THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY.

SCHOOL OF TECHNOLOGY.

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT.

ELECTRICAL MACHINES 2.

DEE 310

PREPARED BY : Mr. M. S. Phiri.

: Electrical Power Section

DATE : March 2009 ( revised ).

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 ALTERNATORS.

INTRODUCTION.

A.C Generators or Alternators operate on the same fundamental principles of

electromagnetic Induction as D.C Generators. They also consist of an Armature winding
and a Magnetic Field. Standard construction consist of Armature windings mounted on a
Stator and Field windings on a Rotor.
The Stator consists of a cast-iron frame which supports the Armature core having
slots on its inner periphery for housing the armature conductors.
The Rotor has alternate North and South Poles fixed on its outer rim. The magnetic
poles are excited from direct current supplied by a D.C Source. In most cases, exciting
current is obtained on the alternator shaft itself where a small D.C Shunt machine is
mounted. Because the Field magnets are rotating, this current is supplied through two
Slip Rings. Slip rings are metal rings completely encircling the shaft of a machine but
insulated from it. One end of the dc rotor winding is tied to each of the two slip rings on
the shaft, and a brush rides on each ring. If the positive end of a dc voltage source is
connected to one brush and the negative end to the other, then the same dc voltage will be
applied to the field winding at all times regardless of the angular position or speed of the
rotor. In modern machines, to eliminate the problem of brush wear and carbon dust,
Brushless Excitation Systems have been developed in which a 3-phase exciter and a
group of rectifiers supply the dc to the main alternator. The ac exciter and rectifiers are
mounted on the main shaft and turn together with the alternator.
When the rotor rotates, the stator conductors are cut by the magnetic flux produced
by the rotor poles, hence they have induced emf in them. Since the magnetic poles are
alternating, they induce an emf and hence current in armature conductors which is also
alternating. The alternating emf produced in the stator conductors has frequency which
depends on the number of N and S poles and direction or rotational speed which is given
by Flemings Right Hand Rule.

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 1.0 CONSTRUCTION.
1.1

1.1.1 STATOR FRAME : It is used for holding the armature stampings and windings in
position. Low speed large diameter alternators have frames cast into sections( for ease of
manufacture ).
Ventilation’s maintained with the help of holes cast in the frame itself. The provision of
radial ventilating spaces in the stampings assists in cooling the machine.

1.1.2 STATOR CORE : The armature core is supported by the stator frame and is built
up of laminations of special magnetic iron or steel alloy. The laminations are stamped out
in complete rings( for smaller machines ) or in segments( for larger machines ). The
laminations are insulated from each other and have spaces between them for allowing the
cooling air to pass through. The slots for housing the conductors lie along the inner
periphery of the core and are stamped out at the same time when laminations are formed.
The slots may be Wide-Open, Semi-Closed or Closed in the core.

The Wide-Open type( also used in dc machines ) has the advantage of permitting easy
installation of form-wound coils and their easy removable in case of repair. It has the
disadvantage of distributing the air gap flux into bunches or tufts that produce ripples in
the generated emf wave.

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 The Semi-Closed type is used so as to distribute the magnetic flux as uniformly as
possible in the air gap, thereby minimising the ripple that would appear in the emf
waveform if Wide-Open slots were used. This type does not allow the use of form wound
coils.

The Totally-Closed type slots do not disturb the air gap flux, but
i) they tend to increase the Inductance of the winding
ii) the armature conductors have to be threaded through thereby increasing the initial
labour and cost of winding.
iii) they present a complicated problem of End connections, hence they are rarely used.

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1.2 ROTOR.
1.2.1:

It has a large number of projecting poles having their cores bolted onto a heavy magnetic
wheel of cast iron or steel of good magnetic quality. Such rotors possess a large diameter
to provide the necessary space for the poles. It is therefore used in Low and Medium -
Speed( engine driven ) alternators.

To ensure good cooling, the Field Coils are made of bare copper bars, insulated
from each other by strips of mica. The coils are connected in series so that the adjacent
poles have opposite polarities. The poles and pole-shoes are laminated to minimise
heating due to Eddy Currents.

1.2.2:

The rotor consists of a smooth solid forged steel cylinder having a number of slots milled
out at intervals along the outer periphery( and parallel to the shaft ) for accommodating
the Field Coils. Concentric field coils, firmly wedged( using phosphor-bronze ) into the
slots and retained by high-strength end-rings serve to create the poles. It is used for very
high speeds such as Steam turbine-driven alternators.
To avoid excessive peripheral velocity, such rotors have very small diameters(
about 1m max. or so ) and very long rotor length. The cylindrical construction gives
better balance and quieter operation and also less windage losses. The flux distribution

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around the periphery is nearer a sine wave than is the case with the previous type.
Therefore, a better emf waveform is consequently obtained.
General appearance of Synchronous dynamo is shown in (a) and (b).

1.3. EXCITERS.
The main exciter is usually a DC Shunt Generator that feeds the exciting current to
the rotor by way of brushes and slip rings. Under normal conditions, the exciter voltage
lies between 10V and 600V dc. It may be regulated manually or automatically, but is
automatically varied. The exciter follows the load changes so as to maintain a constant ac
line voltage or to control the reactive power delivered to the utility system. A serious
disturbance on the system may produce a sudden voltage drop across the alternator
terminals. In such instances, the exciter must react very quickly to keep the ac voltage
constant.
The power rating of the Main Exciter depends upon the capacity of the Alternator.
Typically, it is 2.5% of the Alternator Capacity.
Modern Synchronous machines have Brushless Exciters to cut down on maintenance
as explained earlier. These are used to supply the dc field current to the machine.
A Brushless Exciter is a small ac generator with its field circuit mounted on the
stator and its armature circuit mounted on the rotor shaft. The three-phase output of the
exciter generator is rectified to direct current by a three-phase rectifier circuit also
mounted on the shaft of the generator and is then fed into the main dc field circuit. By
controlling the small dc field current of the exciter generator ( located on the stator ) by
RF, it is possible to adjust the field current on the main machine without slip rings and
brushes. Since no mechanical contacts ever occur between the rotor and the stator, a
brushless exciter requires much less maintenance than slip rings and brushes.
A typical diagram is shown below

