Draft Structural Design Lecture Note

STRUCTURAL DESIGN 3/1/2020
Chapter One
1. Wind Loads
1.1. Introduction
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The aim of structural design is to ensure that, with an acceptably high probability, a
structure will remain fully functional during its intended life. The expected life time of
structure is formally known as its design life and is usually a period of at least 50 years.
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During its design life, a structure must be capable of safely sustaining all applied loads
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and other stress-inducing actions that might reasonably be expected to occur. Thus,
it is necessary to identify and, more importantly, quantify the various types of load
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which act on its members.
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It is worth pointing out at this stage in contrast procedures, in which the structure is
erected from the ground upwards; building structures are generally designed from the
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top down wards. The is because the magnitudes of internal forces in members at any
level depend on the forces being transferred from the levels above as well as the
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loads applied directly as at that levels.
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Classification of loads
The term action is used to describe forces and environmental effects on structures. An
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action can be defined as any things that gives rise to stresses in a structure and can
be direct or indirect in nature.
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Direct actions are force that applied to a structure by external agents such as wind
forces, vehicular forces etc.
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Indirect actions are imposed deformation which do not result from external forces
such as temperature effects or uneven settlement
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Actions / Loads may be classified in different ways:

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 By their variation in time:

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 Permanent actions, e.g. self-weight of structure, fixed equipment’s

 Variable loads, e.g. imposed loads (loads due to occupant of structure), wind
loads or snow loads
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 Accidental loads, e.g. explosions, or impact from vehicles

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 Direct action can be classified in to spatial variation:

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 Fixed actions, direct actions which have no freedom of moment with in or on

the structure e.g. self-weight
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 Free actions are direct actions which can occur at arbitrary locations on or
within the structure. e.g. movable imposed loads wind loads snow loads
 By their nature and/ or the structure response:
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 Static actions, which do not cause significant acceleration of the structure or

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structural members.
 Dynamic actions, which cause significant acceleration of the structure or
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structural member.
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LECTURE NOTE Page 1 of 140

In this chapter the static effect of wind loads will be treated and Earthquake loads will
be discussed in the next chapter.
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1.2. Wind Loads
Wind forces are variable loads which acts directly on the internal or external surfaces
of structures. The intensity of wind load on structure is related to the square of the wind
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velocity and the dimension of the members that are resisting the wind (frontal area).
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The intensity of the wind pressure depends on
 Shape of structure.
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 Angle of the induce wind.
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 Velocity of air.
 Density of air.
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 Stiffness of structure.
Wind velocity increases with the powers of the structural height.
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Because of friction effect on the ground surface. See Fig. 1.1.
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Friction between the ground surface and the wind strongly influences the wind
velocity. Near the ground surface, the friction between the air and ground reduced
the velocity, whereas at higher elevations above the ground, friction has little
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influences and wind velocities are much higher.
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ES
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Air flow
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The more the air is streamed, the less the reaction force exerted by the structure.
Wind pressure also depends on the shape of the structure that the wind strikes.
Pressure are smallest when the body has a streamlined cross-section and greater for
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blunt or concave cross-section that do not allow the wind to pass smoothly around.
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(See Fig, 1.2)

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D

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E
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1.3. Wind Pressure on Structure based on EBCS EN 1991-1-4;2015
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Wind Pressures
External pressure
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The wind pressure acting on external surface of structure, We, shall be obtained from:
we=qp(z ) ⋅ cpe
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where: qp(ze) is the peak velocity pressure
ze is the reference height for the external pressure given in Section 7
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cpe is the pressure coefficient for the external pressure, see Section 7
Internal pressure
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The wind pressure acting on external surface of structure, Wi, shall be obtained from:
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wi=qp(z ) ⋅ Cpi
where: qp(zi) is the peak velocity pressure
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zi is the reference height for the internal pressure given in Section 7

cpi is the pressure coefficient for the internal pressure, see Section 7
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Net pressure
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The net wind pressure across a wall or an element is the difference of the pressure on each
surface taking due account of their signs. (Pressure, directed towards the surface is taken as
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positive, and suction, directed away from the surface as negative.) The net pressure on a wall,
roof or element is the difference between the pressures on the opposite surfaces taking due
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account of their signs. Pressure, directed towards the surface is taken as positive, and suction,
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directed away from the surface as negative. Examples are given in Figure 5.1.
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ST
T
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Figure 5.1 — Pressure on surfaces

Peak velocity pressure
The peak velocity pressure qp(z) at height z, which includes mean and short-term velocity
fluctuations, should be determined.
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where:
ρ is the air density, which depends on the altitude, temperature and barometric pressure
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to be expected in the region during wind storms
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ce(z) is the exposure factor given in Expression (4.9)
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qb is the basic velocity pressure given in Expression (4.10)
C
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Where ρ is air density, and
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vb is the basic wind velocity.
The air density varies with temperature, elevation and the expected atmospheric pressure in
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the region during storms. A temperature of 20oC has been selected as appropriate for Ethiopia
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and the variation of means atmospheric pressure with altitude in given in Table 1.1.
Site Altitude (m) AboveAir density, ρ(kg/m3)

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Sea Level
0 1.20
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500 1.12
1000 1.06
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1500 1.00
2000 0.94
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But ES EN1991-1-4-2015 recommended as ρ is air density = 1.25kg/m3

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Fundamental and Basic Wind Velocity

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The fundamental value of the basic wind velocity, vb,0, is the characteristic 10 minutes mean
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wind velocity, irrespective of wind direction and time of year, at 10 m above ground level in
open country terrain with low vegetation such as grass and isolated obstacles with separations
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of at least 20 obstacle heights.

Note 1: This terrain corresponds to terrain category II in Table 4.1.
Note 2: The value of the basic wind velocity, vb,0, may be given in the National Annex.
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The basic wind velocity verfis defined as the mean velocity at 10 m above farmland averaged
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over a period of 10 minutes with a return period of 50 years. The reference wind velocity is taken
as 22 m/sec.
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The basic wind velocity shall be calculated from Expression

4
vb = cdir * cseason * vb,0
Where: vb is the basic wind velocity, defined as a function of wind direction and time of year
at 10 m above ground of terrain category II
vb,0 is the fundamental value of the basic wind velocity,
Cdir is the directional factor, see Note 2.
Cseason is the season factor, see Note 3.
Note 1: Where the influence of altitude on the basic wind velocity vb is not included in the
specified fundamental value vb,0 the National Annex may give a procedure to take it into
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account.
Note 2: The value of the directional factor, cdir, for various wind directions may be found in the
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National Annex. The recommended value is 1.0.
Note 3: The value of the season factor, cseason, may be given in the National Annex. The
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recommended value is 1.0.
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Mean wind
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The mean wind velocity vm(z) at a height z above the terrain depends on the terrain roughness
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and orography and on the basic wind velocity, vb, and should be determined using Expression
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Vm(z) = Cr(z) * C0(z) * Vb
Where: Cr(z) is the roughness factor,
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C0(z) is the orography factor, taken as 1.0 unless otherwise specified
Note 1: Information on CO may be given in the National Annex. If the orography is accounted
for in the basic wind velocity, the recommended value is 1.0.
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Terrain roughness IG
Wind velocity tends to decrease near ground level owning to frictional forces between the wind
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and the ground. If the terrain is rugged, the decrease in velocity can be quite substantial. The
exposure coefficient takes account of the variation from the reference wind velocity due to
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the ground roughness around the structure, the local topography and the height of the
structure above the ground.
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The roughness factor, Cr(z), accounts for the variability of the mean wind velocity at the site of
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the structure due to: the height above ground level the ground roughness of the terrain upwind
of the structure in the wind direction considered
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Note: The procedure for determining cr(z) may be given in the National Annex. The
recommended procedure for the determination of the roughness factor at height z is given by
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Expression (4.4) and is based on a logarithmic velocity profile.

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where:
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z0 is the roughness length

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kr terrain factor depending on the roughness length z0 calculated using

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D
5
Where: z0,II 0.05 m (terrain category II, Table 1.2)
zmin is the minimum height defined in Table 1.2
zmax is to be taken as 200 m, unless otherwise specified in the National Annex
z0, zmin depend on the terrain category. Recommended values are given in Table 1.2
depending on five representative terrain categories.
Terrain Categories
The terrain category attempts to taken into account the effect of the land coverage. The
terrain type is classified into 4 groups as given in Table 1.2
Table 1.2 Terrain Categories and related parameters used
Terrain category Z0 Zmin m
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m
0 Sea or coastal area exposed to the open sea 0.003 1
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I I Lakes or flat and horizontal area with negligible vegetation 0.01 1
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and without obstacles
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II II Area with low vegetation such as grass and isolated 0.05 2
obstacles (trees, buildings) with separations of at least 20 obstacle height
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III Area with regular cover of vegetation or buildings or with isolated 0.3 5
obstacles with separations of maximum 20 obstacle heights (such
as villages, suburban terrain, permanent forest)
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IV IV Area in which at least 15 % of the surface is covered with 1.0 10
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buildings and their average height exceeds 15 m
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Topography coefficient
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The topography coefficient Ct (z) accounts for their increase in mean wind speed over isolated
hills and escarpments mountainous regions. It is defined by:
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CO(z) - The orography factor

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It accounts for the increase of mean wind speed over isolated hills and escarpments Where
orography (e.g. hills, cliffs etc.) increases wind velocities by more than 5% the effects should be
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taken into account using the orography factor cO. The effects of orography may be neglected
when the average slope of the upwind terrain is less than 30. The upwind terrain may be
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considered up to a distance of 10 times the height of the isolated orographic feature.

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Ct = 1 for Φ < 0.05

Ct = 1 + 2 S Φ for 0.05 < Φ < 0.30
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Ct = 1 + 0.6 S for Φ > 0.30

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Where s is the factor to be obtained by interpolation from the value of

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s is the orographic location factor, to be obtained from Figure A.2 or Figure A.3 scaled to
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the length of the effective upwind slope length, Le
Φ is the upwind slope H/Lu in the wind direction (see Figure A.2 and Figure A.3) Le is the
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effective length of the upwind slope, defined in Table A.2

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Lu is the actual length of the upwind slope in the wind direction

Ld is the actual length of the downwind slope in the wind direction
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H is the effective height of the feature

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x 6 is the horizontal distance of the site from the top of the crest
z is the vertical distance from the ground level of the site

Table A.2 — Values of the effective length Le.
Type of slope (Φ = H/Lu)
Shallow (0.05 < Φ < 0.3) Shallow (0.05 < Φ < 0.3)
Le = Lu Le = Lu
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NOTE The calculated graphs in Figures A.2 and A.3 exceed the area of application as defined
above. The consideration of orographic effects beyond these boundaries is optional.
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In valleys, co(z) may be set to 1.0 if no speed up due to funnelling effects is to be expected. For
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structures situated within, or for bridges spanning steep-sided valleys care should be taken to
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account for any increase of wind speed caused by funnelling.
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C
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
AF
R
D

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O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
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Figure A.2 — Factor s for cliffs and escarpments

