subtraction, hence it will form a unit
rectangular function with its previous term, i.e. u(t − 2). Expanding the unit
term u(t − 2.5) so that u(t − 2) and u(t − 2.5) has same coefficient (i.e. function
in product to unit function). Now,

O(t) = u(t − 2) − u(t − 2.5) − u(t − 2.5) + u(t − 3)

Now taking two terms in a group, we have

O(t) = +1 × [u(t − 2) − u(t − 2.5)] − 1 × [u(t − 2.5) − u(t − 3)]

72

O(t)
1

t
1 2 3 4 5

−1

The unit function can be written in piecewise function as

(
1 if 2 ≤ t ≤ 3
u(t) =
0 Otherwise

Interpreting the output function assuming that unit function is acting as ON-
OFF switch, it is found that +1 input is applied for rectangular unit function
u(t−2)−u(t−2.5) while −1 input is applied for unit function u(t−2.5)−u(t−3).
Using this interpretation, we can write input function as
(
+1 if 2.0 ≤ t ≤ 2.5
I(t) =
−1 if 2.5 ≤ t ≤ 3.0

Solved Problem 0.71 Simplify the unit function given as

O(t) = u(t − 2) + 2u(t − 3) − 3u(t − 2.5)

and write it in piecewise function form.

Solution The given output function is

O(t) = u(t − 2) + 2u(t − 3) − 3u(t − 2.5)

As we know that transition points of unit function are sequential and increasing
in domain of R. So, we will arrange the given unit function terms in right hand
side of the function f (t) in order to transition points. So,

O(t) = u(t − 2) − 3u(t − 2.5) + 2u(t − 3)

The transition points for this unit function are t = 2, t = 2.5 and t = 3. Solving
it from left to right u(t − 2.5) term is in subtraction, hence it will form a unit
rectangular function with its previous term, i.e. u(t − 2). Expanding the unit
term u(t − 2.5) so that u(t − 2) and u(t − 2.5) has same coefficient (i.e. function
in product to unit function). Now,

O(t) = u(t − 2) − u(t − 2.5) − 2u(t − 2.5) + 2u(t − 3)

0.1. FUNCTION 73

Now taking two terms in a group, we have

O(t) = +1 × [u(t − 2) − u(t − 2.5)] − 2 × [u(t − 2.5) − u(t − 3)]

O(t)
2

t
1 2 3 4 5

−2

The unit function can be written in piecewise function as

(
1 if 2 ≤ t ≤ 3
u(t) =
0 Otherwise

Interpreting the output function assuming that unit function is acting as ON-
OFF switch, it is found that +1 input is applied for rectangular unit function
u(t−2)−u(t−2.5) while −2 input is applied for unit function u(t−2.5)−u(t−3).
Using this interpretation, we can write input function as
(
+1 if 2.0 ≤ t ≤ 2.5
I(t) =
−2 if 2.5 ≤ t ≤ 3.0

Solved Problem 0.72 Simplify the unit function given as

O(t) = 10 + 2u(t − 3) − 2u(t − 2.5)

and write it in piecewise function form.

Solution The given output function is

O(t) = 10 + 2u(t − 3) − 2u(t − 2.5)

As we know that transition points of unit function are sequential and increasing
in domain of R. So, we will arrange the given unit function terms in right hand
side of the function f (t) in order to transition points. So,

O(t) = 10 − 2u(t − 2.5) + 2u(t − 3)

The transition points for this unit function are t = 2.5 and t = 3. Again

O(t) = 10 − 2 × [u(t − 2.5) − u(t − 3)]

74

O(t)

10
8
6
4
2
t
−2 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 9: In above figure, cyan color is unit function, brown line is output of
unit part, green line is constant term and purple line is O(t).

The unit function can be written in piecewise function as

(
1 if 2.5 ≤ t ≤ 3
u(t) =
0 Otherwise

As O(t) = 10 − 2 × [u(t − 2.5) − u(t − 3)] has constant and unit function terms.
Interpreting the output function assuming that unit function is acting as ON-
OFF switch, only −2 × [u(t − 2.5) − u(t − 3)] term would go ON-OFF while
term 10 would be constant for time being. It is found that −2 input is applied
for rectangular unit function u(t − 2.5) − u(t − 3) and 0 for rest of time. Using
this interpretation, we can write input function as
(
+10 if t < 2.5 and t > 3
I(t) =
+8 if 2.5 ≤ t ≤ 3
Or (
+8 if 2.5 ≤ t ≤ 3
I(t) =
+10 Otherwise

Solved Problem 0.73 Simplify the unit function given as

f (t) = 10 − 2u(t − 2.5)

and write it in piecewise function form for t ∈ [−∞, ∞].

Solution The given output function is

O(t) = 10 − 2u(t − 2.5)

As we know that transition points of unit function are sequential and increasing
in domain of R. The transition points for this unit function are t = 2.5. Again

O(t) = 10 − 2u(t − 2.5)

0.1. FUNCTION 75

O(t)

10
8
6
4
2
t
−2 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 10: In above figure, cyan line is unit function, brown line is output of
unit part, green line is constant term and purple line is O(t).

The unit function can be written in piecewise function as

(
1 if t ≥ 2.5
u(t) =
0 if t < 2.5

As O(t) = 10 − 2u(t − 2.5) has constant and unit function terms. Interpreting
the output function assuming that unit function is acting as ON-OFF switch,
only −2u(t − 2.5) term would go ON-OFF while term 10 would be constant
for time being. It is found that −2 input is applied for shifted unit function
u(t − 2.5) and 0 for time (t < 2.5). Using this interpretation, we can write input
function as (
+10 if t ≥ 2.5
I(t) =
+8 if t < 2.5

Step Function
A step function is a function whose value changes when independent variable
passes require conditions. A step function is a constant piecewise function hav-
ing finite pieces. It looks like a staircase. A step function is defined as

1 if [x] is odd
s(x) = (17)
−1 if [x] is even

Here symbol [x] represents to the greatest integer value. Greatest integer symbol
returns the greatest integer from a real number. Actually greatest number
symbol returns the integer that its argument has crossed (or at) in numberline
while counting from −∞ to +∞. This is similar to the floor function (⌊x⌋)4 ,
i.e. lower bounding integer value, of computer programming languages. The
step function given by above function is graphed as
4
opposite to ceil function (⌈x⌉), i.e. upper bounding integer value
76

s(x)

x
1 2 3 4 5

−1

Another step function is

s(x) = [x]; when 0 < x < 4 (18)
Few examples for floor function are ⌊−2.5⌋ = −3, ⌊2.5⌋ = 2, ⌊0.5⌋ = 0 etc.
s(x) = ⌊x⌋; when 0 < x < 4 (19)

s(x) s(x)

3 1

2 x
−2 −1 1

1 −1

x −2
1 2 3

Similarly, ceiling type step function is

s(x) = ⌈x⌉; when 0 < x < 4 (20)
Few examples for ceiling function are ⌈−2.5⌉ = −3, ⌈2.5⌉ = 2, ⌈0.5⌉ = 0 etc.

s(x) s(x)

3 1

2 x
−2 −1 1

1 −1

x −2
1 2 3
0.1. FUNCTION 77

Auxiliary tabulated data for floor and ceiling functions is given below:

x ⌊x⌋ ⌈x⌉
-2.5 -3 -2
-2 -2 -2
-1.5 -2 -1
-1 -1 -1
-0.5 -1 0
0 0 0
0.5 0 1
1 1 1
1.5 1 2
2 2 2
2.5 2 3

Unit Step Function

Assume a function f (t) that is continuous very where in the domain of t. If
conditionally, if f (t) has two discontinuous function at t = a, then f (t − a) is
pole or origin for this conditional function. Now f (t − a) has two functions.

f1 (t) if t < a
f (t − a) =
f2 (t) if t ≥ a
It means ‘a’ is the point at where conditional function is changed. Again if
f1 (t) = 0 and f2 (t) = 1 then f (t − a) = u(t − a) is known as unit step function
or Heaviside Function.

0 if t < a
u(t − a) =
1 if t ≥ a

t
a

Illustrated Example Two functions, t3 and (t − 2)2 respectively are sketched

as shown below.
78

y y

2) 3
(t −
1 y = t3 1

y=
t t
−1 1 1 2 3

−1 −1

First figure is sketch of relation y = t3 while second figure is sketch of

y = (t − 2)3 . The second function is shifted by ‘2’ in respect to first function.
If y is a boolean then above sketches becomes

u u

1 1

t t
a

First figure represents to u(t) and second figure represents to u(t − a).

Solved Problem 0.74 Sketch the graph of function


0 if t < 1
u(t − 1) =
1 if t ≥ 1

Solution This is an unit step function. The function value shall be zero
when ‘t’ is less than ‘1’ and shall be one when ‘t’ is equal or larger than ‘1’. The
sketch of the function is

t
1 2 3

Solved Problem 0.75 Sketch the graph of function


0 if t < −1
u(t + 1) =
1 if t ≥ −1
0.1. FUNCTION 79

Solution This is an unit step function. The function value shall be zero
when ‘t’ is less than ‘−1’ and shall be one when ‘t’ is equal or larger than ‘−1’.
The sketch of the function is

t
−1 1 2

Ramp Function
A ramp function is a line function with slope m > 0 within (a, b). Assume a
piece-wise function 
 0 if x < 0
f (x) = mx if 0 ≤ x ≤ a
1 if x > a


The above piece-wise function is a ramp function for 0 ≤ x ≤ a. This function

is graphed as

f (x)

1 b

α x
a

The slope of a ramp function may positive or negative. Two ramp functions
with positive and negative slops can form a triangular function (trig) functions.

f (x)

1 b

β
αb b
x
−a a

Square Function
A square function is defined according to the following piecewise function.

1 if 0 ≤ x ≤ 2a
f (x) =
0 Otherwise
80

This function is graphed as

f (x)

1 b

b b
x
0 2a

The symmetric square function may also be defined as

f (x)

1 b

b b
x
−a a

Signum Function
A function f (t) is said to be signum function, if it is defined as

 +1 when t > 0
sgn(t) = 0 when t = 0
−1 when t < 0


sgn(t)

t
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4

−1

Signum function is a conditional function.

Periodic Function
A periodic function is a function that repeats itself after a fix interval of time.
Periodic functions are defined as f (x) = f (x − a) where a is period of the func-
tion. Simplest example of periodic functions are sin θ and cos θ whose periods
are 2π. A unit periodic function has unity amplitude. Periodic functions may
be symmetric or non symmetric. For example, in the following graph, a periodic
function of period 1 is shown.
0.1. FUNCTION 81

t
1 2 3 4 5

This is non symmetric periodic function. Active duration of this periodic

function is less than the non-active duration.
y
′
t
1

t
1 2 3 4 5

A trigonometric function may be periodic or not, it depends on its argument.

If argument of the trigonometric operator (like sine, cosine, tangent etc) can be
written as rπ (r ∈ I and r > 0) then it is periodic function otherwise it is not
periodic.

Solved Problem 0.76 Find which of these (i) cos(2.1πt), (ii) sin(2.1t) is periodic
and not-periodic? Also find the period.
Solution
1.

Solved Problem 0.77 Find which of these (i) cos(0.1πk), (ii) sin(1.01k) is peri-
odic and not-periodic? Also find the period.
Solution

Impulse Function
When a large force acts for a short time, then the product of the force and time
is called impulse in applied mathematics. It t → 0, impulse tends to infinite.

δ δ(t)

The unit impulse function is the limiting function and it has unit area but
zero width.
82

δ δ δ
1.5
1
0.5

t t t
-1 1 -0.5 0.5 1 1
−
3 3

 1

if a < t < a + k
δ(t − a) = k
0 Otherwise


Here, limit of k → 0. This function represent the force magnitude 1/k, that is
acted for the time t = a to t = a + k. Here, k is very small. The value of the
function becomes infinity when the width of k approach to zero. In this case
area of the rectangle is unity.
(
∞ for t = a
δ(t − a) =
0 for t 6= a

And Z ∞
δ(t − a) · dt = 1
0

1
k
t
t=a t=a+k

In delta function, shape does not matter, as delta function is very large if
t → 0 and very small away from t → 0.

δ δ δ
1.5ε
ε
0.5ε

t t t
−ε ε −0.5ε 0.5ε 1 1
−
3ε 3ε
Delta function (δ) is an even function at it is continuous at t → 0 only. It
means, its left side limit and right side limits are equal. Therefore,

δ(−x) = δ(x) (21)

0.1. FUNCTION 83

Note that δ(t) is not a signal or a mathematical function in the ordinary sense,
it makes mathematical sense only when it is used inside an integral sign. δ(t2 )
and δ(t)2 does not make any sense. In electrical and electronics engineering,
impulse function is also defined as
(
1 when t = 0
δ[t] =
0 when t 6= 0

It has not defined area like Direct Delta function (δ(t)) but it has a state of ac-
tion, like On/Off state (it is similar to switching ON a circuit and quickly turned
OFF). When t = 0, it allows sampling of input function, i.e. instantaneous value
of the input function.

Solved Problem 0.78 At where impulse term δ[k + 3] be one.

Solution We know that impulse term is given by

(
1 when k = 0
δ[k] =
0 when k 6= 0

i.e. δ[0] = 1 and zero otherwise. So, argument of δ in the given problem must
be zero. So,
k+3=0
It gives k = −3. The impulse term δ[k + 3] will be one at k = −3.

Solved Problem 0.79 At where impulse term δ[k − 3] be one.

Solution We know that impulse term is given by

(
1 when k = 0
δ[k] =
0 when k 6= 0

i.e. δ[0] = 1 and zero otherwise. So, argument of δ in the given problem must
be zero. So,
k−3=0
It gives k = 3. The impulse term δ[k − 3] will be one at k = 3.

Solved Problem 0.80 Convert the sample f [−4] = 2 into impulse sequence.

Solution The given sequence is f [−4] = 2. It can also be written as

f [−4] = 2 × 1 = 2 δ[0]

The sample is at n = −4, hence δ[0] should also be defined for n = −4. Now,
we can write above relation as

f [−4] = 2 δ[−4 + 4]
84

Assume that k = −4 for the given sample then

f [k] = 2 δ[k + 4]

δ[k + 4] shall be 1 at k = −4. At other values of k, it will be zero. This is

desired result.

Solved Problem 0.81 Convert the sample f [−4] = 2 and f [−3] = 2 into impulse
sequences

Solution The given sequence is f [−4] = 2. It can also be written as

f [−4] = 2 × 1 = 2 δ[0]

The sample is at n = −4, hence δ[0] should also be defined for n = −4. Now,
we can write above relation as

f [−4] = 2 δ[−4 + 4]

Assume that k = −4 for the given sample then

f [k] = 2 δ[k + 4] (22)

δ[k + 4] shall be 1 at k = −4. At other values of k, it will be zero. Similarly,

the second sample will be written as

f [i] = 2 δ[i + 3] (23)

δ[i + 3] shall be 1 at i = −3. At other values of i, it will be zero. Here, δ[k + 4]

and δ[i + 3] shall given value 1 at different indices. Hence both equations ??
and ?? can be merged as

f [k] = 2 δ[k + 4] + 2 δ[k + 3] (24)

Term 2 δ[k + 4] will be 2 at k = −4 while 2 δ[k + 3] will be 2 when k = −3 in

equation ??. This is desired result.

Shift Function
A function f (x) is continuous and defined in the domain of −∞ < x < ∞. If
origin of x is at x = 0. If origin is shifted by a then x is replaced by x − a in
the function, and new function shall be defined as f (x − a).
 0.1. FUNCTION 85

f (x) f (x) f (x)

1 1 1

x x x
π 3π π 3π π 3π
2 π 2 2π 2 π 2 2π 2 π 2 2π

−1 −1 −1
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 11: (a) Sine function f (x) = sin x started at x = 0. (b) Sine function
f (x) = sin x with argument x and argument x is shifted by π/2. (c) Argument
of sine function is shifted by π/2 as f (x − π/2) = sin(x − π/2) and argument x
is shifted by π/2.

A discrete function may also be shifted leftward or rightward. For example,

a discrete function x[n] is sampled in number-line as shown in the following
table:

x x[n] x[n-2] x[n+2]

-5 0 0 0

-4 0 0 1

-3 0 0 1.5

-2 1 0 2

-1 1.5 0 1.25

0 2 1 0.75

1 1.25 1.5 0

2 0.75 2 0

3 0 1.25 0

4 0 0.75 0

5 0 0 0

In the above table, sample value, x[n] at sample time n is taken. Let the
sampled values are x[−2] = 1, x[−1] = 1.5, x[0] = 2, x[1] = 1.25 and x[2] = 0.75
and so on. The graph of sampled data is shown in the following figure.
86

b b

b b
b b
b b
b b

b b b b b b b b

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Now, the sample value is shifted by −2 places. Now the new sampled value
is x[n − 2]. The sampled value 1 is obtained when n = 0 not at n = −2. n = 0 is
two place right to the n = −2. Therefore the new function is shifted rightward.
Similarly, the leftward shift of the function is defined as x[n + 2]. Now, sample
value 1 is obtained at n = −4 not at n = −2. Thus the sampled data is shifted
leftward by two places. The original and leftward shift of function is shown in
the following figures.

b b

b b
b b
b b
b b

b b b b b b b b

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

Uniform Function
A function is defined as uniform function in x ∈ [a, b] where a ≤ x ≤ b

 1

if a ≤ x ≤ b
U (a, b) = b−a
0 Otherwise


x
a b

0.1.28 Vertically symmetric Function

A function f is said to be vertically symmetric if its graph may be divided into
two equal halves by y-axis. Graph of a vertically symmetric function is shown
below:
0.1. FUNCTION 87

y y y

1 1 + 1

x x x
−2 −1 1 2 −2 −1 1 2

The y-axis divides area covered by vertical symmetric function f and x-axis
into two equal parts. If area covered by the vertically symmetric function is A
then its equal halves has area A/2.

y y y

1 A 1 + 1

A/2 A/2
x x x
−2 −1 1 2 −2 −1 1 2

The area region covered by the vertically symmetric function f and x-axis
from x = −2 to x = −1 is equal to the area region covered by the vertically
symmetric function f and x-axis from x = 1 to x = 2. Sometime this statement
is also said that the area region covered by the vertically symmetric function
f and x-axis in x < −1 is equal to the area region covered by the vertically
symmetric function f and x-axis in x > 1.

y y

1 = 1

x x
−2 −1 1 2

Solved Problem 0.82 A vertically symmetric function covers area 2 above the
x-axis in x = −∞ to x = ∞. If residual area in x < −1.25 is 0.315, then find
the area in x = 0 to x = 1.25.
Solution We have vertically symmetric function whose area is 2. Now, it
can be divided into two equal halves each having area 1.
88

y y

x < −1.25 x > 1.25

1 = 1

0.315 0.315
x x
−2 −1 1 2

Due to symmetry, area in x < −1.25 is equal to the area in x > 1.25.

1 − 0.315
1

0.315
x
1 2

So area in x = 0 to x = 1.25 is given by

A = 1 − area(x > 1.25) = 1 − 0.315 = 0.685

This is desired answer.

0.1.29 Sinc Function

The cardinal sine function, written as sinc abbreviate, denoted by sinc(x) as

sin(x)
sinc(x) = (25)
x
This relation ?? is normal form of the sinc representation. The normalized
cardinal sine is represented by

sin(πx)
sinc(x) = (26)
πx
where x 6= 0. When x → 0, cardinal sine limits to 1.

sin(πx)
lim sinc(πx) = lim =1 (27)
x→0 x→0 πx
0.1. FUNCTION 89

1.00

0.75

0.50
y

0.25

−0.25
−20 −16 −12 −8 −4 0 4 8 12 16 20
x
sinc(x)
Figure 12: Normalized cardinal sine, , in red and normal cardinal sine,
x
sinc(πx)
, in cyan color.
πx

The normalized cardinal sine function has a simple representation as the

infinite product
∞ 
x2

sin(πx) Y
= 1− 2 (28)
πx n=1
n
The series summation of cardinal sine function is given by
∞
n
sin(x) X −x2
sinc(x) = = (29)
x n=0
(2n + 1)!

