Topic 4: Forces

H1/H2 Physics (2013)

Content
 Types of forces
 Equilibrium of forces
 Centre of gravity
 Turning effects of forces

Learning Outcomes

Candidates should be able to:

(a) recall and apply Hooke’s law to new situations or to solve related problems.

(b) deduce the elastic potential energy in a deformed material from the area under the
force-extension graph.
(c) describe the forces on mass, charge and current in gravitational, electric and magnetic
fields as appropriate.
(d) solve problems using the equation p = gh.

(e) show an understanding of the origin of the upthrust acting on a body in a fluid.

(f) state that an upthrust is provided by the fluid displaced by a submerged or floating
object.
(g) calculate the upthrust in terms of the weight of the displaced fluid.

(h) recall and apply the principle that, for an object floating in equilibrium, the upthrust is
equal to the weight of the object to new situations or to solve related problems.
(i) show a qualitative understanding of frictional forces and viscous forces including air
resistance. (No treatment of the coefficients of friction and viscosity is required).
(j) use a vector triangle to represent forces in equilibrium.

(k) show an understanding that the weight of a body may be taken as acting at a single
point known as its centre of gravity.
(l) show an understanding that a couple is a pair of forces which tends to produce
rotation only.
(m) define and apply the moment of a force and the torque of a couple.

(n) show an understanding that, when there is no resultant force and no resultant torque, a
system is in equilibrium.
(o) apply the principle of moments to new situations or to solve related problems.

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Concept Map

1 Introduction
One of the main goals of Physics has been to understand the immense variety of forces in the
universe in terms of the fewest number of fundamental laws. Today, all forces are
understood in terms of just four fundamental interactions as follows:

Force Effects Range/m

Gravitational Force Weakest. Acts on all masses infinite
Electromagnetic Force Acts on electric charges infinite
Strong Nuclear Force Holds protons and neutrons together in a 10-15
nucleus
Weak Nuclear Force Causes radioactive decay processes. 10-17

At high temperatures, two of these interactions – electromagnetic and weak nuclear force –
are now understood as the effects of a single electroweak interaction. The ultimate goal is to
describe all forces in terms of a single interaction.

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2 Types of Forces
Learning Outcomes
(a) Recall and apply Hooke's law to new situations or to solve related problems.
(b) Deduce the elastic potential energy in a deformed material from the area under the force-
extension graph.
(c) Describe the forces on mass, charge and current in gravitational, electric and magnetic fields, as
appropriate.
(k) Show an understanding that the weight of a body may be taken as acting at a single point known
as its centre of gravity.

In the past, we learn that a force is a push or a pull which one body exerts on another.

Now, we know that a force is defined as the rate of change of momentum of an object which
is free to move. The direction of the force is in the direction of the change in momentum

Conservative and Non Conservative Forces

A force is conservative if the work it does on an object moving between two points is
independent of the path the object takes.

A force is non-conservative if the work it does on an object depends on the path taken by the
object between its initial and final points.

Gravity is an example of a conservative force, while friction is an example of a non-

conservative force.

Example 1 Forces on a Mass in a Gravitational, electric and magnetic Field

(1) (2)

+ +

Gravitational force:
 is due to the interaction between masses
 on an object is called weight if it is due to Electric force:
the gravity of the earth  is due to the interaction between
charges

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(3)

Magnetic force:
 is due to the interaction between
magnetic materials

 acts on moving charges and current-

carrying conductors when they are
placed in magnetic fields

Example 2 Contact forces (except weight)

(1) Forces on the ball (2) Forces on the block

T = tension N = normal reaction (normal contact force)

W = weight of ball W = weight of block

(3) Forces on the block (pushed to right) (4)

F = forward force; f = frictional force; U = upthrust (acts upwards, exists as long

N = normal reaction; W = weight of block as the object is in fluid)
R = drag force (force of resistance) (acts
opposite to the direction of motion, exists
only when the object is in motion)
W = weight of ball

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3 Centre of Gravity (C.G.)

 Every particle of mass is attracted toward the center of the earth by the force of gravity.
 The weight of a body may be taken as acting at a single point known as its centre of
gravity (C.G.).
 The C.G. of a homogeneous, symmetric body must lie on its axis of symmetry.

4 Free-Body Diagrams

A mechanical system may consist of more than one object or body. A free-body diagram
takes into account all the forces acting on a given body, and these are marked out on the
diagram.