Figure A.3 — Factor s for hills and ridges
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Wind turbulence
The turbulence intensity lv(z)at height z is defined as the standard deviation of the
turbulence divided by the mean wind velocity.
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Note 2: The recommended rules for the determination of Iv(z) are given in Expression
(4.7)
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N
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where:
kI is the turbulence factor. The value of kI may be given in the National Annex.
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The recommended value is kI= 1.0.
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co is the orography factor as described in 4.3.3
z0 is the roughness length, given in Table 4.1
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Pressure coefficient
External Pressure coefficient, Cpe
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The external pressure coefficient Cpe for buildings and individual parts of building
depend on the size of the loaded area A. They are given or loaded area A of 1 m2
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and 10m2 in the relevant tables for the appropriate building configuration as Cpe,1
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and Cpe,10,respectively . For areas between 1 m2 and 10 m2, values and obtained
by linear interpolation. That is:
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Cpe =Cpe,1 for A≤1 m 2

Cpe =Cpe,1+(Cpe,10 - Cpe,1)log10A for 1 m2<A<10 m2
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Cpe =Cpe,10 for A≥10 m2

The values of pressure coefficient are applicable to building
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C
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T
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Vertical walls Reference heights, Ze

Reference heights for the calculation of external pressure coefficient depend on the
breadth to height ratio (h/b) of the structure.
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N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
AF
R
D
1
0

Buildings whose h<b → the reference height equals the actual height (Fig. 1.3a)
When h exceeds b but less than 2b → the building is considered in two parts (Fig. 1.3b)
When h>2b → the building is considered in multiple parts. A lowest part extends
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upwards from the ground a distance b. The rest of the buildings can be divided into
any number of parts, with the reference height in each case calculated as the
distance from the ground to the top of the parts.
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The external pressure coefficients, Cpe accounts for the variation in dynamic pressure
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on different zones of the structure due to its geometry, area and proximity to other
structures. For instance, the wind acting on the structure in Fig. 1.5 is slowed down by
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the windward face and generated a pressure on the face. The wind is then forced
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around the side and over the top of the structure, causing suction on the sides and
on all leeward face. Suction can also be generated on the windward slope of a
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pitched roof if the pitch is sufficiently small. With reference to Fig. 1.6, the external
pressure coefficient for various zones of the wall of rectangular building are given in
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Table A.1
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
AF
R
D
1
1

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O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
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NOTE 1 The values of cpe,10 and cpe,1 may be given in the National Annex. The
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recommended values are given in Table 7.1, depending on the ratio h/d. For
intermediate values of h/d, linear interpolation may be applied. The values of Table
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7.1 also apply to walls of buildings with inclined roofs, such as duopitch and monopitch
roofs
T
AF
R
D
1
2

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O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
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b) Pressure coefficients for roofs Types of roofs

Values of external pressure coefficients for different Roots are given in Table A.2 to
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Table A.
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D
1
3

 Flat roofs: Table A.2

 Monopitch roofs: Table A.3
 Duopitch roofs: Table A.4
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 Hipped roofs: Table A.5
Pressure coefficients are considered positive when the pressure is acting on to the
surface of the structure and negative when the pressure is acting away from that
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surface.
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Internal pressure coefficients, Cpi
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Internal pressure arises due to opening, such as windows, doors and vents, in the
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cladding. In general, if the wind panel has a greater proportion of opening than the
leeward panel, then the interior of the structure is subjected to positive (outwards)
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pressure as illustrated in Fig. 1.8(a). Conversely, if leeward face has more opening,
then the interior is subjected to negative (in ward) pressure as illustrated in Fig. 1.8(b).
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LE
N
IG
ES
D
Fig 1.8 internal pressure in structure

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Internal pressure on a building or a plane is given by Wi= Ce(Zi)Cpi qref

Where Zi=the reference height for internal pressure equal to the mean height of the
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openings.
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Cpt=the internal pressure coefficient. The magnitude of cpt depends on the

distribution of opening around the building. The values recommended by EBCSI are
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given Fig. 1.9, and is a function of the opening ratio μ defined as

T
AF
R
D
10

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O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
For a building without internal partitions. In such a building, internal pressure is assumed
to act uniformly over the total area of the building. For buildings with internal partitions
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the Extreme values, NOTE 2 Where it is not possible, or not considered justified, to
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estimate µ for a particular case then cpi should be taken as the more onerous of +0,2
and -0,3.
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Wind force on structures

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The total wind force acting on individual zones of clad structures is proportional to the
difference in pressure between the external and internal forces. That is:
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Fw=(we-wi)Aref
Where Fw=the total inward force
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Aref= the reference area, generally equals to the projected area of the zone normal
to the wind direction.
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Wind forces
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The wind forces for the whole structure or a structural component should be
determined:
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by calculating forces using force coefficients (see (2)) or

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by calculating forces from surface pressures (see (3))

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The wind force Fw acting on a structure or a structural component may be

determined directly by using Expression (5.3)
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Fw = cscd⋅ cf ⋅ qp(ze) ⋅ Aref (5.3)

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or by vectorial summation over the individual structural elements (as shown in 7.2.2)
by using Expression (5.4)
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D

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O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
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NOTE The velocity pressure should be assumed to be uniform over each horizontal strip considered.
T
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Figure 7.4 — Reference height, ze, depending on h and b, and corresponding velocity pressure profile
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(2) The external pressure coefficients cpe,10 and cpe,1 for zone A, B, C, D and E are defined
D
in Figure 7.5.

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O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
Figure 7.5 — Key for vertical walls

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NOTE 1 The values of cpe,10 and cpe,1 may be given in the National Annex. The recommended
values are given in Table 7.1, depending on the ratio h/d. For intermediate values of h/d, linear
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interpolation may be applied. The values of Table 7.1 also apply to walls of buildings with
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inclined roofs, such as duopitch and monopitch roofs.

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Table 7.1 — Recommended values of external pressure coefficients for vertical walls of rectangular plan
Buildings
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Zone A B C D E
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h/d cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 Cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1
5 -1.2 -1.4 -0.8 -1.1 -0.5 +0.8 +1.0 -0.7
D
1 -1.2 -1.4 -0.8 -1.1 -0.5 +0.8 +1.0 -0.5

≤ 0.25 -1.2 -1.4 -0.8 -1.1 -0.5 +0.7 +1.0 -0.3
NOTE 2 For buildings with h/d> 5, the total wind loading may be based on the provisions given in Sections 7.6
to 7.8 and 7.9.2.

(3) In cases where the wind force on building structures is determined by application of the
pressure coefficients cpeon windward and leeward side (zones D and E) of the building
simultaneously, the lack of correlation of wind pressures between the windward and
leeward side may have to be taken into account.
NOTE The lack of correlation of wind pressures between the windward and leeward side may be
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considered as follows. For buildings with h/d ≥ 5 the resulting force is multiplied by 1. For buildings with
h/d ≤ 1, the resulting force is multiplied by 0.85. For intermediate values of h/d, linear interpolation may
be applied.
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7.2.3 Flat roofs
(1) Flat roofs are defined as having a slope (α) of –5°< α < 5°
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(2) The roof should be divided into zones as shown in Figure 7.6.
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(3) The reference height for flat roof and roofs with curved or mansard eaves should
be taken as h. The reference height for flat roofs with parapets should be taken as h + hp,
see Figure 7.6.
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(4) Pressure coefficients for each zone are given in Table 7.2.
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(5) The resulting pressure coefficient on the parapet should be determined using 7.4.
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IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
AF
R
D

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O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
Figure 7.6 — Key for flat roofs

R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
AF
R
D

Table 7.2-External pressure coefficients for flat roofs

Zone
Roof type F G H I
cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1
+0,2
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Sharp eaves -1,8 -2,5 -1,2 -2,0 -0,7 -1,2
-0,2
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+0,2
hp/h=0,025 -1,6 -2,2 -1,1 -1,8 -0,7 -1,2
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-0,2
With +0,2
E
hp/h=0,05 -1,4 -2,0 -0,9 -1,6 -0,7 -1,2
Parapets
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-0,2
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+0,2
hp/h=0,10 -1,2 -1,8 -0,8 -1,4 -0,7 -1,2
-0,2
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+0,2
r/h = 0,05 -1,0 -1,5 -1,2 -1,8 -0,4
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-0,2
Curved +0,2
r/h = 0,10 -0,7 -1,2 -0,8 -1,4 -0,3
Eaves
N -0,2
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+0,2
r/h = 0,20 -0,5 -0,8 -0,5 -0,8 -0,3
ES
-0,2
- +0,2
α = 30° -1,0 -0,3
1,5 -1,0 -1,5
D
-0,2
Mansard - +0,2
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Eaves α = 45° -1,2 -0,4

1,8 -1,3 -1,9
-0,2
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- +0,2
α = 60° -1,3 -0,5
1,9 -1,3 -1,9
TU
-0,2
NOTE 1 For roofs with parapets or curved eaves, linear interpolation may be used for
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intermediate values of hp/h and r/h.

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NOTE 2 For roofs with mansard eaves, linear interpolation between α = 30°, 45° and α = 60° may
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be used. For α > 60° linear interpolation between the values for α = 60° and the values for flat
roofs with sharp eaves may be used.
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NOTE 3 In Zone I, where positive and negative values are given, both values shall be
considered.
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NOTE 4 For the mansard eave itself, the external pressure coefficients are given in Table 7.4
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"External pressure coefficients for duopitch roofs: wind direction 0° ”, Zone F and G, depending
on the pitch angle of the mansard eave.
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NOTE 5 For the curved eave itself, the external pressure coefficients are given by linear
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interpolation along the curve, between values on the wall and on the roof.

7.2.4 Monopitch roofs

(1) The roof, including protruding parts, should be divided into zones as shown in Figure
7.7.
(2) The reference height zeshould be taken equal to h.
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(3) The pressure coefficients for each zone that should be used are given in Table 7.3.
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N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
AF
R
D
Figure 7.7 — Key for monopitch roofs

Table 7.3a-External pressure coefficients for monopitch roofs
Zone for wind direction = 00 Zone for wind direction = 00

Pitch
F G H F G H
Angle 
cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1
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-1.7 -2.5 -1.2 -2.0 -0.6 -1.2
50
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+0.0 +0.0 +0.0 -2.3 -2.5 -1.3 -2.0 -0.8 -1.2
N
-0.9 -2.0 -0.8 -1.5 -0.3
E
0
15
+0.2 +0.2 +0.2 -2.5 -2.8 -1.3 -2.0 -0.9 -1.2
R
TU
-0.5 -1.5 -0.5 -1.5 -0.2
0
30 -1.1 -2.3 -0.8 -1.5 -0.8
+0.7 +0.7 +0.4
C
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-0.0 -0.0 -0.0
0
45 -0.6 -1.3 -0.5 -0.7
+0.7 +0.7 +0.6
60
0
+0.7 +0.7 +0.7 -0.5 N -1.0 -0.5 -0.5
IG
750 +0.8 +0.8 +0.8 -0.5 -1.0 -0.5 -0.5
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
AF
R
D

Table 7.3a-External pressure coefficients for monopitch roofs

0
Zone for wind direction = 90
Pitch
Angle  Fup Flow G H I
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cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1
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5° -2,1 -2,6 -2,1 -2,4 -1,8 -2,0 -0,6 -1,2 -0,5
N
15° -2,4 -2,9 -1,6 -2,4 -1,9 -2,5 -0,8 -1,2 -0,7 -1,2
E
R
30° -2,1 -2,9 -1,3 -2,0 -1,5 -2,0 -1,0 -1,3 -0,8 -1,2
TU
45° -1,5 -2,4 -1,3 -2,0 -1,4 -2,0 -1,0 -1,3 -0,9 -1,2
C
LE
60° -1,2 -2,0 -1,2 -2,0 -1,2 -2,0 -1,0 -1,3 -0,7 -1,2
75° -1,2 -2,0 -1,2 -2,0 -1,2 -2,0 N -1,0 -1,3 -0,5
IG
ES
NOTE 1 At θ = 0° (see table a)) the pressure changes rapidly between positive and negative values around a pitch
angle of = +5° to +45°, so both positive and negative values are given. For those roofs, two cases should be
D
considered: one with all positive values, and one with all negative values. No mixing of positive and negative values is
allowed on the same face.
AL
NOTE 2 Linear interpolation for intermediate pitch angles may be used between values of the same sign. The values
equal to 0.0 are given for interpolation purposes
R
TU
C
7.2.5 Duopitch roofs

(1) The roof, including protruding parts, should be divided in zones as shown in Figure 7.8.
U
R
(2) The reference height zeshould be taken as h.