Derivative
The derivative of cardinal sine function is
x d (sin x) − sin x × d
dx x
 
d d sin(x)
sinc(x) = = dx
dx dx x x2

Taking derivative of the functions and simplifying the expression, we get

d cos(x) − sinc(x)
sinc(x) =
dx x

0.1.30 Increasing-Decreasing Function

A function f (x) is said to be increasing function within the domain a ≤ x ≤ b
if its value is continuously increasing with increase of x. Similarly, a function
f (x) is said to be decreasing function within the domain a ≤ x ≤ b if its value is
90

continuously decreasing with increase of x. Following methods are used to find

whether a function is increasing or decreasing within the domain a ≤ x ≤ b.
1. First we find zero point of the function, i.e. point x where function value
is zero. It is obtained by equation function to zero. So,

f (x) = 0

2. Check, how many zero points are within the domain a ≤ x ≤ b. If

it is two or more, then function must change from increasing to decreasing or
vice-versa within the given domain of x.

y y

b bc b
x b bc bc b
x
a b a b

Therefore, this function is never either only increasing function or only de-
creasing function within the given domain a ≤ x ≤ b.

bc b b bc x
a b

If there are zeros less than two within the domain of a ≤ x ≤ b then there is
uncertainity about increasing or decreasing nature of function.
3. If there are no real zeros then the function never intersects to the x-axis.
y

a b
b b
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2
0.1. FUNCTION 91

The above function is plot of f (x) = x + 1/x. The zeros of this function are
1
x+ = 0 ⇒ x2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ x = ±i
x
The zeros of this function are imaginary, say complex, hence function never
intersects to x-axis.
4. To confirm the nature of function, we construct a difference table to
check the number of sign conversions in first order difference column. If first
order difference has positive sign then function is increasing and if first order
difference has negative sign then function is decreasing. The number of times,
sign of first order difference changes from positive to negative or negative to
positive, same number of times function changes from increasing to decreasing
or vice-versa. The range of x for which f (x) has same sign in its corresponding
first order difference, the function continuously increases or decreases with this
given range. First order difference for point xn is given by

f [xn ] = f [xn+1 ] − f [xn ]

Here, one point may be noted that, while we analysing a function or difference
functions of nth order, whether they are increasing or decreasing functions, only
“sign” of next order difference is significant not the “quantity” associated with
“sign”.
Illustrated Example Take function f (x) = x2 − 5.5 ∗ x + 6 and we have
check whether it is continuously increasing or continuously decreasing within
1 ≤ x ≤ 2. So, first we find zero points,

x2 − 5.5x + 6 = 0 = (x − 1.5)(x − 4)

It gives x = 1.5 and x = 4, only one point x = 1.5 falls within 1 ≤ x ≤ 2, hence
it may be either continuously increasing function of continuously decreasing
function. Now, construct a difference table as shown below:
92

x f (x) ∆f (x)
1.00 1.50 -0.34
1.10 1.16 -0.32
1.20 0.84 -0.30
1.30 0.54 -0.28
1.40 0.26 -0.26
1.50 0.00 -0.24
1.60 -0.24 -0.22
1.70 -0.46 -0.20
1.80 -0.66 -0.18
1.90 -0.84 -0.16
2.00 -1.00

The first order differences, ∆f (x), (see third column) have “negative sign”5 ,
therefore, the function, f (x), is continuously decreasing function within the
domain 1 ≤ x ≤ 2.

a b
b bc b
x
1 2 3

Illustrated Example Take function f (x) = x2 − 4 ∗ x + 3.75 and we have

check whether it is continuously increasing or continuously decreasing within
1 ≤ x ≤ 3. So, first we find zero points,

x2 − 4x + 3.75 = 0 = (x − 1.5)(x − 2.5)

It gives x = 1.5 and x = 2.5, both points fall within 1 ≤ x ≤ 3, hence it is

increasing and decreasing function within the given domain 1 ≤ x ≤ 3. Now,
construct a difference table as shown below:
5
Only sign of ∆f (x) matters here, quantity associated with sign has no significance.
0.1. FUNCTION 93

x f (x) ∆f (x)
1.00 0.75 -0.36
1.20 0.39 -0.28
1.40 0.11 -0.20
1.60 -0.09 -0.12
1.80 -0.21 -0.04
2.00 -0.25 0.04
2.20 -0.21 0.12
2.40 -0.09 0.20
2.60 0.11 0.28
2.80 0.39 0.36
3.00 0.75

We see that from third column, sign of first order difference changes from
negative to positive at x = 2, hence at this point the function shall change from
decreasing (-ve sign) to increasing (+ve sign). From this table, it is clear that,
function is continuously decreasing function in 1 ≤ x < 2 and continuously
increasing function in 2 ≤ x ≤ 3. The plot of this function shown below:

a b
b bc bc b
x
1 2 3

Solved Problem 0.83 Show that logb 0 = −∞.

Solution Using the exponet property, we have

logb 0 = n ⇒ bn = 0
The term bn shall be zero if n → −∞, as
1
b−∞ = =0
b∞
Now, from logb 0 = n, n = −∞. So,
logb 0 = −∞
It is proved.
94

Solved Problem 0.84 Find whether the function y = cos(2x) is either increasing
or decreasing in the range [−π/2, π/2].

Solution The zeros of the function y = cos(2x) are obtained when y = 0.

So,
π
cos(2x) = 0 ⇒ 2x = 2nπ ±
2
It gives,
π
x = nπ ±
4
For given domain of x ∈ [−π/2, π/2], the accepted values of x are ±π/4.

a b
b bc bc b
x
−π/4 π/4

These two points falls within the given domain of x, which are more than
one. So, this function is increasing as well as decreasing, i.e. oscillating between
the given domain [−π/2, π/2].

Solved Problem 0.85 Find whether function y = x2 − 9x − 1 is either increasing

or decreasing in the range of x in [1, 2].

Solution To find the nature of the function, we shall construct the first
order difference table for the given function as shown below:
0.1. FUNCTION 95

x f (x) ∆f (x)
1.00 -9.00 -0.69
1.10 -9.69 -0.67
1.20 -10.36 -0.65
1.30 -11.01 -0.63
1.40 -11.64 -0.61
1.50 -12.25 -0.59
1.60 -12.84 -0.57
1.70 -13.41 -0.55
1.80 -13.96 -0.53
1.90 -14.49 -0.51
2.00 -15.00

Table 12: Difference Table of Function f (x) = x2 − 9x − 1.

The plot of above data is given in following figure.

y
a b
b b
x
1 2 3

All elements of first order difference (see third column of table ??) for each
x ∈ [1, 2] are negative. Hence function is continuously decreasing function in
domain 1 ≤ x ≤ 2.

1
Solved Problem 0.86 Find that whether function y = x + is either increasing
x
or decreasing within the domain of x ∈ [−1, 1].

Solution The zeros of the function are

1
x + = 0 ⇒ x2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ x = ±i
x
The zeros of this function are imaginary, say complex, hence function never
intersects to x-axis. To find whether function is increasing or decreasing or
oscillating within domain of x ∈ [−1, 1], we construct the first order difference
table as shown below:
96

x f (x) ∆f (x)
-1.00 -2.00 -0.05
-0.80 -2.05 -0.22
-0.60 -2.27 -0.63
-0.40 -2.90 -2.30
-0.20 -5.20 -8.21
-0.08 -13.41 UNDEFINE
0.00 UDEFINE UNDEFINE
0.08 13.41 -8.21
0.20 5.20 -2.30
0.40 2.90 -0.63
0.60 2.27 -0.22
0.80 2.05 -0.05
1.00 2.00

1
Table 13: Difference Table of Function f (x) = x + .
x

The plot of above data is given in following figure.

y

a b
b b
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2

All elements of first order difference (see third column in table ??) for each
x ∈ [−1, 0) ∪ (0, 1] are negative. Hence function is continuously decreasing in
domain −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 except x = 0. At x = 0, function is undefined. It means,
function does not exists at x = 0.

4 sin(x)
Solved Problem 0.87 Prove that whether function y = − x is increas-
2 + cos(x)
ing function within range of [0, π/2].

Solution Constructing the first order difference table using Excel software
for the given function as shown below:
0.1. FUNCTION 97

x y ∆y
0.00 0.00 0.07
0.20 0.07 0.07
0.40 0.13 0.07
0.60 0.20 0.06
0.80 0.26 0.06
1.00 0.32 0.05
1.20 0.38 0.04
1.40 0.42 0.01
1.57 0.43

4 sin(x)
Table 14: Difference Table of Function y = − x.
2 + cos(x)

The plot of above data is given in following figure.

a b
b b
x
1 2

All elements of first order difference (see third column of table ??) are pos-
itive. Hence function is continuous increasing function within the domain of
0 ≤ x ≤ π/2.

Solved Problem 0.88 Prove that y = loge x is increasing function in the interval
[0, 2]. Apply corrected value of domain limits within error not more than 0.01.

Solution As we know that at x = 0, ln(0) is −∞ irrespective of its base.

So, we can not take x = 0 during the construction of table. So, we correct the
domain of x as [0.01, 2]. Constructing the first order difference table using Excel
software for the given function as shown below:
98

x y ∆y
0.01 -4.61 3.00
0.20 -1.61 0.69
0.40 -0.92 0.41
0.60 -0.51 0.29
0.80 -0.22 0.22
1.00 0.00 0.18
1.20 0.18 0.15
1.40 0.34 0.13
1.60 0.47 0.12
1.80 0.59 0.11
2.00 0.69

Table 15: Difference Table of Function y = loge x.

The plot of above data is given in following figure.

y
a b
b b
x
1 2

All elements of first order difference (see third column of table ??) are pos-
itive. Hence function is continuous increasing function within the domain of
0 < x ≤ 2.

Solved Problem 0.89 Prove that y = x loge x is increasing function in the inter-
val (0, 0.368] and decreasing function in the interval of [0.368, 2].

Solution As we know that at x = 0, ln(0) is −∞ irrespective of its base.

So, we can not take x = 0 during the construction of table. So, we correct
the domain of x as [0.01, 2]. Constructing the first order difference table using
Excell software for the given function as shown below:
0.1. FUNCTION 99

x y ∆y
0.01 -0.05 -0.28
0.20 -0.32 -0.02
0.25 -0.35 -0.01
0.30 -0.36 -0.01
0.35 -0.37 0.00
0.40 -0.37 0.06
0.60 -0.31 0.13
0.80 -0.18 0.18
1.00 0.00 0.22
1.20 0.22 0.25
1.40 0.47 0.28
1.60 0.75 0.31
1.80 1.06 0.33
2.00 1.39

Table 16: Difference Table of Function y = x loge x.

The plot of above data is given in following figure.

a b
b b
x
1 2

The function value at x = 0.35 and x = 0.40 are nearly equal. Hence function
changes its direction, i.e. function inversion take place, at a point situated
within the 0.35 and 0.40. Elements of first order difference (see third column
of table ??) changes their sign from negative to positive at x = 0.35. Hence
function is continuous decreasing function within the domain of 0 < x ≤ 0.35
and continuously increasing function within the domain of 0.35 ≤ x ≤ 2. If
we use more precision value of x, the point of function inversion is about at
x = 0.368.
100

x y ∆y
0.366 -0.367875 -0.000004
0.367 -0.367878 -0.000001
0.368 -0.367879 0.000002
0.369 -0.367878 0.000004
0.370 -0.367873 0.000007
0.371 -0.367866

0.1.31 Modulo Function

Modulo Function is also known as Modulus Function. An operator that makes
a function positive irrespective of whether it was positive or negative is called
mod. It is denoted by two vertical lines ‘|’ before and after the whole function.
Functions having one or more mod term is called modulo function. For example
if f (x) is a function of ‘x’ such that

f (x) = −x + 1 (30)

Then its mod is

|f (x)| = | − x + 1| (31)
f (x) is either positive or negative, after mod it becomes positive. Modulo func-
tions are sometime known as absolute functions. The minimum value of mod-
ulo part of a modulo function is always zero. For example, minimum value of
f (x) = |x − 3| is zero and it happens when x − 3 = 0.

Sub-equations of Modulo Function

Let a function is defined by f (x) = |x|. This function can be written into two
sub function. To find the point about which the mod function is being resolved
in sub function, we put whole term inside the mod, equal to zero. So, x = 0.
Now, we can write sub-function about this point as given below:

f (x) = −x when x < 0 (32)

Minus sign is applied, and removing the | operator, to whole term inside the
mod operator when x is left side to this point, say 0 here. While plus sign is
applied, and removing the | operator, to whole term inside the mod operator
when x is at and right side to this point, say 0 here.

f (x) = x when x ≥ 0 (33)

0.1. FUNCTION 101

Though the mod function is separated in two sub-equations, but it has same
result when value of x is placed in the function f (x) given in equation (??) and
equation (??).
Case-I : When x is Negative When x is negative, then all values of x are
less than zero (x < 0), i.e. values of x lies left side to the zero in number line.
For all real values, when x is substituted with its sign, i.e. x is substituted by
−x then subfunction becomes

f (x) = −(−x) = x (34)

Case-II : When x is Positive When x is positive then all values of x are

greater than or equal to zero (x ≥ 0), i.e. values of x lies at and right side to
the zero in number line. For all real values, when x is substituted with its sign,
i.e. x is substituted by +x then

f (x) = x (35)

f (x) = −x f (x) = x
b
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

Thus in each case, whatever is the real value of x is, function value is always
positive, i.e. greater than or equal to zero. While writing sub functions of the
given mod function, whole term inside the mod operator is taken as less than
zero or greater than zero. For example, consider the mod function

f (x) = |x − 1|

To find the inequality point, we put whole term inside mod, i.e. x − 1, equal to
zero. So, x − 1 = 0 and it gives x = 1. Now the mod function is written in sub
functions about x = 1.

f (x) = −(x − 1) f (x) = x − 1

b
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

Figure 13: Subfunctions along number line.


−(x − 1); When x < 1
f (x) =
x − 1; When x ≥ 1
102

x
−1 1 2 3

Figure 14: Plot of mod function f (x) = |x − 1|.

Critical Points
Critical point of modulo part/function is that point at which modulo part/func-
tion is minimum. As we know that minimum value of modulo part of the
modulo function is zero. For example, minimum value of f (x) = |x − 3| is
zero and it obtains at x − 3 = 0, i.e. x = 3. Hence critical point of the modulo
part/function is x = 3.

Sum or Difference of Modulo

Each modulo function has its critical point were its plot direction changes. The
minimum value of modulo term is always zero. The critical point is
obtained by equating modulo function equal to zero. For example, |x − 9| has
minimum value zero at x = 9. The modulo function can be plotted by using
critical points. Let we have modulo function

y = |x − 1| + |x − 2|

Her, y represents modulo function which has two modulo terms, (i) |x−1|
and (ii) |x − 2|. This function has two critical points those can be found by
solving x − 1 = 0 and x − 2 = 0. These are x = 1 and x = 2. The corresponding
y values at critical points are y1 = 1 and y2 = 1 respectively.

y y

2 2

1 1

x x
1 2 1 2

To plot the graph of given modulo function, take two x points, one less than
the minimum critical point and other more than the maximum critical point.
Here, we have taken x = 0 and x = 3. Now, find the corresponding y values,
0.1. FUNCTION 103

i.e. y0 = 3 and y3 = 3. Draw the plot for point x = 0 to x = 1 and x = 2 to

x = 3 as shown in the second part of above figure. For plot part in 1 < x < 2,
take an arbitrary point between x = 1 and x = 2. Now, find its corresponding y
value and draw plot accordingly between x = 1 and x = 2. If modulo function
has three modulo terms, i.e.

y = |x − 1| − |x − 2| + |x − 3|

This function has three critical points those can be found by solving x − 1 = 0,
x − 2 = 0 and x − 3 = 0. These are x = 1, x = 2 and x = 3. The corresponding
y values at critical points are y1 = 1, y2 = 2 and y3 = 1 respectively.

y y

2 2

1 1

x x
1 2 3 1 2 3

To plot the graph of given modulo function, take two x points, one less than
the minimum critical point and other more than the maximum critical point.
Here, we have taken x = 0 and x = 4. Now, find the corresponding y values,
i.e. y0 = 2 and y4 = 2. As there are more than two critical points, we do not
need to get the intermediate points. Draw the plot for point x = 0 to x = 1,
x = 1 to x = 2, x = 2 to x = 3 and x = 3 to x = 4 as shown in the second part
of above figure.

Product of Modulos
Graph of modulo functions having sum or difference of modulo terms are mostly
linear. But when modulo terms are in product, the graph of modulo function
becomes non-linear, i.e. graph may be quadratic, cubic or parabolic etc. The
method of finding critical points in this case is similar as we find in modulo
function having sum or difference of modulo terms. Take modulo function

y = |x − 1| × |x − 2| × |x − 3|

This function has three critical points, those can be found by solving x − 1 = 0,
x−2 = 0 and x−3 = 0. These are x = 1, x = 2 and x = 3. The corresponding y
values at critical points are y1 = 0, y2 = 0 and y3 = 0 respectively (interesting).
104

y y

1 1

x x
1 2 3 1 2 3

To plot the graph of given modulo function, take two x points, one less than
the minimum critical point and other more than the maximum critical point.
Here, we have taken x = 0.5 and x = 3.5. Now, find the corresponding y values,
i.e. y0.5 = 1.875 and y3.5 = 1.875. For intermediate nature of plot, we must
take intermediate x points between two consecutive critical points, like x = 1.5
to get the value of modulo function between x = 1 and x = 2, x = 2.5 to get
the value of modulo function between x = 2 and x = 3. Now, draw the plot for
point x = 0 to x = 1, x = 1 to x = 2, x = 2 to x = 3 and x = 3 to x = 4 as
shown in the second part of above figure.

Solved Problem 0.90 Simplified the relation f (x) = |x + 2| − 4.

Solution The modulus function is

f (x) = |x + 2| − 4

The mod term of this function will be zero when

x + 2 = 0 ⇒ x = −2

Hence the inversion point for the mod function is x = −2. It means if x < −2
then x + 2 should be multiply with −1 so that x + 2 remains positive. Now
resolute this function into sub equations

−(x + 2) − 4; When x < −2
f (x) =
x + 2 − 4; When x ≥ −2

On simplifying it 
−x − 6; When x < −2
f (x) =
x − 2; When x ≥ −2
The function value at x = −2 is

f (−2) = −4

The function will intersect the x axis at −x − 6 = 0 ⇒ x = −6 and x − 2 = 0 ⇒

x = 2. The plot of this function is
0.1. FUNCTION 105

x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2

−2

−4

|x2 − 1|
Solved Problem 0.91 Separate function f (x) = in sub-functions.
x+1
Solution The modulus function is
|x2 − 1|
f (x) =
x+1
The mod term of this function will be zero or more when

x2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ x = ±1

Hence the inversion point for the mod function is x = −1 and x = +1. But
x = −1 is not acceptable as at this point numerator and denominator will be 0
and the function become undermined. Now only at x = 1 modulus term will be
zero. x = −1 is an open point hence function is not continuous at this point.
The piece-wise resolution of the given function is

−(x2 − 1)

; When − 1 < x < 1


x+1


f (x) =

 x2 − 1

 ; When x ≥ 1 & x < −1
x+1
On simplifying it

1 − x2

 x + 1 ; When − 1 < x < 1



f (x) =
 x2 − 1


 ; When x ≥ 1 & x < −1
x+1
The function value at x = 1 are respectively

f (1) = 0

The plot of this function is

106
y

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2

−1

−2

−3

Solved Problem 0.92 Draw the graph of mod function y = |x|.

Solution The modulus function is

f (x) = |x|

The mod term of this function will be zero when x = 0. Hence the inversion
point for the mod function is x = 0. It means if x < 0 then x should be multiply
with −1 so that x remains equal to |x|. Now resoluting this function into sub
equations 
−x; When x < 0
f (x) =
x; When x ≥ 0
The function value at x = 0 is
f (0) = 0
The function will increase continuously when x varies from 0 to ±I. The plot
of this function is

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2

Solved Problem 0.93 Draw the graph for y = −6|x|.

Solution The modulus function is

f (x) = −6|x|
0.1. FUNCTION 107

The mod term of this function will be zero when x = 0. Hence the inversion
point for the mod function is x = 0. It means if x < 0 then x should be multiply
with −1 so that x remains equal to |x|. Now resoluting this function into sub
equations 
−6(−x); When x < 0
f (x) =
−6x; When x ≥ 0
On simplification 
6x; When x < 0
f (x) =
−6x; When x ≥ 0
The function value at x = 0 is
f (0) = 0
The function will decrease continuously when x varies from 0 to ±I. The plot
of this function is

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2

−6

−12

Solved Problem 0.94 Draw the graph for y = 2|x| + |x − 1|.