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 To make the excitation of a generator completely independent of any external
power sources, a small pilot exciter is often included in the system. A Pilot Exciter is a
small ac generator with permanent magnets mounted on the rotor shaft and a three-
phase winding on the stator. The permanent magnets of the pilot exciter produce the field
current of the exciter, which in turn produces the field current of the main machine.
Below is a scheme that includes a Pilot Exciter

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 It produces the power for the field circuit of the main machine. If a pilot exciter is
included on the generator shaft, then no external electric power is required to run the
generator.
Many synchronous generators which include brushless exciters also have slip
rings and brushes, so that an auxiliary source of field dc current is available in
emergencies.

Advantages of having Stationary Armature/Rotating Field :

1. The output current can be read directly from the fixed on the stator to the load
circuit without having to pass it through brush contacts.

2. It is easier to insulate Stationary Armature winding for high AC voltages.

3. The Slip - Rings are at the low voltage, low - power DC Field circuit which can, 
be easily insulated.

4. The Armature windings can be more easily braced to prevent any deformation due
to mechanical stresses set up as a result of short - circuit current and the centrifugal forces
brought into play.

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 2.0 ROTOR AND STATOR WINDINGS.
2.1 ROTOR WINDINGS.
Most of the alternators have their pole shoes slotted for receiving copper bars of a
grid or Damper windings also known as Squirrel cage winding.

The copper bars are short - circuited at both ends by heavy copper rings. These dampers
are useful in preventing the hunting( momentary speed fluctuations ) in generators and
are also needed in synch. Motors to provide starting torque. Turbo-generators usually do
not have them because the solid field poles themselves act as sufficient dampers.

2.2 ARMATURE WINDINGS.

These windings are open in the sense that there is no closed path for the armature
currents in the winding itself as in DC machines. One end of the winding is joined to the
Neutral( ie in Wye ) and the other are brought out.
The two types of winding most commonly used for three - phase alternators are
the Single-layer and the Double-layer.

2.2.1 Single-layer Winding:- It’s variously referred to as Concentric or Chain

winding. Sometimes, it is of simple bar type or wave winding. If a rotor is of 4 poles and
there are 12 slots in the stator in all, there will be 3 slots per pole or 1 slot per phase per
pole. The pole - pitch is obviously 3. To get max. Emf, two sides of a coil should be one
pole-pitch apart ie Coil span should be equal to one pole-pitch. In other words, if one side
of the coil is under the centre of the N-pole, the other side of the same coil should be
under the centre of S-pole ie 180°( electrical ) apart. In this case, the emf’s induced in the
two sides of the coil are added together.
As a recap, for a 4pole, 24slot stator machine, the pole pitch is 6. For maximum
Voltage the coils should be full-pitched. It means if one side of coil is in slot 1, the other
should be in slot 7, the two slots 1 and 7 being one pole-pitch apart. Each of the 3-phases
has 24slots/3-phases = 8 coils. These are so selected as to give maximum voltage when
connected in series. When connected properly, coils 1,7,13 and 19 will add directly in
phase. To complete 8 coils for this phase, the other four selected are 2,8,14 and 20 each

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of which is at an angular displacement of 30° electrical from the adjacent coils of the
first. The coils 1 and 2 of this phase are said to constitute a Polar Group( defined as the
group of Coils/phase/pole ). Other polar groups for this phase are 7 and 8, 13 and 14, 19
and 20 etc. After the coils are placed in slots, the polar groups are joined together.

2.2.2 Double-layer Winding :- This winding is either of the wave-wound or lap-

wound type( much more common especially for high speed turbo-generators )
It is the simplest and most commonly used in dc armature windings and induction
motors as well. There are two coil sides per slot as shown above.
One coil side of coil lies at the top of a slot and the other coil side lies at the
bottom of some other slot. The coil ends will then lie side by side. The coil sides at the
top are of slots are given ODD numbers and those at the bottom EVEN numbers. The
coil sides are numbered round the armature.

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Two important points regarding this winding are:
a) the number of slots in stator is a multiple of the number of poles and the
number of phase ie stator of a 4-pole, three-phase alternator may have 12,
24, 36, 48 etc slots all of which are a multiple of 12 ( 4x3 ).
b) the number of stator slots is equal to the number of coils( all of the
same shape ). In other words, each slot contains two coil sides, one at the
bottom of the slot and the other at the top. The coils overlap each other
just like shingles on a roof top.

3.0 PITCH & DISTRIBUTION FACTORS

3.1 PITCH or CHORDING FACTOR

From the previous notes, full-pitched coils are coils having a span which is
equal to one pole-pitch ie spanning over 180 electrical degrees.

Full-pitch

5/6 pitch

24 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

pole-pitch = 6

If the coil sides are placed in slots 1 and 6, then it is Short-pitched or fractional-
pitched because it is equal to 5/6 of a pole-pitch. It falls short by 1/6 pole-pitch or by
180°/6 = 30°
Short-pitched coils are deliberately used because of the following advantages:-
a) They save copper of end connections
b) They improve the waveform of the generated emf ie the emf can be
made to approximate to a sine wave more easily and the distorting
harmonics can be reduced or totally eliminated.
c) Due to elimination of high frequency harmonics, eddy current and
hysteresis losses are reduced thereby increasing the efficiency.
The disadvantage of using short-pitched coils is that the total voltage around the
coils is somewhat reduced. Because the voltages induced in the two sides of the short-
pitched coil are slightly out of phase, their resultant Vector Sum is less than their
Arithmetical Sum.

