Dunman High School (Senior High Physics)

Topic 4 Forces
Guiding Questions:
 What are the different types of forces?
 How do we solve problems involving translational and rotational equlibrium?

Content
 Types of force
 Centre of gravity
 Turning effects of forces
 Equilibrium of forces
 Upthrust

Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to:

(a) recall and apply Hooke’s law (F = kx, where k is the force constant) to new situations
or to solve related problems
(b) describe the forces on a mass, charge and current-carrying conductor in
gravitational, electric and magnetic fields, as appropriate
(c) show a qualitative understanding of normal contact forces, frictional forces and
viscous forces including air resistance (no treatment of the coefficients of friction and
viscosity is required)
(d) show an understanding that the weight of a body may be taken as acting at a single
point known as its centre of gravity
(e) define and apply the moment of a force and the torque of a couple

(f) show an understanding that a couple is a pair of forces which tends to produce
rotation only
(g) apply the principle of moments to new situations or to solve related problems

(h) show an understanding that, when there is no resultant force and no resultant torque,
a system is in equilibrium
(i) use a vector triangle to represent forces in equilibrium

(j) derive, from the definitions of pressure and density, the equation p = gh

(k) solve problems using the equation p = gh

(l) show an understanding of the origin of the force of upthrust acting on a body in a fluid

(m) state that upthrust is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the weight of the
fluid displaced by a submerged or floating object
(n) calculate the upthrust in terms of the weight of the displaced fluid

(o) recall and apply the principle that, for an object floating in equilibrium, the upthrust is
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the weight of the object to new
situations or to solve related problems

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Concept Map

1 Introduction
One of the main goals of Physics has been to understand the immense variety of forces in
the universe in terms of the fewest number of fundamental laws. Today, all forces are
understood in terms of just four fundamental interactions as follows:

Force Effects Range / m

Gravitational Force Weakest. Acts on all masses infinite
Electromagnetic Force Acts on electric charges infinite
Strong Nuclear Force Holds protons and neutrons together in a 10-15
nucleus
Weak Nuclear Force Causes radioactive decay processes 10-17

At high temperatures, two of these interactions – electromagnetic and weak nuclear force –
are now understood as the effects of a single electroweak interaction. The ultimate goal is to
describe all forces in terms of a single interaction.

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2 Types of Forces
(a) recall and apply Hooke’s law (F = kx, where k is the force constant) to new situations or
to solve related problems
(b) describe the forces on a mass, charge and current-carrying conductor in gravitational,
electric and magnetic fields, as appropriate
(c) show a qualitative understanding of normal contact forces, frictional forces and viscous
forces including air resistance (no treatment of the coefficients of friction and viscosity is
required)
(d) show an understanding that the weight of a body may be taken as acting at a single
point known as its centre of gravity

In the past, we learn that a force is a push or a pull which one body exerts on another.

Now, we know that a force is defined as directly proportional to the rate of change of
momentum. The direction of the force is in the direction of the change of momentum.

Conservative and Non Conservative Forces

A force is conservative if the work it does on an object moving between two points is
independent of the path the object takes. e.g. electrostatic, elastic forces

A force is non-conservative if the work it does on an object depends on the path taken by the
object between its initial and final points. e.g. drag force

Gravitational force is an example of a conservative force, while friction is an example of a

non-conservative force.

Example 1 Forces on a mass in a gravitational, electric and magnetic field

(1) (2)

weight F F
+ +
F

F F

Gravitational force:
 is due to the interaction between masses Electric force:
 on an object is called weight if it is due to  is due to the interaction between
the gravity of the Earth charges

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(3)
F F

F F

F F

Magnetic force:
 is due to the interaction between
magnetic materials
F F
 acts on moving charges and current-
carrying conductors when they are
placed in magnetic fields

F F

Example 2 Contact forces (except weight)

(1) Forces on the ball (2) Forces on the block
N

W
W

T = tension N = normal reaction (normal contact force)

W = weight of ball W = weight of block
(3) Forces on the block (pushed to right) (4)

N U R
F
f

W W

F = forward force f = frictional force U = upthrust (acts upwards, exists as long

N = normal reaction W = weight of block as the object is in fluid)
R = drag force (force of resistance) (acts
opposite to the direction of motion,
exists only when the object is in
motion)
W = weight of ball

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3 Frictional and Viscous Forces
Friction and viscous forces are known as dissipative forces. Some energy of the
object moving through the fluid is dissipated as heat to the surroundings.

3.1 Friction
Frictional force is the force exerted by one body on another body when two bodies
slide over one another. It is caused by irregularities in the surfaces in mutual
contact and depends on the surfaces in contact as well as how much they are
pressed against each other. It is the component of contact force along surface
of contact.

v
friction

Close examination of the flattest

and most highly polished
surface reveals hollows and
humps more than one hundred
atoms high. When one solid is
placed on another, contact
occurs only at a few places of
small areas. The pressure at the points of contact is extremely high and causes the
humps to flatten out until the increased area of contact enables the upper solid to
be supported. At the points of contact, small, cold-welded 'joints' are formed by the
strong adhesive forces between molecules which are very close together. These
joints have to be broken before one surface can move over the other.

3.2 Viscous / Drag Force

The frictional force experienced either by an object as it moves through a fluid or by
a fluid as it moves over a surface.

i.e it is resistance when an object move in a fluid and the force is dependent on the
speed of the object.