Solution In this function, there are two modulo parts. First modulo will
be zero when x = 0. Second modulo will be zero when x − 1 = 0, i.e. x = 1.
There are two inequality points. This function can be converted into piecewise
function as 
 −2x − (x − 1); When x < 0
y= 2x − (x − 1); When 0 ≥ x < 1
2x + (x − 1); When x ≥ 1


Or 
 −3x + 1; When x < 0
f (x) = x + 1; When 0 ≥ x < 1
3x − 1; When x ≥ 1


This function is continuously decreasing in the domain of −∞ < x < 0 and

continuously increasing in the domain of x > 0. The function is critical at
x = 1. The sketch of the function is shown in the figure below.
108

f (x)

b
2

b
1

x
−1 1

Solved Problem 0.95 Draw the graph for y = |x + 2| − 3|x − 1|.

Solution In this function, there are two modulo parts. First modulo will be
zero when x + 2 = 0, i.e. x = −2. Second modulo will be zero when x − 1 = 0,
i.e. x = 1. There are two inequality points. This function can be converted into
piecewise function as

 −(x + 2) + 3(x − 1); When x < −2
y= (x + 2) + 3(x − 1); When − 2 ≥ x < 1
(x + 2) − 3(x − 1); When x ≥ 1


Or 
 2x − 5; When x < −2
f (x) = 4x − 1; When − 2 ≥ x < 1
−x + 5; When x ≥ 1


This function is continuously increasing in the domain of −∞ < x < 1 and

continuously decreasing in the domain of x > 1. The function is critical at
x = −2 also. The sketch of the function is shown in the figure below.

f (x)

x
−3 −2 −1 1

−4

−8

Solved Problem 0.96 Find the value of x for which function f (x) = |x + 1| − 2
is negative.
0.1. FUNCTION 109

Solution The modulo part will be zero when x + 1 = 0, i.e. x = −1. This
function can be converted into piecewise function as

−(x + 1) − 2; When x < −1
f (x) =
(x + 1) − 2; When x ≥ −1
Or 
−x − 3; When x < −1
f (x) =
x − 1; When x ≥ −1
If function will be negative if −x − 3 < 0, i.e. x > −3 and x − 1 < 0, i.e.
x < 1. Here conditions of x for piecewise function is used just only to expand
the modulo function and it is meaningless for function being positive or negative
in this question. Hence in the domain of −3 < x < 1, function will be negative.
f (x)
1

x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1

−1

−2

Solved Problem 0.97 Find the value of x for which function f (x) = |x| − 2 has
zero value.
Solution The modulo part will be zero when x = 0, i.e. x = 0. This
function can be converted into piecewise function as

−x − 2; When x < 0
f (x) =
x − 2; When x ≥ 0
If function will be zero if −x − 2 = 0, i.e. x = −2 and x − 2 = 0, i.e. x = 2. Here
conditions of x for piecewise function is used just only to expand the modulo
function and it is meaningless for function being zero in this question. Hence
function will be zero at x = −2, 2.
f (x)
1

b b
x
−2 −1 1 2

−1

−2
110

Solved Problem 0.98 Find the value of x for |x − 4| − 2 = 0.

Solution The modulo part will be zero when x − 4 = 0, i.e. x = 4. Left

hand side of the above relation is assumed as function f (x). This function can
be converted into piecewise function as

−(x − 4) − 2; When x < 4
f (x) =
(x − 4) − 2; When x ≥ 4

Or 
−x + 2; When x < 4
f (x) =
x − 6; When x ≥ 4
If function will be zero if −x + 2 = 0, i.e. x = 2 and x − 6 = 0, i.e. x = 6. Here
conditions of x for piece-wise function is used just only to expand the modulo
function and it is meaningless for function being zero in this question. Hence
function will be zero at x = 2, 6.

f (x)
1

b b
x
1 2 3 4 5 6

−1

−2

0.1.32 Greatest Integer Function

The greatest integer function returns the floor value of a real number. For ex-
ample, greatest integer of 1.25 is 1. The greatest integer function is represented
as [f (x)]. The greatest integer (gi) of a given number is whole integer at just
left side to the given real number. See the following number line.

gi
b

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

If the given number is negative then its greatest integer is increased by one
in negative side as −4 lies left side (floor) to the given negative number. If
number is −2.25 then its greatest inteber is −3.

gi
b

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
0.1. FUNCTION 111

In other words, to get the greatest integer of given real number, just put this
number in number line and find the integer (both positive or negative) just left
side to this number as shown in above figures.

Solved Problem 0.99 What is difference between [k 2 ] and [k]2 ?

Solution In the first case, i.e. [k 2 ], a number is first squared and then its
greatet integer is obtained. In second case first greatest integer is obtain and
then result is square.

Solved Problem 0.100 Which is greater result in [2.52 ], [−2.5]2 and [2.5]2 ?

Solution In first case

[2.52 ] = [6.25] = 6

In second case
[−2.5]2 = (−3)2 = 9
In third case
[2.5]2 = 22 = 4
Hence [2.52 ] is greater result.

Solved Problem 0.101 Find the value of [(2 − 0.001)2 ].

Solution Expanding the terms inside greatest integer operator. We have

[(2 − 0.001)2 ] = [22 + 0.000001 − 2 × 0.001 × 2]

Or
[(2 − 0.001)2 ] = [4 + 0.000001 − 0.004] = [4 − 0.003999]
Or
[(2 − 0.001)2] = [3.996001] = 3
This is the desired answer.

Solved Problem 0.102 Find the value of [(2 + 0.001)2 ].

Solution Expanding the terms inside greatest integer operator. We have

[(2 + 0.001)2 ] = [22 + 0.000001 + 2 × 0.001 × 2]

Or
[(2 + 0.001)2] = [4 + 0.000001 + 0.004] = [4.004001]
Or
[(2 + 0.001)2 ] = 4
This is the desired answer.
112

Solved Problem 0.103 Find the value of [(−2 + 0.001)2 ].

Solution Expanding the terms inside greatest integer operator. We have

[(−2 + 0.001)2 ] = [(−2)2 + 0.000001 + 2 × 0.001 × −2]
Or
[(−2 + 0.001)2 ] = [4 + 0.000001 − 0.004] = [3.996001]
Or
[(−2 + 0.001)2] = 3
This is the desired answer.

Solved Problem 0.104 Find the value of [−2 + 0.001]2.

Solution Solving greatest integer operator and square the result. We have
[−2 + 0.001]2 = [−1.999]2
Or
[−2 + 0.001]2 = (−2)2
Or
[−2 + 0.0012] = 4
This is the desired answer.

Solved Problem 0.105 Solve [(k − 0.1)2 ].

Solution The given relation is [(k − 0.1)2 ]. Expanding the square term
[(k − 0.1)2 ] = [k 2 + 0.01 − 2 × 0.1 × k]
If 0.01 > 2 × 0.1 × k then 0.01 − 2 × 0.1 × k = +ǫ and the result will be
[(k − 0.1)2 ] = [k 2 + ǫ]
If 0.01 < 2 × 0.1 × k then 0.01 − 2 × 0.1 × k = −ǫ and the result will be
[(k − 0.1)2 ] = [k 2 − ǫ]
The greatest integer will be less than the k 2 or greater than the k 2 , it will
depends on ǫ value.

[(−1.5 − 0.1)2 ]

b b

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 gi 2 3 4

If ǫ → 0 then
[(k − 0.1)2 ] = [k 2 + ǫ] = k 2
and
[(k − 0.1)2 ] = [k 2 − ǫ] = k 2 − 1
0.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNCTIONS 113

Solved Problem 0.106 Solve [k − 0.1]2 .

Solution The given relation is [k − 0.1]2 . Solving it

[k − 0.1]2 = (k − 1)2

In this case, greatest integer is square of k − 1.

[−1.5 − 0.1]2

b b

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 gi 4

In the above figure, k = −1.5 is taken for references.

0.2 Characteristics of Functions

The nature of curve depends on its eccentricity, origin of curve, intersecting
point on axes and the region where curve does not exits.

0.2.1 Symmetry
A curve function is said to be symmetric about axis if function remains un-
changed when sign of its one variable is changes. There are two types of sym-
metries about axes.
Symmetry about x axis If power of y is even then function is symmetric
about x axes. For example, function y 2 = 4ax is symmetric about x−axis as
when y is replaced by −y, it does not change to given function.

(−y)2 = 4ax ⇒ y 2 = 4ax

Symmetry about y axis If power of x is even then function is symmetric

about y axes. For example, function x2 = 4ay is symmetric about x−axis as
when x is replaced by −x, it does not change to given function.

(−x)2 = 4ay ⇒ x2 = 4ay

Solved Problem 0.107 Check whether function x2 − y 2 = 4 is symmetric or not

with suitable explanations.
Solution A function is symmetric either about x−axis or about y−axis
or about both depends on the symmetric test. For symmetric about x−axis,
substitute x by −x.
(−x)2 − y 2 = 4 ⇒ x2 − y 2 = 4
114

y y

x x

This function is symmetric about x−axis. Now, for about y−axis, substitute
y by −y.
x2 − (−y)2 = 4 ⇒ x2 − y 2 = 4
Hence function is symmetric about y−axis too. Therefore, given function is
symmetric about both axis as seen in the above figure.

0.2.2 Symmetry About Quadrant

If sum of powers of x and y is even then function is symmetrical in opposite
quadrant. For example xy = k 2 and x3 y = k 3 are symmetrical in opposite
quadrants.

0.2.3 Origin Point

If (0, 0) satisfied the given equation of a curve, then curves passes through the
origin. Each point, situated on the curve is measured in respect of origin.

0.2.4 Point of Axes Intersection

We know that dy/dx is slope of tangent at a point x on the curve. If slope is
zero then tangent is parallel to x axis and in this case tangent intersects to only
y-axis. So, putting dy/dx = 0 gives us value of x at which tangent is parallel
to x-axis. Under these conditions, y-intersect is equal to the function value at
the given point x. Similarly, by using dx/dy = 0, we can find the position in
x−axis where tangent is passing.

y dy y
6= 0
2
dx 2 dy
=0
dx
1 1

x x
−2 −1 1 2 −2 −1 1 2

−1 −1
0.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNCTIONS 115

Solved Problem 0.108 Find the function value at the point where slope of
tangent is zero. The function is y = x2 + x.

Solution The given relation is y = x2 + x which is function of x and can

be written as f (x) = x2 + x. It is assumed that function value is along y-axis
and tangent on this function is
df (x)
= 2x + 1
dx

y y

1 1

x x
−2 −1 1 −2 −1 1

For zero slope of tangent

df (x) 1
= 2x + 1 = 0 ⇒ x = −
dx 2
Slope of tangent is zero hence tangent will be parallel to the x-axis and tangent
will intersect only y-axis and y-intercept will be equal to the function value at
x = −0.5. Now, y-intercept is
f (−0.5) = (−0.5)2 − 0.5 = 0.25 − 0.5 = −0.25
This is function value where slope of tangent is zero.

Solved Problem 0.109 Find the y-intercept by tangent on function where slope
of tangent is zero. The function is y = x2 − x.

Solution The given relation is y = x2 − x which is function of x and can

be written as f (x) = x2 − x. It is assumed that function value is along y-axis
and tangent on this function is
df (x)
= 2x − 1
dx

y y

1 1

x x
−1 1 2 −1 1 2
116

For zero slope of tangent

df (dx) 1
= 2x − 1 = 0 ⇒ x =
x 2
Slope of tangent is zero hence tangent will be parallel to the x-axis and tangent
will intersect only y-axis and y-intercept will be equal to the function value at
x = 0.5. Now, y-intercept is

f (0.5) = (0.5)2 − 0.5 = 0.25 − 0.5 = −0.25

This is function value where slope of tangent is zero.

Solved Problem 0.110 Find the x-intercept by√tangent on function where slope
of tangent is infinity. The function is y = 1 + −x + 1.
√
Solution The given relation √ is y = 1 + −x + 1 which is function of x and
can be written as f (x) = 1 + −x + 1. It is assumed that function value is
along x-axis. Here, we have to find the x-intercept, hence function should be
converted to the function of y.

(y − 1)2 = −x + 1 ⇒ y 2 − 2y = −x

For infinity slope of tangent

dy dx
=∞⇒ =0
dx dy

y y

2 2

1 1

x x
−1 1 −1 1

−1 −1

Or
dx
= −2y + 2 = 0 ⇒ y = 1
dy
Slope of tangent is infinity hence tangent will be parallel to the y-axis and
tangent will intersect only x-axis and x-intercept will be equal to the function
value at y = 1. Now, x-intercept is

f (1) = −12 + 2 × 1 = 1

This is x-intercept where slope of tangent is zero.

0.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNCTIONS 117

Solved Problem
√ 0.111 What is x-intercept by tangent if dx/dy = 0 and function
is y = 1 + x + 1 ?
√
Solution The given relation√is y = 1 + x + 1 which is function of x and
can be written as f (x) = 1 + x + 1. It is assumed that function value is
along x-axis. Here, we have to find the x-intercept, hence function should be
converted to the function of y.

(y − 1)2 = x + 1 ⇒ y 2 − 2y = x

dx
For the given condition, =0
dy

y y

2 2

1 1

x x
−1 1 −1 1

−1 −1

Or
dx
= 2y − 2 = 0 ⇒ y = 1
dy
Tangent is parallel to the y-axis and tangent will intersect only x-axis and x-
intercept will be equal to the function value at y = 1. Now, x-intercept is

f (1) = 12 − 2 × 1 = −1

This is x-intercept where slope of tangent is zero.

0.2.5 Critical Point

Critical points of a function are those points where function is not finite. At
these points, either function value is infinite or function is not continuous. To
get the critical points, we check two conditions:
1. Is function value is infinite at any point within the given domain of inde-
pendent values?
2. Is function is discontinuous at any point within the given domain of inde-
pendent values?
If any or all conditions are met for points within the given domain of independent
values then these points are called critical points for the given function.
118

x−1
Solved Problem 0.112 Find the critical point(s) of the function f (x) =
x2 + 2
for x ∈ [1, 2].

Solution The given function is

x−1
f (x) =
x2 + 2
Critical points for the function are where function is either discontinuous or
infinite. Now, function is infinite when denominator of the function is zero. So,
√
x2 + 2 = 0 ⇒ x = ± 2i
These values are not within the domain of x ∈ [1, 2]. There are no points of x
which falls in x ∈ [1, 2], hence there are no critical points of the function in the
given domain.

x−1
Solved Problem 0.113 Find the critical point(s) of the function f (x) =
x2 − 2
for x ∈ [1, 2].

Solution The given function is

x−1
f (x) =
x2 − 2
Critical points for the function are where function is either discontinuous or
infinite. Now, function is infinite when denominator of the function is zero. So,
√
x2 + 2 = 0 ⇒ x = ± 2
√
The value x = + 2 is in domain of x ∈ [1, 2], hence there is one critical point
of the function in the given domain.

Solved Problem 0.114 Find the critical point(s) of the function f (x) = |x − 1|
for x ∈ (1, 2].

Solution The given function f (x) = |x − 1| has no infinite value at any

finite x values. But modulo function is discontinuous at |x − 1| = 0, i.e. x = 1.
The function is not continuous at x = 1. According to the given domain, x is
1 < x ≤ 2, hence x = 1 is not in the given domain of x. So, there are nil critical
points of the function in the given domain.

Solved Problem 0.115 Find the critical point(s) of the function f (x) = |x − 1|
for x ∈ [1, 2].

Solution The given function f (x) = |x − 1| has no infinite value at any

finite x values. But modulo function is discontinuous at |x − 1| = 0, i.e. x = 1.
The function is not continuous at x = 1. According to the given domain, x is
1 ≤ x ≤ 2, and x = 1 is in the given domain of x. So, there is one critical point
of the function in the given domain.
0.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNCTIONS 119

Solved Problem 0.116 Find the critical point(s) of the function f (x) = |x2 − 1|
for x ∈ [−1, 2].

Solution The given function f (x) = |x2 − 1| has no infinite value at any
finite x values. But modulo function is discontinuous at |x2 −1| = 0, i.e. x = ±1.
The function is not continuous at x = ±1. According to the given domain, x is
−1 ≤ x ≤ 2, and x = ±1 are in the given domain of x. So, there is two critical
points of the function in the given domain.

0.2.6 Linear Inequality

Suppose we have an inequality relation as a ≤ f (x) ≤ b, where f (x) is linear
function. To solve this inequality we construct sub functions as

a ≤ f (x); f (x) ≤ b

On solving these sub functions we have x ≥ A and x ≤ B where A < B then

the domain of inequality is the common points of x represented by these two
inequality solutions. For first case
A
b

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

For second case

B
b

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Inequality domain of given inequality function is common points of these

two sub inequality function. So
A B
b b

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Solved Problem 0.117 Convert interval form of domain x ∈ (0, 1) into inequality
symbolic form.

Solution The given interval form of domain is x ∈ (0, 1). The domain is
open, hence lower and upper limits are not part of the values of x. Its inequality
form is 0 < x < 1.

Solved Problem 0.118 Convert interval form of domain x ∈ [0, 1) into inequality
symbolic form.

Solution The given interval form of domain is x ∈ [0, 1). The domain is
closed leftward and open in rightward, hence lower limit is part of values of x
while upper limit is not part of the values of x. Its inequality form is 0 ≤ x < 1.
120

Solved Problem 0.119 Convert interval form of domain x ∈ [−1, 1] into inequal-
ity symbolic form.

Solution The given interval form of domain is x ∈ [−1, 1]. The domain is
closed leftward and rightward, hence lower and upper limits are part of values
of x. Its inequality form is −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.

Solved Problem 0.120 A student was given domain data as x ∈ (2, 4]. He finds
x = 2 as one of the solutions. Explain whether he has find correct solution or
wrong solution.

Solution The given domain is x ∈ (2, 4]. The upper limit is part of the x
values while lower limit is not part of the x values. If student finds answer as
x = 2, then his answer is wrong within the given domain as x = 2 is not the
part of given domain.

Solved Problem 0.121 A student was given domain data as x ∈ (2, 4). He finds
x = 4 as one of the solutions. Explain whether he has find correct solution or
wrong solution.

Solution The given domain is x ∈ (2, 4). The domain is open in both sides.
Therefore lower and upper limits are not part of the x values. If student finds
answer as x = 4, then his answer is wrong within the given domain as x = 4 is
not the part of given domain.

0.2.7 Region of Non Existence of Curve

A function or curve exists at a point, if its value is real and finite at the given
point. Consider a domain of x as a ≤ x ≤ b, where function values are imaginary
then within this domain of x function does not exists. Similar conditions are
applied with domain of y too. Some piecewise functions are defined for specific
domains. The function may or may not exists in specific domain. For example,

x when x < 0
F (x) =
x2 when x > 1
0.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNCTIONS 121

x
−2 −1 1 2

−1

−2

Figure 15: Piecewise function F (x) is plotted here. Not existence part of func-
tion is shown in dotted purple line.

Here, function F (x) does not exists in the domain 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 according the
conditions of piecewise function.
Illustrated Example For example, take a function

ay 2 = x2 (x − a)(2a − x)

x
1 2 3 4

Figure 16: Here, function ay 2 = x2 (x − a)(2a − x) is plotted taking a = 2. This

function does not exist in the domain 0 < x < 2.

Values of y are imaginary for the range 0 < x < a and real for the range
a < x < 2a. Hence curve exists only in the range from a to 2a.

0.2.8 Zero Crossing

When a function goes from positive side to negative side across the independent
axis or vice-versa, then we said that the function has zero crossing. A function
has zero crossing at x = a, if

f (a) = 0; lim f (a + h) 6= lim f (a − h)

h→0 h→0

See the following graph of function f (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 11x − 6.

122
1
3 2
f (x) = x − 6x + 11x − 6

−1
−1 0 1 2 3 4 5

This shows that function goes from negative to positive side across x-axis
at x = 1, positive to negative side across x-axis at x = 2 and again negative to
positive side across x-axis at x = 3. At these three points, i.e. x = 1, x = 2 and
x = 3, function f (x) = 0. For the second condition, we have that, lim f (a+h) 6=
h→0
lim f (a − h) is true for all these three points. Hence these three points are
h→0
zero crossing points of the given function as they satisfy both conditions. Zero
crossing is essential and non-essential based on application. Zero crossing occurs
at root of the function. For linear functions, at zero crossing, function value
is zero, but for rational/fraction functions, function is indeterminate at zero
crossing. For example, though function

|x − 1|
f (x) =
x3 + x − 2

1
|x − 1|
f (x) =
x3 + x − 2
0

−1
−1 0 1 2 3

is indeterminate at x = 1 yet it has zero crossing at x = 1 from negative

side to positive side of y-axis.

0.2.9 Function in Indefinite Limits

A function that is continuous every where is defined in domain of real numbers
(−∞, +∞). It means function exists at every point in domain of (−∞, +∞).
For example, f (x) = x and f (x) = x2 are continuous functions with indefinite
limits for x variable. These types of functions are called function in indefinite
range of limits.