Example 3 A single-body system

L
L = lift
W = weight
D
T T = thrust
D = drag

Example 4 A multiple-body system

(T = tension in string. W = weight of object.)

T3

T1 T2

T1 T2

For light pulleys,

W1 W2 W=0

When a system consists of more than one object, you can clarify the situation by isolating
each object and drawing separate free-body diagrams.

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5 Hooke’s Law
Hooke’s law states that the change in length e of a material is directly proportional to
the resultant force F applied, provided the limit of proportionality has not been
exceeded.

Unstretched Lo
spring Stretched spring
L

force

𝐹 = 𝑘𝑒

where F is the force applied to the material,

Lo is the unstretched length of material
L is final length of material
e is the extension of the material = L – Lo
k is the proportionality (force) constant [unit: N m-1]

Graph to show how F, the force applied, depends on the extension assuming it obeys
Hooke's law.
Force /N
F = kx

Extension
Note: x/m
(i) The law applies to springs as well as metals in the form of wires.
(ii) If two spring constant k1 and k2 are connected in parallel, they can be replaced by a
single spring constant keff = k1 + k2.
If the two springs are connected in series, they can be replaced by a single spring of
1 1 1
constant  
k eff k1 k 2
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Example 5

A spring obeying Hooke's law has an unstretched length of 50 mm and a spring constant of
400 Nm-1.
What is the tension in the spring when the overall length is 70 mm? (8.0 N)

extension, x = 0.070 – 0.050 = 0.020 m

Tension, F = k x = (400) (0.020) = 8.0 N

6 Elastic Potential Energy

An external force Fext acting on a wire causing it to extend from x1 to x2 performs work given
by
x2
W= x1
Fext dx

This work is stored as elastic potential energy in the wire. From the expression in the box,
we recognise that the elastic potential energy is equal to the area under the force-
extension curve, between the limits x1 and x2.

Force/ N

Area under the F-x graph

gives the amount of
energy needed to stretch
spring from an extension
of x1 to x2.

x1 x2
Extension x

Energy stored in a deformed material that obeys Hooke’s law

The energy stored (known as elastic Force

potential energy or strain energy) in a
deformed material that obeys Hooke’s law, F
such as a spring or wire, can be found from
the area under the force-extension graph.

Elastic potential energy (PE):

1 1 F2 extension
U Fx  kx 2 
2 2 2k x
0

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Example 6
A force of 10 N acting on a certain spring gives an extension of 40 mm. Two such springs
are connected end-to-end and this double-length spring is extended by 40 mm. Assuming
that the springs conform to Hooke’s Law, what is the strain energy? (0.1 J)
F 10
Spring constant for each spring, k1  k 2   3
 250 N m -1
x 40 10
1 1 1
Series:   , thus Keff = 125 Nm-1
k eff k1 k 2
1 1
Strain Energy = EPE  k eff x 2  (125)(0.040) 2 = 0.10 J
2 2

Example 7

What would be the energy required to extend the spring of (spring constant k) from an
extension of x1 to x2?

Force
F

extension

0 x1 x2 x

The extension of a rubber band when a variable force is applied is given by the graph below.
The original length of the spring is 0.05 m. What is the increase in potential energy stored in
the rubber band when it extends from 0.1 m to 0.4 m? (2.4 J)
1 2 1 2
Force/ N Energy  kx2  kx1
2 2

F  kx  2  k (0.05) k  40 Nm 1

2
1 2 1 2
Energy  kx 2  kx1  2.4 J
2 2
0.05 0.10 0.40 Length of spring /m

0 0.05 0.35 Extension / m

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Learning Outcomes
(d) Solve problems using the equation p =  g h.
(e) Show an understanding of the origin of the upthrust acting on a body in a fluid.
(f) State that an upthrust is provided by the fluid displaced by a submerged or floating object.
(g) Calculate the upthrust in terms of the weight of the displaced fluid.
(h) Recall and apply the principle that, for an object floating in equilibrium, the upthrust is equal to
the weight of the object to new situations or to solve related problems.

7 Upthrust (For H2 only)

Upthrust is the vertical upward force exerted by the surrounding fluid when a body is
submerged fully or partially in a fluid. It is the resultant force due to the difference in
pressure exerted by the fluid at the top and bottom surfaces of the body. It is equal in
magnitude to the weight of fluid displaced by the body.