In a viscous flow, fluid can be regarded as made up of a stack of very thin layers,
each moving with different speeds due to internal friction between the layers. When
an object moves relative to a fluid with velocity v, the layer of fluid P adjacent to it is
dragged along by it. But the next layer Q slows layer P down. There is a gradual
decrease in velocity for the layers with distance away from the object. The overall
effect is represented by a net retarding force on the object. This retarding force, F
is acting to the right which opposes motion.

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The magnitude of the viscous force increases with increase in speed of the object.
The exact relationship depends also on the shape, size, texture of surface, viscosity
of fluid, etc.
3.3 Terminal Velocity
The constant velocity achieved by an object when it is falling under gravity through
a viscous fluid.

1. Consider a body falling through a fluid under laminar conditions, so that Stokes'
law applies (so that viscous drag is directly proportional to the speed of the
body).
2. The figure above shows the forces acting on the object at the instant when its
speed is v and W is the weight of the object, U the upthrust exerted on the
object by the surrounding fluid, and F the drag forces on the object due to the
viscosity of the fluid.
3. W and U are constants with time but F is directly proportional to the speed of
the body.
4. The resultant force downwards, R at any instant is given by R = mg – F – U.
5. If the object falls from rest, the drag force F = 0 N initially. Thus, if we consider
the upthrust U also to be negligible, then the object will be under free-fall
initially.
6. But as the object accelerates downwards, F increases, hence R decreases.
7. Eventually, F increases to a value that makes the resultant force, and hence
the acceleration of the body zero. The body will then continue to fall with a
constant speed, called the terminal velocity.
8. The condition for terminal velocity is therefore given by W = U + F.

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Example 3
The mass of a diver is 61 kg. In a free-fall dive from an aircraft, before the parachute
was opened, the diver reached a terminal speed of 90 m s-1. Ignoring upthrust, calculate

(i) the weight of the diver,

Weight of diver = mg
= 61(9.81) = 598 N

(ii) the force of air resistance on the diver when at the terminal speed,
At terminal velocity, diver is in translational equilibrium.
By Newton's 1st Law
Air resistance on diver upwards = weight of diver downwards
= 598 N

(iii) the magnitude and unit of the constant k in the expression air resistance = kv2,
Since air resistance is given by the equation
F = kν2
598 = k(90)2
k = 0.0738 kg m-1

(iv) using the expression given in (iii), estimate the air resistance on the diver when he
is moving with a speed of 25 m s-1.

F = kν2
F = 0.0738(25)2 = 46.1 N

(v) Sketch appropriate graphs to show how each of the following quantities vary with
time:
1. the velocity of the diver,
2. viscous drag acting on the diver,
3. the resultant force on the diver.
V
VT

F t

Point of inflexion
occurs when V = 1 t

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4 Centre of Gravity (C.G.)

 Every body of mass is attracted toward the centre of the Earth by the force of gravity.
 The entire weight of a body may be taken as acting at a single point known as its centre
of gravity (C.G.).
 The C.G. of a homogeneous, symmetric body must lie on its axis of symmetry.

5 Free-Body Diagrams

A mechanical system may consist of more than one object or body. A free-body diagram
takes into account all the forces acting on a given body, and these are marked out on the
diagram.

Example 4 A single-body system

L
L = lift force
W = weight
D
T T = thrust
D = drag force

Example 5 A multiple-body system

(T = tension in string, W = weight of object)

T3

T1 T2

T1 T2

For light pulleys,

W1 W2 W=0

When a system consists of more than one object, you can clarify the situation by isolating
each object and drawing separate free-body diagrams.

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6 Hooke’s Law
Hooke’s law states that force is directly proportional to extension, provided that the elastic
limit has not been exceeded.

Unstretched Lo
spring Stretched spring
L

force

𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥

where F is the force applied to the material

Lo is the unstretched length of material
L is final length of material
x is the extension of the material = L – Lo
k is the proportionality (force) constant [unit: N m-1]

Graph to show how F, the force applied, depends on the extension, x assuming it obeys
Hooke's law.

F/N
F = kx

x/m

Note:

(i) The law applies to springs as well as metals in the form of wires.
(ii) If two springs of spring constant k1 and k2 are connected in parallel, they can be
replaced by a single spring of spring constant keff = k1 + k2.
If the two springs are connected in series, they can be replaced by a single spring of
1 1 1
spring constant   .
keff k1 k2

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Example 6

A spring obeying Hooke's law has an un-stretched length of 50 mm and a spring constant of
400 N m-1. What is the tension in the spring when the overall length is 70 mm? (8.0 N)

Extension, x = 0.070 – 0.050 = 0.020 m

Tension, F = kx = (400)(0.020) = 8.0 N

6 Elastic Potential Energy

An external force Fext acting on a wire causing it to extend from x1 to x2 performs work given
by
x2
W= x1
Fext dx

This work is stored as elastic potential energy in the wire. From the expression in the box,
we recognise that the elastic potential energy is equal to the area under the force-
extension curve, between the limits x1 and x2.

Force / N

Area under the F-x graph

gives the amount of
energy needed to stretch
spring from an extension
of x1 to x2.

x1 x2
Extension x / m

The energy stored (known as elastic Force

potential energy or strain energy) in a
deformed material that obeys Hooke’s law, F
such as a spring or wire, can be found from
the area under the force-extension graph.