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Therefore, the Pitch Factor( Kp ) may be defined as:

Kp = Vector Sum of the induced emf/coil

Arithmetic Sum of the induced emf/coil

= E
2Es It is always  1.Example 1

If Es is the induced emf in each side of the coil. If the coil is full-pitched, what is
the total induced emf ?
Soln..

Es Es

2Es

Total emf in coil = 2Es

Example 2

From the example above, if it is short-pitched by 30°(elect.), what is the total

induced emf ?

Soln.

E Es
30

Es

E is the vector sum of the two voltages 30 apart

E = 2EsCos(30/2)
 Kp = E = 2EsCos(30/2)
2Es 2Es

= 0.966

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NOTE :- If the coil span falls short of full-pitch by an angle (  ), then

Kp =Cos(/2)

 is 180 minus the number of electrical degrees spanned by a coil since  is the
supplementary angle of coil span, Kp may also be expressed as

Kp =Sin(/2)

Example 3
Find the pitch-factor for a coil having a span of 2/3 pole-pitch

Soln.
2/3 x 180 = 120

 Kp = Cos 60/2 = 0.866

or
Kp = Sin 120/2 = 0.866
EXERCISE.
Calculate the pitch factor for the undergiven windings:-
a) 36 stator slots, 4 poles, coil span 1 to 8 (0.94)
b) 72 stator slots, 6 poles, coil span 1 to 10 (0.924)
c) 96 stator slots, 6 poles, coil span 1 to 12 (0.882)
Sketch the Coil spans.

3.2 DISTRIBUTION FACTOR ( Kd ).

When several coils in a group are connected in series, the total voltage
generated by that group is not equal to the voltage per coil multiplied by the number of
coils in the group, it is always less than this because the coils are displaced from each
other, meaning that the voltages generated in the several coils are not in phase with each
other. The factor by which the generated voltage E must be multiplied to obtain the
correct value is called the Distribution Factor. Other names are Breadth Factor,
Winding Factor, Spread Factor and Belt Factor. Mathematically:

Kd = Phasor Sum of coil emf’s per phase

Arithmetic Sum of coil emf’s per phase

Kd = Sin(n*d/2) where n =  of slots/pole- phase

nSin(d/2)
d =  of elect. Deg
between adjacent slots
Example 4
Find the value of Kd for a single-phase alternator with 9slots per pole for the
following cases :

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 a) one winding in all the slots
b) one winding only the first 2/3 of the slots/pole
c) three equal windings placed sequencially in 60 group.

Soln.
d = 180/9 = 20
n = 9, 6(2/3 * 9) and 3(180/ 60)

(0.64, 0.83 and 0.96)

EXERCISE
A part of an alternator winding consists of six coils in series, each coil having an
emf of 10Vrms induced in it. The coils are placed in successive slots and between each
slot and the next, there is an electrical phase displacement of 30. Find by calculation the
emf of the six coils in series.
( 38.64V )

3.3 EFFECT OF HARMONICS ON Kp AND Kd.

a) If the short-pitch angle is  for the fundamental flux wave, the

its value for harmonics are:

for 3rd harmonic = 3

for 5th harmonic = 5
etc

Kp = Cos(m/2) where ‘m’ is the

order of harmonics
Kp = Cos3(/2) for 3rd harmonic
= Cos5(/2) for 5th harmonic etc

b) Similarly, Kd is also different for different harmonics. Its values become:

Kd = Sinm(*nd/2)
nSin*m(d/2)

m = 3 Kd = Sin3*nd/2
nSin*3d/2

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Example 5
An alternator has 18 slots/pole and the first coil lies in slots 1 and 16. Calculate
the pitch factor for:-
a) fundamental
b) 3rd harmonic
c) 5th harmonic and
d) 7th harmonic

Soln.
Coil span = 16 - 1 = 15
18 - 15 = 3
Hence  = (3/18)*180 = 30

(0.966, 0.707, 0.259 and -0.259 )

3.4 EQUATION OF INDUCED EMF

Let Z =  of conductors or coil sides in series/phase

2T - one coil has two sides
P=  of poles
f= freq. Of induced emf in Hz
= flux/pole in Wb
Kd= distribution factor
Kp= pitch or coil span factor
Kf= form factor = 1.11 if emf is assumed sinusoidal
N = speed in rpm

In one revolution of the totor( ie 60/N sec ) each stator conductor is cut by a flux
of P Wb.

d = P and dt = 60/N sec.

Aver. Emf induced/conductor
= d/dt = P/(60/N) = (NP)/60 Volts.(i)

We know
N = (120f)/p ...(ii)

Substituting (ii) into (i)

Aver. Emf induced/conductor = 2f Volts .(iii)

If there are Z(2T) conductors in series/phase,

Aver. Emf induced/phase = 2Zf Volts

= 4Tf Volts .. (iv)

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 RMS value of emf/phase = Kf*4Tf Volts
= 1.11*4Tf Volts

Erms / phase = 4.44Tf Volts ..(v)

This would have been the actual value of the voltage induced if all the coils in a
phase were Full-Pitched and Concentrated or bunched in one slot. This being not so, the
actual available voltage is reduced in the ratio of these two factors.

Actually, available voltage/phase ( from (v) )

Erms / phase = 4.44*Kp*Kd**T*f Volts

PROBLEMS.

1. Calculate the speed and open - circuit line and phase voltages of a 4 - pole, three -
phase, 50Hz star - connected alternator with 36 slots and 30 conductors per slot. The flux
per pole is 50mWb sinusoidally distributed.
( 1500rpm, 1918V, 3322V )
2. A three-phase, 8-pole alternator is star-connected. The stator has 160slots with 6
conductors per slot with fuu-pitched distributed winding. If the rotor speed is 750rpm;
estimate the flux required in the airgap to generate an emf of 1000V between lines.
Assume a distribution factor of 0.85.
( 19.12mWb )

4.0 ALTERNATOR ON LOAD

As the load on alternator is varied, its terminal voltage is also found to vary as in
DC generators. This variation in terminal voltage V is due to the following reasons:-

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 a) Vdrop due to armature resistance Ra
b) Vdrop due to armature leakage reactance XL
c) Vdrop due to armature reaction Xa

4.1 ARMATURE RESISTANCE ( Ra ).

The armature resistance per phase causes a v. drop per phase which is in phase
with the armature current.