0.2.10 Function in Definite Limits

A function that is continuous and exists within fixed limits, i.e. in domain of real
numbers [a, b], is called function function in definite range of limits. Function
1
beyond this limit may or may not continuous or exists. For example, f (x) =
x
is continuous and exists every where except x = 0.
0.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNCTIONS 123

f (x)

x
1 2 3 4 5 6

Functions f (x) = sin x or f (x) = cos x are unique in domain of [0, 2π] and
beyond this limit they replicate themselves.

f (x)
1 sin x

x
π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π

−1

f (x)
1 cos x

x
π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π

−1

Hence trigonometric functions are generally defined within definite limits.

Solved Problem 0.122 Find the function values at its two limit points t = 1 and
t = 4. The time function is f (t) = t2 − 3t.

Solution The given time function is f (t) = t2 − 3t that is defined and

continuous at t = 1 and t = 4. The function values at these two points are

f (1) = 12 − 3 × 1 = −2

and
f (4) = 42 − 3 × 4 = 4
These are function values at its given limits.

Solved Problem 0.123 Find difference between f (1) and f (4). The time function
is f (t) = t2 − 3t.
124

Solution f (1) represents to the function value where variable is one and
f (4) represents to the function value where variable is four. The function values
at these two points are
f (1) = 12 − 3 × 1 = −2
and
f (4) = 42 − 3 × 4 = 4
Difference between them is either f (1) − f (4) or f (4) − f (1). So, the differences
are
f (1) − f (4) = −2 − 4 = −6
or
f (4) − f (1) = 4 − (−2) = 6
These are possible difference values.

0.2.11 Degenerate Function

A function is said to be a degenerate function if for a given function values has
more than one solutions. For example, for function value 100 for given function

f (x, y) = x2 + y 2

there are two degeneracy with (6, 8) and (8, 6). It means

62 + 82 = 100 = 82 + 62

All degenerate solutions for a given function value forms the set of path points
that can be used to trace the graph. This phenomenon is also called function
degeneracy.

Solved Problem 0.124 Find all degenerate states of the function f (t, s) = t +
s + st when f (t, s) = 12 and 0 ≤ t ≤ 1, 0 ≤ s ≤ 15.

Solution To find the all degenerate states for the given function under the
given conditions, we first choose t values for t ∈ [0, 1] and corresponding value of
s would be calculated. Now, there will be 10 proposed t values. Now, construct
the table for all t cases.
0.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNCTIONS 125

t f s
0.0 12 12.00
0.1 12 10.82
0.2 12 9.83
0.3 12 9.00
0.4 12 8.29
0.5 12 7.67
0.6 12 7.13
0.7 12 6.65
0.8 12 6.22
0.9 12 5.84
1.0 12 5.50

Now all degenerate points for the given function value are (0, 12), (0.1, 10.82),
(0.2, 9.83), (0.3, 9.00), (0.4, 8.29), (0.5, 7.67), (0.6, 7.13), (0.7, 6.65), (0.8, 6.22),
(0.9, 5.84), (1.0, 5.50).

Solved Problem 0.125 Find all degenerate states of the function f (t, s) = t2 +
s + st2 when f (t, s) = 1 and 0 ≤ t ≤ 1, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.

Solution To find the all degenerate states for the given function under the
given conditions, we first choose t values for t ∈ [0, 1] and corresponding value of
s would be calculated. Now, there will be 10 proposed t values. Now, construct
the table for all t cases.
126

t f s
0.000 1.000 1.000
0.100 1.000 0.980
0.200 1.000 0.923
0.300 1.000 0.835
0.400 1.000 0.724
0.500 1.000 0.600
0.600 1.000 0.471
0.700 1.000 0.342
0.800 1.000 0.220
0.900 1.000 0.105
1.000 1.000 0.000

Now all degenerate points for the given function value are (0, 1), (0.1, 0.982),
(0.2, 0.923), (0.3, 0.835), (0.4, 0.724), (0.5, 0.600), (0.6, 0.471), (0.7, 0.342), (0.8, 0.220),
(0.9, 0.105), (1, 0).

0.3 Sketch a Function

Sketch of a function is tracing of the ordered pair consisting variable value
and corresponding function value in the multi-dimensional plain within given
variable domain. For example, take an experimental function as
f (x) = x2 − 2x + 3
Here, we want to trace the sketch of this function. As function is represented
in symbolic form, (function is dependent to an unknown variable x whose value
is chosen by student), hence we have to choose independent values (i.e. values
of x) and they shall be put in place of x in the given function to find the
corresponding function values (corresponding range of domain values). But we
have infinite numbers of x values irrespective of type of domain of x (i.e. either
x ∈ I or x ∈ R or x ∈ N or x ∈ Z etc). So, we limit the domain of x and
number of plot points (say n). Assume that domain of x for this function is
x ∈ [0, 1] and x ∈ R. So, we have infinite numbers of fractional x values in 0
and 1. To limit the number of plot points, we take n = 10. It means, we have to
take ten x values in [0, 1]. Now form the ten ordered pairs as (xi , f (xi )) starting
xi from 0 and end at 1. When we connect these ordered pairs from left to right
sequentially, we shall get the plot of the given function within given domain. A
function may be sketches by two methods, (i) by numeric method and (ii) by
analytical method.
0.3. SKETCH A FUNCTION 127

Numerical Method In first method, we construct a table for a function in

(x, f (x)) order for sufficient number of points within the given domain of x.
Then we plots these points in two dimensional plan. The larger numbers of x,
plot is plotted more fine. Suppose a function f (x) = sin x that has to be plotted
within 0 ≤ x ≤ π. Now, take ten points within [0, π] and find the value of f (x)
as shown in the following table.

x f (x)
0.000 0.000
0.314 0.309
0.628 0.588
0.942 0.809
1.256 0.951
1.570 1.000
1.884 0.951
2.198 0.810
2.512 0.589
2.826 0.310
3.140 0.002

Now, when this table is plotted in two dimensional xy plane, it gives the
sketch of function sin x.

f (x) f (x)
0.99
0.95
0.95

0.8
0.8

b
0.58
0.58

1 b b b 1 b b f (x) = sin x
b b b b
0.31

b b
0.3

b b

b b
0.0
0.0

b b

b b
x b b x
1 2 3 1 2 3

Analytical Method In analytical method of sketching of function, we first

find the characteristics of function, like x and y intersection points, maxima and
minima points, asymptotes, increasing and decreasing of the function, symmetry
of the function etc. Using these characteristics, we traces the sketch of function.

Solved Problem 0.126 Sketch the graphs of the given function and obtain
whether it is odd or even. The function is f (x) = x2 − 1.
128

Solution Replacing ‘x’ by ‘-x’, we have

f (−x) = (−x)2 − 1 = x2 − 1

Here f (−x) = f (x), so the function is even function. Function will be zero when

x2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ x = ±1

Function is even function, hence minimum value of the function will be when
x = 0 and it is
f (0) = 02 − 1 = −1
Now there are three cases for the function.
When x < −1 x2 is positive and greater than ‘1’, hence the function x2 − 1
is positive and greater than zero. Function is continuous decreasing when it
approaches to −1 from −∞.
When x > 1 x2 is positive and greater than ‘1’, hence the function x2 − 1
is positive and greater than zero. Function is continuous increasing when it
approaches to ∞ from 1.
When −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 x2 is positive but less than or equal to ‘1’. Function
2
x − 1 is negative and less than or equal to zero. Function decreases for the
domain of [−1, 0) and increases for the domain of [0, 1].

f (x)

1 f (x) = x2 − 1

x
−2 −1 1 2 3

−1

Applying the above three conditions, the plot of the function will be like as
given in above figure.

Solved Problem 0.127 Sketch the graph of the given function and obtain that
whether it is odd or even. The function is f (x) = x3 − 1.

Solution Replacing ‘x’ by ‘-x’, we have

f (−x) = (−x)3 − 1 = −x3 − 1

0.3. SKETCH A FUNCTION 129

Function is neither even nor odd function. Function will be zero when
x3 − 1 = 0 ⇒ x = 1
‘x’ has three equal roots of ‘1’. Minimum value of the function will be when
x = −∞ and it is
f (−∞) = (−∞)3 − 1 = −∞
When x = 0, then f (0) = −1. Function is continuous increasing in the domain
of (−∞, ∞). The data table of the function is

x -1.3 -0.8 -0.3 0.1 0.6 1.0 1.5

f(x) -2.95 -1.50 -1.04 -1.00 -0.80 0.13 2.37

Dot plot and graph of this data table is

b
f (x) f (x)
x −1

x −1
f (x ) = 3

f (x ) = 3
1 1
b

x x
−1 b1 −1 1
b
−1b b b −1
b

b
−2 −2

Solved Problem 0.128 Sketch the graphs of the √ given function and obtain that
it is either odd or even. The function is f (x) = 7 − x.

Solution Replacing ‘x’ by ‘-x’, we have

p √
f (−x) = 7 − (−x) = 7 + x
Function is neither even nor odd. Function will be zero when
√
7−x=0⇒x=7
Minimum real value of the function is when x = 7 and it is
√
f (7) = 7 − 7 = 0
At x = 0, the function intersects to y axis at
√
f (0) = 7 = 2.645
130

Function is real if
7−x≥0⇒x≤7
Hence the domain of ‘x’ is (−∞, 7]. Data table for the function is

x -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
f(x) 2.83 2.65 2.45 2.24 2.00 1.73 1.41 1.00 0.00

Dot plot of this data table is

f (x)
b
b
b
b
b
2 b
b
b
√
b
1 f (x) = 7−x

b x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Now the plot of the function is

f (x)

√
1 f (x) = 7−x

x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Solved Problem 0.129 Sketch the graphs of the function f (x) = x2/3 .

Solution The given function is f (x) = x2/3 . IT can be written as f (x) =

0.66
x . If x is negative, the function value is imaginary. Hence domain of the
function is [0, ∞). Function value at x = 0 is f (0) = 0. Function is continuous
increasing function as x → ∞, f (x) → ∞. The plot of the function is as given
below.
0.3. SKETCH A FUNCTION 131

f (x)

1 f (x) = x2/3

x
1 2 3 4 5

0.3.1 Straight Line

A function of two variables and of one degree is represent to a line. For example,
function f (x, y) of degree one is function of line. In general form, equation of
line is represented by y = mx + c. This equation of line represents that the line
has slope magnitude ‘m’ and it intersects to y-axis at ‘c’. The plot of this line
is

y y
c +c
x+ x
y =m y =m
b
(0, b)
c c
x b
x
(a, 0)

A line always intersection to x and y axes. When line intersects to the

x−axis, its y component becomes zero. Now the point of intersection at x-axis
can be obtained by substituting y = 0. The point on x−axis is represented by
(a, 0). Similarly, when line intersects to y−axis then x = 0 and co-ordinate of
this point is (0, b).

Solved Problem 0.130 Sketch the plot of y = 5x − 3.

Solution
132

10

3
−
5

5x
=
y
x
−2 −1 1 2 3

−5

The given equation is straight line. This line intersects both axes. This line
will intersect to x−axis when y = 0. At this point, x will be 3/5. Similarly,
when line intersects y−axis then x = 0 and in this point y = −3. Now the line
passes from points (3/5, 0) and (0, −3).

Solved Problem 0.131 Sketch the graph 5x − 4y = 5.

Solution

y 5
5x −
y= 4
x
−2 −1 1 2 3

The given equation is straight line. This line intersects both axes. This line
will intersect to x−axis when y = 0. At this point, x will be 1. Similarly, when
line intersects y−axis then x = 0 and in this point y = −5/4. Now the line
passes from points (1, 0) and (0, −5/4).

Solved Problem 0.132 Sketch the graph 6x + 4y = 12.

Solution

y
y = 12 −
6x
4
x
−2 −1 1 2 3

The given equation is straight line. This line intersects both axes. This line
will intersect to x−axis when y = 0. At this point, x will be 2. Similarly, when
line intersects y−axis then x = 0 and in this point y = 3. Now the line passes
from points (2, 0) and (0, 3).
0.3. SKETCH A FUNCTION 133

Solved Problem 0.133 Sketch the plot of y = 3x + 4. Also find the inverse
function and sketch plot for it.
Solution The given equation is straight line. This line intersects both axes.
This line will intersect to x−axis when y = 0. At this point, x will be −4/3.
Similarly, when line intersects y−axis then x = 0 and in this point y = 4. Now
the line passes from points (−4/3, 0) and (0, 4).

10

+4
3x
5
y=

x
−2 −1 1 2 3

The given line gives inverse function when it is solved for ‘x’. Now
y−4
x=
3
Replacing x and y by Y and X respectively to transform this relation for better
representation and meaning.
X −4
Y =
3
Here Y is inverse function of y.

X
−2 −1 1 2 3

−2
X −4
Y = 3

The given equation is straight line. This line intersects both axes. This line
will intersect to x−axis when Y = 0. At this point, X will be 4. Similarly, when
line intersects y−axis then X = 0 and in this point Y = −4/3. Now the line
passes from points (4, 0) and (0, −4/3).

Solved Problem 0.134 Sketch the plot of y − 7x = 7. Find the inverse function
for the line and also sketch it.
Solution The given equation is straight line. This line intersects both
axes. This line will intersect to x-axes when y = 0. At this point, x will be −1.
Similarly, when line intersects y-axes then x = 0 and in this point y = 7. Now
the line passes from points (−1, 0) and (0, 7).
134

30

15 x =7
y −7

x
−2 −1 1 2 3

The given line gives inverse function when it is solved for ‘x’. Now
y−7
x=
7
Replacing x and y by Y and X respectively to transform this relation for better
representation and meaning.
X −7
Y =
7
Here Y is inverse function of y.

X
−2 2 4 6 8
7
X−
−2
Y = 7

The given equation is straight line. This line intersects both axes. This line
will intersect to x−axes when Y = 0. At this point, X will be 7. Similarly,
when line intersects y−axes then X = 0 and in this point Y = −1. Now the
line passes from points (7, 0) and (0, −1).

0.3.2 Parabola
A quadratic equation has a parabolic shape. General equation of parabola is
given by y = ax2 + bx + c. It can be arranged in standard form of parabola
relation ( 2 )
b b2 − 4ac
y=a x+ −
2a 4a2
With vertex
b2 − 4ac
 
b
− ,−
2a 4a
The graph opens upward if a > 0 and downwards if a < 0. Quadratic equations
or equations with higher degrees may have symmetric shape. Therefore, while
plotting the parabolic equations, values should be taken from −k to +k about
0.3. SKETCH A FUNCTION 135

any axis. Be cautious and compute value for variable having degree one by
substituting the values for variable with degree two to avoid imaginary result
problem. For example, for parabola y 2 = 9x, substitute values of y from −k to
+k and solve for x otherwise when you substitute x by −k, value of y shall be
complex number (having imaginary part).

0.3.3 Domain & Range

A function f (x) define in integer, i.e. the all possible values of the f (x) are
only integers, is dependent on the independent variable ‘x’. Now, the possible
values of ‘x’ may be integer, real numbers, complex numbers, rational numbers
and natural number etc. Set of all possible values of ‘x’ for which function f (x)
is defined is called domain of the function. And the set of all corresponding
values of f (x) is known as range of the function.

A function shall not be said to be defined at a given point where it

is either imaginary or infinite or its limits are any of the given forms as 0/0,
0/∞, ∞/0 and ∞/∞ etc.

Solved Problem 0.135 Find the range of function f (x) = x2 at point x = 4.

Solution The range of a given function is defined as set of all values of the
function corresponding to its domain points. Now, the range of the function is
f (4) = 42 = 16.

Solved Problem 0.136 Does t = 2 is a point of domain of the function f (t) =

1
.
t−2
Solution A function is said to be defined at a given point where its value
is real and finite. Therefore, point t = 2 be a point of domain of function
1
f (t) = , if function value at this point is finite and real. So,
t−2
1 1 1
f (t) = = =
t−2 2−2 0
Numerically, the function value is ∞ or undefined at point t = 2. Hence this
point is not part of the domain of given function.

Solved Problem 0.137 Which points (integers only) between

√ t = 0 and t = 5
(including) can be in the domain of the function f (t) = t − 1.

Solution The points of domain of function always gives real and finite
function value. Therefore each point which gives real and finite function value
is part of the domain of the function f (t). Now,
136

√
t f (t) t−1 Domain Point
√
0 f (0) −1 No
√
1 f (1) 0 Yes
√
2 f (2) 1 Yes
√
3 f (3) 2 Yes
√
4 f (4) 3 Yes
√
5 f (5) 4 Yes

So, points {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} are domain points of the given function.

Solved Problem 0.138 Which points (integers only) between θ = 0 and θ = 5

(including) can be in the domain of the function f (θ). The function is f (θ) =
2−θ .
Solution The points of domain of function always gives real and finite
function value. Therefore each point which gives real and finite function value
is part of the domain of the function f (θ). Now,

θ f (θ) 2−θ Domain Point

0
0 f (0) 2 = 1.00 Yes
−1
1 f (1) 2 = 0.50 Yes
−2
2 f (2) 2 = 0.25 Yes
3 f (3) 2−3 = 0.125 Yes
−4
4 f (4) 2 = 0.0625 Yes
5 f (5) 2−5 = 0.03125 Yes

So, the points {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} are domain points of the given function as all
points have real and finite function value.

Ordered Pairs
An ordered pair is defined as the group of domain element and its corresponding
range element. For example, if f (x) is a valid function such that

f (x) = x2 + 2 : ∀ x ∈ I

Then its ordered pair is (x, f (x)). In ordered pair, first element is independent
value and second element is its dependent value based on set rules (say function).
0.3. SKETCH A FUNCTION 137

Ordered Pairs from Function

We can get ordered pair from domain and its range by using set rules (function).
For example, if x ∈ I + under the rule y = 2x then its ordered pair shall be
(x, 2x) where ∀ x ∈ I + . The range of this function is 2x, i.e. all positive even
numbers.

Solved Problem 0.139 Find few of the all ordered pairs of given statement
f (x) = 2x : ∀ x ∈ I + .

Solution Here, independent value is x and its values are only positive
integer values, i.e.
x = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
It is domain of the given function. To get the ordered pair, put these values of
x in f (x), which gives respective result as
f (x) = {0, 2, 4, 6, . . .}
This is range of the given function. Now, ordered pairs are
(x, f ) = {(0, 0), (1, 2), (2, 4), . . .}

Function From Ordered Pairs

Function from ordered pairs is reverse procedure of the ordered pairs from func-
tion. In ordered pairs, relation between function value with independent value
is directly observed and we can say that ordered pair follow particular function.
For example, in
(x, f ) = {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), . . .}
f is square of x, hence, function is f (x) = x2 . But it is not always observable.
To get the function from ordered pairs, we use regression techniques, which are
not in scope here. Plotting of ordered pair is easy and it can be plotted in
xy-plane by representing x in x-axis and f in y-axis. Take above example,
(x, f ) = {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), . . .}
First draw points in xy-plane and then draw smooth curve joining to these
points.

f f
b
8 8

4 b 4

b
b x x
1 2 3 1 2 3
138

If all ordered pairs are given then we can plot them as illustrated above.