Elastic potential energy (PE):

1 1 F2 extension
U Fx  kx 2 
2 2 2k x
0

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Example 7

A force of 10 N acting on a certain spring gives an extension of 40 mm. Two such springs
are connected end-to-end and this double-length spring is extended by 40 mm. Assuming
that the springs conform to Hooke’s Law, what is the strain energy? (0.1 J)
F 10
Spring constant for each spring, k1  k 2   3
 250 N m -1
x 40 10
1 1 1
Series:   , thus Keff = 125 N m-1
keff k1 k 2
1 1
Strain Energy = EPE  keff x 2  (125)(0.040) 2 = 0.10 J
2 2

Example 8

What would be the energy required to extend the spring of spring constant k from an
extension of x1 to x2?

Force
F

extension
0 x1 x2 x

The extension of a rubber band when a variable force is applied is given by the graph below.
The original length of the spring is 0.05 m. What is the increase in potential energy stored in
the rubber band when it extends from 0.1 m to 0.4 m? (2.4 J)
1 2 1 2
Force / N Energy  kx2  kx1
2 2

F  kx  2  k (0.05) k  40 N m1

2
1 2 1 2
Energy  kx2  kx1  2.4 J
2 2
0.05 0.10 0.40 Length of spring / m

0 0.05 0.35 Extension / m

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(j) derive, from the definitions of pressure and density, the equation p = gh
(k) solve problems using the equation p = gh
(l) show an understanding of the origin of the force of upthrust acting on a body in a fluid
(m) state that upthrust is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the weight of the
fluid displaced by a submerged or floating object
(n) calculate the upthrust in terms of the weight of the displaced fluid
(o) recall and apply the principle that, for an object floating in equilibrium, the upthrust is
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the weight of the object to new situations
or to solve related problems

7 Upthrust
Upthrust is the vertical upward force exerted by the surrounding fluid when a body is
submerged fully or partially in a fluid. It is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the
weight of fluid displaced by the body.

In other words, it is the resultant force due to the difference in pressure exerted by the fluid
at the top and bottom surfaces of the body.

Consider a solid cylinder of height h and cross-sectional area A, submerged in a fluid of

density  as shown.

Normal Force 𝐹
By definition, pressure 𝑝 = Cross−sectional Area 𝐴

Hence, pressure on the top surface,

Weight of Column of Fluid Above
𝑝1 = + 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚
Cross − sectional Area 𝐴
𝑚1 𝑔
= + 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝐴
𝜌𝑓 𝐴ℎ1 𝑔
= + 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝐴
= 𝜌𝑓 ℎ1 𝑔 + 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚

Similarly, the pressure on the bottom surface,

𝑝2 = 𝜌𝑓 ℎ2 𝑔 + 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚

Thus, the downward force on the cylinder, 𝐹1 = (𝜌𝑓 ℎ1 𝑔 + 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 )𝐴

The upward force on the cylinder, 𝐹2 = (𝜌𝑓 ℎ2 𝑔 + 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 )𝐴

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Hence, the resultant upward force (upthrust) on the cylinder due to pressure difference
between the top and bottom surfaces,
𝑈 = 𝐹2 − 𝐹1
= 𝜌𝑓 𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )𝐴
= 𝜌𝑓 𝑔ℎ𝐴
= 𝜌𝑓 𝑔𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝑈 = 𝑚𝑓 𝑔 (weight of the fluid displaced by the object)

The above result is known as the Archimedes’ Principle which states that for any object
immersed partially or fully in a fluid, the upthrust is equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction to the weight of fluid displaced by the object.

Example 7
(a) What is the buoyancy force (upthrust) on a human body of volume 7.4  10-2 m3 when
totally immersed in

(i) air of density 1.3 kg m-3

(ii) sea water of density 1030 kg m-3 ?

Since the body is totally immersed in the fluid, the volume of body would equal the
volume of fluid displaced.
i. By Archimedes’ Principle:
𝑈 = 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑔𝑉𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
= (1.3)(9.81)(7.4 × 10−2 ) = 0.94 𝑁
ii. By Archimedes’ Principle:
𝑈 = 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑔𝑉𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
= (1030)(9.81)(7.4 × 10−2 ) = 748 𝑁

(b) Hence explain why the upthrust acting on a human body when in air is normally ignored.

The average person weighs about 600 N and the upthrust in air of about 1 N is less than
0.2% of the weight of the person, making it negligible.

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7.1 Principle of Floatation

Principle of Floatation states that when an object is floating in equilibrium in a fluid,
the weight of the object is equal to the weight of fluid displaced by the object.

Hence, an object floats because the upthrust acting on it is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to the weight of the object. The object sinks when the upthrust
acting on it is less than its weight.
A ship made of steel can float because its internal hollow volume displaces a large
amount of water and produces sufficient upthrust to keep the ship floating.

Example 8
A student rolled a lump of plasticine into the shape of an air-tight sphere. He
dropped the plasticine into a bucket of water and observed that the plasticine
sphere sank to the bottom of the water.

Using Archimedes’ Principle and the Principle of Floatation, show that the density of
the plasticine must be greater than the density of water.

As the plasticine sinks, this implies that the weight of the plasticine is larger than the
upthrust on it by the water.
𝑊𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑒 > 𝑈
Archimedes’ Principle, 𝑈 = 𝑊𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
Therefore,
𝑊𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑒 > 𝑊𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝜌𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑔𝑉𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑒 > 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑉𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑

When the plasticine is fully submerged, 𝑉𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝑉𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑

Hence 𝜌𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑒 > 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 .

How would it be possible for the student to make the lump of plasticine float in the
bucket of water, even though the density of the plasticine is greater than that of
water?