ST
(3) The pressure coefficients for each zone that should be used are given in Table 7.4.
T
AF
R
D

TE
O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
AF
R
D
Figure 7.8 — Key for duopitch roofs

Table 7.4a — External pressure coefficients for duopitch roofs
Zone for wind direction = 00
Pitch H I J
F G
cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1
TE
Angle 
-45° -0.6 -0.6 -0.8 -0.7 -1.0 -1.5
O
N
-30° -1.1 -2.0 -0.8 -1.5 -0.8 -0.6 -0.8 -1.4
-15° -2.5 -2.8 -1.3 -2.0 -0.9 -1.2 -0.5 -0.7 -1.2
E
R
+0.2 +0.2
-5° -2.3 -2.5 -1.2 -2.0 -0.8 -1.2
TU
-0.6 -0.6
C
+0.2
-1.7 -2.5 -1.2 -2.0 -0.6 -1.2
LE
5° -0.6
+0.0 +0.0 +0.0 -0.6
-0.9 -2.0 -0.8 -1.5 -0.3

N -0.4 -1.0 -1.5
IG
15°
+0.2 +0.2 +0,2 +0.0 +0.0 +0.0
ES
-0.4 -0.5
-0.5 -1.5 -0.5 -1.5 -0.2
30°
D
+0.7 +0.7 +0.4 +0.0 +0.0

AL
-0.0 -0.0 -0.0 -0.2 -0.3

45°
R
+0.7 +0.7 +0.6 +0.0 +0.0

TU
60
0 +0.7 +0.7 +0.7 -0.2 -0.3
C
75
0 +0.8 +0.8 +0.8 -0.2 -0.3
U
NOTE 1 At  = 0° the pressure changes rapidly between positive and negative values on the windward face around a
R
pitch angle of  = -5° to +45°, so both positive and negative values are given. For those roofs, four cases should be
ST
considered where the largest or smallest values of all areas F, G and H are combined with the largest or smallest
values in areas I and J. No mixing of positive and negative values is allowed on the same face.
NOTE 2 Linear interpolation for intermediate pitch angles of the same sign may be used between values of the same
T
sign. (Do not interpolate between  = +5° and  = -5°, but use the data for flat roofs in 7.2.3). The values equal to 0,0
AF
are given for interpolation purposes

R
D

Table 7.4b — External pressure coefficients for duopitch roofs
Zone for wind direction θ = 90
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Pitch
F G H I
Angle  cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1
O
N
-45° -1,4 -2,0 -1,2 -2,0 -1,0 -1,3 -0,9 -1.2
E
-30° -1,5 -2,1 -1,2 -2,0 -1,0 -1,3 -0,9 -1.2
R
TU
-15° -1,9 -2,5 -1,2 -2,0 -0,8 -1,2 -0.8 -1.2
-5° -1,8 -2,5 -1,2 -2,0 -0,7 -1,2 -0,6 -1.2
C
LE
5° -1.6 -2.2 -1.3 -2.0 -0.7 -1.2 -0.6
15° -1.3 -2.0 -1.3 -2.0

N
-0.6 -1.2 -0.5
IG
300 -1.1 -1.5 -1.4 -2,0 -0,8 1,2 -0.5
ES
45° -1.1 -1.5 1.4 2,0 0.9 1.2 -0.5

D
60° -1.1 -1.5 -1.2 -2.0 -0.8 -1.0 -0.5

AL
75° -1.1 -1.5 -1.2 -2.0 -0.8 -1.0 -0.5

R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
AF
R
D

7.2.6 Hipped roofs

(1) The roof, including protruding parts, should be divided into zones as shown in Figure
7.9.
(2) The reference height ze should be taken as h.
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(3) The pressure coefficients that should be used are given in Table 7.5.
O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
Figure 7.9 — Key for hipped roofs

T
AF
R
D

Table 7.5 – External pressure coefficients for hipped roofs of buildings

Pitch 0 0
Zone for wind direction = 0 and  =90
angle for
0 θ = 0
0 F G H I J K L M N
90 for cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1
0
θ=90
1.7 2.5 1.2 2.0 -0.6 -1.2
50
TE
0.3 0.6 0.6 1.2 2.0 0.6 1.2 0.4
+0.0 +0.0 +0.0
-0,9 -2,0 -0,8 -1,5 -0,3
O
0
15 -0.5 -1.0 -1.5 -1.2 -2.0 -1.4 -2.0 -0.6 -1.2 -0.3
+0.2 +0.2 +0.2
N
0,5 1,5 0,5 1,5 -0.2
0
30 -0.4 -0.7 -1.2 -0.5 -1.4 -2.0 -0.8 -1.2 -0.2
E
+0.5 +0.7 +0.4
R
0 -0.0 -0.0 -0.0
45
TU
-0.3 -0.6 -0.3 -1.3 -2.0 -0.8 -1.2 -0.2
+0.7 +0.7 +0.7
600
+0.7 +0.7 +0.7 -0.3 -0.6 -0.3 -0.4 -0.2
C
1.2 2.0
0
75
LE
+0.8 +0.8 +0.8 -0.3 -0.6
0.3 1.2 2.0 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.6 0.3
NOTE 1 At  = 0 the pressures changes rapidly between positive and negative values on the windward face at pitch angle of  =
N
+5 to +45 , so both positive and negative values are given. For those roofs, two cases should be considered: one with all positive
values, and one with all negative values. No mixing of positive and negative values are allowed.
IG
NOTE 2 Linear interpolation for intermediate pitch angles of the same sign may be used between values of the same sign. The values
equal to 0.0 are given for interpolation purposes.
ES
NOTE 3 The pitch angle of the windward face always will govern the pressure coefficients.
D
7.2.7 Multispan roofs

AL
(1) Pressure coefficients for wind directions 0°, 90° and 180° for each span of a multispan
roof may be derived from the pressure coefficient for each individual span.
R
Modifying factors for the pressures (local and global) for wind directions 0° and 180° on
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each span should be derived:
 from 7.2.4 for monopitch roofs, modified for their position according to Figure 7.10 a and
C
b.
U
 from 7.2.5 for duopitch roofs for α < 0 modified for their position according to Figure 7.10 c
R
and d.
ST
(2) The zones F/G/J used should be considered only for the upwind face. The zones H and
I should be considered for each span of the multispan roof.
T
AF
(3) The reference height zeshould be taken as h

R
D

TE
O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
NOTE 1 In configuration b two cases should be considered depending on the sign of pressure
T
coefficient cpeon the first roof.

AF
NOTE 2 In configuration c the first cpe is the cpe of the monopitch roof, the second and all following cpe
are the cpe of the troughed duopitch roof.
R
D
Figure 7.10 — Key to multispan roofs

7.2.8 Vaulted roofs and domes

(1) This section applies to circular cylindrical roofs and domes.
Note: The values of cpe,10 and cpe,1 to be used for circular cylindrical roofs and domes may be given in the
National Annex. The recommended values of cpe,10 are given in Figures 7.11 and 7.12 for different zones.
The reference height should be taken as ze =h + f
TE
O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
For Zone A:
T
 for 0<h/d 0.5, the coefficient cpe,10 is obtained by linear interpolation

AF
 for 0.2≤f/d≤0.3 and h/d0.5, two values of cpe, 10 have to be considered

 the diagram is not applicable for flat roofs
R
Figure 7.11 — Recommended values of external pressure coefficients cpe,10 for vaulted roofs with rectangular
base
D

TE
O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
cpe,10 is constant along arcs of circles, intersections of the sphere and of planes perpendicular to the
wind; it can be determined as a first approximation by linear interpolation between the values in A, B
and C along the arcs of circles parallel to the wind. In the same way the values of cpe,10in A if 0 <h/d<1
C
and in B or C if 0 <h/d< 0.5 can be obtained by linear interpolation in the Figure above.
U
R
Figure 7.12 — Recommended values of external pressure coefficients cpe,10 for domes with circular base
ST
(2) Pressure coefficients for the walls of rectangular buildings with vaulted roofs
should be taken from 7.2.2.
T
AF
R
D

Chapter Two
2. EARTHQUAKE LOAD
2.1. Introductions
TE
An earthquake may be defined as a wave-like motion generated by forces in
constant turmoil under the surface layer of the earth (the lithosphere), travelling
through the earth’s crust. It may also be defined as the vibration, sometimes violent,
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of the earth’s surface as a result of a release of energy in the earth’s crust. This release
N
of energy can be caused by sudden dislocations of segments of the crust, volcanic
eruptions, or even explosions created by humans. Dislocations of crust segments,
E
however, lead to the most destructive earthquakes. In the process of dislocation,
R
vibrations called seismic waves are generated.
These waves travel outwards from the source of the earthquake at varying speeds,
TU
causing the earth to quiver or ring like a bell or tuning fork. During an earthquake,
enormous amounts of energy are released. The size and severity of an earthquake is
C
estimated by two important parameters—intensity and magnitude. The magnitude is
LE
a measure of the amount of energy released, while the intensity is the apparent effect
experienced at a specific location
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
AF
R
D

TE
O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
Causes of Earthquakes
Earthquakes are vibrations or oscillations of the ground surface caused by a transient
disturbance of the elastic or gravitational equilibrium of the rocks at or beneath the
N
surface of the earth. The disturbance and the consequent movements give rise to
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elastic impulses or waves. Natural earthquakes are classified as tectonic (relative
movement of plates), plutonic (deep-seated changes), or volcanic, on the basis of
ES
the source of the stresses that cause the movement.
D
Nature and Occurrence of Earthquakes

When there is a sudden localized disturbance in rocks, waves similar to those caused
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by a stone thrown into a pool spread out through the earth. An earthquake generates
a similar disturbance. The maximum effect of an earthquake is felt near its source,
R
diminishing with distance from the source (earthquakes shake the ground even
hundreds of kilometres away). The vibrations felt in the bedrock are called shocks.
TU
Some earthquakes are preceded by smaller foreshocks and larger earthquakes are
always followed by aftershocks. Foreshocks are usually interpreted as being caused
C
by plastic deformation or small ruptures. Aftershocks are usually due to fresh ruptures
or readjustment of fractured rocks. The point of generation of an earthquake is known
U
as the focus, centre, or hypocentre. The point on the earth’s surface directly above
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the focus is known as epicentre. The depth of the focus from the epicentre is known
ST
as the focal depth. The distance from the epicentre to any point of interest is known
as the focal distance or epicentral distance
T
Effects of Earthquakes
AF
Earthquakes are major hazards and can cause catastrophic damage. They have two
types of effects—direct and indirect. Direct effects cause damages directly and
include ground motion and faulting. Indirect effects cause damages indirectly, as a
R
result of the processes set in motion by an earthquake.