Er = I*Ra
I Eg = V + Er

4.1 ARMATURE LEAKAGE REACTANCE (XL)

When load current flows through the armature winding, fluxes are set up which
do not cross the air gap, but take different paths. Such fluxes are known as Leakage
fluxes. This leakage flux sets up an emf of self-inductance which is known as Reactance
Emf and is ahead of I by 90. Hence armature winding is assumed to possess leakage
reactance, XL ( also known as Potier Reactance Xp ) such that voltage drop due to this is
equal to I*XL
A part of the generated emf is used up in overcoming this reactance emf.

Eg I*XL

Eg = V + I( Ra + j XL )
V Er = I*Ra

4.3 ARMATURE REACTION ( Xa )

Armature flux reacts with the main-pole flux causing the resultant flux to become
less than or more than the original main flux, refer to dc machine notes. The flux created
by the armature may be said to develop a voltage called the Armature-reaction voltage
drop, I*Xa that will vectorially add or subtract from Eg.

The leakage reactance, XL and armature reactance, Xa may be combined to give

Synchronous Reactance, Xs. Hence

Xs = XL + Xa where Xa varies with pf of load

Therefore,
I( Ra + j( XL + Xa ) ) = I( Ra + jXs )
=I*Zs

Eg = V + I( Ra + jXs )

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 I*Xa
Eg
I*Zs
I*XL

Eg = V + I( Ra + j (XL + Xa) )
V I*Ra

The equivalent circuit may be drawn as below.

Ra Xs

I

Eg 
V
LOAD

The power factor of the load has a considerable effect on armature reaction. We
shall briefly consider the loads with Unity, Zero lag and Zero lead

4.3.1 Unity Power Factor Load :- The armature flux is Cross-

magnetising. The flux at the leading tips of the poles is reduced while it is increased at
the trailing tips. These two effects nearly offset each other leaving the average field
strength constant, ie armature reaction is distortional.

4.3.2 Zero Power Factor Lagging Load :- The armature flux is in direct
opposition to the main flux, therefore, armature reaction is De-magnetising. With results
that due to weakening of main flux, less emf is generated. Field excitation will have to be
increased to compensate for this weakening.
4.3.3 Zero Power Factor Leading Load :- Armature reaction is
Magnetising( added main flux ) which results in greater induced emf. To keep Eg
constant, field excitation will have to be reduced.

For your own information, the three generator reactances can be briefly described as
follows:

 Subtransient Reactance( X″d ) :- is the apparent reactance of the stator

winding at the instant short circuit occurs, and it determines the current flow
during the first few cycles of a short circuit.

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  Transient Reactance( X′d ) :- Is the apparent initial reactance of the stator
winding, if we ignore the effect of all amortisseur windings and recognise
only the field winding. This reactance determines the current flowing the
period when subtransient reactance is the controlling value. Transient
reactance is effective up to one-half second or longer, depending upon the
design of the machine.
 Synchronous Reactance( Xd or Xs ):- Is the reactance that determines
the current flow when a steady state condition is reached. It is not effective
until several seconds after the short circuit occurs; consequently, it has no
value in short circuit calculations for the application of breakers, fuses and
contactors
The three values of reactance are employed for calculating the short circuit current
duty on circuit breakers and fuses, or for determining proper protective relay settings as
will be discussed later in your Degree programmes.

5. VENTILATION AND COOLING OF ALTERNATORS.

The ventilation of slow-speed alternators is relatively easy because they have
large areas exposed to the atmosphere, and the poles produce a fanning action. In
addition, fan blades are frequently attached to the rotor to give increased fanning action.
However, the addition of a fan increases the windage loss of the machine. It is also usual
to provide air ducts in the stator core by placing radial spacers between the laminations.
In high speed turbo-alternators, they are relatively small in diameter and require
considerable axial length to generate the high voltages required which makes the cooling
of the central part of the stator difficult.
Forced ventilation is therefore essential with such machines (high speed
alternators) and this involves the following requirements:

 Sufficient air to carry off the heat developed with a reasonable rise of temperature
of both the alternator and air;
 Sufficient air duct capacity to prevent excessive air velocity, so that the losses due
to air friction are not too high;
 Correct spacing of the ducts so that no part of the core is far removed from a duct;
 Precautions to prevent the air from carrying dirt and moisture into the core and
windings.

Air cooling by means of internal fans is generally inadequate for alternators of

larger sizes, however, some method of sealed and forced ventilation is required to:

 Carry off the heat generated with a reasonable rise of temperature of both the
alternator and the gaseous coolant employed;
 Provide a gaseous coolant with a lower windage loss and a possibly higher
specific heat than air;
 Seal the alternator cooling system to keep out dirt and moisture into the core
and windings;

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  Increase efficiency and
 Increase alternator capacity

In modern turbo alternators which use sealed forced air cooling, half or more of
the total rotational losses at full load are often the result of forcing air through the axial
ducts provided in the rotor and the stator of the armature.
One of the difficulties to be overcome in providing air for alternators is to prevent
dust from accumulating in the ducts and restricting the passage of the air. To prevent this
from happening, the closed circuit ventilating system has been introduced. The heated air
is cooled by a series of cold water pipes and used over and over again. Sometimes, this
air is also dried by means of a drying agent eg Calcium Chloride.
This precaution is a very important one, since moisture has a very harmful effect
upon the insulation.
Hydrogen has less viscosity than air and so cooling with a given flow of this gas
compared to air:

 Is more efficient in lowering the temperature of the alternator;