By moulding the plasticine into a bowl, it is able to displace a greater amount of

water. By Principle of Floatation:
U=W
ρf Vf g = ρpVpg

In order for plasticine to float, Vf > Vp

Plasticine must be able to displace larger volume of water than its volume.
Real life applications of this: Ships and boats

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 Dunman High School (Senior High Physics)
Example 9
A boat floating in fresh water displaces 35.6 kN of water.

(a) What weight of water would this boat displace if it were floating in salt water of
density 1024 kg m-3?
For the boat to float, the upthrust on the boat must be equal to the weight of boat
W according to the Law of Floatation whether in salt or fresh water. Hence weight
of salt water displaced = 35.6 kN.

(b) What is the volume of salt water displaced?

Upthrust = weight of salt water displaced
ρsVsg = 35.6 kN
Vs = 3.54 m3

Example 10
A solid weighs 237.5 g in air and 12.5 g when totally immersed in water. Calculate the
relative density of a liquid in which the solid would float with one-fifth of its volume
exposed above the liquid surface. (Take density of water as 1000 kg m-3.)

Considering the free body of the solid in air:

T1 By Newton's 1st Law:
T1 = W ----- (1)

Considering the free body of the solid in water:

By Newton's 1st Law:
T2 + U1 = W
W U1 = W - T2
ρwaterVdisplacedg = W - T2

T2 Since solid is totally immersed in water

W  T2
U1 VSolid  Vdisplaced 
 water g
(0.2375  0.0125 ) 9.81
= = 2.25  10-4 m3
1000 (9.81)
W

U2 Considering the free body of the solid in water:

By Principle of Floatation:
U2 = W
V
4 
 liquid  v Solid  g  W
5 
W ρliquid(4/5)(2.25  10-4)(9.81) = 0.2375(9.81)
ρliquid = 1319 kg m-3
liquid 1319 kg m3
Relative density of liquid = 
 water 1000 kg m3
=1.319 = 1.32 (3 s.f.)

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8 Equilibrium of Forces
(h) show an understanding that, when there is no resultant force and no resultant torque, a
system is in equilibrium

8.1 Conditions for Equilibrium

 When a body is in equilibrium,

(1) resultant force on it must be zero in any direction
- it is in translational equilibrium
- the linear acceleration of the centre of mass is zero (either at rest or
moving at constant velocity)

(2) resultant torque on it must be zero about any axis of rotation

- it is in rotational equilibrium
- the angular acceleration of the centre of mass is zero about any axis
(either not rotating or rotating at constant angular velocity)

 When a particle is in equilibrium,

(1) resultant force on it must be zero in any direction
- it is in translational equilibrium
- the linear acceleration of the centre of mass is zero

Note that there is no need to determine the resultant torque on a particle as the
forces will all act through the centre of mass of the particle.

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(i) use a vector triangle to represent forces in equilibrium

8.2 Translational Equilibrium

When the resultant force on a body is zero in any direction, there is no acceleration of its
centre of mass and the body is said to be in translational equilibrium.

 Method 1: Summation of forces in the x, y (and z) direction is zero

If the forces can be resolved into components in two chosen perpendicular directions, say
x and y-axis, then both Fx = 0 and Fy = 0.

If a body is stationary under the influence of the forces as shown below, then at
equilibrium,
Fx = 0
F1 F2
–F1cos1 + F2cos2 – F3cos3 + F4cos4 = 0
1 2
Fy= 0
F1sin1 + F2sin2 – F3sin3 – F4sin4 = 0 4
3 F4

F3
 Method 2: Forces must form a closed polygon
Since the resultant force acting on a body is zero, the vector sum of forces acting on the
body is zero in any direction. The vector diagram showing the addition of all forces acting
on the body will be a closed polygon.

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(e) define and apply the moment of a force and the torque of a couple.
(f) show an understanding that a couple is a pair of forces which tends to produce rotation
only.
(g) apply the principle of moments to new situations or to solve related problems.

8.3 Rotational Equilibrium

When the resultant torque of a body is zero about any axis of rotation, there is no angular
acceleration of the object and the body is said to be in rotational equilibrium.

8.3.1 Moment of a Force

The moment of a force about a point is the product of the magnitude of the force
and the perpendicular distance of the force from the point (pivot).

A moment supplied by a non-

zero single force produces a
linear acceleration of its centre
of mass as well as an angular
acceleration. The direction of the
moment by the force follows the
Right-Hand Corkscrew Rule.

8.3.2 Torque of a Couple

The torque of a couple is the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular
distance between the forces. (Must include definition of couple if asked to define
torque of a couple)

A couple consists of a pair of forces of equal magnitude but acting in opposite

directions whose lines of action are parallel but separate.

The magnitude of the torque of a

couple  is defined as the product of
one of the forces F and the
perpendicular distance d between
the lines of action of the forces.

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8.3.3 Principle of Moments

When the resultant torque of a body is zero about any point, it further implies that the
sum of moments of all forces acting on the body would be zero about any point.
Hence, the principle of moments may be used to deal with bodies in rotational
equilibrium.

The Principle of Moments states that when a system is in equilibrium, the sum of
clockwise moments about any point is equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments
about the same point.

Example 11
A uniform rod XY of weight 10.0 N is freely
hinged to a wall at X. It is held horizontal by a
force F acting from Y at an angle of 60o to the F
vertical as shown in the diagram. What is the
value of F?