D
Direct effects The direct effects of earthquakes are as follows:

 Seismic waves, especially surface waves, through surface rock layers and regolith
result in ground motion. Such motion can damage and, sometimes, completely
destroy buildings. If a structure, such as a building or a road, straddles a fault, then
TE
the ground displacement that occurs during an earthquake will seriously damage
or rip apart that structure.
 In regions consisting of hills and steep slopes, earthquake vibration may cause
O
landslides and mudslides and cliffs to collapse, which can damage buildings and
N
lead to loss of life.
 Soil vibration can either shake a building off its foundation, modify its supports, or
E
cause its foundation to disintegrate.
R
 Ground shaking may compound the problem in areas with very wet ground—
infilled land, near the coast, or in locations that have a high water table. This
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problem is known as liquefaction.
 Strong surface seismic waves make the ground heave and lurch and damage
C
the structure.
LE
Indirect or consequential effects The following are indirect effects of an earthquake:
 If the epicentre of an earthquake is under the sea, one side of the ocean floor
N
drops suddenly, sliding under the other plate and, in doing so, creates a
vertical fault. The violent movement of the sea floor results in series of sea
IG
waves with extremely long time periods. These waves are called tsunamis
ES
Since a tsunami occurs because of sudden displacement of a large body of water,
this displacement may be caused by
 undersea landslides whereby large amount of sediment is dislodged from the sea
D
floor, displacing a water column and potentially generating a localized tsunami;

 surface land sliding into the ocean due to earthquake, resulting in local
AL
tsunami; and volcanic eruptions in or near the ocean which may cause tsunami,
but are not usual.
R
 Sieches, similar to small tsunamis, occur as a result of the sloshing of enclosed water
TU
in reservoirs, lakes, and harbours shaken by earthquakes.

 Earthquakes can cause fire by damaging gas lines and snapping electric wires.
Earthquakes can rupture dams and levees (raised river embankments), causing
C
floods, resulting in damage to structures and considerable loss of life.

U
R
Measurements of Earthquakes
Structural engineers are concerned with the effect of earthquake ground motions on
ST
structures, that is, the amount of damage inflicted on the structures. This damage
(stress and deformation) potential depends to a large extent on the size (severity) of
the earthquake. The severity of an earthquake can be assessed in the following
T
ways— (i) quantifying its magnitude in terms of the energy released—measuring the
AF
amplitude, frequency, and location of the seismic waves; (ii) evaluating the intensity—
considering the destructive effect of shaking ground on people, structures, and
R
natural features. It is easier to measure the magnitude because, unlike the intensity,
D
which can vary with location and has no mathematical backing, the magnitude of a
particular earthquake remains constant.

Seismic Design
Structural design of buildings for seismic loading is primarily concerned with structural
safety during major earthquakes, but serviceability and the potential for economic
TE
loss are also of concern. Seismic loading requires an understanding of the structural
behavior under large inelastic, cyclic deformations. Behavior under this loading is
fundamentally different from wind or gravity loading, requiring much more detailed
O
analysis, and application of a number of stringent detailing requirements to assure
N
acceptable seismic performance beyond the elastic range. Some structural damage
can be expected when the building experiences design ground motions because
E
almost all building codes allow inelastic energy dissipation in structural systems.
R
Most earthquake code provisions implicity require that structures be able to resist
TU
1. Minor earthquakes without any damage.
2. Moderate earthquakes with negligible structural damage and some
C
nonstructural damage.
LE
3. Major earthquakes with some structural and nonstructural damage but without
collapse. The structure is expected to undergo fairly large deformations by
yielding in some structural members.
N
The aim of earthquake resistant design
IG
 To prevent structural damage and limit nonstructural damage
ES
 To prevent collapse during the worst credible event, although accepting some
structural damage to occur (the structure must not collapse or suffer damage that
threatens life safety during severe earthquakes)
D
 Structural damage: vertical and lateral force resisting systems, e.g. frames and
shear walls
AL
 Nonstructural: chimney collapsing, windows breaking or ceiling falling, piping

damage, disruption of pumps, telecommunication equipment etc.
R
TU
Design approach for earthquake resistant design

 Selecting an overall structural concept including layout of a lateral force–resisting
system that is appropriate to the anticipated level of ground shaking. This includes
C
providing a redundant and continuous load path to ensure that a building

U
responds as a unit when subjected to ground motion.

R
 Determining code-prescribed forces and deformations generated by the ground

motion, and distributing the forces vertically to the lateral force–resisting system.
ST
The structural system, configuration, and site characteristics are all considered
when determining these forces.
 Analyzing the building for the combined effects of gravity and seismic loads to
T
verify that adequate vertical and lateral strengths and stiffnesses are achieved to
AF
satisfy the structural performance and acceptable deformation levels prescribed

in the governing building code.
R
 Providing details to assure that the structure has sufficient inelastic deformability to
D
undergo large deformations when subjected to a major earthquake.

Appropriately detailed members possess the necessary characteristics to dissipate
energy by inelastic deformations.

 Proper initial planning of structural layout and form

 Carrying out an appropriate analysis
 Proper (carefully) detailing both structural and non-structural elements
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 Quality control ensuring that both design and construction carried out to the
appropriate standard
O
In seismic regions the aspect of seismic hazard shall be taken into account in the early
N
stages of the conceptual design of a building, thus enabling the achievement of a
structural system which, within acceptable costs, satisfies the fundamental
E
requirements specified in 2.1.
R
The guiding principles governing this conceptual design are:
TU
 Structural simplicity;
 Uniformity, symmetry and redundancy;
C
 Bi-directional resistance and stiffness;
LE
 Torsional resistance and stiffness;
 Diaphragmatic behaviour at storey level;
 Adequate foundation.
N
These principles are further elaborated in the following sub-clauses.
Conceptual Design
IG
ES
While conceiving a new construction project, an architect or designer should give
thorough thought to the form, shape, and material of the structure, as well as the
functional and cost requirements, to avoid a critical failure during an earthquake.
D
Often, architects conceive wonderful and imaginative forms and shapes to create
an aesthetic and functionally efficient structure. Each of these choices has significant
AL
bearing on the performance of the structure because of the associated vulnerability.

The architect should interact with the structural engineer to conceive the most
R
appropriate and seismically safe structure. A good configuration and a reasonable

TU
framing system can even overcome poor quality of construction without greatly
affecting the ultimate performance. Decisions made at the conceptual stage are
difficult to modify, so it is essential that their full consequences in terms of performance
C
and costs are understood as early as possible. Observing the performance of buildings
U
during strong earthquakes has been an age-old means of educating engineers and
R
builders on proper and improper construction of earthquake-load-resisting systems. A

structural engineer can draw upon a broad database of engineering observations
ST
that have been reported following earthquakes. An observation of performance that

suggests incipient collapse is certainly noteworthy. Learning from such observations,
faulty construction can be avoided.
T
AF
Observations on good performances of buildings are also noteworthy, as they

serve as examples of desirable structural systems. The basic factors contributing to the
R
proper seismic behaviour of a building, in a rational conceptual design of the

D
structural system, are simplicity, symmetry of the building, ductility, and transfer of the
lateral loads to the ground without excessive rotation. Complex structural systems that
introduce uncertainties in the analysis and detailing, or that rely on effectively non-

redundant load paths, can lead to unanticipated and potentially undesirable

structural behaviour. The behaviour of a structure during an earthquake depends
largely on the form of the superstructure and on how the earthquake forces are
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carried to the ground. For this reason the overall form, regular configuration, flow of
loads, and the framing system of building may be of serious concern if not taken care
of in the first stage of planning.
O
N
Continuous Load Path
One of the most fundamental considerations in earthquake-resistant design is a
E
clear, direct, and continuous load path. At least one (preferably more) continuous
R
load path with adequate strength, stiffness, and ductility should be provided from
the origin of initial load manifestation to the final lateral load resisting elements.
TU
In case a particular load path becomes degraded in strength or stiffness during
an earthquake, the other one will serve as a backup. Buildings with more than
C
one load path display redundancy. It has been observed that proper selection of
LE
the load-carrying system is essential to good performance under any loading. A
properly selected structural system tends to be relatively forgiving of oversights
in analysis, proportion, detail, and construction
N
Overall Form
IG
A structure is conceived and designed to transfer the seismic forces to the ground
ES
safely. However well the structure may have been designed, it is said to be
acceptable only if it meets all the established configuration-related requirements from
the observed failures during past earthquakes. Buildings having simple, regular, and
D
compact layouts, incorporating a continuous and redundant lateral force-resisting

system, tend to perform well during earthquakes and, thus, are desirable. While
AL
planning a particular structure, the guiding principles to be borne in mind are as

follows. The structure should have the following characteristies:
R
 have a direct and continuous load path

TU
 be simple and symmetrical

 not be too elongated in plan or elevation, i.e., the size should be moderate
 have uniform and continuous distribution of strength, mass, and stiffness
C
 have horizontal members which form hinges before the vertical members
U
 have sufficient ductility

R
 have stiffness related to the sub-soil properties

 These principles are discussed in detail in the sections that follow.
ST
Simplicity, Uniformity, and Symmetry

Buildings with a uniform and symmetrical distribution of mass, strength, and stiffness in
T
plan and elevation perform better in earthquakes than those lacking these
AF
characteristics. A simple and symmetrical structure in plan, e.g., a square or circular

shape, will have the greatest chance of survival for the following reasons:
R
1. The ability to understand the overall earthquake behaviour of a structure is

D
markedly greater for a simple one than it is for a complex one.

2. The ability to understand structural details is considerably greater for simple
structures than it is for complicated ones.