Consider a solid cylinder of height h and cross-sectional area A, submerged in a fluid of

density  as shown.

By definition, pressure 𝑝=

Hence, pressure on the top surface,

Weight of Column of Fluid Above
𝑝 = +𝑝
Cross − sectional Area 𝐴
𝑚 𝑔
= +𝑝
𝐴
𝜌 𝐴ℎ 𝑔
= +𝑝
𝐴
=𝜌 ℎ 𝑔+𝑝

Similarly, the pressure on the bottom surface,

𝑝 =𝜌 ℎ 𝑔+𝑝

Thus the downward force on the cylinder, 𝐹 = 𝜌 ℎ 𝑔 + 𝑝 𝐴

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The upward force on the cylinder, 𝐹 = 𝜌 ℎ 𝑔 + 𝑝 𝐴

Hence, the resultant upward force (upthrust) on the cylinder due to pressure difference
between the top and bottom surfaces,
𝑈 =𝐹 −𝐹
= 𝜌 𝑔( ℎ − ℎ ) 𝐴
= 𝜌 𝑔ℎ𝐴
= 𝜌 𝑔𝑉
𝑈=𝑚 𝑔 (weight of the fluid displaced by the object)

The above result is known as the Archimedes’ Principle which states that for any object
immersed partially or fully in a fluid, the upthrust is equal in magnitude to the weight
of fluid displaced by the object.

Example 8
(a) What is the buoyancy force (upthrust) on a human body of volume 7.4 x 10 m when
totally immersed in
(i) air of density 1.3 kg m-3
(ii) sea water of density 1030 kg m-3 ?
Since the body is totally immersed in the fluid, the volume of body would equal
the volume of fluid displaced.
i. By Archimedes’ Principle:
𝑼 = 𝝆𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒈𝑽𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅
= (𝟏. 𝟑)(𝟗, 𝟖𝟏)(𝟕. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟐 ) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟒 𝑵
ii. By Archimedes’ Principle:
𝑼 = 𝝆𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒈𝑽𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅
= (𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟎)(𝟗, 𝟖𝟏)(𝟕. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟐 ) = 𝟕𝟒𝟖 𝑵
(b) Hence explain why, the upthrust acting on a human body when in air is normally
ignored.
The average person weighs about 600 N and the upthrust in air of about 1 N is less
than 0.2 % of the weight of the person, making it negligible.

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 Conceptual Question
Is upthrust and elastic force conservative forces?
Upthrust is due to pressure difference which is an effect of gravity. Elastic
force is due to electrostatic attraction between atoms in the materials. Even
though both gravity and electromagnetic forces are conservative forces, the
derived forces such as upthrust and elastic force may not be conservative.
E.g. A rubber band stretched beyond its limit of proportionality or a cylinder
that is crushed under the immense water pressure under the sea are examples
of how elastic force and upthrust are non-conservative.

7.1 Principle of Floatation

Principle of Floatation states that when an object is floating in equilibrium in a
fluid, the weight of the object is equal to the weight of fluid displaced by the
object.

Hence, an object floats because the upthrust acting on it is equal and opposite to the
weight of the object. The object sinks when the upthrust acting on it is less than its
weight. A ship made of steel can float because its internal hollow volume displaces
a large amount of water and produces sufficient upthrust to keep the ship floating.

Example 9
A student rolled a lump of plasticene into the shape of an air-tight sphere. He
dropped the plasticene into a bucket of water and observed that the plasticene sphere
sank to the bottom of the water.
Using Archimedes’ Principle and the Principle of Floatation, show that the density
of the plasticene must be greater than the density of water.

As the plasticene sinks, this implies that the weight of the plasticene is larger
that the upthrust on it by the water.
𝑾𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒆 > 𝑈
Archimedes’ Principle, 𝑼 = 𝑾𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅
Therefore,
𝑾𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒆 > 𝑾𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅
𝝆𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒆 𝒈𝑽𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒆 > 𝝆𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒈𝑽𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅

When the plasticene is fully submerged, 𝑽𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒆 = 𝑽𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅

Hence 𝝆𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒆 > 𝝆𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

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 Example 10
A boat floating in fresh water displaces 35.6 kN of water.
(a) What weight of water would this boat displace if it were floating in salt water of
density 1024 kg m-3?
For the boat to float, the upthrust on the boat must be equal to the weight
of boat W according to the law of floatation whether in salt or fresh water.
Hence weight of salt water displaced = 35.6 kN

(b) What is the volume of salt water displaced ?