 Requires less windage loss in circulating the coolant;
 No oxidising effect on insulation because of corona is produced with hydrogen
and
 A higher potential is required to produce corona in a hydrogen-free atmosphere
than in an ordinary air temperature

A completely sealed system is required where hydrogen cooling is employed. The

hydrogen is circulated by blowers and fans through the rotor and stator, and then passed
over cooling coils inside the sealed casing; the coils contain a coolant – usually oil or
water – to conduct the heat away from the circulating hydrogen.
Hydrogen cooling increases the overall full load efficiency by about 1% but the
overall reason is that it increases the alternator Capacity by about 25%.
Some hydrogen-air mixtures are extremely explosive, eg 6% hydrogen, 94% air up
to 71% hydrogen and 27% air. Mixtures using 90% hydrogen, 10% air are
employed and there is no danger of explosion even at high ignition temperatures

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6.0 DERIVATION OF GENERATED VOLTAGE EQUATION ON
LOADED ALTERNATOR.
We are going to derive an emf equation by considering an alternator having a
lagging power factor load only. Same procedure may be followed when dealing with
either a Unity or Leading power factor loads.

C
Eg
I*Xs
O A
 V I*Ra
I B

E
F
In OAE,
OE = VCos , AE = VSin

In ABFE
EF = I*Ra and AE = BF

 OF = OE + EF
= Vcos + I*Ra

In OFC
CF = CB + BF
= I*Xs + VSin

(OC)2 = (OF)2 + (CF)2

Eg2 = (Vcos + I*Ra)2 + (Vsin + I*Xs)2

active reactive

Eg/phase = (VCos + I*Ra) + j(VSin + I*Xs) Volts

For Leading power factor loads

Eg/phase = (VCos + I*Ra) + j(VSin - I*Xs) Volts

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22
Example 1
A three-phase, star-connected alternator supplies a load of 10MW at pf 0.85
lagging and at 11kV. Its resistance is 0.1 per phase and synchronous reactance 0.66
per phase. Calculate the line value of emf generated.
( 11.5kV )

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 7.0 VOLTAGE REGULATION.
With change in load, there is a change in terminal voltage of an alternator. The
magnitude of this change depends not only on the load but also on the load power factor.
The VR of an alternator is defined as

‘the rise in voltage when full-load is removed( field excitation and

speed remaining the same ) divided by the rated terminal voltage.’

Exactly how much the terminal voltage will rise or drop will depend upon the magnitude
of the load and the actual overall pf of the combined loads. Therefore, it can be said that
a) the greater the load, the greater will be the drop or rise;
b) the lower the lagging pf, the greater will be the voltage drop and
c) the lower the leading pf, the greater will be the voltage rise.

VR % = Eg - V x 100
V

pf leading
V

pf Unity
Pf lagging

0 load current

Example 2

From Ex. 1, calculate the voltage regulation at

a) 0.85 lagging.
b) 0.85 leading
( 4.33%, .-2.36% )

24
 8. THE SYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE METHOD FOR
PREDICTING VOLTAGE REGULATION.

To obtain data on large machines to calculate the voltage regulation of an

alternator, it is necessary to perform three simple tests.

8.1 THE RESISTANCE TEST.

Assuming star-connected alternator with dc field winding, measure the dc

resistance between each pair of terminals as shown in (a) above.
Since the resistance is very low, it will be necessary to use a high current rheostat
to adjust the current to about rated value. The alternator should be at rest. In practice,
multiply the dc resistance by a factor of between 1.25 and 1.75 to obtain a value nearly
equal to the armature resistance when it carries alternating current usually due to Skin
Effect.

Therefore, Rac = 1.5*Rdc ....effective armature resistance

per phase.

25
8.2 OPEN - CIRCUIT TEST.

With the armature winding circuit open, operate the alternator at synchronous
speed. Connect a d-c source to the field, making provision to adjust the field current
starting at zero see (b).
Record the data of If and V (meters to read in one direction only) for a sufficient
number of points to plot the Open-circuit Saturation Curve. V should be converted to
phase voltage, Egp.

8.3 SHORT - CIRCUIT TEST.

Perform this test with great care. Connect three similar Ammeters to the armature-
winding terminals. Operate the alternator at synchronous speed. Starting with a very low
dc field current( as in test 2 above ), progressively increase its value as the AC Ammeters
increase their deflections to rated current and above; record If and the average of the
three ammeters as in (c).
Plot the short-circuit characteristic Isc v If as in the Open and Short-circuit
characteristics as shown below

To determine the value of Zs per phase, find the value of Isc at the If that gives
the rated alternator terminal voltage per phase.

Zs = Egp 
Isc

26
Example 3.
Find the synchronous impedance and reactance of a single-phase alternator in
which a given field current produces an armature current of 200A on short-circuit and
generated emf of 50V on open circuit. The armature effective resistance is 0.1. To what
induced voltage must the alternator be excited if it is to deliver a load of 100A at a pf of
0.8 lagging with a terminal voltage of 200V. Sketch the phasor diagram.

( solving : 0.25, 0.23, 222V )

Example 4
A 100kVA, 1100V, three-phase alternator is tested in accordance with the above
procedure to determine its regulation under various conditions of load and power factor.
The data obtained is as follows:-

DC Resistance test Open-cct test Short-cct test

E between lines = 6Vdc Field current = 12.5Adc Field current = 12.5Adc

I in lines = 10Adc E between lines = 420Vac Line current = rated value

From the preceding data, assuming that the alternator is wye-connected, calculate:-
a) Effective resistance, Synchronous Impedance and Reactance per phase.
b) Voltage regulation of the alternator at 0.8 lag and 0.8 lead power factors.
( solving : 0.45, 4.62, 4.6, 28.9%, -13.4% )

9.0 ALTERNATOR EFFICIENCY.

With the alternator operating on load, the losses incurred include the following:-
A.Rotational losses
i) Friction and windage - losses are high in high speed
alternators.
ii) Brush friction at the field collector rings - usually
neglected.
iii) Ventilation to cool the machine ie if necessary.
iv) Hysteresis and Eddy currents in the stator - core loss.