3. Uniformity in plan improves dynamic performance of a structure during an

earthquake by suppressing torsional response.
Buildings regular in plan and elevation, without re-entrant corners or discontinuities in
TE
transferring the vertical loads to the ground, display good seismic behaviour as well.
It is important that the plan of a structure is symmetrical in both directions. A building
having a simple plan but a lack of symmetry in the columns or walls (more partition
O
walls in the shorter direction than that in the longer direction), or an irregularity in the
N
elevation, produces torsional effects, which are difficult to assess properly and can be
destructive. External lifts and stairwells provide similar dangers; they tend to act on
E
their own in earthquakes, making it difficult to predict force concentrations, torsions,
R
and out-of-balance forces. To avoid torsional deformation, the centre of stiffness of a
building should coincide with the centre of mass. It is desirable to have symmetry both
TU
in the building configuration, as well as in the structure, in order to satisfy this condition.
The torsions of unsymmetrical structures can lead to a failure of corner columns and
C
walls at the perimeter of the building.
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
AF
R
D

TE
O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
AF
R
D

Elongated Shapes
A building may be too long, have too large an area in plan, or may be too slender.
None of these shapes should be encouraged as such shaped buildings do not
TE
perform well during strong ground motion. Buildings of great length or plan area may
not respond to earthquakes in the way calculated. In tall buildings with large height-
to base ratio (slenderness ratio > 4), the horizontal movement of the floors during
O
ground shaking is large. For buildings with slenderness ratio less than 4, the movement
N
is reasonable. The more slender a building, the worse the overturning effects of an
earthquake.
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
IG
ES
Stiffness and Strength

D
Building with a uniform distribution of stiffness and strength in plan and elevation
AL
generally performs well during earthquakes. Strength is the property of an element to

resist force. Stiffness is the property of an element to resist displacement. When two
elements of different stiffnesses are forced to deflect the same amount, the stiffer
R
element will carry more of the total force because it takes more force to deflect it.
TU
Stiffness greatly affects the structure’s uptake of earthquake-generated forces. On

the basis of stiffness, the structure may be classified as brittle or ductile. A brittle
C
structure, having greater stiffness, proves to be less durable during an earthquake,

while a ductile structure performs well in earthquakes.
U
Buildings with vertical setback cause a sudden jump of earthquake forces at the level
R
of discontinuity. A large vibrational motion takes place in some portions and a large
ST
diaphragm action is required at the border to transmit forces from the top to the base.
It may be noted that the effects of setbacks cannot be predicted by normal code
equivalent static analysis. Uniformity of strength and stiffness in elevation helps to
T
avoid the formation of weak or soft storeys. Buildings that have fewer columns or walls
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in a particular storey, or that have an unusually tall storey are prone to damage or
collapse. One of the most common forms of discontinuity of vertical elements occurs
when shear walls that are present in upper floors are discontinued in the lower floors.
R
The result is frequent formation of a soft storey that concentrates damage. A building
D
having shear walls (RCC walls for carrying earthquake forces) that do not go all the
way to the ground, but terminate at an intermediate storey level. It is advocated that

the stiffness of the lower storey, the so-called soft storey, be reduced, so that a
reduced dynamic force is transmitted to the superstructure.
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O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
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ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
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A building will have a maximum chance of survival if it conforms to the followings:

R
a) The load bearing elements should be uniformly distributed. This checks the
D
torsion in the building.

b) The columns and walls should be continuous and without offsets from the roof
to the foundation.
c) The beams should be free of offsets.
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d) Columns and beams should be coaxial.
e) Beams and columns should be of equal widths. This promotes good detailing
and aids the transfer of moments and shear through the junction of the
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members concerned.
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f) To avoid stress concentration, there should not be sudden change of
crosssection of any member.
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g) The structure should be as continuous (redundant) and monolithic as possible.
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The earthquake resistance of an economically designed structure depends on its
capacity to absorb apparently excessive energy input, mainly by repeated plastic
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deformation of its members. Hence, the more continuous and monolithic the building
is, the more plastic hinges and shear and thrust routes are available for energy
C
absorption. This requires the structure to be highly redundant.
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Twisting of Buildings
Torsional forces from ground motion are not usually of great concern unless the
N
building has an inherently low torsional strength. Twist in buildings causes different
portions at the same floor level to move horizontally by different amounts. Irregularities
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of mass, stiffness, and strength in a building can result in significant torsional response.
ES
However, torsion arises from eccentricity in the building layout—when the centre of
mass of the building does not coincide with its centre of rigidity. If there is torsion, the
building will rotate about its centre of rigidity due to the torsional moment about the
D
centre of structural resistance.

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R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
AF
R
D

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O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
IG
ES
D
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Ductility
Ductility is the capacity of building materials, systems, structures, or members
R
to undergo large inelastic deformations without significant loss of strength or

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stiffness. It is an essential attribute of a structure that must respond to strong

ground motions. It serves as the shock absorber in a building, for it reduces the
transmitted force to a sustainable magnitude. The resultant sustainable force is
C
traditionally used to design a hypothetically elastic representation of the building.

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Therefore, the survivability of a structure under strong seismic action relies on

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the capacity to deform beyond the elastic range, and to dissipate seismic energy
through plastic deformation. Formally, ductility refers to the ratio of the displacement
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just prior to ultimate displacement or collapse, to the displacement at first damage or

yield. This is a very important characteristic of a building since it greatly reduces the
effect or response that is produced in the structure by an earthquake. This is because
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the building is set in vibration by the energy of an earthquake. This vibration, as well
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as the accompanying deflection, is reduced by the energy that is absorbed by the

large inelastic deflections of a ductile structure. Some materials, such as steel and
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wood, are inherently ductile, while others, such as masonry and concrete, are brittle
D
and fail suddenly. Building elements constructed with ductile materials have a reserve
capacity to resist earthquake overloads. Therefore, buildings constructed with ductile
elements, such as steel and adequately reinforced concrete, tend to withstand

earthquakes much better than those constructed with brittle materials such as
unreinforced masonry. One way of achieving ductility in structural members is by
designing elements, with known limits, which deform in a ductile manner. For example,
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in RCC members, the amount and location of steel should be such that the failure of
the member occurs by steel reaching its strength in tension before concrete reaches
its strength in compression. This is referred to as ductile failure. In RCC buildings the
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seismic inertia forces generated at floor levels are transferred through the various
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beams and columns to the ground.
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Diaphragms
R
Earthquake loads at any level of a building will be distributed to the vertical structural
elements through the floor and roof diaphragms. The roof/floor deck or slab responds
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to loads like a deep beam. The deck or slab is the web of the beam carrying the shear,
and the perimeter spandrel or wall is the flange of the beam resisting bending.
C
LE
Three factors are important in diaphragm design:
1. The diaphragm must be adequate to resist both the bending and shear stresses
and be tied together to act as one unit.
N
2. The collectors and drag members must be adequate to transfer loads from the
diaphragm into the lateral-load-resisting vertical elements.
IG
3. Openings or re-entrant corners in the diaphragm must be properly placed and
ES
adequately reinforced.
Inappropriate location or large-size openings (stair or elevator cores, atriums, skylights)
create problems similar to those related to cutting a hole in the web of a beam.
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This reduces the ability of the diaphragm to transfer the forces and may cause failure.
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Design Earthquake Loads

R
The random motion of the ground caused by an earthquake causes inertia forces in
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a structure both in the horizontal (x and y) and vertical directions (z). These design
earthquake loads and their combinations are discussed in the following subsections.
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Design Horizontal Earthquake Load

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When the lateral load-resisting elements are oriented along orthogonal horizontal
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directions, the structure should be designed so that the effects due to a full design
earthquake load act in one horizontal direction at a time. When the lateral load-
ST
resisting elements are not oriented along the orthogonal horizontal directions, the
structure should be designed for the effects due to a full design earthquake load in
one horizontal direction, and 30% of the design earthquake load in the other direction.
T
For instance, the building should be designed for (±ELx ± 0.3ELy) as well as (±0.3ELx ±
AF
ELy), where x and y are two orthogonal horizontal directions and EL is the value of EL
adopted for design.
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D
Design Vertical Earthquake Load

Due to the random earthquake ground motions, which cause the structure to vibrate,
all structures experience a constant vertical acceleration (downward) that may be

additive or subtractive to the gravity depending on the direction of ground motion at

that instant. Factor of safety for gravity loads is usually sufficient to cover the
earthquake-induced vertical acceleration. When effects due to vertical ELs are to be
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considered, the design vertical force is calculated by considering the vertical
acceleration as two-thirds of the horizontal acceleration. However, this is a possible
median value of vertical acceleration and certainly should not be used for sensitive
O
structures.
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If avg is greater than 0.25 g (2.5 m/s2), the vertical component of the seismic action,
should be taken into account in the cases listed below:
E
 for horizontal or nearly horizontal structural members spanning 20 m or more;
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 for horizontal or nearly horizontal cantilever components longer than 5 m;
 for horizontal or nearly horizontal pre-stressed components;
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 for beams supporting columns;
 in base-isolated structures.
C
LE
Seismic Methods of Analysis
After selecting the structural model, it is possible to perform analysis to determine
the seismically induced forces in the structures. The analysis can be performed
N
on the basis of the external action, the behaviour of the structure or structural
materials, and the type of structural model selected. The analysis process can be
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classified as shown in Fig. 5.3. Depending on the nature of the considered variables,
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the method of analysis can be classified as shown in Fig. 5.4. Based on the type of
external action and behaviour of structure, the analysis can be further classified as
linear static analysis, linear dynamic analysis, non-linear static analysis, or non-linear
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dynamic analysis. Linear static analysis or equivalent static analysis can be used for
regular structures with limited height. Linear dynamic analysis can be performed in
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two ways, either by the response spectrum method or by the elastic time-history
method. The significant difference between linear static and linear dynamic analyses
R
is the level of the forces and their distribution along the height of the structure. Non-
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linear static analysis is an improvement over linear static or dynamic analysis in the
sense that it allows inelastic behaviour of the structure. The method is simple to
implement and provides information on the strength, deformation, and ductility of the
C
structure, as well as the distribution of demands. This permits the identification of the
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critical members that are likely to reach limit states during the earthquake, to which
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attention should be paid during the design and detailing process. But the non-linear
static method is based on many assumptions, which neglect the variation of loading
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patterns, the influence of higher modes of vibration, and the effect of resonance. In
spite of the deficiencies, this method, known as push-over analysis, provides a
reasonable estimation of the global deformation capacity, especially for structures
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that primarily respond according to the first mode.

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A non-linear dynamic analysis or inelastic time-history analysis is the only method to

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describe the actual behaviour of a structure during an earthquake.

D

Basic Assumptions
The following assumptions are made in the analysis of earthquake-resistant design
of structures.
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a. An earthquake causes impulsive ground motions, which are complex and
irregular in character, with each change in period and amplitude lasting for a
small duration. Therefore, resonance of the type visualized under steady-state
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sinusoidal excitations will not occur, as it would need time to build up such
N
amplitudes. However, there are exceptions where resonance-like conditions
have been seen to occur between long-distance waves and tall structures
E
founded on deep soft soils.
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b. An earthquake is not likely to occur simultaneously with winds or powerful floods
and sea waves. The probability of occurrences of strong earthquake motion
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along with strong winds and/or maximum sea waves is low. Therefore, it is justified
to assume that these hazardous events are not occurring at the same time.
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c. The value of elastic modulus of materials, wherever required, may be taken as the
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one used for static analysis, unless a more definite value is available for use in such
a condition. It may be noted that the values of modulus of elasticity for various
construction materials display large variations.
N
Methods of Elastic Analysis
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The most commonly used methods of analysis are based on the approximation that
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the effects of yielding can be accounted for by linear analysis of the building using
the design spectrum for inelastic systems. Forces and displacements due to each
horizontal component of ground motion are separately determined by analysis of an
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idealized building having one lateral degree of freedom per floor in the direction of
the ground motion component being considered. Such analysis may be carried out
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by the equivalent lateral force procedure (static method) or response spectrum

analysis procedure (dynamic method). Another refined method of dynamic analysis
R
is the elastic time-history method.

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Both the equivalent lateral force and response spectrum analysis procedures lead
directly to lateral forces in the direction of the ground motion component. The main
differences between the two methods are in the magnitude and distribution of the
C
lateral forces over the height of the building. The equivalent lateral force method is
U
mainly suited for preliminary design of the building. The preliminary design of the
R
building is then used for response spectrum analysis or any other refined method such
as the elastic time-history method.
ST
As per ES EN 1998:2015, there are four methods of analysis to determine earthquake

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forces acting over buildings:

AF
1. Lateral force method of analysis /Equivalent Static analysis/

This type of analysis can be applied to buildings whose response is not significantly
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affected by contributions from higher modes of vibration. These requirements are

D
deemed to be satisfied by buildings which meet the criteria for regularity in elevation
as given in ES EN 1998:2015, and have fundamental period of vibration T1 in the two
main directions less than 2 sec or 4*Tc.