Upthrust = weight of salt water displaced.
ρsVsg = 35.6 kN
Vs = 3.54 m3

Example 11
A solid weighs 237.5 g in air and 12.5 g when totally immersed in water. Calculate
the relative density of a liquid in which the solid would float with one-fifth of its
volume exposed above the liquid surface.
(Take density of water as 1000 kg m-3)
Considering the free body of the solid in air:
T1 By Newton's 1st Law:
T1 = W ----- (1)

Considering the free body of the solid in water:

By Newton's 1st Law:
W
T2 + U1 = W
U1 = W - T2
ρwater Vdisplaced g = W - T2

T2 Since solid is totally immersed in water

W  T2
U1 VSolid  Vdisplaced 
 water g
(0.2375  0.0125) 9.81
= = 2.25 x 10-4 m3
1000 (9.81)
W

U2 Considering the free body of the solid in water:

By Principle of Floatation:
U2 = W
V 4 
 liquid  v Solid  g  W
5 
ρliquid 4/5 2.25 x 10-4 (9.81) = 0.2375 (9.81)
W
ρliquid = 1319 kg m-3
liquid 1319 kg m 3
Relative density of liquid = 
 water 1000 kg m  3
= 1.319 = 1.32 (3 s.f.)

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Learning Outcomes
(i) Show a qualitative understanding of frictional forces and viscous forces including air resistance.
(No treatment of the coefficients of friction and viscosity is required.)

8 Frictional and Viscous Forces

Friction and viscous forces are known as dissipative forces. Some energy of the object
moving through the fluid is dissipated as heat to the surroundings.

8.1 Friction
Frictional force is the force exerted by one body on another body when two bodies
slide over one another. It is caused by irregularities in the surfaces in mutual contact
and depends on the surfaces in contact as well as how much they are pressed against
each other. It is the component of contact force along surface of contact.

v
friction

Close examination of the flattest

and most highly polished surface
reveals hollows and humps more
than one hundred atoms high.
When one solid is placed on
another, contact occurs only at a
few places of small areas. The
pressure at the points of contact is extremely high and causes the humps to flatten
out until the increased area of contact enables the upper solid to be supported. At the
points of contact, small, cold-welded 'joints' are formed by the strong adhesive
forces between molecules which are very close together. These joints have to be
broken before one surface can move over the other.

8.2 Viscous / Drag Force

It is resistance when a solid move in a fluid, the force is dependent on the speed of
the object.
In a viscous flow, fluid can be regarded as made up of a stack of very thin layers,
each moving with different speeds due to internal friction between the layers. When
an object moves relative to a fluid with velocity v, the layer of fluid P adjacent to it
is dragged along by it. But the next layer Q slows layer P down. There is a gradual
decrease in velocity for the layers with distance away from the object. The overall
effect is represented by a net retarding force on the object. This retarding force, F
(see diagram below) is acting to the right which opposes motion.

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 The magnitude of the viscous force increases with increase in speed of the object.
The exact relationship depends also on the shape, size, texture of surface, viscosity
of fluid, etc.
8.3 Terminal Velocity
It is the final constant velocity of object falling in a viscous liquid when the resultant
force on it is zero as downward force of gravity equals in magnitude to the upward
forces of drag and upthrust.

1. Consider a body falling through a fluid under laminar conditions, so that Stokes'
law applies (so that viscous drag is directly proportional to the speed of the
body).
2. The figure above shows the forces acting on the object at the instant when its
speed is v and W is the weight of the object, U the upthrust exerted on the object
by the surrounding fluid, and F the drag forces on the object due to the viscosity
of the fluid.
3. W and U are constants with time but F is directly proportional to the speed of
the body.
4. The resultant force downwards, R at any instant is given by R = mg – F – U.
5. If the object falls from rest, the drag force F = 0 N initially. Thus, if we
consider the upthrust U also to be negligible, then the object will be under free-
fall initially.
6. But as the object accelerates downwards, F increases, hence R decreases.
7. Eventually, F increases to a value that makes the resultant force, and hence the
acceleration of the body zero. The body will then continue to fall with a
constant speed, called the terminal velocity.
8. The condition for terminal velocity is therefore given by W = U + F
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 Example 12
The mass of a diver is 61 kg. In a free-fall dive from an aircraft, before the parachute
was opened, the diver reached a terminal speed of 90 m s-1. Ignoring upthrust,
calculate
(i) the weight of the diver,
Weight of diver = mg
= 61 (9.81) = 598 N