B. Electrical losses
i) Field winding - If*Ef
ii) Armature winding – nI2 Ra n =  of phases.
iii) Brush contact - between slip rings and brushes.

C. Losses in the Exciter used for field excitation.

D. Stray - load loss - as in A(iv).

27
 Mech. Power Energy Conversion Electrical Power
Input Mech - Electrical Eg*Ia P = V*I

Rotational Losses: Electrical Losses

-Mechanical
-Core
After the total of the foregoing losses has been found, it may be used in the
following equation to evaluate the alternator efficiency.

p.u = 1- PLosses
S*pf + PLosses

Example
A 2MVA, 2.3kV, three-phase alternator operates at rated MVA at a pf of 0.85.
The dc armature winding resistance at 75 between terminals is 0.08. The field takes
72A at 125V from exciter equipment. Friction and windage loss is 18.8kW, Iron losses
are 37.6kW and Stray load losses are 2.2kW. Calculate the efficiency of the alternator.(
Assume that the effective armature - winding resistance is 1.3 times the dc value ).
(Solving : 94.08% )

10. OPERATION OF ALTERNATORS IN PARALLEL.

Before a three-phase alternator is connected to or put on a line that is already

being served by one or more units, the following conditions must be fulfilled:-
a) the effective voltage of the incoming machine must be approx. Equal to the
bus-bar voltage.
b) the frequency of the incoming machine must be exactly the same as that of the
bus-bars.
c) the phase sequence of the three-phases of the incoming machine must be the
same as that of the bus-bars.
d) with condition (c), it is necessary that at the instant when the paralleling switch
is closed, voltage Vab of the incoming machine must be in phase opposition to the
bus-bar voltage Vab; under this condition, the voltages Vbc and Vca of the
incoming machine and the bus-bars will also be in phase opposition. This implies
that there will be no circulating current between the windings of the alternators
already in operation( the bus-bars ) and the incoming machine.

28
 The operation of connecting an alternator in parallel with another alternator or
with common bus-bars is known as Synchronising . Often the electrical system to which
the alternator is connected has already so many alternators and loads connected to it that
no matter what power is delivered by the incoming alternator, the voltage and frequency
of the system remain the same. In that case, the alternator is said to be connected to
Infinite Bus-bars.

The advantages of Parallel operation of Units are as follows:-

a) If a single large unit is disabled, the station is no longer functioning. If one or

several smaller units are/is in need of repair, the other smaller units are still available to
provide service as needed.
b) A single large unit for max. Efficiency, must be loaded to capacity. It is
uneconomical to operate a large unit at light loads. Several smaller units operated in
parallel may be removed or added as the service demands fluctuate; and each unit may be
operated at near its rated capacity, thus providing max. Station and system efficiency.
c) In the event of repair or shut down for purposes of maintenance, smaller units
facilitate maintenance from the point of view of spares, replacements and servicing of
units.
d) As the average system and station demand is increased, additional units may be
purchased and added to keep pace with this demand.
e) There is a physical and economic limit to the possible capacity of any single
unit - no single unit is constructed of sufficient capacity to supply so high a station or
system demand.

10.1 SYNCHRONISING OF ALTERNATORS .

10.1.1 Single - phase Alternators :- Lamps may be used as a means of detecting

frequency differences between two alternators as follows:-

8.1.1.1 Dark Lamp Method.


V1 V2
Sw.

LOAD

Synchronising is accomplished when voltages V1 and V2 are equal and the lamps are
dark. At this instant, the Switch may be closed, paralleling the alternators.

29
 8.1.1.2 Bright Lamp Method.

Sw.


V1 V2

load

Max. Brightness occurs when the waveforms are exactly equal and opposite( resultant
voltage = zero ) and are dark when the resultant voltage is maximum.

Example 1.
In dark lamp method, Alt. 1 has a terminal voltage of 220V and a frequency of
50Hz, whereas Alt.2 has a terminal voltage of 222V and a frequency of 49.5Hz. With the
switch open, calculate
a) the max. And min. Effective voltage across the lamp
b) the frequency of the voltage across the lamps
c) the peak value of the voltage across each lamp
d) the number of pulsations per minute
( 221V,1.0V,0.5Hz,313V, 30pulsations/min. )
Example 2.
From Ex. 1 above, if each alternator generates a voltage of 220V but using a
Bright Lamp method. Alt. 1 has a frequency of 50Hz and Alt. 2 , 48Hz With the switch
open, calculate
a) max. effective voltage across each lamp and its frequency
b) min. Effective voltage across each lamp.

( 220V, 2Hz, 0V )

10.1.2 Effects of Synchronising Currents Between 1 -  Alternators:-

If alternators are connected to a load bus feeding a lagging load, the phasor diagram may
be drawn as shown.

I2 Eg1
I2R2 I1X1
V2   V1
I2X2  I1R1
Eg2 I1

30
 In this ‘ideal’ phasor diagram, the terminal voltages( V1 & V2 ) are equal and
opposite and the generated voltages( Eg1 & Eg2 ) are equal and opposite.
The phasor diagram for the Common Load circuit is as shown.