Solved Problem 0.140 Find the possible range of x ∈ I for the function f (x) =
x + 2.
Solution All the possible values of x ∈ I are in the domain −∞ < x < ∞.
In the given function, only these values of ‘x’ can be placed. Function f (x) is said
to be defined if its value for any of the value of ‘x’ lies between −∞ < x < ∞.
When x = ∞, function f (x) = ∞. Hence, x = ∞ is not a part of domain of
function f (x). So, values of ‘x’ lies between (−∞, ∞).

x
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

x+2
Solved Problem 0.141 Find the range of x ∈ I for the function f (x) = .
x
Solution The given function is a fraction. For proper definition of the
function, it should be neither infinity nor imaginary. For this
Not Infinity For this condition, the denominator should not be equal to zero.
Now
x 6= 0
Now all possible values of x ∈ I and x 6= 0 are represented by

x ∈ {(−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)}

Not Imaginary As the function is not parabolic, there is no imaginary value

of function whatever is the value of ‘x’. Combining above two cases, the domain
of the function is given by

x ∈ {(−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)}

Or
x ∈ (−∞, ∞) & x 6= 0

bc
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
0.3. SKETCH A FUNCTION 139

r
x−2
Solved Problem 0.142 Find the range of x ∈ I for the function f (x) = .
x
Solution The given function is a fraction. For proper definition of the
function, it should be neither infinity nor imaginary. For this
Not Infinity For this condition, the denominator should not be equal to zero.
Now
x 6= 0
Now all possible values of x ∈ I and x 6= 0 are represented by

x ∈ {(−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)}

Not Imaginary As the function is parabolic, there may be values of ‘x’ for
which the function has an imaginary value. If x < 0 i.e. ‘x’ is negative then
function is r r
−x − 2 x+2
f (−x) = =
−x x
Function has real ranges if ‘x’ lies in

x ∈ (−∞, 0)

If x is positive then denominator will be never negative but numerator will be

negative if x − 2 < 0 or x < 2. In this case

x ∋ (0, 2)

At x = 2 the function value is zero. And for all values of x ≥ 2, the ranges of
function are real. Joining the range of ‘x’ for imaginary condition

x ∈ {(−∞, 0) ∪ [2, ∞)}

For both cases, common range of x is

x ∈ {(−∞, 0) ∪ [2, ∞)}

bc b
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
140

√
2x − 3
Solved Problem 0.143 Consider the function f (x) = . Find that
x − 10
1. What is the domain of function?
2. What is the range of the function?
3. Where is f continuous?
Solution Part-wise solution of the problem is given below :
1. If function is defined and continuous in the domain of [a, b] then its
function value should not be imaginary or infinite for any real value of [a ≤ x ≤
b]. Hence x 6= 10. For real values
2x − 3 ≥ 0
It gives
3
x≥
2
Now domain of the function is [3/2, ∞) except x = 10.

b bc x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

2. This function has boundary limits at x = 3/2, x → ∞ and x → 10.

Now, lim f (x) → 0. Similarly, lim f (x) → 0, −lim f (x) → −∞ and
+
x →3/2 x→∞ x →10
lim f (x) → ∞. Hence the range of the function is (−∞, ∞).
x+ →10

3. f (x) is continuous everywhere in its domain. The plot of the function is

x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

−1

−2

√
2x − 3
Figure 17: Plot of the function f (x) = .
x − 10
0.3. SKETCH A FUNCTION 141

Solved Problem 0.144 For each of the following functions, h, find functions f
and g such that f (g(x)) = h(x).
r
1
1. h(x) = + 3.
x2
1
2. h(x) = .
(1 + x)2
p
3. h(x) = x2 + 4x + 5 + x2 + 3x + 2.

Solution The part-wise solutions of the given problem are:

1. We have to find f (x) and g(x) so that f (g(x)) is equal to h(x). It means,
x of f is replaced by g(x). So, we have to arrange the h(x) in such way that
each x for f has unique substitution by g(x). So, given function is
r
1
h(x) = +3
x2
r
1
Take g(x) = x, we have f (x) = + 3.
x2
2. We have to find f (x) and g(x) so that f (g(x)) is equal to h(x). It means,
x of f is replaced by g(x). So, we have to arrange the h(x) in such way that
each x for f has unique substitution by g(x). So, given function is
1
h(x) =
(1 + x)2
Take g(x) = 1 + x, we have f (x) = 1/x2 .
3. The given function is
p
h(x) = x2 + 4x + 5 + x2 + 3x + 2
We have to find f (x) and g(x) so that f (g(x)) is equal to h(x). It means, x of
f is replaced by g(x). So, we have to arrange the h(x) in such way that each x
for f has unique substitution by g(x). So,
p p
h(x) = x2 + 4x + 5 + x2 + 3x + 2 = (x + 2)2 + 1 + (x + 2)2 − (x + 2)
p
Now, take g(x) = x + 2, then we have f (x) = x2 + 1 + x2 − x. These are the
required functions.

0.3.4 Sketch of Linked Functions (Multi-Functions Plot)

Sometime we have to plot two or more functions in same graph plain (xy Carte-
sian Plain). The functions being plotted may be independent to each other or
may be related to each other. For example, functions
f (x) = x2 − 3x; F (x) = x3 − x
142

are independent functions as they have no defined relation. But the functions

g(x) = x2 − 3x; G(x) = 2x − 3

are dependent in some extent as G(x) is equal to the derivative of g(x), i.e.

d
G(x) = g(x)
dx
Hence plot of g(x) and G(x) in same Cartesian Plain gives valuable and useful
interpretation rather than plotting of f (x) and F (x) in same Cartesian Plain
as f (x) and F (x) have no defined linkage. Plotting of multiple functions in
same plotting plain do not require extra work but we just need ordered pair for
each function of independent variable x. For the given function pair g(x) and
G(x), we construct two sets of ordered pairs, i.e. (xi , g(xi )) and (xi , G(xi )), and
sketch them in same plotting plain.

0.3.5 Function in Different Domains

Consider a trigonometric sine function

r = sin(θ) (36)

which represents periodic motion of an object revolving about a given point,

known as center. The period of the function is 2π or 360◦. The graph of the
function is

b r

θ 2π
b
θ θ

Here we say that the object is moving in angle-displacement plane. If the

time period of the object moving in circular path is T , i.e. it takes T seconds
to complete one revolution of 2π then 2π = T relatively. And above graph shall
be represented as
0.3. SKETCH A FUNCTION 143

b r

t T
b
t t

Now for one complete revolution, we can transform to the given function
from angle-position plane to time-time period plane. So
2π 2π
T = 2π ⇒ 1 = ⇒t= ×t
T T
Replacing θ from equation ??, we have
 
2π
r1 = sin × t = sin (2πf × t)
T

Here, f is frequency of revolving object and 2πf = ω. So,

r1 = sin (ωt) (37)

Now, the given equation is transform from angle-position plane into time-time
period plane. Here, equation ?? and ?? represent to same function in two
different domains.

r r1

π
b b
θ b b b
t
0 2π 0 T /2 T

0.3.6 Parametric Plot

Parametric equations are Cartesian coordinates those are independent from each
other but both are dependent of a third independent variable like time, angle
etc. Time dependent parametric equations are given by

x = f (t) y = g(t) α≤t≤β

144

Solved Problem 0.145 Sketch the graph generated by parametric equations

x = 1.25 cos θ and y = 1.25 sin θ.
Solution To sketch the graph of the given parametric equations, we first
populate the data table as shown below.

θ◦ x = 1.25 cos θ y = 1.25 sin θ Coordinate

0 1.25 0.00 (1.25,0)
30 1.08 0.63 (1.08,0.63)
60 0.62 1.08 (0.62,1.08)
90 0.00 1.25 (0,1.25)
120 -0.63 1.08 (-0.63,1.08)
150 -1.08 0.62 (-1.08,0.62)
180 -1.25 0.00 (-1.25,0)
210 -1.08 -0.63 (-1.08,-0.63)
240 -0.62 -1.08 (-0.62,-1.08)
270 0.00 -1.25 (0,-1.25)
300 0.63 -1.08 (0.63,-1.08)
330 1.08 -0.62 (1.08,-0.62)

The plot of above data table is

1.5
b
b b

b b

0 b b

b b

b b
b

−1.5
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

Solved Problem 0.146 Sketch the graph for parametric equations given by x =
2 cos θ and y = sin θ.

Solution To sketch the graph of the given parametric equations, we first

populate the data table as shown below.
0.3. SKETCH A FUNCTION 145

θ◦ x = 2 cos θ y = sin θ Coordinate

0 2.00 0.00 (2,0)
30 1.73 0.5. (1.73,0.5)
60 1.00 0.87 (1,0.87)
90 0.00 1.00 (0,1)
120 -1.00 0.87 (-1,0.87)
150 -1.73 0.50 (-1.73,0.5)
180 -2.00 0.00 (-2,0)
210 -1.73 -0.5. (-1.73,-0.5)
240 -1.00 -0.87 (-1,-0.87)
270 0.00 -1.00 (0,-1)
300 1.00 -0.86 (1,-0.86)
330 1.73 -0.50 (1.73,-0.5)

The plot of above data is

1.5

b
b b

b b

0 b b

b b

b b
b

−1.5
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

Solved Problem 0.147 Sketch the graph for parametric equations given by x =
cos θ and y = 1 + sin θ.
Solution To sketch the graph of the given parametric equations, we first
populate the data table as shown below.
146

θ◦ x = cos θ y = 1 + sin θ Coordinate

0 1.00 1.00 (1.00,1.00)
30 0.87 1.50 (0.87,1.05)
60 0.50 1.87 (0.50,1.87)
90 0.00 2.00 (0.00,2.00)
120 -0.50 1.87 (-0.50,1.87)
150 -0.87 1.50 (-0.87,1.50)
180 -1.00 1.00 (-1.00,1.00)
210 -0.87 0.50 (-0.87,0.50)
240 -0.50 0.13 (-0.50,0.13)
270 0.00 0.00 (0.00,0.00)
300 0.50 0.14 (0.50,0.14)
330 0.87 0.50 (0.87,0.50)

The plot of above data is

2 b
b b

b b

1 b b

b b

b b
0 b

−1
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

0.3.7 Polar Plot

A function in form of f (r, θ) is known as polar function. Here, r is radial
distance of a point and θ is angular displacement of that point from reference
axis. The position of point varies with r and θ. Polar plot is traces of positions
of these points. Reference axis is normally x−axis. θ has domain 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2nπ
where n is a positive integer. Actually, polar plot is identical image of plot for
0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π, this is why, n is called number of complete rotations of angle 360◦ .
See the following plot, in which function r = 1.5 sin θ is plotted in 0 ≤ θ ≤ 120◦ .
0.3. SKETCH A FUNCTION 147

90 90
b b
120 60 120 60
b b b b

150 1 30 150 1 30

b b

0 0
180 b 360 180 b 360
0 1 0 1

210 330 210 330

240 300 240 300

270 270

Polar points are drawn at θ = 0◦ , 30◦ , 60◦ , 90◦ and 120◦ . The radial distance
is measured by using relation r = 1.5 sin θ. These points are traces to find the
polar plot of function r = 1.5 sin θ in 0 ≤ θ ≤ 120◦ .

Solved Problem 0.148 Graph the polar function r = 2 + sin(θ).

Solution

Solved Problem 0.149 Graph the polar function r = θ + sin(θ).

Solution

Solved Problem 0.150 Graph the polar function r = cos(θ) sin(θ).

Solution

Solved Problem 0.151 Graph the polar function r = cos2 (θ) + sin(θ).

Solution

Solved Problem 0.152 Graph the polar function r = cos(2θ) sin(θ).

Solution

Solved Problem 0.153 Graph the polar function r = tan(2θ) tan(3θ).

Solution

Solved Problem 0.154 Graph the polar function r = sin(3θ) + cos(3θ).

Solution

Solved Problem 0.155 Graph the polar function r = sin2 (θ) + cos(θ).

Solution

Solved Problem 0.156 Graph the polar function r = sin2 (θ) + sin(θ).
148

Solution

Solved Problem 0.157 Graph the polar function r = sin2 (θ) cos(θ).

Solution

0.3.8 Limacon (Heart Like Shape)

A cardioid is a plane curve traced by a point on the perimeter of a circle that is
rolling around a fixed circle of the same radius. Fixed circle have the origin as
its center, and both circles having radius a, the cardioid is given by the following
parametric equations:
x = a(2 cos t − cos 2t)
y = a(2 sin t − sin 2t)
where t is the angle at the origin from the horizontal axis to the ray to a point
on the cardioid. In the complex plane this becomes
z = a(2eit − e2it )
Here a is the radius of the circles which generate the curve, and the fixed circle
is centered at the origin. The point generating the curve touches the fixed circle
at (a, 0), the cusp. The parameter t can be eliminated giving
(z z̄ − a2 )2 − 4a2 (z − a)(z̄ − a) = 0
or, in rectangular coordinates,
(x2 + y 2 − a2 )2 − 4a2 ((x − a)2 + y 2 ) = 0
These equations can be simplified somewhat by shifting the fixed circle to the
right a units and choosing the point on the rolling circle so that it touches the
fixed circle at the origin; this changes the orientation of the curve so that the
cusp is on the left. The parametric equations are then:
x = a(1 + 2 cos t + cos 2t)
y = a(2 sin t + sin 2t)
or, in the complex plane,
z = a(1 + 2eit + e2it ) = a(1 + eit )2
With the substitution u = tan (t/2),
1 + iu
eit =
1 − iu
giving a rational parameterization:
4a
z=
(1 − iu)2
0.3. SKETCH A FUNCTION 149

or
4a(1 − u2 )
x=
(1 + u2 )2
8au
y=
(1 + u2 )2
The parametrization can also be written
z = eit 2a(1 + cos t)
and in this form it is apparent that the equation for this cardioid may be written
in polar coordinates as
r = 2a(1 + cos θ)
where θ replaces the parameter t. This can also be written
θ
r = 4a cos2
2
which implies that the curve is a member of the family of sinusoidal spirals. In
Cartesian coordinates, the equation for this cardioid is

2
x2 + y 2 − 2ax = 4a2 x2 + y 2

Using polar curve traced by any of the relations given below

r = a ± b sin θ
r = a ± b cos θ
are known as limacon. There are three cases in which different types of limacons
are traced.
a
If   < 1: In this case a < b and when cos θ or sin θ is maximum negative
 
b
then a − b < 0 and there will be an inner loop inside the limacon. Here radius
may change from positive to negative to positive within the domain of [0, 2π].
At the angle value when radius is zero is called critical value. Zero crossing is
state when radius value is changes from positive to negative or vice-versa.

1 1 1

−1 −1 −1
−3 −1 1 3 −3 −1 1 3 −3 −1 1 3

Figure 18: From left to right, plot of polar function r = 2+4 sin θ. This function
suffers zero crossing twice. One at θ = 7π/6 and θ = 11π/6.

a
If 1 <   < 2: In this case a > b and when cos θ or sin θ is maximum
 
b
negative then a − b > 0. There will be a dimple in the limacon.
a
If   ≥ 2: In this case a > b and when cos θ or sin θ is negative then
 
b
a − b > b. There will be a convex limacon.
150

0.3.9 Cardioid (Heart Shape)

a 
If  = 1: Assume a = b. When cos θ or sin θ is maximum negatively then
 
b
a − b = 0. i.e. the radial length of curve is zero. In this case, there will be a
heartlike shape.

Solved Problem 0.158 Draw data table of limacon r = 2 + 3 cos θ for domain
[0, 2π].

Solution For this given problem, a = 2 and b = +3. Relation |a/b| < 1.
When cos θ is maximum negative, the radius will be in negative. Meaning of
the term ”negative polar axis” is that the radius value shall cross the zero (zero
crossing). This zero crossing of the radius axis produce an inner loop in the
sketch. The data table of this polar function within the given domain [0, 2π] is
given below:

θ r = 2 + 3 cos θ (r, θ) θ r = 2 + 3 cos θ (r, θ)

0.00 5.00 (5.00, 0.00) 3.25 -0.98 (-0.98, 3.25)
0.25 4.91 (4.91, 0.25) 3.50 -0.81 (-0.81, 3.50)
0.50 4.63 (4.63, 0.50) 3.75 -0.46 (-0.46, 3.75)
0.75 4.20 (4.20, 0.75) 4.00 0.04 (0.04, 4.00)
1.00 3.62 (3.62, 1.00) 4.25 0.66 (0.66, 4.25)
1.25 2.95 (2.95, 1.25) 4.50 1.37 (1.37, 4.50)
1.50 2.21 (2.21, 1.50) 4.75 2.11 (2.11, 4.75)
1.75 1.47 (1.47, 1.75) 5.00 2.85 (2.85, 5.00)
2.00 0.75 (0.75, 2.00) 5.25 3.54 (3.54, 5.25)
2.25 0.12 (0.12, 2.25) 5.50 4.13 (4.13, 5.50)
2.50 -0.40 (-0.40, 2.50) 5.75 4.58 (4.58, 5.75)
2.75 -0.77 (-0.77, 2.75) 6.00 4.88 (4.88, 6.00)
3.00 -0.97 (-0.97, 3.00) 6.25 5.00 (5.00, 6.25)

Now the plot of this data will be looked like as given below.
4 4 4 4 4

0 0 0 0 0

−4 −4 −4 −4 −4
−2 2 6 −2 2 6 −2 2 6 −2 2 6 −2 2 6

Figure 19: From left to right, plot of polar function r = 2 + 3 cos θ in the radian
domain of [0, 2], [0, 3], [0, 4], [0, 6] and [0, 6.28].
 0.3. SKETCH A FUNCTION 151

Solved Problem 0.159 Draw data table of limacon r = 4 + 3 sin θ for domain
[0, 2π].

Solution For this given problem, a = 4 and b = +3. Here, 1 < |a/b| < 2.
Even if sin θ is maximum negative, the radius shall be always positive (no zero
crossing). Hence there will be a dimple in the sketch of the polar function. The
dimple shall not pass through the origin. The data table of this polar function
within the given domain [0, 2π] is given below:

θ r (r, θ) θ r (r, θ)
0.0 4.0 (0.0,4.0) 3.40 3.23 (3.4,3.23)
0.2 4.6 (0.2,4.6) 3.60 2.67 (3.6,2.67)
0.4 5.2 (0.4,5.2) 3.80 2.16 (3.8,2.16)
0.6 5.7 (0.6,5.7) 4.00 1.73 (4.0,1.73)
0.8 6.2 (0.8,6.2) 4.20 1.39 (4.2,1.39)
1.0 6.5 (1.0,6.5) 4.40 1.15 (4.4,1.15)
1.2 6.8 (1.2,6.8) 4.60 1.02 (4.6,1.02)
1.4 7.0 (1.4,7.0) 4.80 1.01 (4.8,1.01)
1.6 7.0 (1.6,7.0) 5.00 1.12 (5.0,1.12)
1.8 6.9 (1.8,6.9) 5.20 1.35 (5.2,1.35)
2.0 6.7 (2,6.7.0) 5.40 1.68 (5.4,1.68)
2.2 6.4 (2.2,6.4) 5.60 2.11 (5.6,2.11)
2.4 6.0 (2.4,6.0) 5.80 2.61 (5.8,2.61)
2.6 5.5 (2.6,5.5) 6.00 3.16 (6.0,3.16)
2.8 5.0 (2.8,5.0) 6.20 3.75 (6.2,3.75)
3.0 4.4 (3,4.4.0) 6.40 4.35 (6.4,4.35)
3.2 3.8 (3.2,3.8) 6.60 4.93 (6.6,4.93)

Now the plot of this data will be looked like as given below.

6 6 6 6

2 2 2 2

−2 −2 −2 −2
−6 −2 2 6 −6 −2 2 6 −6 −2 2 6 −6 −2 2 6

Figure 20: From left to right, plot of polar function r = 4 + 3 sin θ in the radian
domain of [0, 2], [0, 4], [0, 6] and [0, 6.28].
 152

Solved Problem 0.160 Draw data table of limacon r = 3 + 3 sin θ for domain
[0, 2π].

Solution For this given problem, a = 3 and b = +3. Here, |a/b| = 1.

When sin θ is maximum negative, the radius will be zero (no zero crossing yet).
Hence there will be a dimple in the sketch of the polar function. This dimple
only touch the origin but never cross the origin. The data table of this polar
function within the given domain [0, 2π] is given below:

θ r (r, θ) θ r (r, θ)
0.0 3.0 (0.0,3.0) 3.40 2.23 (3.4,2.23)
0.2 3.6 (0.2,3.6) 3.60 1.67 (3.6,1.67)
0.4 4.2 (0.4,4.2) 3.80 1.16 (3.8,1.16)
0.6 4.7 (0.6,4.7) 4.00 0.73 (4.0,0.73)
0.8 5.2 (0.8,5.2) 4.20 0.39 (4.2,0.39)
1.0 5.5 (1.0,5.5) 4.40 0.15 (4.4,0.15)
1.2 5.8 (1.2,5.8) 4.60 0.02 (4.6,0.02)
1.4 6.0 (1.4,6.0) 4.80 0.01 (4.8,0.01)
1.6 6.0 (1.6,6.0) 5.00 0.12 (5.0,0.12)
1.8 5.9 (1.8,5.9) 5.20 0.35 (5.2,0.35)
2.0 5.7 (2.0,5.7) 5.40 0.68 (5.4,0.68)
2.2 5.4 (2.2,5.4) 5.60 1.11 (5.6,1.11)
2.4 5.0 (2.4,5.0) 5.80 1.61 (5.8,1.61)
2.6 4.5 (2.6,4.5) 6.00 2.16 (6.0,2.16)
2.8 4.0 (2.8,4.0) 6.20 2.75 (6.2,2.75)
3.0 3.4 (3,3.4.0) 6.40 3.35 (6.4,3.35)
3.2 2.8 (3.2,2.8) 6.60 3.93 (6.6,3.93)

Now the plot of this data will be looked like as given below.