2. Modal Response spectrum method:

This type of analysis shall be applied to buildings which do not satisfy the conditions
given in equivalent static analysis. The seismic forces strikes the foundation of a
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structure will move with the ground motion. It shows that structure movement is
generally more than the ground motion. The movement of the structure
as compared to the ground is refused as the dynamic amplification. It depends on
O
the natural frequency of vibration, damping, type of foundation, method of detailing
N
of the structure. The response “design acceleration spectrum” which refers to the max
acceleration called spectral acceleration coefficient Se/g, as a function of the
E
structure for a specified damping ratio for earthquake excitation at the base for a
R
single degree freedom system.
TU
C
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N
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ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
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3. Non-linear static (pushover) analysis:

R
Pushover analysis is a non-linear static analysis carried out under conditions of

ST
constant gravity loads and monotonically increasing horizontal loads. It may be

applied to verify the structural performance of newly designed and of existing
buildings for the following purposes:
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 to estimate the expected plastic mechanisms and the distribution of damage

AF
 to assess the structural performance of existing buildings

4. Non-linear time-history analysis:
It is an analysis of the dynamic response of the structure at each increment of time,
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when its base is subjected to a specific ground motion time history. Alternatively,
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recorded ground motions database from past natural events can be a reliable source
for time histories but they are not recorded in any given site to include all seismological
characteristics suitable for that site.

The time-dependent response of the structure may be obtained through direct

numerical integration of its differential equations of motion, using the accelero-grams
to represent the ground motions.
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 Natural accelerograms
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N
E
R
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C
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With regard to the implications of structural regularity on analysis and design, separate
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consideration is given to the regularity characteristics of the building in plan and in
elevation (Table 4.1).
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Table 4.1: Consequences of structural regularity on seismic analysis and design
Regularity Allowed Simplification Behaviour factor
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Plan Elevation Model Linear-elastic Analysis (for linear analysis)
Yes Yes Planar Lateral
forcea Reference value
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Yes No Planar Modal Decreased value

No Yes Spatialb Lateral forcea Reference value
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No No Spatial Modal Decreased value

aIf the condition of 4.3.3.2.1(2)a) is also met.
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bUnder the specific conditions given in 4.3.3.1(8) a separate planar model may be
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used in each horizontal direction, in accordance with 4.3.3.1(8).

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Earthquake-resistant Design Methods

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Conventional civil engineering structures are designed on the basis of two main
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criteria—strength and stiffness. The strength is related to damageability or ultimate limit

state, whereas the stiffness is related to serviceability limit state for which
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the structural displacements must remain limited. In case of earthquake-resistant

design, a new criterion, the ductility should also be added. The first two criteria, can
be achieved by—
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(a) specifying severe (or moderate) design earthquake levels,

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(b) limiting the maximum stresses or internal forces in critical members, and
(c) limiting the storey drift ratio. The third criterion, which is prevention of building
R
collapse, is achieved by providing sufficient strength and ductility to ensure that

D
the structures do not collapse in a service earthquake.

Based on the three criteria, rigidity (serviceability), strength (damageability), and
ductility (survivability), the methods of seismic design are classified as lateral strength

design, displacement- or ductility-based design, capacity design method, and

energy-based design. These design approaches are described below.
 Lateral strength design Lateral strength design is the most common seismic design
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approach used today. It is based on providing the structure with the minimum
lateral strength to resist seismic loads, assuming that the structure will behave
adequately in the non-linear range. Concept of response reduction factor is used
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with an intent to account for both ductility and damping inherent in a structural
N
system. Further, some simple constructional detail rules are to be satisfied, such as
material ductility, member slenderness, cross sections, etc.,
E
 Displacement or ductility-based design It is a well-known fact that due
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to economic reasons, structures are not designed to have sufficient strength to
remain elastic in severe earthquakes. The structure is designed to possess
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adequate ductility so that it can dissipate energy by yielding and survive the
shock. The ductility-based design operates directly with deformation quantities
C
and, therefore, gives a better insight to the expected performance of structures,
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rather than simply providing strength, as the lateral strength design approach
does.
 Capacity design method The capacity design method is a design approach in
N
which the structures are designed so that hinges can only form in predetermined
positions and sequences. It is a procedure of the design process in which strengths
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and ductilities are allocated and the analyses are interdependent. The capacity
ES
design procedure stipulates the margin of strength that is necessary for elements
to ensure that their behaviour remains elastic. The capacity design method is so
called because in the yielding condition, the strength developed in the weaker
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member is related to the capacity of the stronger member.

 Energy-based design One of the promising approaches for earthquake-resistant
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design in the future is the energy-based design approach. In this approach, it is

recognized that the total energy input Et can be resisted by the sum of the kinetic
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energy Ek, the elastic strain energy Ees, the energy dissipated through plastic
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deformations (hysteretic damping) Ep, and the equivalent viscous damping E.
The energy equation for a single-mass vibrating system is the energy balance
between the total input energy and the energies dissipated by viscous damping
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and inelastic deformations.

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R
ST
T
AF
R
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2.2. Earthquake Loads On Buildings Based On EBCS-8 Equivalent static force

analysis procedure according to EBCS-8
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The procedure of equivalent force approach as follows:
Parameters
Ground Type:
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ES EN 1998:2015 uses standard penetration test blow-count and unconfined
N
compression strength in addition to a representative average shear wave velocity to
classify the ground type. The influence of local ground conditions on the seismic
E
action shall be accounted for by considering the five subsoil classes.
R
Table 3.1: Ground types
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Parameter
s
C
Ground
Description of stratigraphic profile NSPT
type
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vs,30 (m/s) (blows/3 cu (kPa)
0cm)
Rock or other rock-like geological
N
A formation, including at most 5 m of > 800 _ _
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weaker material at the surface.
Deposits of very dense sand, gravel, or
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very stiff clay, at least several tens of
B meters in thickness, characterized by a 360 – 800 > 50 > 250
gradual increase of mechanical
D
properties with depth.

AL
Deep deposits of dense or medium-

dense sand, gravel or stiff clay with
C 180 – 360 15 - 50 70 - 250
thickness from several tens to many
R
hundreds of meters.
TU
Deposits of loose-to-medium
cohesionless soil (with or without some
D < 180 < 15 < 70
C
soft cohesive layers), or of

predominantly soft-to-firm cohesive soil.
U
A soil profile consisting of a surface

R
alluvium layer with vs values of type C

ST
E or D and thickness varying between

about 5 m and 20 m, underlain by stiffer
material with vs > 800 m/s.
T
Deposits consisting, or containing a

< 100
AF
layer at least 10 m thick, of soft

S1 (indicative _ 10 - 20
clays/silts with a high plasticity index (PI
)
> 40) and high water content
R
Deposits of liquefiable soils, of sensitive

D
S2 clays, or any other soil profile not

included in types A – E or S1

The site should be classified according to the value of the average shear wave
velocity, vs,30, if this is available. Otherwise the value of NSPT should be used.
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Design spectrum for elastic analysis
 The capacity of structural systems to resist seismic actions in the non-linear range
generally permits their design for resistance to seismic forces smaller than those
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corresponding to a linear elastic response.
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 To avoid explicit inelastic structural analysis in design, the capacity of the structure
to dissipate energy, through mainly ductile behaviour of its elements and/or other
E
mechanisms, is taken into account by performing an elastic analysis based on a
R
response spectrum reduced with respect to the elastic one, henceforth called a
''design spectrum''. This reduction is accomplished by introducing the behaviour
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factor q.
 The behaviour factor q is an approximation of the ratio of the seismic forces that the
C
structure would experience if its response was completely elastic with 5% viscous
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damping, to the seismic forces that may be used in the design, with a conventional
elastic analysis model, still ensuring a satisfactory response of the structure. The
values of the behaviour factor q, which also account for the influence of the viscous
N
damping being different from 5%, are given for various materials and structural
systems according to the relevant ductility classes in the various Parts of EBCS EN
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1998. The value of the behaviour factor q may be different in different horizontal
ES
directions of the structure, although the ductility classification shall be the same in
all directions.
 For the horizontal components of the seismic action the design spectrum, Sd(T), shall
D
be defined by the following expressions:

 2 T  2.5 2  
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0  T  TB : Sd T   ag  S       
 3 TB  q 3  
2.5
R
TB  T  TC : Sd T   ag  S  
q
TU
 2.5  TC 
  ag  S  
C
TB  T  TC : Sd T    q  T 
   a
U
 g
R
 2.5  TC  TD 
ST
  ag  S  
TD  T : Sd T    q  T 2 
   a
 g
T
AF
Where
Se(T) is the Design spectrum;
T is the vibration period of a linear single-degree-of-freedom system;
R
ag is the design ground acceleration on type A ground (ag = γIagR);

D
TB is the lower limit of the period of the constant spectral acceleration branch;
TC is the upper limit of the period of the constant spectral acceleration branch;

TD is the value defining the beginning of the constant displacement response

range of the spectrum;
S is the soil factor;
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 is the damping correction factor with a reference value of η = 1 for 5% viscous
damping, see (3) of this subclause.
q is the behaviour factor;
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β is the lower bound factor for the horizontal design spectrum.
N
NOTE The value to be ascribed to β for use is found in the National Annex. The
recommended value for β is 0,2.
E
R
 The values of the period TB, TC and TD and of the soil factor S describing the shape
of the elastic response spectrum depend upon the ground type.
TU
NOTE 1 The values to be ascribed to TB, TC, TD, and S for each ground type and type
(shape) of spectrum to be used is found in the National Annex. If deep geology is not
C
accounted for, the recommended choice is the use of two types of spectra: Type 1
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and Type 2. If the earthquakes that contribute most to the seismic hazard defined for
the site for the purpose of probabilistic hazard assessment have a surface-wave
magnitude, Ms, not greater than 5.5, it is recommended that the Type 2 spectrum is
N
adopted. For the five ground types A, B, C, D and E the recommended values of the
parameters S, TB, TC and TD are given in Table 3.2 for the Type 1 Spectrum and in Table
IG
3.3 for the Type 2 Spectrum. Figure 3.2 and Figure 3.3 show the shapes of the
ES
recommended Type 1 and Type 2 spectra, respectively, normalised by ag, for 5%
damping. Different spectra may be defined in the National Annex, if deep geology is
accounted for.
D
Table 3.2: Values of the parameters describing the recommended Type 1 elastic
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response spectra
Ground
R
type S TB(s) TC (s) TD(s)

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A 1.0 0.05 0.25 1.2

B 1.35 0.05 0.25 1.2
C 1.5 0.10 0.25 1.2
C
D 1.8 0.10 0.30 1.2

U
E 1.6 0.05 0.25 1.2

R
ST
Table 3.3: Values of the parameters describing the recommended Type 2 elastic
response spectra
Ground
T
type S TB(s) TC(s) TD(s)