Eg1 = Eg2
I1X1 = I2X2
 VL=V1=V2
I1+I2 I1R1 = I2R2
IL
The sum of I1 and I2 produces load current IL while the load voltage VL is the
same as the terminal or phase voltage V. Since the two machines are identical, all internal
vdrops may be superimposed, and the Egs are equal and bear the same phase relation to
VL and IL. The alternators are perfectly synchronised and therefore there is no
Synchronising( circulating ) Current between the alternators. The Synchronising Current
is due to the difference in generated emf per phase of the two alternators.
The Synchronising Current( Is ) circulating between two alternator armatures or a
given alternator and its bus is given by

Is = Eg1 - Eg2 = Er
Z1 + Z2 {(R1 + R2) + j(Xs1 + Xs2)}

Example 3.
If the alternators of Ex. 1 & 2 each have an armature resistance of 0.1 and a
reactance of 0.1 , calculate the synchronising current in the armatures of both
alternators if the switch between them is closed at the proper instant for paralleling ?
( solving : 1.105-83.65 A , 0.0 A)

Since Xs is generally high wrt Ra, Is will lag Er by almost 90. Is circulates in the
armatures of both machines.
If Eg2  Eg1 or vice versa, then Is will flow. Er will be in phase with Eg2 and Is
will lag Eg2 and Er by almost 90 and will lead Eg1 by more than 90( 180 - ).
Is

 180 -

Eg2 Er Eg1

The Synchronising power generated by A2 as a result of increased excitation and

armature current flow Is is

Generator Action P2 = Eg2 * Is * Cos Watts

31
 The Synchronising power produced by Synchronising current in A1 is

Motor Action P1 = Eg1 * Is * Cos(180 - ) Watts

= - Eg1 * Is * Cos

Since Er is the difference of the generated voltages, the true power loss(
transferred into heat ) which must be supplied mechanically by the primemover of A2

Er * Is * Cos = P2 - P1 = Is2( R1 + R2 ) W

 Eg2 * Is * Cos = Eg1 * Is * Cos(180 - ) + Er * Is * Cos W

Generated Power = Motor Power + Power Losses W

Example 4
Two single-phase alternators are synchronised so that their emfs are opposed
exactly by 180 as above. But the emf of alternator 1 is adjusted to 200V and the emf of
alternator 2 is adjusted to 220V. At the instant of closing the synchronising switch,
paralleling the two machines, if each alternator has an armature resistance of 0.2 and a
synchronous reactance of 2, calculate :
a) the generator action developed by Alt. 2
b) the motor action or synchronising power delivered to Alt. 1
c) the power loss in both armatures, and the terminal voltage of both
alternators.
d) draw a phasor diagram showing the voltage relations and all voltage drops.

( solving : 108.9W, -99W, 9.9W, 210V )

In addition to the production of a small power loss, ‘the primary effect of synchronising
current is the production of synchronising power’. The synchronising power that is
produced causes:-
a) the alternator generating the synchronising power to drop back in phase as a
result of the increased load and electromagnetic and
b) the alternator receiving the synchronising power to advance in phase because
of the motor action produced in the same direction as its prime mover.

Is
2
Eg2 Er Eg1
 1

32
 The angle by which A2 will drop back in phase and A1 will advance in phase
depends on the relative magnitudes of Eg1 and Eg2 and the magnitude of Is circulating in
both armatures

Eg2*Is*Cos2 + Eg2*Is*Cos1 = Er * Is * Cos

Since the synchronising current is all internal and since whatever occurs internally
produces the same voltage wrt the external circuit, changing the resistance of the field
rheostat and field current of any alternator in parallel with other alternators ‘does not
affect the division of load between them’.The Is produced as a result of overexciting a
given alternator tends to :-
a) cause that alternator to deliver more synchronising power, Ps to the
remaining alternators in parallel,
b) cause that alternators voltage to operate at a poorer power factor with
consequent demagnetising of its air-gap flux,
c) cause the remaining alternators to improve their power factors with
resultant magnetisation of their air-gap flux.

10.1.3 Synchronising Power( Ps ) :- Let us now consider Alt. 1 is generating and

supplying the Synchronising power.

* Tedious derivation
Er
E2 2 
E1
 Is 1

Ps = E1*Is*Cos1 ... (i)

 E1*Is ( because 1 is small )

Since 1 = ( 90 -  ) ...(ii)

substitute (ii) into (I) and applying trig. identities

Ps = E1*Is*Sin
 E1*Is ( because   90 )

This power output from Alt. 1 goes to supply

a) power input to Alt. 2
b) the copper losses in the local armature circuit of the two
alternators.

Power input to Alt. 2 = E2*Is*Cos2

 E2*Is

33
 E1*Is = E2*Is + Copper losses

Let E1 = E2 = E
Then
Er = 2E*Cos[(180 - )/2]
= 2E*Cos[90 - /2]
= 2E*Sin (/2)
= 2E(/2)
 Er = E .....(iii)
Now
Is = Er/Zs  Er/2Xs ...(iv) if Ra is neglected
Xs represents for one m/c
Substituting (iii) into (iv)
Is = E/2Xs ...(v)

Ps supplied by Alt. 1 = E*Is*Sin --   90

 E*Is ......(vi)

Substituting (v) into (vi)

Ps = E* E = E2
* 2Xs 2Xs

Ps = E2 Watts / phase

2Xs
or
Ps = E2 Sin Watts / phase
2Xs

This is the value of Ps when two alternators are connected in parallel and are on
no-load.

10.1.4 Alternators connected to Infinite Bus-bars :- The expression for Ps

given above is still applicable But only the impedance of one alternator is considered.

Er = E
Is = E/Xs

Ps = E2
Xs

Ps = E2 Sin W/ph or EIsSin

Xs

34
10.2 PARALLELING OF THREE-PHASE ALTERNATORS.
In these alternators, it is necessary to synchronise one phase only, the other two
phases will then be synchronised automatically. First, it is necessary that the incoming
alternator is correctly ‘phased out’. The phase sequence may also be checked by a Phase
Sequence Indicator. Synchronisation may be accomplished by using Lamp methods

10.2.1 dark Lamp Method.

Sw.
A A


B B
Alt. 1 Alt. 2

C C


If lamps remain steadily at a particular brightness, it indicates that both the
Incoming and the Running alternators have the same frequency but that a voltage
difference is produced by either afixed phase displacement between the induced emfs of
the alternators or a difference in their effective phase voltages.