6 6 6 6

2 2 2 2

−2 −2 −2 −2
−6 −2 2 6 −6 −2 2 6 −6 −2 2 6 −6 −2 2 6

Figure 21: From left to right, plot of polar function r = 3 + 3 sin θ in the radian
domain of [0, 2], [0, 4], [0, 6] and [0, 6.28].
 0.4. INEQUALITIES 153

0.3.10 Rose Curves

Rose curves or petal curve are traced by relation given below.

r = a sin nθ

Here n never equals to zero. As argument contains an even coefficient (n), hence
the entire curve is generated as θ increases from 0 to 2π. Hence the curve has
2n loops. Similarly, if argument contains an odd coefficient (n), then the entire
curve is generated as θ increases from 0 to π and curve has n loops.

Solved Problem 0.161 Draw data table of rose curve r = 2 sin 3θ for domain
[0, 2π].

Solution If this polar function forms a complete close loop then radius
vector shall return to initial position at least once. The initial radius vector is
zero when θ is zero. Radius vector will be zero when argument of trigonometric
function is equals to π. Now the second consecutive value of domain is 3θ = π
and it gives θ = π/3. It means first loop will be formed inside the domain of
argument θ between [0, π/3].

1 1 1 1

−1 −1 −1 −1

−3 −3 −3 −3
−3 −1 1 3 −3 −1 1 3 −3 −1 1 3 −3 −1 1 3

Figure 22: From left to right, plot of polar function r = 2 sin 3θ in the radian
domain of [0, 1], [1, 2], [2, 3] and [3, 4].

Similarly, second loop will be formed when θ is inside the domain of [π/3, 2π/3].
Next domain of θ for the third loop is [2π/3, π]. Other loops are replicas of the
initial three loops when domain of θ increased above π.

0.4 Inequalities
Inequality is antonyms of equality. Any mathematical relation that contains
“equal” sign is called exact (deterministic) relation. For example,

a+b=k

is exact or deterministic relation. A mathematical relation that contains “in-

equal” sign (any one of <, >, ≤, ≥ etc) is called probabilistic relation (simply
154

inequality). For example,

a+b≤k
is probabilistic relation. In this section, we will discuss the “inequality” relations
and their properties. An inequality is a statement about the relative size or order
of two objects, or about whether they are the same or not. For example
1. The notation a < b means that a is lesser than b.
2. The notation a > b means that a is greater than b.
3. The notation a = b means that a is equal to b.
In each above statement, a is not equal to b. These relations are known as strict
inequalities. The notation a < b may also be read as “a is strictly fewer than b”.
In contrast to strict inequalities, there are two types of inequality statements
that are not strict:
1. The notation a ≤ b means that a is either lesser than or equal to b.
2. The notation a ≥ b means that a is either greater than or equal to b.
In absolute inequality, a ≤ b (a ≥ b) does not hold simultaneously. For example,
we have a = 2, b = 2 and c = 3, inequality a ≤ b has only condition a = b true
and a ≮ b. Similarly for b ≤ c, only condition b < c is true and b 6= c. So, either
of the two conditions only one is true. There may be either a < b or a = b. An
additional use of the notation is to show that one quantity is much greater than
another, normally by several orders of magnitude.
1. The notation a << b means that a is much fewer than b.
2. The notation a >> b means that a is much greater than b.
If the sense of the inequality is the same for all values of the variables for
which its members are defined, then the inequality is called an “absolute” or
“unconditional” inequality. If the sense of an inequality holds only for certain
values of the variables involved, but is reversed or destroyed for other values of
the variables, it is called a conditional inequality. These inequalities are true in
absolute terms. For example, if a = 2, b = 3 and c = 4, then a < b and b < c,
therefore a < c as 2 is smaller than 4. These inequalities are not applied straight
if a, b and c are sets. For example, if a = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, b = {3, 7, 9, 15}
and c = {4, 5, 8, 12, 16} are three sets then a < b can not be applied randomly.
Comparison in sets is carried out about minimum and maximum element values.
For example, if a < b, then largest element of a should be less than the smallest
element of b. If it not true, then inequality is wrong. In other words, the sets
should have only those elements for which each and every possible method of
extraction of elements does not violate the inequality condition. For the case of
exactly equal, say =, the two sets are equal if their size and elements are exactly
same. If this condition is applied between two sets then “inequality” converts
to “equality”.
0.4. INEQUALITIES 155

Solved Problem 0.162 Given P = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, Q = {3, 7, 9, 15} and R =

{4, 5, 8, 12, 16}. Do inequality P < Q, P < R and Q < R hold?

Solution
1. In first case, P < Q, the maximum element of P is 8 and minimum
element of Q is 3. As 8 > 3, therefore, inequality P < Q does not hold.
2. In second case, P < R, the maximum element of P is 8 and minimum
element of R is 4. As 8 > 4, therefore, inequality P < R does not hold.
3. In third case, Q < R, the maximum element of Q is 15 and minimum
element of R is 4. As 15 > 4, therefore, inequality Q < R does not hold.

Solved Problem 0.163 Given P = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, Q = {3, 7, 9, 15} and R =

{4, 5, 8, 12, 16}. You can create subsets, p, q and r from the sets P , Q and R
respectively. Now, find the subsets for which inequality p < q and p ≤ r holds
independently.
Solution We have p ⊂ P , q ⊂ Q and r ⊂ R.
1. For inequality p < q, largest element of subset p should be less than
smallest element of subset q. So, the subsets p and q are p = {2} and q =
{3, 7, 9, 15}. We can construct other subsets for different elements that holds
less than inequality. Other subsets are p = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} and q = {9, 15}.
2. For inequality p ≤ r, largest element of subset p should be less than and
equal to smallest element of subset q. So, the subsets p and q are p = {2, 3}
and q = {3, 7, 9, 15}. We can construct other subsets for different elements that
holds less than and equal to inequality. Other subsets are p = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
and q = {7, 9, 15}.
You can construct other subsets p and q those holds the conditions of given
inequalities.

Solved Problem 0.164 Given P = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, Q = {3, 7, 9, 15} and R =

{4, 5, 8, 12, 16}. You can create subsets, p, q and r from the sets P , Q and R
respectively. Now, find the subsets for which inequality p = q and p > r holds
together.
Solution As both cases should be hold together, hence subsets p ⊂ P ,
q ⊂ Q and r ⊂ R will be constructed by considering both inequalities.
Case p = q For this equality, subset p and subset q should have equal and
same elements. So,
p = {3, 7}
q = {3, 7}
156

Case p > r For this inequality, then smallest element of p should be greater
than the largest element of r. So, elements of r should be less than 3. So,

r = {} = φ

Solved Problem 0.165 Given P = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, Q = {3, 7, 9, 15} and R =

{4, 5, 8, 12, 16}. You can create subsets, p, q and r from the sets P , Q and R
respectively. Now, find the subsets for which inequality p < q ≤ r holds.
Solution The subsets p ⊂ P , q ⊂ Q and r ⊂ R are constructed. Let the
subset p is
p = {2, 3, 4}
For p < q, subset q is
q = {7, 9}
The subset p ≤ r, we have subset

r = {12, 16}

These are subset which obey set inequalities. We can construct other set of
subsets which obey the given inequality.

(x − 3)
Solved Problem 0.166 Find the domain of x for which f (x) = is
x(x − 1)
positive.

Solution If the given function is positive, then f (x) > 0, i.e.

(x − 3)
>0
x(x − 1)
The function does not exist at

x(x − 1) 6= 0 ⇒ x 6= 0; x 6= 1

It means these points can not be included in the domain of x. Function is zero
when x − 3 = 0, i.e. x = 3.
1. When x < 0 then numerator is negative and denominator is positive,
hence function is negative side of y-axis, i.e. below the x-axis.
2. When 0 < x < 1, then numerator and denominator both are negative,
hence function is positive side of y-axis, i.e. above the x-axis.
3. When 1 < x < 3, numerator is negative and denominator is positive,
hence function is negative side of y-axis, i.e. below the x-axis.
4. When x > 3, both numerator and denominator are positive, hence
function is positive side of y-axis, i.e. above the x-axis.
0.4. INEQUALITIES 157
16 1.0

(x − 3)
8 f (x) = 0.5
x(x − 1)

0 0

(x − 3)
−8 −0.5 f (x) =
x(x − 1)

−16 −1
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6

Thus function is positive for x ∈ (0, 1) ∪ [3, ∞).

0.4.1 Properties of Inequalities

Inequalities are governed by the following properties.

Transitivity
The transitivity of inequalities states for any real numbers, a, b and c then
1. If a > b and b > c, then a > c.
2. If a < b and b < c, then a < c.
3. If a > b and b = c, then a > c.
4. If a < b and b = c, then a < c.
Sometimes transitivity is written in compact form. For example, if a > b and
b > c then both inequality can be written as a > b > c. From the principle
of transitivity, a > c. Transitivity is not applicable if relation is not linear or
sequential. For example, if a > b and b < c then a < c or a > c shall never
true. Therefore, inequality relations, like a > b < c or a < b > c, has never true
transitive relations.

Solved Problem 0.167 Given P = {8, 9, 10}, Q = {3, 7, 9, 15} and R =

{16, 22, 45, 55}. You can create subsets, p, q and r from the sets P , Q and
R respectively. Now, find the subsets for which inequality p > q < r holds.
Solution The relation p > q < r is not linear, hence transitive relation
can not be proved for it. So, we shall get the subsets in such method that the
inequality relation is true for individual relations, i.e. p > q and q < r. For first
case, the subset (X) is
X = {3, 7}
For second relation
X = {3, 7, 9, 15}
158

For common relation, i.e. p > q < r, only common elements in both cases shall
be taken. So, for inequality relation p > q < r, we have subset (X)

X = {3, 7}

This is result.

Addition and subtraction

The properties that deal with addition and subtraction state for any real num-
bers, a, b and c
1. If a < b then a + c < b + c and a − c < b − c.
2. If a > b then a + c > b + c and a − c > b − c.

Multiplication and Division

The properties that deal with multiplication and division state for any real
numbers, a, b and c
1. If c is positive number and a < b then ac < bc and a/c < b/c.
2. If c is negative number and a < b then ac > bc, then a/c > b/c.
More generally this applies for an ordered field.

Additive inverse
In additive inverse state for any real numbers, a and b, are in relation a > b. If
−1 is multiplied both side of the inequality relation, the inequality relation is
inverse. i.e. −a < −b. Similarly, if a < b then −a > −b.

x −x + 4
Solved Problem 0.168 Solve the inequality > .
3 6
Solution Given inequality is
x −x + 4
>
3 6
Applying cross multiplication

6x > −3x + 12

Or
−12 > −9x
Multiplying both side by −1.
12 < 9x
Or x should be greater than 4/3.
0.4. INEQUALITIES 159

Multiplicative Inverse
The properties for the multiplicative inverse state for any non-zero real numbers
a and b that are
Both Positive or Both Negative
I If a < b then 1/a > 1/b.
II If a > b then 1/a < 1/b.
Either a or b Negative
I If a < b then 1/a < 1/b.
II If a > b then 1/a > 1/b.

1 x
Solved Problem 0.169 Solve the inequality > .
2 4
Solution The given inequality is
1 x
>
2 4
Applying cross multiplication
1 1
>
x 2
Applying multiplicative inverse
x<2
Hence the value of ‘x’ should be less than ‘2’ for the given inequality.

0.4.2 Chained Notation

Chained notion of inequality relation is given among more than two variables
or numbers under inequality conditions. For example, a < b < c is a chained
notion of statements a < b and b < c. Other chained notation, for example
purposes, is a1 < b1 < c1 ≤ d1 . Representation of chained notation depends
on the set of statements of inequality relations. Mixed type of chained notation
contains more than one type of inequality symbol, i.e. chained notation is used
with inequalities in different directions. For example, we have two inequality
statements a < b and b > c. For these two statements, mixed type of chained
notation will be like a < b > c.

0.4.3 Sign Concept

We have encounter frequently with problems which are like x2 = a. Generally
√
we solve it by taking square root both side and answer got like x = ± a. Is it
true? In my view, it is false. How? See. The given relation is
x2 = a
160

We have constant a and variable x. To satisfy this equation, we shall put value
of x in the given equation. Therefore, x may be positive or negative value, i.e.
√ √
(− a)2 = a; ( a)2 = a

Here, plus or minus sign is with x not with a for the given equation. So, solution
of the given equation should be
√
±x = a

Now, find the values of x by transferring sign in right hand side. Take a = 4,
then we have ±x = 2. The sign may be transferred right hand side by using
sign transferring rule. Here possible solution be x = ±2. See the numberline

(−2)2
(+2)2
b bc b b b bc b b b

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
√
pNote that if we are given to find the square root of a term directly, i.e. 4
or 1 − sin2 x etc then we always take positive square root value of the given
problem. Positive and negative square roots are considered when there is square
root under the algebraic solutions. This concept can be verify using inequality.
Let
x2 − 1 < 0

1. This can be solved as

x2 < 1 ⇒ ±x < 1

Solving it separately, we get

+x < 1; −x < 1 ⇒ x > −1

2. Other solution may be

x2 < 1 ⇒ x < ±1

Solving it separately, we get

x < +1; x < −1

Now we check this solution using graph

0.4. INEQUALITIES 161

bc bc
x
−2 −1 1

−1

This shows that first method of finding solution is more appropriate.

0.4.4 Interval Notion In Inequality

The inequalities are expressed by using interval notation. For example (a, ∞)
refers to the interval of all real numbers greater than a. Left hand parenthesis (
denotes that value a is not to be included and right hand parenthesis ) indicates
that end values are not included. Again in [a, ∞], left and right hand paren-
thesis indicates that end values are included. End values which are included
are denoted by solid dots. End values which are not included are denoted by
circular dot.

Table 17: Notation of end points.

Set Graph Interval Notation
a x
x>a bc (a, ∞)
a x
x≥a b [a, ∞)
x b
x<b bc (−∞, b)
x b
x≤b b (−∞, b]

Answer Set
In inequality, answer set is a group of those values which are solutions of variable
of the given inequality. For example, for given inequality 0 < x < 3 where x ∈ I
has only two solutions, i.e. x = 1 and x = 2. These two solutions satisfy the
inequality relation. So, solution set or answer set of x is

x = {1, 2}

Note that, here, x is an integer type data. If it is a real type number, then there
are infinite numbers of solutions for the given inequality. In this case, solution
set (S) is represented by set builder form as

S = {x : x ∈ R, where 0 < x < 2}

162

x−2
Solved Problem 0.170 Solved the inequality 1.5 ≤ ≤ 2 and denote solu-
3
tions in answer set form. Take (i) x ∈ R and (ii) x ∈ I.

Solution The given inequality is

x−2
1.5 ≤ ≤2
3
Or
4.5 ≤ x − 2 ≤ 6 ⇒ 6.5 ≤ x ≤ 8

1. If x ∈ R then answer set is

S = {x : x ∈ R, where 6.5 ≤ x ≤ 8}

2. If x ∈ I then there is only integer solution and it is x = 7. Now, answer

set is given by x = {7}.

For Real Numbers

All positive or negative real values are called real numbers, i.e. 1, 2, 2.5, −3.125
and so on are real numbers. Consider an inequality x < 2 where x ∈ R. In this
inequality, value of x is less than 2. It means x is any real value, either whole
integers or fractions or decimals that is ranging between −∞ to 2 (excluding
end values). These values of x are represent in number line by a line, joining
these two open end points6 .

bc

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

Similarly inequality −2 < x < 2 where x ∈ R is represent in number line by

a line, joining these two open ends points.

bc bc

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

Here line drawn between two limits represents all values even if they are
very small differences, like 1.0000001 and 1.0000002, and so on. When solution
values are very close, the answer dots in number line, look a like to a solid line.
Solid dot represents to the solution of x, while hollow dot represents to the limit
of x but not the part of the solution of x.
6
Open end points are the limits of answer values of inequality variable (x say) and these
end points are part of element of answer set of x
0.4. INEQUALITIES 163

For Integers
Integers are positive and negative real whole numbers. For example, 0, ±1, ±2,
. . . are integers. Consider an inequality x < 2 where x ∈ I. In this inequality,
value of x is less than 2. It means x shall be any integer value that is ranging
between −∞ to 2 (excluding end values). As the fraction values of x are not
integers, hence only integer solutions of x are represented in the number line.

b b b b b b

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

Similarly inequality −2 < x < 2 where x ∈ I is represent in number line by

a line, joining these two open ends points.

b b b

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

0.4.5 Compound Statements

In compound statements and and or mechanism is used. For example
1. 1 + 2 = 3 and −1 < 0 is true.
2. 1 + 2 = 3 and −1 > 0 is false.
3. 1 < 3 or 1 > 0 is true.
4. 1 < 3 or 1 < 0 is false.
From set algebra, intersection of two sets A and B is the set of all elements that
are in both A and B. Using set builder notation

A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

Union of two sets A and B is the set of all elements that are in A or B. Using
set builder notation

A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}

Set Graph Notation

a<x<b bc bc (a, b)
a≤x<b b bc [a, b)
a<x≤b bc b (a, b]
a≤x≤b b b [a, b]

Table 18: Notation of two end points.

164

0.4.6 Linear Inequality

Suppose we have an inequality relation as a ≤ f (x) ≤ b, where f (x) is linear
function. To solve this inequality we construct sub functions as

a ≤ f (x); f (x) ≤ b

On solving these sub functions we have x ≥ A and x ≤ B where A < B then

the domain of inequality is the common points of x represented by these two
inequality solutions. For first case
A
b

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

For second case

B b

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Inequality domain of given inequality function is common points of these

two sub inequality function. So
A B
b b

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

0.4.7 Quadratic Inequality

Suppose we have a quadratic inequality ax2 +bx+c ≤ 0. To solve this inequality,
we first make highest degree term positive by multiplying by −1, if it is negative,
then quadratic equation is written in factors form.

(x ± A)(x ± B) ≤ 0

Left hand side is less than or equal to zero. It means product of these two
factors is negative at every inequality domain. This happens when either (i)
(x ± A) is positive and (x ± B) is negative, or (ii) (x ± A) is negative and (x ± B)
is positive. Thus we get two pairs of domain of inequality. Now by observing
inequality in the domain, we can get the required inequality domain for which
the inequality is satisfied. If quadratic inequality is ax2 + bx + c ≥ 0 then

(x ± A)(x ± B) ≥ 0

This condition is true, if either (i) (x ± A) and (x ± B) are negative, or (ii)

(x ± A) and (x ± B) are positive.

Solved Problem 0.171 Solve inequality 3(2x − 1) < 8x − 7 and draw points in
number line.
Solution The given inequality is 3(2x − 1) < 8x − 7. On simplification, it
gives
−2x < −4
0.4. INEQUALITIES 165

Dividing both side by 2

−x < −2
Multiplying −1 both side, which givens x > 2. In the number line

bc

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Solved Problem 0.172 Graph inequalities x > −1 and x < 5 in number-line.

Solution According the question, value of x is greater than −1 but it is
less than 5. x is open at both end. So, the graph of inequalities may be plotted
in numberline as given below:

bc bc

−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Solved Problem 0.173 Solve the equation and represent the x in number-line
for quadratic equation x2 − 3x + 2 < 0.

Solution The given inequality is x2 − 3x + 2 < 0. It can be solved as

(x − 1)(x − 2) < 0
Left hand has two factors. The product of factor shall be less than zero, if one
is positive and other is negative. So, (i) when x − 1 < 0 then x − 2 > 0 and
(ii) when x − 1 > 0 then x − 2 < 0. So, the given conditions are (i) x < 1 and
x > 2 or (ii) x > 1 and x < 2. The first case does not satisfy the inequality
while second case satisfy the inequality.

bc bc

0 1 2 3

Plot of this inequality is given below:

x
1 2

Figure 23: Plot of inequality x2 − 3x + 2 < 0.

166

Solved Problem 0.174 Solve the equation and represent the x in number-line
for quadratic equation 2x2 + 7x + 3 < 0.

Solution The given equation is 2x2 + 7x + 3 < 0. Solving it, we have

(2x + 1)(x + 3) < 0

Left hand has two factors. The product of factor shall be less than zero, if one
is positive and other is negative. So, (i) when 2x + 1 < 0 then x + 3 > 0 and (ii)
when 2x + 1 > 0 then x + 3 < 0. So, the given conditions are (i) x < −0.5 and
x > −3 or (ii) x > −0.5 and x < −3. The first case satisfy the inequality while
second case does not satisfy the inequality. The number line representation of
x is shown in figure ??.

bc bc

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1

Figure 24: Numberline representation of x for inequality 2x2 + 7x + 3 < 0.

The inequality plot is shown below:

x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1

Figure 25: Plot of inequality 2x2 + 7x + 3 < 0.