Considering the free body of rod XY:

Since the rod is in equilibrium,
∑ 𝜏⃑ = 0 → ∑ 𝑀 ⃑⃑⃑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 0

Taking moment about point X, by principle of moments:

Anticlockwise moment = Clockwise moment
1
Fcos 60𝑜 𝐿 = 𝑊 ( 𝐿)
2
𝐹 = 10.0 𝑁

9 Special Cases of Equilibrium

9.1 Two Force Systems

For a rigid body at equilibrium subjected to forces acting at only two points, the two
forces must
1. have the same magnitude,
2. have the same line of action,
3. be opposite in direction.

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9.2 Three Force Systems

For a rigid body at equilibrium subjected to forces acting at only three points, the lines
of action of the three forces must either be
1. concurrent (intersect at a point) OR
2. parallel

Conceptual Question
If the lines of action of 3 coplanar forces are concurrent, the 3 forces must be able to
maintain a body in equilibrium. Is this statement true or false?

False

If the lines of action of 3 coplanar forces are parallel, the 3 forces must be able to
maintain a body in equilibrium. Is this statement true or false?

False

Example 12
The diagram below shows a heavy flagpole PQ
hinged at a vertical wall at end P and held by a wire T
connected to the end Q and a point R on the wall.
The weight of the flagpole is W and the tension in
the wire is T. What is the direction of the force
exerted by the wall on the flagpole?

From P to S

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9.3 System in Equilibrium Under Three or more Forces

With three forces acting on a system in equilibrium, a closed triangle can be drawn to
represent the forces in magnitude and direction (in the force diagram).

 

(clockwise) (anti-clockwise)
Force Diagram Force Diagram
Physical Diagram
Note that the arrows showing the directions of the forces follow each other around the
triangle (either clockwise or anti-clockwise).

With more than three

forces acting on a
system in equilibrium,
a closed polygon can 
be drawn to represent
the forces in
magnitude and
direction (in the force
diagram).
Force Diagram
Physical Diagram

For systems in equilibrium, notice that the lines of action of the non-parallel forces pass
through a common point (in the physical diagram).

Physical Diagram Physical Diagram

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Example 13

A block of mass 20 kg is to be lifted by a

light horizontal level of length 1.0 m.
Where should the lever be pivoted so that
a force of 50 N can balance the block as
shown by the figure on the right?

Let F = 50 N, and let the weight of the block be W.

By Principle of Moments

For rotational equilibrium (take moments about pivot),

Anti-clockwise moments = Clockwise moments

Fx = W(1.0 – x) W 20(9.81)
x 
F  W 50  20(9.81)
x(F + W) = W  0.80 m

Example 14 C
A smooth sphere of weight W is supported by T
a string and is in contact with a smooth
vertical wall. One end of the string is fastened
to a point on the surface of the sphere and

the other end is attached to a point on the A N
wall. If the length of the string is equal to the O
radius of the sphere, find the tension T in the
string and the reaction N of the wall on the
sphere in terms of its weight, W.

Given: OC = 2AO Resolving forces horizontally for equilibrium,

1 T cos   N
cos      600
2  N  T cos 600

Resolving forces vertically for equilibrium,

 0.58 W

T sin   W
W
T   1.15 W
sin 600

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rope
Example 15
C B
A uniform beam of weight 400 N is 5.0 m
long. One end of the beam is hinged to a
vertical wall while the other end is attached by beam
a 3.0 m long horizontal rope to a point on the wall
wall (see figure on the right).
Find
(1) the tension T in the rope, and
(2) the magnitude of the force exerted by the
hinge on the beam.
hinge
A
The diagram above can be redrawn as
follows:

3.0
cos  
5.0
Rotational equilibrium:

Taking moments about A,

T (5.0 sin )  W (2.5 cos )

T  150 N

RV = W = 400 N, Rh = T = 150 N R
Rv
Translational equilibrium:

R  Rh  Rv  1502  4002 Rh
2 2

R  427 N  430 N

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Example 16

A heavy uniform beam AB is 3.0 m long and

has a weight of 400 N. It is suspended in a
horizontal position by two vertical strings
attached to its ends. Each of the strings can TB
withstand a maximum tension of 350 N. How 1.5 m
far from A can an object of weight 200 N be d
placed on the beam so that one of the strings A B
is on the verge of breaking?
200 N
400 N

Problem-solving tip:

Taking moments about B, Take moments about a point

through which an unknown force
TA (3.0)  400(1.5)  200(3.0  d ) acts.

For the string at A to be on the verge of breaking, TA = 350 N

Hence, d = 0.75 m.

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Concept Map for Forces

Potential energy function

Hooke's Law

Upthrust
Gravitational force Electric force Elastic
Spring force
for all bodies for bodies which
submerged in a fluid are floating

Archimedes' Principle of Conservative forces

Principle Floatation

Types of Forces
See Chapter on "Dynamics"

Non-conservative forces
Forces NOT in FORCES
equilibrium
Resistive, frictional,
viscous forces
Forces in Equilibrium

Translational Rotational
equilibrium equilibrium

Condition : Condition :
Zero resultant force Zero resultant torque

which can be
solved using which is related
to the

Resolution of forces
Principle of Moments
or Vector Polygon

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Summary

1. Hooke’s law states that force is directly proportional to extension, provided that the
elastic limit has not been exceeded.