(ii) the force of air resistance on the diver when at the terminal speed,
At terminal velocity, diver is in translational equilibrium.
By Newton's 1st Law
Air resistance on diver upwards = weight of diver downwards
= 598 N

(iii) the magnitude and unit of the constant k in the expression air resistance = kv2
Since air resistance is given by the equation
F = kν2
598 = k (90)2
k = 0.0738 kg m-1

(iv) using the expression given in (iii), estimate the air resistance on the diver when
he is moving with a speed of 25 m s-1.

F = kν2
F = 0.0738 (25)2 = 46.1 N

(v) Sketch appropriate graphs to show how each of the following quantities vary
with time:
1. the velocity of the diver,
2. viscous drag acting on the diver,
3. the resultant force on the diver.

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9 Equilibrium of Forces
Learning Outcomes
(n) Show an understanding that, when there is no resultant force and no resultant torque, a system is
in equilibrium.

9.1 Conditions for Equilibrium

 When a body is in equilibrium,
(1) the resultant force on it must be zero in all directions
- it is in translational equilibrium
- the linear acceleration of the centre of mass is zero in all directions (either
at rest or moving at constant velocity)

(2) the resultant torque on it must be zero about any axes

- it is in rotational equilibrium
- the angular acceleration of the centre of mass is zero about any axis (either
not rotating or rotating at constant angular velocity)

 When a particle is in equilibrium,

(1) the resultant force on it must be zero
- it is in translational equilibrium
- the linear acceleration of the centre of mass is zero in all directions

Note that there is no need to determine the resultant torque on a particle as the
forces will all act through the centre of mass of the point particle.

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Learning Outcomes
(j) Use a vector triangle to represent forces in equilibrium.

9.2 Translational Equilibrium

When the resultant force on an object is zero in all directions, there is no acceleration of its
centre of mass and the object is said to be in translational equilibrium.

 Method 1: Summation of forces in the x, y (and z) direction is zero

If the forces can be resolved into components in two chosen perpendicular directions, say
x and y-axis, then both Fx = 0 and Fy = 0.

If an object is stationary under the influence of the forces as shown above, then at
equilibrium,
Fx = 0 F1 F2
–F1 cos1 + F2 cos2 – F3cos3 + F4cos4 = 0 1 2
4
Fy= 0 3 F4
F1 sin1 + F2 sin2 – F3sin3 – F4sin4 = 0
F3

 Method 2: Forces must form a closed polygon

Since the resultant force acting on an object is zero, the vector sum of forces acting on the
object is zero. The vector diagram showing the addition of all forces acting on the object
will be a closed polygon.

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Learning Outcomes
(l) Show an understanding that a couple is a pair of forces that tends to produce rotation only.
(m) Define and apply the moment of a force and the torque of a couple.
(o) Apply the principle of moments to new situations or to solve related problems.

9.3 Rotational Equilibrium

When the resultant torque of an object is zero about all axes, there is no angular acceleration
of the object and the object is said to be in rotational equilibrium.

9.3.1 Moment of a Force

The moment of a force about a point is the product of the magnitude of the force and
the perpendicular distance of the point from the line of action of the force.

A moment supplied by a non-

zero single force produces a
linear acceleration of its centre
of mass as well as an angular
acceleration. The direction of
the moment by the force
following the Right-Hand
Corkscrew Rule.

9.3.2 Torque of a Couple

The torque of a couple is the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular
distance between the lines of action of the forces. (Must include definition of couple if
asked to define torque of a couple)

A couple consist of a pair of forces of equal magnitude but opposite direction whose
lines of action are parallel and do not coincide.

The magnitude of the torque of a

couple  is defined as the product of
one of the forces F and the
perpendicular distance d between the
lines of action of the forces.

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9.3.3 Principle of Moments
When the resultant torque of an object is zero about all axes, it further implies that the
sum of moments of all forces acting on the object would be zero about any point.
Hence, the principle of moments may be used deal with objects in rotational
equilibrium.