10.2.2 Bright Lamp Method.

Sw.
A A


B B
Alt. 1 Alt. 2

C C

10.2.3 Rotating Lamp Method

Sw.
A A


B B
Alt. 1 Alt. 2

C C

35
 The Synchronising Sw. Is closed when the two outer lamps are bright and the
centre lamp dark. The advantage of this method is that it permits synchronisation in terms
of both max. And min. brightness.
To eliminate the element of personal judgement in routine operation of
alternators, the machines are synchronised by a more accurate device called a
Synchroscope.
{ It consists of three stationary coils ie a Polarizing Coil connected to the Running
machine or Bus-bar and the other Two stator coils connected to the Incoming machine }.
A pair is connected to one phase of the line and the other to the corresponding
machine terminals, Pts being usually used. The Pointer moves to one side or the other
from its vertical position depending on whether the incoming machine is Fast or Slow.
For correct speed, the pointer points vertically up.

INDEX

SLOW FAST


Synchroscope

36
 Immediately after we synchronise an alternator with an Infinite bus, the induced
voltage E is equal to and in-phase with, the terminal voltage V of the system. There is no
difference of potential across the Xs and consequently, the load current is zero. Although
the alternator is connected to the system, it delivers no power; it is said to ‘Float’ on the
line.

10.3 LOAD DIVISION BETWEEN ALTERNATORS.

Let us assume that the two alternators are operating under ideal conditions in
parallel ie their generated emfs are equal, they are carrying equal load and they have
identical internal synchronous impedance vdrops. Let us assume again that the
primemover of Alt. 1 tends to increase in speed causing Eg1 to advance in phase as
shown.

Is
Er Eg1
2  1 
Eg2

Er is produced by the frequency difference between the two machines as stated earlier. Is
causes a Ps to be generated by Alt. 1, Ps = Eg1*Is*Cos1. This Ps contains an armature
power loss component( Er*Is*cos ) and a Ps transfer component which is the power
transferred to Alt. 2 to produce Motor Action. Is acts in such a way as to keep the
alternators continuously in synchronism.
The Ps received by Alt. 2 really depends on the angle. For a given angle of
advance,  of Alt. 1 over its former position, 1 depends on . Note also that  depends
on the internal synchronous impedance of the alternators. A reasonably high ratio of Xs
to Ra will produce a rapid and sufficient synchronising power to assure successful
parallel operation, although it may result in poorer regulation (but voltage regulators may
be used).
For maximum stability in parallel, alternators should have a high ratio of Xs to Ra
and a sufficient low total impedance so that small changes in its phase advance angle will
produce large values of synchronising current and power. In summary:
a) the load taken up by an alternator directly depends upon its driving torque or
upon the angular advance of its rotor
b) the excitation merely changes the pf at which the load is delivered
without affecting the load so long as steam supply remains unchanged
c) if input to the prime mover of an alternator is kept constant, but its
excitation is changed, the kVA component of its output is changed and not kW.

10.4 HUNTING OF ALTERNATORS.

This is a repeated periodic oscillation above and below the synchronous speed of
the alternator and Synchronous motors which interferes with their smooth working. That
is, it is the oscillation of the rotating part( the field magnets or the armature, according to
the type of construction ). It is a swinging movement on each side of the true

37
synchronous position. If Ammeters and Wattmeters are connected, the hunting may be
observed as they respond periodically in response to the generation of synchronising
power. Hunting in a synchronous motor is caused in the following ways:-

 Sudden change of load on motor

 Sudden change of supply frequency due to fluctuation of load elsewhere on the
system
 Periodic pulsation of load on a motor, usually when reciprocating machinery is
being driven
 Periodic pulsation of supply frequency, originating in the prime mover
 Sudden changes in the excitation current caused by loose connections or
chattering brushes.

Since this condition is one that will not cease of its own accord and is not self-
limiting, the following are some of the techniques employed to reduce hunting:

a) Damper ( Armotisseur ) Windings on the pole faces (as discussed earlier) - are
placed in the rotor pole faces to ‘kill’ the hunting effect. The swaying to and fro
of the flux across the pole faces cuts the copper conductors, inducing e.m.fs in
them and as the circuit is a closed one, a current is produced, which by Lenz’s
Law, will tend to damp out the motion which causes it and thus produce smoother
running. If the rotation of the motor is perfectly uniform, there is no relative
movement between the flux and armortisseur windings and so no currents are set
up in them.

b) The prime mover shaft may be equipped with a large and heavy Flywheel - this
increases the inertia of the prime mover and assists it in producing a more
constant speed throughout a single revolution.

c) By running the motor with strong excitation. The force tending to keep the
motor in step is greater when strong fields are employed.

10.5 SYNCHRONISING TORQUE (Ts ).

a) When there are two alternators in parallel

Ps = Ts * 2Ns Nm Ns is synch. speed

60
 Ts = Ps Nm
2Ns /60

= *E2 /2Xs Nm per phase

2Ns /60

 Ts = 4.775*E2 Nm/ph
Xs*Ns

38
 b) Alternator connected to Infinite bus-bars

Ts = *E2 /Xs Nm per phase

2Ns /60

 Ts/ phase = 9.55*E2 Nm

Xs*Ns

39
11.EFFECT OF CHANGE OF EXCITATION ON AN
ALTERRNATOR
11.1 EFFECT OF UNDER-EXCITATION
When an alternator is loaded and the excitation current is reduced to a low value,
the output load current I, LEADS the terminal voltage V, by an angle, θ, as represented in
diagram below

I
θ
E

I*Xs
V
I*R
The generator in this conditions is said to be generating LEADING Reactive
Power.

11.2 EFFECT OF OVER-EXCITATION

When a an alternator is loaded and the excitation current is increased to a high
value, the output load current I, LAGS the terminal voltage V, by angle θ, as shown

E
I*Xs
I*R
V
θ
I

The generator in this condition is said to be generating LAGGING Reactive

Power .

**more to come?**

40