Mathematically, F = kx

2. The elastic potential energy in a deformed material can be found from the area under
the force-extension graph.

3. The pressure exerted by a fluid (liquid or gas) is given by p = gh.

4. Upthrust is the vertical upward force exerted by the surrounding fluid when a body is
submerged fully or partially in a fluid.
It is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the weight of fluid displaced by
the body.

5. Archimedes’ Principle states that for any object immersed partially or fully in a fluid,
the upthrust is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the weight of fluid
displaced by the object.

6. Principle of Floatation states that when an object is floating in equilibrium in a fluid,

the weight of the object is equal to the weight of fluid displaced by the object.

7. Frictional forces and viscous / drag forces are dissipative forces that resist the
relative motion between two objects or surfaces. In particular, the retarding forces
experienced by an object (solid, liquid or gas) moving through a fluid (liquid or gas)
are known as viscous or drag forces.

8. When a body is in equilibrium, (1) the resultant force acting on the body must be zero
in any direction, and (2) the resultant torque acting on the body must be zero about
any point.
In general, when we say that a body is in equilibrium, we mean that it is in
translational and rotational equilibrium.

9. When a particle is in equilibrium, the resultant force acting on the particle must be
zero in any direction.

NOTE: The fact that 3 coplanar forces that are in equilibrium will always have their
lines of action intersect at a common point (that is concurrent), IS NOT the condition
for a body to be in equilibrium. However, we can use this fact to help us solve
problems where 3 coplanar forces in equilibrium are involved.

10. Forces that are in equilibrium can be represented by a closed polygon, where the
forces are drawn to scale to represent them in magnitude and direction, and with the
‘head’ of a force vector joined to the ‘tail’ of the next force vector, and so on.

11. The moment of a force about a point is the product of the magnitude of the force and
the perpendicular distance of the force from the point (pivot).

Moment = F  dperpendicular

12. A couple consists of a pair of forces of equal magnitude but acting in opposite
directions whose lines of action are parallel but separate.

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The torque of a couple is the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular
distance between the forces.

13. Some of the other differences that distinguish between the moment of a force and the
torque of a couple are as follows:

Moment of a Force Torque of a Couple

 can be supplied by a single force  must be supplied by a pair of
equal & opposite parallel forces
whose lines of action are parallel
but separate

 may produce linear acceleration  has no linear acceleration but has

where the centre of mass moves angular acceleration (i.e. has
turning effects only)
 magnitude depends on the position  magnitude does not depend on
of pivot the position of pivot

Definition List

Force Force is directly proportional to the rate of change of momentum. The

direction of the force is in the direction of the change of momentum.

Field of force A region of space where a force is felt.

Hooke’s Law Force is directly proportional to extension, provided that the elastic limit has
not been exceeded.

Elastic limit Point beyond which (the spring) does not return to its original length when
the load is removed.

Pressure Pressure is force per unit area.

Hydrostatic The pressure at a certain depth or at a point in the liquid.

pressure

Density Density = mass / volume

Upthrust, U Upthrust is the vertical upward force exerted by the surrounding fluid when
a body is submerged fully or partially in a fluid.
It is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the weight of fluid
displaced by the body.

Origin of Due to the difference in pressure exerted by the fluid at the top and bottom
upthrust surfaces of the body.

Archimedes’ States that for any object immersed partially or fully in a fluid, the upthrust is
Principle equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the weight of fluid displaced
by the object.

Principle of States that when an object is floating in equilibrium in a fluid, the weight of
floatation the object is equal to the weight of fluid displaced by the object.

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Frictional Force exerted by one body on another body when two bodies slide over
Force one another. It is caused by irregularities in the surfaces in mutual contact
and depends on the surfaces in contact as well as how much they are
pressed against each other. It is the component of contact force along
surface of contact.

Drag Force The frictional force experienced either by an object as it moves through a
fluid or by a fluid as it moves over a surface.

Tensile Two forces acting in opposite directions on an object so as to tend to

Forces increase its length along the direction of the forces.

Compressive Two forces acting in opposite directions on an object so as to tend to

Force reduce its length along the direction of the forces.

Conservative A force is conservative if the work it does on an object moving between two
Force point is independent of the path the object takes e.g. gravitational,
electrostatic, elastic forces.

Non- A force is non-conservative if the work it does on an object depends on the

Conservative path taken by the object between its initial and final points e.g. friction, drag
Force force, propulsive force.

Equilibrium No resultant force acting on the body in any direction and no resultant
moment acting on the body about any point.

Centre of The single point at which the entire weight of the body can be considered to
Gravity act.

Centre of The centre of mass is the mean location of all the mass in a system. It is the
Mass point through which a single force must act for the object to accelerate
linearly without any rotation.

Moment of a The moment of a force about a point is the product of the magnitude of the
Force force and the perpendicular distance of the force from the point (pivot).

Couple A couple consists of a pair of forces equal in magnitude but acting in

opposite directions whose lines of action are parallel but separate.

Torque of a The torque of a couple is the product of one of the forces and the
Couple perpendicular distance between the forces.
Note: must include definition of couple too.

Principle of When a system is in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moments about
Moments any point is equal to the sum of the anti-clockwise moments about the same
point.

Terminal The constant velocity achieved by an object when it is falling under gravity
velocity through a viscous fluid.

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FORCES TUTORIAL

Hooke’s Law & Upthrust

Self-Attempt Questions

1. A sealed U-tube contains nitrogen in one arm and helium at pressure P in the other
arm. The gases are separated by mercury of density ρ with dimensions as shown in
the diagram. The acceleration of free fall is g.