The Principle of Moments states that when a body is in equilibrium, the sum of
clockwise moments about any axis must be equal to the sum of anticlockwise
moments about the same axis.

Example 13
A uniform rod XY of weight 10.0 N is freely hinged
to a wall at X. It is held horizontal by a force F
acting from Y at an angle of 60o to the vertical as
shown in the diagram. What is the value of F?

Considering the free body of rod XY:

Since the rod is in equilibrium,
𝜏⃑ = 0 → 𝑀⃑ =0

Taking moment about point X, by principle of moments:

Anticlockwise moment = Clockwise moment
1
Fcos 60 𝐿 = 𝑊 𝐿
2
𝐹 = 10.0 𝑁

10 Special Cases of Equilibrium

10.1 Two Force Systems
For a rigid body at equilibrium subjected to forces acting at only two points, the two
forces must
1. have the same magnitude,
2. have the same line of action,
3. be opposite in direction.

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10.2 Three Force Systems
For a rigid body at equilibrium subjected to forces acting at only three points, the lines
of action of the three forces must either be
1. concurrent (intersect at a point) OR
2. parallel

Conceptual Question
If the lines of action of 3 coplanar forces are concurrent, the 3 forces must be able to
maintain a body in equilibrium. Is this statement true or false?

False

If the lines of action of 3 coplanar forces are parallel, the 3 forces must be able to
maintain a body in equilibrium. Is this statement true or false?

False

Example 14
The diagram below shows a heavy flagpole PQ hinged
at a vertical wall at end P and held by a wire
connected to the end Q and a point R on the wall. The
weight of the flagpole is W and the tension in the wire
is T. What is the direction of the force exerted by the
wall on the flagpole?

From P to S

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10.3 Equilibrium Under Three or more Forces

With three forces acting on a system in equilibrium, a closed triangle can be drawn to
represent the forces in magnitude and direction (in the force diagram).

 
(clockwise) (anti-clockwise)
Force Diagram Force Diagram
Physical Diagram
Note that the arrows showing the directions of the forces follow each other around the
triangle (either clockwise or anti-clockwise).

With more than three

forces acting on a
system in equilibrium,


a closed polygon can
be drawn to represent
the forces in
magnitude and
direction (in the force
diagram).
Force Diagram
Physical Diagram

For systems in equilibrium, notice that the lines of action of the non-parallel forces pass
through a common point (in the physical diagram).

Physical Diagram Physical Diagram

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Example 15

A block of mass 20 kg is to be lifted by

a light horizontal level of length 1.0 m.
Where should the lever be pivoted so
that a force of 50 N can balance the
block as shown by the figure on the
right? With the lever in this position,
what will be the force exerted on the
pivot?

Let F = 50 N, and let the weight of the block be W.

By Principle of Moments

For rotational equilibrium (take moments about pivot),

Anti-clockwise moments = Clockwise moments

Fx = W(1.0 – x) W 20(9.81)
x 
F  W 50  20(9.81)
x(F + W) = W  0.80 m

Example 16 C
T
A smooth sphere of weight W is
supported by a string and is in contact
with a smooth vertical wall. One end of
the string is fastened to a point on the 
surface of the sphere and the other end is A N
O
attached to a point on the wall. If the
length of the string is equal to the radius
of the sphere, find the tension T in the
string and the reaction N of the wall on
the sphere in terms of its weight, W. W

Given: OC = 2AO Resolving forces horizontally for equilibrium,

1 T cos   N
cos      600
2  N  T cos 60 0
Resolving forces vertically for equilibrium,  0 . 58 W
T sin   W
W
T   1 . 15 W
sin 60 0

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 rope
Example 17
C B
A uniform beam of weight 400 N is 5.0 m
long. One end of the beam is hinged to a beam
vertical wall while the other end is
attached by a 3.0 m long horizontal rope wall
to a point on the wall (see figure on the
right).
Find
(1) the tension T in the rope, and
(2) the magnitude of the force exerted by hinge
A
the hinge on the beam.