Solved Problem 0.175 Find the set in interval notation and draw graph for
solution of given set of equations x ≥ −2 and x ≤ 2.
Solution The two sets of equations are x ≥ −2 and x ≤ 2. All values of x
lines in [−2, 2]. The graph of values of x in shown in figure ??.

b b

−2 −1 0 1 2

Figure 26: Numberline representation of x for inequality x ≥ −2 and x ≤ 2.

0.4. INEQUALITIES 167

Solved Problem 0.176 Solve the conjunction −1 ≤ x − 3 ≤ 5 by using compact

form and show the solutions in the interval notation in number line.
Solution The given conjuncture is

−1 ≤ x − 3 ≤ 5 ⇒ 2 ≤ x ≤ 8

The domain of inequality is shown below:

b b

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Figure 27: Numberline representation of x for inequality −1 ≤ x − 3 ≤ 5.

Solved Problem 0.177 Solve the conjunction −4 ≤ 3 − x ≤ 4 by using compact

form and show the solutions in the interval notation in number line.
Solution The given conjucture is

−4 ≤ 3 − x ≤ 4 ⇒ −7 ≤ −x ≤ 1

On multiplication by −1 in all terms of inequality, we have

7 ≥ x ≥ −1

The domain of inequality is shown below:

b b

−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Figure 28: Numberline representation of x for inequality −4 ≤ 3 − x ≤ 4.

Solved Problem 0.178 Find the values of x for which the inequality x2 −4x+3 ≥
0 is true.
Solution The given inequality is

x2 − 4x + 3 ≥ 0

Solving quadratic equation, we have

(x − 3)(x − 1) ≥ 0

This is true if either both x − 3 and x − 1 are either positive or negative. So,
Both Positive In this case x − 3 ≥ 0 and x − 1 ≥ 0 and it gives x ≥ 3 and
x ≥ 1. The common points in this case are x ≥ 3.
168

Both Negative In this case x − 3 ≤ 0 and x − 1 ≤ 0 and it gives x ≤ 3 and

x ≤ 1. The common points in this case are x ≤ 1. So, the given inequality is
true when x ∈ (−∞, 1] ∪ [3, ∞). The numberline and plot is given below:

b b

−1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 29: Numberline representation of x for inequality x2 − 4x + 3 ≥ 0.

x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 30: Plot of inequality x2 − 4x + 3 ≥ 0.

Solved Problem 0.179 Find the domain of x for the inequality given by

y − 4y 2 + 3 ≥ 0

Solution The given inequality is

y − 4y 2 + 3 ≥ 0

The critical points of the function are found when

4y 2 − y − 3 ≤ 0

Or
(4y + 3)(y − 1) ≤ 0
The inequality is less than zero, if either of both terms at left hand side are
negative. So 4y + 3 < 0 and y − 1 > 0 or 4y + 3 > 0 and y − 1 < 0. Now, we
have
3
y<− ; y>1
4
This domain of x satisfied the inequality while
3
y>− ; y<1
4
0.4. INEQUALITIES 169

does not satisfied to inequality.

x
−1 1

−1

Figure 31: Plot of y − 4y 2 + 3 ≥ 0.

Hence, inequality y − 4y 2 + 3 ≥ 0 is true when x < −3/4 or x > 1

Solved Problem 0.180 Solve and show the solution set in number line of given
inequality
(x + 2)(x − 3) > (x + 1)(x − 1)

Solution The given inequality is

(x + 2)(x − 3) > (x + 1)(x − 1)

On simplification of this inequality, we have

−x − 6 > −1

Solution set of x is x < −5, which is shown in the number line in below figure.

bc

−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0

Solved Problem 0.181 Find the region enclosed by the following inequalities.

y > 0; x>0

Solution The inequality, y > 0 encloses region above the x-axis. While,
inequality x > 0 encloses region right of the y-axis. So the enclosed region is
first quadrant of the two dimensional xy-plane.
170

y y

1 1

x x
−2 −1 1 −2 −1 1

−1 −1

Solved Problem 0.182 Find the region enclosed by the following inequalities.

y = 1; x − y < 0; y − 3x < 0

Solution There are three inequality equations. The enclosed region is

between the three curves. The first equality is

y=1

which represents the line y = 1. Similarly, the second inequality equation

x−y <0

represents a line of all coordinates for which x is less than y, i.e. slope is > 45◦ .
This inequality represents region left side of the line. The third inequality
equation is
y − 3x < 0
represents a line of all coordinates for which y is less than 3x, i.e. slope is
m = 3. This inequality represents region right side of the line. The plot of three
inequalities are given in first part of below figure:

y y
2 2
x−y <0

1 y=1 1

x x
−1 1 2 −1 1 2

−1 −1

y − 3x < 0
0.4. INEQUALITIES 171

Solved Problem 0.183 Find the region enclosed by a line and a circle as given
by inequalities.
y < 1; x2 + y 2 < 4

Solution There are two inequality equations. The enclosed region is be-
tween the two curves. The first equality is

y<1

which represents the region below the line y = 1. Similarly, the second inequality
equation
x2 + y 2 < 4
represents to a circle of radius 2 and this inequality represents to the region
inside the circle. The common region is shown in the figure below:
y y
2 2

1 1

x x
−2 −1 1 2 −2 −1 1 2

−1 −1

−2 −2

p
Solved Problem 0.184 Find the domain of f (x) = (x − 3)(5 − x).
p
Solution The given function is f (x) = (x − 3)(5 − x). The domain of
the x are those values for which function f (x) is real, i.e. f (x) has no imaginary
value. For this (x − 3)(5 − x) ≥ 0. So,

(x − 3)(5 − x) ≥ 0

If x − 3 ≥ 0 then x ≥ 3. If 5 − x ≥ 0, then x ≤ 5. So the values of x should be

in the domain of 3 ≤ x ≤ 5. Hence it is the domain of x.

Solved Problem 0.185 In day and night time the temperature in Celsius range
varies from 12◦ C to 20◦ C. Find the temperature range in Fahrenheit degree.
Solution
172

0.4.8 Quotients and Absolute Inequalities

Inequality given in quotient form is known as quotient inequality. For example

f (x)
<k
g(x)

involves the quotient inequality. Absolute value of a real number is given by


a if a ≥ 0
|a| =
−a if a < 0

There are common points which should be remember while solving the inequal-
ity.
1. If highest degree terms of numerator and denominator are negative then
they should be made positive by suitable multiplication of −1.
2. If under the conditions, numerator and denominator gives same relation
for variable, then the domain of variable is always taken from minimum
or maximum value. For example, if x < a for numerator and x < b for
denominator then domain of x will be started from the value of x that is
least. The same is applicable for ‘greater than’ relation.
3. If inequality is positive then both numerator and denominator should be
either positive or negative. If function is in form of

f (x)
≥ ±k
g(x)

Then it should be rearranged as

f (x) f (x) ± kg(x)

±k ≥0⇒ ≥0
g(x) g(x)

Now this new inequality shall be solved as explained above.

4. If inequality is negative then denominator must be positive and numerator
should be negative. Only common values of x are the required domain
of the inequality. If function is in form of

f (x)
≤ ±k
g(x)

Then it should be rearranged as

f (x) f (x) ± kg(x)

±k ≤0⇒ ≤0
g(x) g(x)

Now this new inequality shall be solved as explained above.

0.4. INEQUALITIES 173

5. In modulus quotient functions, the points for conditions are obtained by

squaring both sides of the inequality. For example the points of conditions
of the inequality  
 f (x) 
 g(x)  ≤ k
 

are obtained by solving the above inequality by squaring and simplifying

like
 f (x) 2
 
2
 g(x)  = k
 

After getting the points, we check the domain for x for which the quotient
modulus function met the condition.

−3x + 1
Solved Problem 0.186 Solve inequality > 4 and draw the points in
2
number-line.
−3x + 1
Solution The given inequality is > 4. On simplification, it gives
2
−3x + 1 > 8

Or
−3x > 7
Multiplying −1 both side, which givens x < 7/3. In the number line

bc

−1 0 1 2 3

x−4 x−2 5
Solved Problem 0.187 Solve inequality relation − ≤ .
6 9 18
Solution The given inequality is
x−4 x−2 5
− ≤
6 9 18
Simplifying it by multiplying both side by 3
x−4 x−2 5
− ≤
2 3 6
Multiplying both side by 6

3x − 12 − 2x + 4 ≤ 5

Or
x−8≤5
174

It gives x ≤ 13. Plot of the inequality function is shown below:

0.5
5/18
b

−2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

−0.5

x−4 x−2 5
Figure 32: Plot of − ≤ .
6 9 18

x−3
Solved Problem 0.188 Find the values of x for which the inequality ≥0
x−6
is true.
Solution The given inequality is
x−3
≥0
x−6
This conditions is satisfied, if x − 6 6= 0. The inequality is true when either
both numerator and denominators are positive or both are negative. So, if both
numerator and denominator are positive then x > 6 and x > 3. The common
points are lies when x > 6. If both numerator and denominator are negative
then x < 6 and x < 3. The common points lies in x < 3.

x
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6

x−3
Figure 33: Plot of ≥ 0.
x−6

x−3
Hence, the inequality ≥ 0 is true when x < 3 or x > 6.
x−6

Solved Problem 0.189 Find the values of x for which the inequality
(3 − x)(x + 2)
≥ 0 is true.
x−4
0.4. INEQUALITIES 175

Solution The given inequality is

(3 − x)(x + 2)
≥0
x−4
This conditions is satisfied, if x − 4 6= 0. The inequality is true when either
both numerator and denominators are positive or both are negative. So, if
both numerator and denominator are positive then numerator is positive when
x > −2 and x < 3, and denominator is positive x > 4.

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

−1

−2

(3 − x)(x + 2)
Figure 34: Plot of ≥ 0.
x−4

For these conditions, there are no common point x for which both numerator
and denominator is positive. If both numerator and denominator are negative
then numerator is negative if x < −2 or x > 3 and x < 4. Now, the domain of x
for which given inequality is true are x < −2 and x < 4 and its common points
are at x < −2. Other combination is x > 3 and x < 4. The plot of inequality is
shown above.

Solved Problem 0.190 Find the value of u for which the following inequality is
true.
(u − 1)(2 − u)
<3
u−3

Solution The given inequality is

(u − 1)(2 − u)
<3
u−3
176

y=3
3

(u − 1)(2 − u)
0 <3
u−3

−1
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

On simplification, we have
(u − 1)(2 − u) < 3u − 9 ⇒ 2u − 2 − u2 + u < 3u − 9
On rearranging the terms, we have
7 − u2 < 0 ⇒ u2 > 7
√
This gives, two values ±u > + 7. Note that in relation u2 > 7, only u receives
positive and negative values whose squares are equal and positive, while 7 is
only positive value. √
Therefore, after square root, only u will be both √
positive
and negative,
√ while√ 7 shall be only positive. Thus, it gives +u > 7 and
−u > 7 or u < − 7. Under these two conditions, inequality is true.

Solved Problem 0.191 Find the value of x for which the inequality is true.
x+3
x− ≤0
5−x

Solution The given inequality is

x+3
x− ≤0
5−x
On simplification
5x − x2 − x − 3
≤0
5−x
Or
x2 − 4x + 3
≤0
5−x
The inequality is less than zero, hence denominator should be positive. So, for
each case, 5−x > 0 or x < 5. The inequality is true when numerator is negative,
i.e. x2 − 4x + 3 < 0. Again
(x − 3)(x − 1) < 0
0.4. INEQUALITIES 177

Left hand side has two terms, so they shall be less than zero, if either of the
two are negative. So, (i) (x − 3) < 0 and (x − 1) > 0, or (ii) (x − 3) > 0 and
(x − 1) < 0. They gives domains as (i) x > 1 and x < 3, and (ii) x < 1 and
x > 3. The common points from first case does not satisfy to inequality while
common points from second case satisfied the inequality. For numerator

bc bc

−1 0 1 2 3 4 5

For denominator

bc

−1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Inequality domain of given inequality function is common points of these

two sub inequality function. So

bc bc

−1 0 1 2 3 4 5

The common points from numerator and denominator are x < 1 and x < 5,
and x > 3 and x < 5 for which inequality is satisfied. For numerator

bc

−1 0 1 2 3 4 5

bc

−1 0 1 2 3 4 5

For denominator

bc

−1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Inequality domain of given inequality function is common points of these

two sub inequality function. So

bc bc bc

−1 0 1 2 3 4 5

The plot of the inequality is shown in below figure.

178

−1 1 2 3 4 5

−1

−2

x+3
Figure 35: Plot of x − ≤ 0.
5−x

x−2
Solved Problem 0.192 Solve > 0 for x.
x−3
Solution The inequality
x−2
>0
x−3
will be true if either both numerator and denominator are positive or negative.
From the inequality rules, denominator should not be zero. Hence, x 6= 3.
Both Positive If x − 2 > 0 then x > 2 and if x − 3 > 0 then x > 3. For this
case, inequality is always positive and greater than zero if x > 3.
Both Negative If x − 2 ≤ 0 then x ≤ 2 and if x − 3 < 0 then x < 3. For this
case, inequality is always positive and greater than zero if x < 3.
Now the domain of the x is given by

x ∈ {(−∞, 2] ∪ (3, ∞)}

If 2 ≤ x < 3 then inequality is negative.

b bc

−1 0 1 2 3 4 5

x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

−1

x−2
Figure 36: Plot of > 0.
x−3
0.4. INEQUALITIES 179

2−x
Solved Problem 0.193 Graph inequalities −1 < < 2 in number-line.
3
2−x
Solution The given inequality is −1 < < 2. It can be resoluted
3
accordingly as given below:
2−x
> −1 ⇒ 2 − x > −3 ⇒ 5 > x
3
2−x
< 2 ⇒ 2 − x < 6 ⇒ −4 < x
3
Value of x is greater than −4 but it is less than 5. x is open at both end. So,
the graph of inequalities may be plotted in numberline as given below:

bc bc

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5

x+2
Solved Problem 0.194 Solve ≤ 4 for x.
x+4
Solution From the rule of inequality in quotient form, denominator should
x+2
not be zero. It means x 6= −4. At this point is equal to ∞ to −∞ when
x+4
x moves in number line. Simplifying the relation
x + 2 = 4x + 16
It gives
−3x = 14
Or
14
x=−
3
Here points x = −4 and x = −14/3 are two points where inequality changes
its behaviour. Now, there is requirement of the analysis of the function about
these points.
When x ≤ −14/3 In this case, the function is continuously increasing to
value 4 in the domain of (−∞, −14/3].
When −14/3 < x < −4 For this interval of x, function increases from 4 to
+∞ when x changes from −14/3 to −4. Function value for this interval of x is
not acceptable.
When x ≥ −4 Right hand side limit of the function at x = −4 is −∞.
Limit of the function at x = ∞ is 1. Hence, when x ≥ −4 function continuously
increases from −∞ to 1.
180

b bc

−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0

The domain of function in number-line is shown in above figure and domain

of the function is plotted in the figure given below.

x
−8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1

−2

−3

−4

x+2
Figure 37: Plot of ≤ 4.
x+4

Solved Problem 0.195 Solve |3x − 7| = 7 for x.

Solution This function is mod function hence whenever the left hand side
is −7, the absolute value becomes +7. Now removing the mod function. ±(3x−
7) = 7. Taking positive sign
3x − 7 = 7
It gives
14
x=
3
Taking negative terms −(3x − 7) = 7,

3x − 7 = −7

It gives x = 0. It means there are two values of x.

Solved Problem 0.196 Solve |2x + 1| < 5 for x.

Solution This function is mod function hence whenever the left hand side
is −5, the absolute value becomes +5. Now removing the mod function. ±(2x+
1) < 5. Taking positive sign
2x + 1 < 5
0.4. INEQUALITIES 181

It gives x < 2. Taking negative terms, −(2x + 1) < 5

2x + 1 > −5

It gives x > −2. It means the condition of inequality is met when domain of x
is −2 < x < 2.

Solved Problem 0.197 Find the set of domain of x in interval notation and draw
graph for the given inequality
x+1
>0
x−5

Solution The given equality is greater than zero. Inequality will be defined
if x − 5 6= 0 i.e. x 6= 5. There are two cases for values of x for which inequality
met its conditions.
Both Positive When numerator and denominator are positive separately
then x + 1 > 0, i.e. x > −1 and x − 5 > 0, i.e. x > 5. Inequality is positive if
value of x is x > 5.
Both Negative When numerator and denominator are negative separately,
then x + 1 < 0 i.e. x < −1 and x − 5 < 0 i.e. x < 5. Inequality is positive if
value of x is x < −1.
The domain of positive inequality is (−∞, −1) ∪ (5, ∞).

x
-1 5

Solved Problem 0.198 Find the set of domain of x in interval notation and draw
graph for the given inequality
2x − 1
<0
x+3

Solution The given equality is less than zero. Inequality is not defined if
x + 3 = 0 i.e. x = −3. If inequality is less than zero then denominator shall be
always positive and numerator should be negative. So, for positive denominator,
182

x + 3 > 0 gives x > −3. For negative numerator

2x − 1 < 0 ⇒ x < 0.5

The common points of these two inequalities are −3 < x < 0.5. The domain of
x and plot of inequality is shown in the following numberline and plot figures
respectively. For denominator, x points are

bc

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2

For numerator, x points are

bc

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2

Domain of inequality is common points of above two domains of x for de-

nominator and numerator.

bc bc

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2

Plot of inequality is given below:

bc bc
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2

Solved Problem 0.199 Find the set of domain of x in interval notation and draw
graph for the given inequality
x−1
≥0
x+2

Solution The given equality is greater than or equals to zero. Inequality

is not defined if x + 2 = 0 i.e. x = −2. There are two cases for value of x for
which inequality met its conditions.
Both Positive When numerator and denominator are positive. x − 1 ≥ 0,
i.e. x ≥ 1 and x + 2 ≥ 0, i.e. x ≥ −2. Inequality is always positive if x ≥ 1.
0.4. INEQUALITIES 183

Both Negative When numerator and denominator are negative. x − 1 ≤ 0,

i.e. x ≤ 1 and x + 2 ≤ 0, i.e. x ≤ −2. Inequality is always positive if x ≤ −2.
The inequality is positive if domain of x is (−∞, −2] ∪ [1, ∞).

b b
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4

−1

Solved Problem 0.200 Solve the conjunction by using compact form and show
the solutions in the interval notation in number line. The conjunction is

| − 2x − 1| = 10

Solution The given inequality is | − 2x − 1| = 10. On opening of the mod,

the inequality becomes ±(−2x − 1) = 10. It gives two sets of relations.