What is the pressure of the nitrogen?

A p B xρg C p + xρg D p + (x + y)ρg

2. A 10 kg mass is suspended from two spring scales that read in kilograms as shown,
each of which has negligible weight.

Which statement is correct?

A The top scale will read zero and the lower scale will read 10 kg.
B Each scale will read 10 kg.
C Each scale will read 5 kg.
D The lower scale will read zero and the top scale will read 10 kg.

3. A boat with its cargo has a total mass of 1.2  107 kg. Taking the density of water to
be 1000 kg m3, calculate

(a) the upthrust on the boat when it is in stable equilibrium, [1.18  108 N]

(b) the volume of the boat below the water line. [1.20  104 m3]

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4. The area of the horizontal cross-section of a ship at the water-line is 1500 m2. Find the
extra depth that the ship will sink when loaded with 7.50  105 kg of cargo in

(a) fresh water of density 1000 kg m-3, and [0.500 m]

(b) sea water of relative density 1.025 with respect to water. [0.488 m]

Discussion Questions

5. Considering the vertical forces acting on a ship floating in water, explain how a ship
made of a material of higher density than water may be designed to float in water.

6. A spring A of spring constant 6.0 N m-1 is connected in series with a spring B of force
constant 3.0 N m-1. One end of the combination is securely anchored and a force of
0.6 N is applied to the other end.

(a) By how much does each spring extend? [0.10 m, 0.20 m]

(b) What is the force constant of the combination? [2.0 N m-1]

7. (Adapted from N98/II/1)

(a) A rectangular block of wood of cross-sectional area A and thickness t floats
horizontally in a liquid as shown in the figure below.

The block floats when its lower face is at a depth d in the liquid of density .
The block experiences a force F on its lower surface as a result of immersion in
the liquid.

(i) State the direction of the force F.

(ii) The pressure on the lower surface of the block due to the liquid is p.
Show that p is related to d,  and the acceleration of free fall g by the
expression p = dg.

(iii) Using the expression in (ii), show that the force F is related to the
volume V of liquid displaced by the expression F = Vg.

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(b) A fisherman’s buoy is held submerged in the sea water by a rope anchored to
the sea bed as shown below.

The buoy has volume 6.5  10–2 m3 and mass 6.0 kg. The mass of the rope
may be neglected.

(i) The expression in (a)(iii) can be used to calculate the force F, known as
the upthrust, on the submerged buoy. The density of sea water is
1.03  103 kg m–3.

Calculate the value of F. [657 N]

(ii) Show that the tension in the rope is 600 N.

8. (J03/I/20)
A child drinks a liquid of density  through a vertical straw. Atmospheric pressure is p0
and the child is capable of lowering the pressure at the top of the straw by 10%. The
acceleration of free fall is g.

What is the maximum length of straw that would enable the child to drink the liquid?
p0 9 p0 p0 10 p0
A B C D
10g 10g g g

9. (J03/I/22)
A beam, the weight of which may be neglected, is
supported by three identical springs. When a weight W is
hung from the middle of the beam, the extension of each
spring is x. The middle spring and the weight are removed.

What is the extension, in terms of x, when a weight of 2W

is hung from the middle of the beam? [3x]

10. A toy which has a mass of 50 g works by the use of a

compressed spring. The spring is compressed by 2.0 cm
when a force of 20 N is exerted on it. A child releases the
toy after compressing the spring by 3.0 cm.

How high above the point of release can the toy jump?
[0.917 m]

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Equilibrium of Forces and Turning Effects of Forces

Self-Attempt Questions

11. Three forces A, B, and C act on a body as shown. A fourth force R is required to keep
the body in equilibrium.

Determine the x-component and y-component of the force R required to keep the body
in equilibrium. [ R x = - 19.26 N, R y = 24.47 N]

12. A ruler of length 0.300 m is pivoted at its centre. Equal and

opposite forces of magnitude 2.0 N are applied to the ends of the
ruler, creating a couple as shown in the diagram on the right.

(a) Calculate the magnitude of the torque of the couple.

[0.460 N m ]
(b) As the ruler rotates about the pivot and the direction of the
couple remains unchanged, what are the positions of the
ruler that will give rise to

(i) maximum torque

(ii) minimum torque?

Calculate the maximum and minimum torque. [0.600 N m, zero]

13. (J85/I/2)
In the diagram, a body S of weight W
hangs vertically by a thread tied at Q to
the string PQR.

If the system is in equilibrium, find the

tension in the section PQ in terms of W.
[1.73W]

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14. (N89/I/1)
Two forces P and Q act at a point X as shown in the
vector diagram on the right.

In which of the following diagrams below does the vector

F represent the force which must be applied at X to
maintain equilibrium?

15. A body of mass 2.00 kg rests on a smooth slope of

angle 20.0 to the horizontal, supported by a string
which makes an angle of 30.0 with the slope as
shown.

Find the tension T in the string and the normal reaction

force N acting on the body.
[T = 7.75 N, N = 14.6 N]

Discussion Questions

16. A uniform diving board AC of mass 60 kg is shown in the diagram, bolted at B, pivoted
at P and with a diver of mass 50 kg standing at the edge C.

(a) Sketch a diagram showing the forces acting on AC, defining all your forces
clearly.

(b) Find the tension T in the bolt at B and the reaction R at the pivot at P.
[1128 N, 2207 N]

17. A ladder PQ, resting on a rough floor against a rough wall, is just on
the point of slipping.

(a) Explain the origin of the forces X, Y, W.