The diagram above can be redrawn as

follows:

3.0
cos  
5.0
Rotational equilibrium:

Taking moments about A,

T (5.0 sin )  W (2.5 cos)

T  150 N
RV = W = 400 N, Rh = T = 150N
Translational equilibrium:

2 2
R  Rh  Rv  150 2  400 2
R  427 N  430 N

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Example 18

A heavy uniform beam AB is 3.0 m long

and has a weight of 400 N. It is TB
1.5 m
suspended in a horizontal position by two d
vertical strings attached to its ends. Each A B
of the strings can withstand a maximum
tension of 350 N. How far from A can an
200
object of weight 200 N be placed on the N 400 N
beam so that one of the strings is on the
verge of breaking?

Problem-solving tip:

Taking moments about B, Take moments about a point

through which an unknown force
acts.
TA (3.0)  400(1.5)  200(3.0  d )

For the string at A to be on the verge of breaking, TA = 350 N

Hence, d = 0.75 m

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 Concept Map for Forces

Potential energy function

Hooke's Law

Upthrust
Gravitational force Electric force Elastic
Spring force
for all bodies for bodies which
submerged in a fluid are floating

Archimedes' Principle of Conservative forces

Principle Floatation

Types of Forces
See Chapter on "Dynamics"

Non-conservative forces
Forces NOT in FORCES
equilibrium
Resistive, frictional,
viscous forces
Forces in Equilibrium

Translational Rotational
equilibrium equilibrium

Condition : Condition :
Zero resultant force Zero resultant torque

which can be
solved using which is related
to the

Resolution of forces
Principle of Moments
or Vector Polygon

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 Summary

1. Hooke’s Law states that the change in length (extension or compression) of a

material is directly proportional to the deforming force applied, provided the
limit of proportionality has not been exceeded.

Mathematically, F = kx

2. The elastic potential energy in a deformed material can be found from the
area under the force-extension graph.

3. The pressure exerted by a fluid (liquid or gas) is given by p = gh.

4. Upthrust is the vertical upward force exerted by the surrounding fluid

when a body is submerged fully or partially in a fluid. It is the resultant force
due to the difference in pressure exerted by the fluid at the top and bottom
surfaces of the body. It is equal in magnitude to the weight of fluid
displaced by the body.

5. Archimedes’ Principle states that for any object immersed partially or fully in
a fluid, the upthrust is equal in magnitude to the weight of fluid displaced by
the body.

6. Principle of Floatation states that for a floating object, the weight of the
object is equal in magnitude to the weight of fluid displaced by the floating
object. This is because when a body is floating in equilibrium in a fluid, the
upthrust on it is equal in magnitude to its weight and the upthrust is also
equal in magnitude to the weight of fluid displaced by the body.

7. Frictional forces and viscous / drag forces are dissipative forces that resist the
relative motion between two objects or surfaces. In particular, the retarding
forces experienced by an object (solid, liquid or gas) moving through a fluid
(liquid or gas) are known as viscous or drag forces.

8. When a body is in equilibrium, (1) the resultant force acting on the body
must be zero in all directions, and (2) the resultant torque acting on the
body must be zero about any axis.
In general, when we say that a body is in equilibrium, we mean that it is in
translational and rotational equilibrium.

9. When a particle is in equilibrium, the resultant force acting on the particle

must be zero in all directions.

NOTE THAT : The fact that 3 coplanar forces that are in equilibrium will
always have their lines of action intersect at a common point (that is
concurrent), IS NOT the condition for a body to be in equilibrium. However,
we can use this fact to help us solve problems where 3 coplanar forces in
equilibrium are involved.

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10. Forces that are in equilibrium can be represented by a closed polygon, where
the forces are drawn to scale to represent them in magnitude and direction,
and with the ‘head’ of a force vector joined to the ‘tail’ of the next force vector,
and so on.

11. The moment of a force about a point is defined as the product of the
magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance of the point from the
line of action of the force.
Moment = F x dperpendicular

12. A couple is a pair of forces that are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction, and whose lines of action do not coincide.
The torque of a couple  is defined as the product of one of the forces of the
couple F, and the perpendicular distance d between the lines of action of the
forces.

13. Some of the other differences that distinguish between the moment of a force
and the torque of a couple are as follows:

Moment of a Force Torque of a Couple

 can be supplied by a single force  must be supplied by a pair of
equal & opposite parallel
forces whose lines of action do
not coincide
 may produce linear acceleration  has no linear acceleration but
where the centre of mass moves has angular acceleration (ie
has turning effects only)
 magnitude depends on the  magnitude does not depend on
position of pivot the position of pivot

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