AF
A 1.0 0.15 0.4 2.0

B 1.2 0.15 0.5 2.0
R
C 1.15 0.20 0.6 2.0

D 1.35 0.20 0.8 2.0
D
E 1.4 0.15 0.5 2.0

TE
O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
Figure 3.2: Recommended Type 1 elastic response spectra for ground types A to E (5%
damping) IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
Figure 3.3: Recommended Type 2 elastic response spectra for ground types A to E (5%
AF
damping)
Note 2 For ground types S1 and S2, special studies should provide the corresponding
values of S, TB, TC and TD.
R
 The value of the damping correction factor η may be determined by the

D
expression:
  10  5     0.55

Where
is the viscous damping ratio of the structure, expressed as a percentage.
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Peak ground acceleration
For structural design, the intensity of earthquake is usually described in terms of the
ground acceleration as a fraction of the acceleration due to gravity, i.e. 0.1g, 0.2g,
O
0.3g etc. The static analysis procedure provides for the calculation of the total lateral
N
force, defined as the design base shear which is then distributed over height of the
building. Probabilistic seismic hazard zonation of Ethiopia was classified into five zone
E
based on ES EN 1998:2015. Peak ground acceleration is depends on the zone type
R
(location) and return period.
TU
Table D1: Bedrock Acceleration Ratio o
Zone 5 4 3 2 1 0
C
o= ag/g 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.07 0.04 0
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N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
AF
R
D

TE
O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
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Importance Category and Importance Factor

Buildings are classified in two codes in 4 importance classes, depending on the -
R
consequences of collapse for human life, on their importance for public safety and
D
civil protection in the immediate post-earthquake period, and on the social and
economic consequences of collapse. Important category classification and
Impotence factor (γI) value according to ES EN 1998:2015

Table 4.3 Importance classes for buildings

Importance Buildings
class
TE
I Buildings of minor importance for public safety, e.g. agricultural
buildings, etc.
II Ordinary buildings, not belonging in the other categories.
O
III Buildings whose seismic resistance is of importance in view of the
N
consequences associated with a collapse, e.g. schools,
assembly halls, cultural institutions etc.
E
IV Buildings whose integrity during earthquakes is of vital
R
importance for civil protection, e.g. hospitals, fire stations, power
TU
plants, etc.
NOTE Importance classes I, II and III or IV correspond roughly to consequences classes
CC1, CC2 and CC3, respectively, defined in EBCS EN 1990:2013, Annex B.
C
(5)P The value of I for importance class II shall be, by definition, equal to 1.0.
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NOTE The recommended values of I for importance classes I, III and IV are equal to
0.8, 1.2 and 1.4, respectively.
Fundamental period of vibration
N
 For the determination of the fundamental period of vibration T1 of the building,
IG
expressions based on methods of structural dynamics (for example the Rayleigh
method) may be used.
ES
 For buildings with heights of up to 40 m the value of T1 (in s) may be approximated
by the following expression:
D
T1 = Ct ⋅H ¾
AL
where
Ct
R
 is 0.085 for moment resistant space steel frames,

 0.075 for moment resistant space concrete frames and for eccentrically
TU
braced steel frames and

 0.050 for all other structures;
C
H is the height of the building, in m, from the foundation or from the top of a rigid
basement.
U
 Alternatively, for structures with concrete or masonry shear walls the value Ct in
R
expression (4.6) may be taken as being

ST
Ct  0.075 / Ac
where
 
2
Ac    Ai  0.2   lwi H   and
T
 
AF
Ac is the total effective area of the shear walls in the first storey of the building, in
m; 2
Ai is the effective cross-sectional area of the shear wall i in the first storey of the
R
building, in m2;
D
H is as in (3) of this subclause

lwi is the length of the shear wall i in the first storey in the direction parallel to the
applied forces, in m, with the restriction that lwi/H should not exceed 0.9.
TE
Sesmic Mass
The inertial effects of the design seismic action shall be evaluated by taking into
account the presence of the masses associated with all gravity loads appearing in
O
the following combination of actions:
N
M=  Gk , j " "  E ,i  Qk ,i
where
E
E,i is the combination coefficient for variable action i
R
 The combination coefficients E,i take into account the likelihood of the loads Qk,i
TU
not being present over the entire structure during the earthquake. These
coefficients may also account for a reduced participation of masses in the motion
of the structure due to the non-rigid connection between them.
C
 Values of 2,i are given in EBCS EN 1990:2015 and values of E,i for buildings or other
LE
types of structures are given in the relevant parts of EBCS EN 1998.
 The coefficient ψE,i is used to estimate a likely value of service loads and to take
into account that some masses do not follow perfectly the moves of the structure,
N
because they are not rigidly connected to the structure. ψE,i is computed as:
ΨE = φ. ψ2,I Values of for calculating 2i IG
ES
Table 4.2: Values of  for calculating 2i
Type of variable action Storey φ
D
Roof 1.0
Storeys with correlated
AL
Categories A-C* occupancies 0.8

Independently occupied
R
storeys 0.5
Categories D-F* and
TU
1.0
Archives
C
U
Table A1.1 - Recommended values of  factors for buildings

Action 0 1 2
R
Imposed loads in buildings, category (see

ST
ES EN
0.7 0.5 0.3
1991-1-1:2015)
0.7 0.5 0.3
Category A : domestic, residential areas
T
0.7 0.7 0.6

Category B : office areas
0.7 0.7 0.6
AF
Category C : congregation areas

1.0 0.9 0.8
Category D : shopping areas
0.7 0.7 0.6
R
Category E : storage areas

0.7 0.5 0.3
Category F : traffic area,
D
0 0 0
vehicle weight  30kN
Category G : traffic area

30kN < vehicle weight  160kN

Category H : roofs
Snow loads on buildings 0 0 0
TE
Wind loads on buildings (see ES EN 1991-1-
0.6 0.2 0
4:2015)
Temperature (non-fire) in buildings (see ES
O
EN 0.6 0.5 0
N
1991-1-5:2015)
E
Behaviour factors for horizontal seismic actions
R
 The upper limit value of the behaviour factor q, introduced in to account for
TU
energy dissipation capacity, shall be derived for each design direction as follows:
q= qo kw ≥ 1.5
C
where
LE
qo is the basic value of the behaviour factor, dependent on the type of the
structural system and on its regularity in elevation (see (2) of this subclause);
kw is the factor reflecting the prevailing failure mode in structural systems with walls
N
(see (11)P of this subclause).
IG
For buildings that are regular in elevation in accordance with 4.2.3.3, the basic values
ES
of qo for the various structural types are given in Table 5.1.
D
Table 5.1: Basic value of the behaviour factor, qo, for systems regular in elevation
STRUCTURAL TYPE DCM DCH
AL
Frame system, dual system, coupled wall

system 3.0αu/α1 4.5αu/α1
R
Uncoupled wall system 3.0 4.0αu/α1

Torsionally flexible system 2.0 3.0
TU
Inverted pendulum system 1.5 2.0

For buildings which are not regular in elevation, the value of qo should be reduced by
C
20% (see 4.2.3.1(7) and Table 4.1).

U
αl and αu are defined as follows:

α1 is the value by which the horizontal seismic design action is multiplied in order
R
to first reach the flexural resistance in any member in the structure, while all other
ST
design actions remain constant;

αu is the value by which the horizontal seismic design action is multiplied, in order
to form plastic hinges in a number of sections sufficient for the development of overall
T
structural instability, while all other design actions remain constant. The factor αu may
AF
be obtained from a nonlinear static (pushover) global analysis.

 When the multiplication factor αu/α1 has not been evaluated through an explicit
R
calculation, for buildings which are regular in plan the following approximate
values of αu/α1 may be used.
D
a) Frames or frame-equivalent dual systems.

 One-storey buildings: αu/α1=1.1;

 multistorey, one-bay frames: αu/α1=1.2;

 multistorey, multi-bay frames or frame-equivalent dual structures: αu/α1=1.3.
b) Wall- or wall-equivalent dual systems.
TE
 wall systems with only two uncoupled walls per horizontal direction: αu/αl =1.0;
 other uncoupled wall systems: αu/α1=1.1;
 wall-equivalent dual, or coupled wall systems: αu/α1=1.2.
O
 For buildings which are not regular in plan (see 4.2.3.2), the approximate value of
N
αu/α1 that may be used when calculations are not performed for its evaluation are
equal to the average of (a) 1,0 and of (b) the value given in (5) of this subclause.
E
 Values of αu/α1 higher than those given in (5) and (6) of this subclause may be
R
used, provided that they are confirmed through a nonlinear static (pushover)
global analysis.
TU
 The maximum value of αu/α1 that may be used in the design is equal to 1.5, even
when the analysis mentioned in (7) of this subclause results in higher values.
C
 The value of qo given for inverted pendulum systems may be increased, if it can
LE
be shown that a correspondingly higher energy dissipation is ensured in the critical
region of the structure.
 If a special and formal Quality System Plan is applied to the design, procurement
N
and construction in addition to normal quality control schemes, the values of qo
given in table 5.1 may be increased by 20%. Such a specific plan must take into
IG
account the stages from design through to construction and include aspects
ES
including the accuracy of the analysis methods implemented and the verification
of the correct positioning of the steel in critical zones.
 The factor kw reflecting the prevailing failure mode in structural systems with walls
D
shall be taken as follows:

AL
1.00, for frame and frame-equivalentdual systems 

 
k w   (1   0 ) / 3  1, but not less than 0.5, for wall-equivalent and torsionally 
R
 flexible systems 
 
TU
Where αo is the prevailing aspect ratio of the walls of the structural system.
 If the aspect ratios hwi/lwi of all walls i of a structural system do not significantly differ,
C
the prevailing aspect ratio αo may be determined from the following expression:
U
 o   hwi /  lwi
R
where
hwi is the height of wall i; and
ST
lwi is the length of the section of wall i.

 (Systems of large lightly reinforced walls cannot rely on energy dissipation in plastic
T
hinges and so should be designed as DCM structures.

AF
R
D
Base shear force

 The seismic base shear force Fb, for each horizontal direction in which the building
is analysed, shall be determined using the following expression:
Fb = Sd (T1) m 
TE
where
Sd (T1) is the ordinate of the design spectrum (see 3.2.2.5) at period T1;
O
T1 is the fundamental period of vibration of the building for lateral motion in the
direction considered;
N
m is the total mass of the building, above the foundation or above the top of a
E
rigid basement, computed in accordance with 3.2.4(2);
λ is the correction factor, the value of which is equal to: λ= 0.85 if T1 < 2 TC and
R
the building has more than two storeys, or λ = 1.0 otherwise.
TU
NOTE The factor λ accounts for the fact that in buildings with at least three storeys and
C
translational degrees of freedom in each horizontal direction, the effective modal
mass of the 1st (fundamental) mode is smaller, on average by 15%, than the total
LE
building mass.
Distribution of the horizontal seismic forces
N
 The fundamental mode shapes in the horizontal directions of analysis of the
IG
building may be calculated using methods of structural dynamics or may be
approximated by horizontal displacements increasing linearly along the height of
ES
the building.
 The seismic action effects shall be determined by applying, to the two planar
D
models, horizontal forces Fi to all storeys.

s i  mi
AL
Fi  Fb 
sj mj
R
where
TU
Fi is the horizontal force acting on storey i;

Fb is the seismic base shear in accordance with expression (4.5);
si, sj are the displacements of masses mi, mj in the fundamental mode shape;
C
mi, mj are the storey masses computed in accordance with 3.2.4(2).