(b) Draw a vector diagram to show these forces in equilibrium.

(c) If the weight of the ladder is 200 N and Y is 150 N in the

direction 70 from the floor, determine the magnitude of
force X. [78.2 N]

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18. A picture of weight 5 N is suspended from a hook on

a wall by a chord that has a breaking strength of
25 N.
(a) Calculate the angle α that the chord makes
with the horizontal when the tension in the 

chord is 25 N. [5.740]

(b) Is this value of α the maximum or minimum possible value?

19. (N85/II/1)
A picture of weight 5 N is suspended from a hook on a wall
by a cord which has a breaking strength of 25 N. Initially the
picture is found to be too low (Fig. A); the cord is shortened,
with the intention of hanging the picture as in Fig. B.
Fig A
However, when the picture is replaced, the cord breaks
immediately.

Explain why the cord broke when supporting a load so much

less than its breaking strength. Fig B

20. A hungry bear of weight 700 N walks out

on a beam in an attempt to retrieve some
goodies hanging at the end. The beam is
uniform of length 6.00 m and weighs
200 N. The goodies weigh 80 N.

(a) Draw a free-body diagram for the

beam.

(b) When the bear is at x = 1.00 m,

find the tension in the wire and the
components of the reaction force at
the hinge.
[343 N, 172 N, 683 N]

(c) If the wire can withstand a maximum tension of 900 N, what is the maximum
distance the bear can walk before the wire breaks? [5.14 m]

21. The right-angle rule shown in the figure hangs at rest

from a peg. It is cut from a uniform metal sheet. One arm
is L cm long while the other is 2L cm long.

Find the angle at which it will hang. [14.00]

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Data Analysis Question

22. The Safti Link Bridge is a 100 m long by 14.5 m wide dual carriageway with pedestrian
footpath linking the Safti Military Institute and the training ground across the Pan-Island
Expressway (PIE). The side view of the bridge is shown in Fig. 22.1.

A tower is sunk into the ground and the roadway is supported by many cables. One
end of each cable is attached to the roadway while the other end is attached to the
tower. As you travel along the bridge, you can see the cables along the centre divider
of the roadway. As there are a total of ten cables, each cable is supporting one-tenth
of roadway. Segment A is a typical section of one-tenth of the roadway. The cable
attached to segment A is supporting the mass of segment A as well as the load of the
traffic on it. Having many cables is a much better system than that of a traditional
suspension bridge which relies on the immerse strength of one pair of cables taking
the entire load. Simplified data concerning the bridge are given below:

22.5 m
θ

100 m

Fig. 22.1

Length of bridge supported by the tower = 100 m

Height of tower above roadway = 22.5 m

Total mass of all the cables = 6.8  104 kg

Mass of roadway = 3.5  105 kg

Maximum mass of load of traffic on a normal day = 1.3  105 kg

(assume uniform distribution)

Maximum mass of load of traffic during military exercise = 2.9  105 kg

(assume uniform distribution)

Horizontal distance between cables = 10 m

Vertical distance between cables = 4.5 m

Fundamental frequency of the bridge = 1.12 Hz

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(a) What reason does the paragraph give for the construction with many
cables?

(b) When a civil engineer designs the tower, he needs to consider the maximum
total mass which the tower may need to support.

Calculate that maximum total mass. [7.08  105 kg]

(c) Calculate the mass of 10 m of the roadway and the maximum mass of traffic
which the 10 m of roadway may have to support. [3.5  104 kg, 2.9  104 kg]

(d) Calculate the angle, θ, (in degree) between a cable and the horizontal. [24.2o]

(e) Draw a force diagram of a fully laden 10 m section of road at segment A, given
that the following forces act at the segment.

W: Weight of 10 m of roadway
N: Force exerted by traffic on 10 m of roadway
T: Tension in cable
R: Net force exerted by the rest of the roadway

(f) By considering the conditions necessary for translational equilibrium, state the
equations relating W, N, T and R.

(g) Hence, or otherwise, calculate the tension in a cable when the bridge is fully
laden. (The tension in all cables is assumed to be the same.) [1.53  106 N]

(h) When the civil engineer designs the bridge, he needs to consider the
possibility of vibration of the bridge.

Under what condition will the bridge vibrate with maximum amplitude? Suggest
two possible external sources that will give rise to this condition.

(i) The deflection, d, of the bridge is governed by

5 PL3
d
384EI

where P is the loading which is equal to 4.7  106 N.

L is the length of the bridge.

E is the Modulus of Elasticity which is equal to 8  1011 N m-2

I is the Moment of Inertia which is equal to 15 m4.

Calculate the deflection of the bridge. [5 mm]

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Challenging Questions

23. A beaker of water has a piece of ice floating in it. By applying appropriate principles,
determine if the level of the water in the beaker rises, falls or remains the same after
the ice melts.

24. A dam is constructed out of a rectangular 9m

block of concrete with dimensions as shown
in the figure on the right. The densities of
concrete and water may be taken to be
2200 kg m-3 and 1000 kg m-3 respectively.
CG Fav
20 m h
(a) Assuming the force due to the water
pressure Fav to act at mid depth as ½h
shown in the figure, determine the W
depth of water which can be held by A
the dam before it topples about point
A. [19.2 m]

(b) Explain if the value obtained in (a) is an over-estimate or under-estimate.

(c) Considering that water pressure acts normally on a surface, suggest a more
practical design of the dam.

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