2x + 1 = 10

and
2x + 1 = −10
These relations gives two values of x which are x = −11/2 and x = 9/2.

b b

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

 
x − 3
Solved Problem 0.201 Solve   < 4 for x and show the domain of x in
x + 2
number line.
Solution The given inequality is
 
x − 3
x + 2 < 4
 

x−3
Assume than inequality function is f (x) = . Inequality is defined every-
x+2
where except x + 2 = 0, i.e. x = −2 where it becomes infinity. Inequality
184

becomes zero when

x−3
=0⇒x=3
x+2
It means when x = 3, function always be zero but when x < 3 it be negative.
Again this inequality changes its behaviour at x = −2, hence it is required to
get its behaviours around x = −2. When x > −2, function is negative and when
x < −2 function is positive. The modulus function is negative when −2 ≤ x ≤ 3
and is positive otherwise.

x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

−5

−10

To check where the function gives ±4 value, we solve the modulus function
by squaring both sides.
 x − 3 2
 
2
x + 2 = 4
 

The modulus sign will be removed on square and simplifying it gives the equation

3x2 + 14x + 11 = 0

Whose roots are x = −1 and x = −11/3. These are the points where modulus
function will give +4 modulo value. Now we shall check the points for which
the modulus function is less than | ± 4|. From figure it is clear that the modulus
function f (x) is less than 4 when either x > −1 or x < −11/3.

bc bc

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5

 
 u 
Solved Problem 0.202 Solve   ≤ 3 for u and show the domain of x in
u + 2
number line.
Solution First we find the points where modulus function is equal to 3 by
squaring both side.
 u 2
 
2
u + 2 = 3
 
0.4. INEQUALITIES 185

On simplification
2u2 + 9u + 9 = 0
It has two roots. These are u = −3 and u = −3/2. Now we check the modulus
function in the domain of (−∞, −3], [−3, −3/2] and [−3/2, ∞).
y

x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3

−2

These are the points where modulus function will give +3 modulo value.
Now we shall check the points for which the modulus function is ≤ | ± 3|. From
figure it is clear that the modulus function f (x) is ≤ 3 when either x ≤ −3 or
x ≥ −3/2.

b b

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

 
x + 4
Solved Problem 0.203 Solve 
  ≥ 3 for x and show the domain of x in
x − 5
number line.
Solution First we find the points where modulus function is equal to 3 by
squaring both side.
 x + 4 2
 
2
x − 5 = 3
 

On simplification
8x2 − 98x + 209 = 0
It has two roots. These are x = 2.75 and x = 9.5. Now we check the modulus
function in the domain of (−∞, 2.75], [2.75, 9.5] and [9.5, ∞).
186
y

x
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

−2

These are the points where modulus function will give +3 modulo value.
Now we shall check the points for which the modulus function is ≥ | ± 3|. From
figure it is clear that the modulus function f (x) is ≥ 3 when either x ≥ 2.75
and x ≤ 9.5.

b b

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

 
 x 
Solved Problem 0.204 Solve   = 2 for x and show the domain of x in
x − 3
number line.
 
 x 
Solution The given inequality is    = 2. Squaring both side, It gives
x − 3
equation
x2 − 8x + 12 = 0
On solving this equation, we have two roots for x which are x = 6 and x = 2.
These roots are represented in the number line as given below:

b b

−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

0.5 Scaling & Translation

In junior high school grades, we have already studied about the mapping of a
real geometrical shape into a comparably small or large shape drew on plain
papers. One of the key point that was required in mapping was scaling of the
geometric dimensions. For example, a real building can be visualised/imagined
by seeing its shape on paper when its dimensions are in same ratio as the real
building has. Before drawing the shapes, we take a scale, like 10 meter length
of real shape/object is equal to the 1 centimetre dimension of the shape on the
paper. It is called scaling. Two parameters or units are equal if they are in
relation using a scaling factor. For example, 1m = 100cm. It means one meter
0.6. ASYMPTOTE 187

and one centimetre are equal if centimetre unit is scaled by a scaling factor
100. Similarly, 1km = 1000m, i.e. one kilometre and one meter are equal if
meter is scaled by a scaling factor 1000. This is also same as one meter is equal
to one kilometre, if kilometre unit is scaled by a scaling factor 1/1000. Now,
assume that, an independent variable, x is not discrete function but it is also a
continuous function of another variable t such as x(t). Another function, f (t)
is plotted in terms of x(t). Now, how the function x(t) is modified for y(t) so
that we get the desired plot. See the following examples carefully:

Solved Problem 0.205 There are two plots for x(t) and f (t). Find the relation
between f (t) and x(t).

Solution
x(t) y(t)

1 1

t t
−2 −1 1 2 −2 −1 1

−1 −1

The output y(t) is plotted after y(t) is derived from x(t). Now it is seen
that, the plot of y(t) is similar to the plot of x(t) when range of t for y(t) is
−2 < t < −1 and range of t for x(t) is −2 < t < 0. To modify the x(t) for y(t),
we scale and translate the range of t of y(t) so that it is similar to the range of
t of x(t). Now, for y(t)
−2 < t < −1 ⇒ −1 < t + 1 < 0
Multiplying both side by 2, −2 < 2t + 2 < 0, hence t for x(t) of y(t) becomes
y(t) = x(2t + 2)
This is desired result.

Solved Problem 0.206 If y(t) = x(t + 3), then find the value of t of y(t) for
which y(t) = 1.

Solution If y(t) = 1 then x(t + 3) = 1. x(t) = 1 when t of x(t) has range

0 < t < 2, so that for t of y(t), range should be 0 < t + 3 < 2 or −3 < t < −1.
This is required answer.

0.6 Asymptote
Asymptote is an equation of a line to which a function approaches when either
function is infinite or independent variable is infinite.
188

Illustrated Example For example, take a function f (x) = 1/x. Function f (x)
approaches to zero when x approach to infinity. Now a line y = 0 has same
limit as the limit of the given function.
1
lim f (x) = lim =0
x→∞ x→∞ x

2 2

f (x) = 1/x f (x) = 1/x

1 1

x = 0.25 x = 0.14
0 0

−1 −1
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

At x = ∞, the asymptote line will be y = 0 hence for the function f = 1/x

as an asymptote at x = ∞.

0.6.1 Classification of Asymptote

There are three types of asymptotes. (i) vertical asymptote, (ii) horizontal
asymptote and (iii) oblique asymptote.

Vertical Asymptote
A line of equation x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of function y = f (x)
if

lim f (x) = ±∞ (38)

x→a−
lim f (x) = ±∞ (39)
x→a+

The function f (x) may or may not be defined at the point a. Asymptote at
x = a is not affected by the function value.
Illustrated Example For example
1
(
if x > 0,
f (x) = x (40)
2 if x ≤ 0
0.6. ASYMPTOTE 189

f (x) = 5 f (x) = 1/x

x=0
0

−1
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Above function has a limit +∞ at x → 0+ and function has vertical asymp-

tote x = 0 even though f (0) = 2.

Horizontal Asymptotes
The graph of a function can have two horizontal asymptotes. An example of
such a function would be y = tan−1 (x). Horizontal asymptotes are horizontal
lines that the graph of the function approaches as x → ±∞. The horizontal line
y = c is a horizontal asymptote of the function y = f (x) if

lim f (x) = c (41)

x→−∞

Or
lim f (x) = c (42)
x→+∞

Illustrated Example For example

π
lim tan−1 (x) = −
x→−∞ 2
and
π
lim tan−1 (x) =
x→+∞ 2

y = π/2
1 y = tan−1 (x)

−1
y = −π/2

−2
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
190

So the line y = π/2 is a horizontal tangent for the arctangent when x tends
to −∞, and y = +π/2 is a horizontal tangent for the arctangent when x tends
to +∞.

Oblique Asymptote
When a linear asymptote is not parallel to the x−axis or y−axis, it is called
an oblique asymptote or slant asymptote. A function f (x) is asymptotic to the
straight line y = mx + c, where m 6= 0, if

lim [f (x) − (mx + c)] = 0 (43)

x→+∞

Or
lim [f (x) − (mx + c)] = 0 (44)
x→−∞

In the first case the line y = mx + c is an oblique asymptote of f (x) when x

tends to +∞, and in the second case the line y = mx+c is an oblique asymptote
of f (x) when x tends to −∞.
Illustrated Example An example is f (x) = x + 1/x, which has the oblique
asymptote y = x as seen in the limits
  
1
lim [f (x) − x] = lim x+ −x
x→±∞ x→±∞ x
1
= lim =0
x→±∞ x

x
y=
0

−2

1
f (x) = x +
x
−4
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

0.6.2 Identification of Asymptote

The oblique asymptote, for the function f (x), will be given by the equation
y = mx + c. The value for m is computed first and is given by

f (x)
m = lim
x→a x
0.6. ASYMPTOTE 191

Where a is either −∞ or +∞ depending on the case being studied. If this limit

doesn’t exist then there is no oblique asymptote in that direction. After it the
value of n is computed by

n = lim (f (x) − mx)

x→a

Here m and n should be definite values. If this limit fails to exist then there is
no oblique asymptote in that direction, even should the limit defining m exist.
Otherwise y = mx + n is the oblique asymptote of f (x) as x tends to a.

Solved Problem 0.207 Find the value of m and n of the asymptote of the
2x2 + 3x + 1
function f (x) = .
x
Solution To get the slope of the asymptote of the function f (x),

f (x)
m = lim
x→+∞ x

Or
2x2 + 3x + 1
m = lim =2
x→+∞ x2
Similarly for n
m = lim (f (x) − mx)
x→+∞

Or
2x2 + 3x + 1
 
m = lim − 2x = 3
x→+∞ x
Hence m = 2 and n = 3.

Rational Function
A rational function has at most one horizontal asymptote or oblique (slant)
asymptote, and possibly many vertical asymptotes. The degree of the numer-
ator and degree of the denominator determine whether or not there are any
horizontal or oblique asymptotes. Degree of the numerator (p), and degree of
the denominator (q) determines the type of asymptotes.

p−q Asymptotes
<0 y=0
=0 y = the ratio of leading coefficients
=1 y = the quotient of rational function
>1 none

Table 19: Asymptote table for rational functions.

192

1
Solved Problem 0.208 Find the asymptote of f (x) = .
x2 +1
Solution Here the degree of numerator is zero and degree of denominator
is ‘2’, hence p − q is less than zero.

1 1
f (x) =
x2 + 1

0
y=0

−1
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

So that horizontal or slat asymptote of the function will be y = 0 from the

table ??.

2x2 + 7
Solved Problem 0.209 Find the asymptote of f (x) = .
3x2 + x + 12
Solution Here highest degree of numerator is ‘2’ and highest degree of
denominator is ‘2’, hence p − q is zero.

y = 2/3
0

2x2 + 7
f (x) =
3x2 + x + 12
−1
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

So that horizontal or slat asymptote of the function will be the ratio of

coefficients of the leading terms, ie y = 2/3 from the table ??.

x2 + x + 1
Solved Problem 0.210 Find the asymptote of f (x) = .
x
Solution Here highest degree of numerator is ‘2’ and highest degree of
denominator is ‘1’, hence p − q is one.

10

y = x+1
0

x2 + x + 1
f (x) =
x
−10
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

Now the quotient of the rational number is x + 1, hence its horizontal or slat
asymptote will be y = x + 1 from the table ??.
0.6. ASYMPTOTE 193

2x2
Solved Problem 0.211 Find the asymptote of f (x) = .
3x2 + 1
Solution Here highest degree of numerator is ‘2’ and highest degree of
denominator is ‘2’, hence p − q is zero.

1 y = 2/3

2x2
f (x) =
3x2 + 1
−1
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

Hence, asymptote of the function will be the ratio of the coefficients of the
highest degrees of the numerator to denominator. Therefore, horizontal or slant
asymptote will be given by y = 2/3.

2x4
Solved Problem 0.212 Find the asymptote of f (x) = .
3x2 + 1
Solution Here highest degree of numerator is ‘4’ and highest degree of
denominator is ‘2’, hence p − q is more than one.

200

100

2x4
f (x) =
3x2 + 1
−100
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

Figure 38: As x → 0, y → ∞, hence there is no horizontal or slant asymptote.

Hence, there will be no horizontal or slat asymptote to the functions.

Vertical Asysmptote
The vertical asymptotes occur only when the denominator is zero (If both the
numerator and denominator are zero, the multiplicities of the zero are com-
pared). When the numerator of a rational function has degree exactly one
greater than the denominator, the function has an oblique (slant) asymptote.
The asymptote is the polynomial term after dividing the numerator and denom-
inator. This phenomenon occurs because when dividing the fraction, there will
194

be a linear term, and a remainder. For example, in the function

x2 + x + 1 1
f (x) = =x+
x+1 x+1
as the value of x increases, f approaches the asymptote y = x. This is because
the other term, y = 1/(x + 1) becomes smaller. If the degree of the numerator is
more than ‘1’ larger than the degree of the denominator, and the denominator
does not divide the numerator, there will be a nonzero remainder that goes to
zero as x increases, but the quotient will not be linear, and the function does
not have an oblique asymptote.

0.6.3 Transformations of known functions

If a known function has an asymptote (such as y = 0 for f (x) = ex ), then the
translations of it also have an asymptote.
Case 1. If x = a is a vertical asymptote of f (x), then x = a + h is a vertical
asymptote of f (x − h).
Case 2. If y = c is a horizontal asymptote of f (x), then y = c + k is a
horizontal asymptote of f (x) + k.
Case 3. If a known function has an asymptote, then the scaling of the
function also have an asymptote.
Case 4. If y = ax + b is an asymptote of f (x), then y = cax + cb is an
asymptote of cf (x).

Solved Problem 0.213 Find the vertical asymptotes of the function

x2 − 5x + 6
f (x) =
x3 − 3x2 + 2x
.
Solution

4
x=0

−4
x=1

−8

x2 − 5x + 6
f (x) =
x3 − 3x2 + 2x
−12
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
0.6. ASYMPTOTE 195

The given function can be simplified as

(x − 3)(x − 2) (x − 3)
f (x) = =
x(x − 1)(x − 2) x(x − 1)

Numerator can not be equal to zero, for the continuity of the function. So,

x(x − 1) 6= 0 ⇒ x 6= 0, x 6= 1

Function f (x) is negative side of y-axis for x < 0 and x > 1 while function is
positive side of y-axis for 0 < x < 1. The function has asymptotes at x = 0 and
x = 1 as these two lines are tangent to function.

Solved Problem 0.214 Trace the curve ay 2 = x3 .

Solution To trace the curve, we first compute a tabulated data for the
given function by taking arbitrary constant for a. Here, we tabulated data
using spreadsheet application.

x3 x3
p p
x y= x3 /a x y= x3 /a
0.00 0.0000 0.0000 1.00 1.0000 1.0000
0.10 0.0010 0.0316 1.10 1.3310 1.1537
0.20 0.0080 0.0894 1.20 1.7280 1.3145
0.30 0.0270 0.1643 1.30 2.1970 1.4822
0.40 0.0640 0.2530 1.40 2.7440 1.6565
0.50 0.1250 0.3536 1.50 3.3750 1.8371
0.60 0.2160 0.4648 1.60 4.0960 2.0239
0.70 0.3430 0.5857 1.70 4.9130 2.2165
0.80 0.5120 0.7155 1.80 5.8320 2.4150
0.90 0.7290 0.8538 1.90 6.8590 2.6190

Table 20: Tabulated data of ay 2 = x3 when a = 1.

All the points will be plotted in xy-plain, taking x and x3 coordinate pairs
as (x, y). Now, connect all points by free hand curve as shown in the following
figure.
196
3

−1
−1 0 1 2 3

Figure 39: Curve tracing of function ay 2 = x3 .

Solved Problem 0.215 Trace the curve y = x3 .

Solution To trace a curve, first we construct a tabular data table of the
given curve as shown in the following table.

x x3 x x3
0.00 0.000 1.00 1.000
0.10 0.001 1.10 1.331
0.20 0.008 1.20 1.728
0.30 0.027 1.30 2.197
0.40 0.064 1.40 2.744
0.50 0.125 1.50 3.375
0.60 0.216 1.60 4.096
0.70 0.343 1.70 4.913
0.80 0.512 1.80 5.832
0.90 0.729 1.90 6.859

The tabulated data for y = x3 is shown in above table for positive x. Similar
tabulated data can be generated for negative x too. All the points will be plotted
in xy-plain, taking x and x3 coordinate pairs as (x, y). Now, connect all points
by free hand curve as shown in the following figure.
0.6. ASYMPTOTE 197
2
b

1 b

b
b
0 b b b
b
b

b
−1

−2
−2 −1 0 1 2

Figure 40: Curve tracing of function y = x3 .

Solved Problem 0.216 Trace the curve x3 y = x + 2.

Solution The given function is x3 y = x + 2. This function can be rewritten

as
x+2
y=
x3
This function does not exist, if x3 = 0, i.e. x = 0. The function is zero when
x + 2 = 0, i.e. x = −2. So function intersects x-axis at x = −2 and asymptotic
to x = 0 line. There are following cases:
1. When x < −2, both numerator and denominator are negative, hence
function is positive side of y-axis, i.e. above the x-axis.
2. When −2 ≤ x < 0, numerator is positive and denominator is negative,
hence function is negative side of y-axis, i.e. below the x-axis.
2. When x > 0, both numerator and denominator are positive, hence
function is positive side of y-axis, i.e. above the x-axis.
2

−1

−2
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 41: Curve tracing of function x3 y = x + 2.

198

Now, we can plot the sketch of the function using these observations as
shown in above figure.

Solved Problem 0.217 Trace the curve y = (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3).

Solution First construct a table for (x, r) data as shown in the following
table.

x y x y x y x y
0.0 -6.000 1.0 0.000 2.0 0.000 3.0 0.000
0.1 -4.959 1.1 0.171 2.1 -0.099 3.1 0.231
0.2 -4.032 1.2 0.288 2.2 -0.192 3.2 0.528
0.3 -3.213 1.3 0.357 2.3 -0.273 3.3 0.897
0.4 -2.496 1.4 0.384 2.4 -0.336 3.4 1.344
0.5 -1.875 1.5 0.375 2.5 -0.375 3.5 1.875
0.6 -1.344 1.6 0.336 2.6 -0.384 3.6 2.496
0.7 -0.897 1.7 0.273 2.7 -0.357 3.7 3.213
0.8 -0.528 1.8 0.192 2.8 -0.288 3.8 4.032
0.9 -0.231 1.9 0.099 2.9 -0.171 3.9 4.959

Table 21: Tabulated data of y = (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3).

Now plot this tabulated data in (x, y) plane.

2 b

b
1

b
b b
b
b b
b b
0 b b
b b
b b
b
b

−1 b

b
−2
−1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 42: Curve tracing of function y = (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3).

Trace the curve smoothly.

Solved Problem 0.218 Trace the curve r = 2(1 + cos(x)).

Solution To trace the curve of the given function r = 2(1 + cos(x)), firstly
we construct a table containing x and corresponding r as shown in the following
table.
 0.6. ASYMPTOTE 199

x r x r x r x r
0.0 4.000 2.0 1.168 4.0 0.693 6.0 3.920
0.2 3.960 2.2 0.823 4.2 1.019 6.2 3.993
0.4 3.842 2.4 0.525 4.4 1.385 6.4 3.986
0.6 3.651 2.6 0.286 4.6 1.776 6.6 3.900
0.8 3.393 2.8 0.116 4.8 2.175 6.8 3.739
1.0 3.081 3.0 0.020 5.0 2.567 7.0 3.508
1.2 2.725 3.2 0.003 5.2 2.937 7.2 3.217
1.4 2.340 3.4 0.066 5.4 3.269 7.4 2.877
1.6 1.942 3.6 0.206 5.6 3.551 7.6 2.503
1.8 1.546 3.8 0.418 5.8 3.771 7.8 2.108

Table 22: Tabulated data of r = 2(1 + cos(x)).

Now the (x, r) data is plotted in the (r, θ) plane as shown below. Note that,
x is angular position in radian unit. It is not values in x-axis.
2 b
b b
b
b
b
b

b b

1 b
b
b

b b
b
b
b
bb b b b
0 b
b
b
b b

b
b
b
−1
b b

b
b
b
b
b
b b
−2
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 43: Curve tracing of function r = 2(1 + cos x).

Now trace these dots by smooth curve.

Solved Problem 0.219 In a computer problem, a variable is pointing to a decimal

number that is 8. Each bit (if high) of this number indicates the status of
different arithmetic operation performed just in previous step in a sequence of
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division from MSB side. Find what
was last arithmetic operation performed?
Solution The given decimal number is 8 and its binary equivalent number
is 1000. Arranging it in its bitwise arrangement from MSB to LSB side.
✞
1 /* - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -**
D3 D2 D1 D0
3 1 0 0 0 = 8 ( in decimal )
 200

** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - */
✆✌
The bits representing to addition, subtraction, multiplication and division from
MSB side. As D3 bit is high, hence it shows that addition was performed in
last step.

Solved Problem 0.220 In a computer problem, a variable is pointing to a decimal

number that is 2. Each bit (if high) of this number indicates the status of
different arithmetic operation performed just in previous step in a sequence of
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division from MSB side. Find what
was last arithmetic operation performed?
Solution The given decimal number is 2 and its binary equivalent number
is 0010. Arranging it in its bitwise arrangement from MSB to LSB side.
✞
/* - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -**
2 D3 D2 D1 D0
0 0 1 0 = 2 ( in decimal )
4 ** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - */
✆✌
The bits representing to addition, subtraction, multiplication and division from
MSB side. As D1 bit is high, hence it shows that multiplication was performed
in last step.

Solved Problem 0.221 In a computer problem, a variable is pointing to a decimal

number that is 2. Each bit (if high) of this number indicates the status of
different arithmetic operation performed just in previous step in a sequence of
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division from MSB side. In the current
step division was performed. Now convert the binary number of variable so that
it indicates to division in last step.
Solution The given decimal number is 2 and its binary equivalent number
is 0010. Arranging it in its bitwise arrangement from MSB to LSB side.
✞
/* - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -**
2 D3 D2 D1 D0
0 0 1 0 = 2 ( in decimal )
4 ** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - */
✆✌
The bits representing to addition, subtraction, multiplication and division from
MSB side. In the current step, division was performed. So, D0 must be high
and rest bits should be low. Now, first we will convert the D1 bit from high to
low and then we shall convert bit D0 from low to high. So,
✞
/* - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -**
2 D3 D2 D1 D0
0 0 1 0 = 2 ( in decimal )
4 0 0 0 0 ( ANDing )
---------------
 0.6. ASYMPTOTE 201

6 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 ( ORing )
8 ---------------
0 0 0 1
10 ** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - */
✆✌
Now the variable shows that last mathematical operation was division.