U
 When the fundamental mode shape is approximated by horizontal displacements

increasing linearly along the height, the horizontal forces Fi should be taken as
R
being given by:

ST
z i  mi
Fi  Fb 
zj mj
T
AF
where
zi, zj are the heights of the masses mi,mj above the level of application of the
R
seismic action (foundation or top of a rigid basement).

 The horizontal forces Fi determined in accordance with this clause shall be
D
distributed to the lateral load resisting system assuming the floors are rigid in their
plane.

Accidental torsional effects

 In order to account for uncertainties in the location of masses and in the spatial
TE
variation of the seismic motion, the calculated centre of mass at each floor i shall
be considered as being displaced from its nominal location in each direction by
an accidental eccentricity:
O
eai= 0.05.Li
N
Where
E
eai is the accidental eccentricity of storey mass i from its nominal location, applied
R
in the same direction at all floors;
TU
Li is the floor-dimension perpendicular to the direction of the seismic action.
Combination of the effects of the components of the seismic action
C
Horizontal components of the seismic action
LE
 In general the horizontal components of the seismic action (see 3.2.2.1(3)) shall be
taken as acting simultaneously.
 The combination of the horizontal components of the seismic action may be
N
accounted for as follows.
IG
 The structural response to each component shall be evaluated separately, using
the combination rules for modal responses given in 4.3.3.3.2.
ES
 The maximum value of each action effect on the structure due to the two
horizontal components of the seismic action may then be estimated by the square
root of the sum of the squared values of the action effect due to each horizontal
D
component.
AL
 The rule b) generally gives a safe side estimate of the probable values of other
action effects simultaneous with the maximum value obtained as in b). More
accurate models may be used for the estimation of the probable simultaneous
R
values of more than one action effect due to the two horizontal components of
TU
the seismic action.

 As an alternative to b) and c) of (2) of this subclause, the action effects due to the
C
combination of the horizontal components of the seismic action may be

computed using both of the two following combinations:
U
a) EEdx “+” 0.30 EEdy

R
b) 0.30EEdx “+” EEdy

ST
where
“+” implies “to be combined with”;
EEdx represents the action effects due to the application of the seismic action along
T
the chosen horizontal axis x of the structure;

AF
EEdy represents the action effects due to the application of the same seismic action
along the orthogonal horizontal axis y of the structure.
R
D

Vertical component of the seismic action

2
 If avg is greater than 0.25 g (2.5 m/s ) the vertical component of the seismic action,
as defined in 3.2.2.3, should be taken into account in the cases listed below:
TE
 for horizontal or nearly horizontal structural members spanning 20 m or more;
 for horizontal or nearly horizontal cantilever components longer than 5 m;
 for horizontal or nearly horizontal pre-stressed components;
O
 for beams supporting columns;
N
 in base-isolated structures.
 The analysis for determining the effects of the vertical component of the seismic
E
action may be based on a partial model of the structure, which includes the
R
elements on which the vertical component is considered to act (e.g. those listed
TU
in the previous paragraph) and takes into account the stiffness of the adjacent
elements.
C
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
AF
R
D

Table D2: Seismic Hazard Zonnation for Selected Towns

Longitude Latitude Seismic
Region Town
E N Zone
Aba Jimma 39.6370 11.6554 3
Afar Abala 39.8614 13.3653 3
TE
Oromia Abay Chomen 37.3479 9.7214 0
Oromia Abaya 38.0768 6.3099 3
O
Oromia Abe Dengoro 36.8336 9.5976 0
N
Oromia Abichugna 39.2302 9.6088 3
Tigray Abiyi adi 38.9921 13.6344 2
E
Gambella Abobo 34.5302 7.8609 0
R
Aboker 38.1409 10.6166 0
TU
Abol 37.5769 11.0442 0
Abomsa 39.6103 8.1684 3
C
Oromia Abuna Gindeberet 37.9799 9.6666 1
LE
Oromia Ada'a 39.0070 8.7540 4
Oromia Adaba 39.5280 6.9870 1
SOMALIE Adadilo
N
43.4753 5.4971 0
IG
Oromia Adama 39.2682 8.5386 4
Adami Tulu Jido
ES
Oromia Kombolcha 38.6143 7.8032 4

Addis Abeba 38.7645 8.9757 3
D
Adeabay 37.3700 13.2491 0

Adet 39.4679 10.3323 5
AL
Adi arikay 38.2307 13.7770 1

Adi Daero 37.2047 13.8773 0
R
Adi Gala 38.2165 14.3221 1

TU
Adi Gudo 38.8844 14.0682 2

Amhara Adiarikay 37.9632 13.3932 0
C
Adigrat 39.5604 14.1860 4

U
Adirmet 38.6195 13.5008 1

R
Oromia Adola 38.9964 5.9516 1

ST
Tigray Adwa 38.9249 14.1799 2

Afar Afambo 41.6675 11.3688 4
Somalie Afdem 40.8857 9.6861 4
T
Special EA Afdem Special EA 40.6540 10.6544 3

AF
Afar Afdera 40.6399 13.3316 5

Somalie Afker 42.5676 5.2799 0
R
Benishangul
D
Gumuz Agalometi 35.9530 10.3904 0

Oromia Agarfa 39.7827 7.3169 1
Oromia Agaro 36.5830 7.8531 1
Tigray Ahiferom 39.1261 14.3817 4


Region Town
E N Zone
Oromia Akaki 38.8155 8.7752 3
Addis Ababa Akaki Kaliti 38.8051 8.8973 3
SNNP Alaba 38.2183 7.4227 4
TE
Tigray Alamata 39.5178 12.3899 4
Oromia Ale 35.5926 8.0726 0
O
Amhara Alefa 36.7595 11.9353 0
N
Oromia Aleiltu 39.1205 9.2046 3
E
SNNP Aleta Wondo 38.4419 6.6044 3
Oromia Algesachi 35.7786 8.5921 0
R
Amhara Alibuko 39.6113 10.8115 4
TU
SNNP Alicho Woriro 38.1779 7.9909 3
Alkeso 38.2281 7.9293 3
C
SNNP Amaro 37.7846 5.8098 3
LE
Tigray Ambalage 39.4247 12.9486 4
Amhara Ambasel 39.4934 11.4993 4
Oromia Ambo
N
37.8536 9.0373 1
IG
Oromia Ambo 37.8520 8.9772 1
Oromia Ameya 37.6961 8.5602 1
ES
Afar Amibara 40.2877 9.3439 4

Oromia Amigna 40.1753 7.9001 1
D
Oromia Amuru 37.0079 10.1217 0

SNNP Analimo 37.9836 7.6337 3
AL
Oromia Ancharo 40.1856 8.7261 3

R
SNNP Anderacha 35.3358 7.5534 0

Amhara Aneded 37.8812 10.1802 0
TU
Oromia Anfilo 34.5200 8.5946 0

SNNP Anigacha 37.8596 7.3564 3
C
Anige 37.8648 12.2722 0

U
Amhara Ankasha Guagusa 36.7890 10.7578 0

R
Amhara Ankober 39.7710 9.5573 5

ST
Amhara Antsokiya Gemza 39.8019 10.5989 5

Arabi 38.2748 6.3932 3
T
Arba Minch 37.5474 6.0030 3

AF
SNNP Arbegona 38.6977 6.6807 2

Areka 36.1478 6.9261 1
R
Arekit 39.7192 12.1905 4

Arena 39.4108 14.1357 4
D
Areritu 38.2775 9.1610 1

Oromia Arero 38.8268 4.6019 0
Amhara Argoba 39.9646 10.9406 3


Region Town
E N Zone
Afar Argoba Liyu 39.8665 9.4868 5

SNNP Ariba Minichi Zuriya 37.4583 5.9770 3
TE
Aribegebeya 36.9292 10.1203 0
Arjo 36.6647 8.8653 0
O
SNNP Aroresa 38.9896 6.3076 1
N
Arsi 40.3181 8.4491 2
E
Oromia Arsi Negele 38.7094 7.4431 3
Amhara Artuma Fursi 40.0253 10.5483 5
R
Amhara Asagert 39.6136 9.3409 4
TU
Afar Asaita 41.4713 11.5524 5
Asboli 40.8892 11.5849 4
C
Asebot Gedam 40.5856 9.2778 4
LE
Tigray Asegede Tsimbila 37.9935 13.9577 1
Oromia Aseko 40.0583 8.5289 3
Asela
N
39.1271 7.9022 3
IG
Oromia Asela Town 39.1326 7.9352 3
Asendabo 35.6534 8.1562 0
ES
Benishangul
Gumuz Assosa 34.8065 10.3907 0
D
Ataye 37.3721 12.4534 0

Tigray Atsbi Wonberta 39.7377 13.8079 4
AL
Amhara Awabel 37.9994 10.2193 0

SOMALIE Aware 44.3201 8.4190 0
R
Afar Awash Fentale 40.0276 9.0903 4

TU
Awash Melkasa 39.3399 8.4215 4

Awash Sheleko 41.2516 11.5862 5
C
SNNP Awassa 38.4931 7.0021 4

U
SOMALIE Awubere 43.0216 9.8147 4

R
Afar Awura 40.3091 12.0453 4

ST
Tigray Axum 38.7251 14.1220 2

Ayira Hawete Rv. 35.2311 9.2532 0
SOMALIE Ayisha 42.3735 10.5953 3
T
Azena 39.5905 7.8103 3

AF
Babichi 38.8240 9.5670 1

Oromia Babile 42.3028 9.1719 4
R
SOMALIE Babile 42.4491 8.8757 4

D
Oromia Babo Gembel 35.0952 9.4444 0

Amhara Bahir Dar Liyu 37.3700 11.5715 0
Amhara Bahir Dar Zuriya 37.3566 11.5581 0
Oromia Bako Tibe 37.1527 9.0937 0


Region Town
E N Zone
Balchi 38.6249 8.7785 3

Oromia Bale Gasera 40.0414 7.6762 1
TE
Balemi 37.5214 9.1292 1
Benishangul
O
Gumuz Bambasi 34.7952 10.1284 0
N
Amhara Banja Shekudad 36.9103 10.9687 0
Bantu 38.8697 9.7827 1
E
SOMALIE BARE 42.8323 4.7037 0
R
SNNP Basketo 36.5582 6.2786 3
TU
Amhara Baso Liben 37.7168 10.0281 0
Amhara Basona Werana 39.5305 9.7413 5
C
Amhara Bati 40.0473 11.1945 2
LE
Oromia Becho 35.7313 8.1279 0
Oromia Becho 38.2431 8.6555 2
Oromia Bedele Town 36.3472 8.4494 0
Oromia Bedele Zuriya N
36.3810 8.4709 0
IG
Oromia Bedeno 41.6372 9.0619 2
ES
Oromia Bedesa 40.7736 8.9029 2

Oromia Begi 34.5406 9.3422 0
D
SNNP Bena Tsemay 36.7411 5.4266 3

SNNP Bensa 38.8488 6.5309 2
AL
Oromia Berebere 40.1619 6.7091 0

Oromia Bereh 38.9493 9.1131 3
R
Afar Berehale 40.1008 13.8929 4

TU
Amhara Berehet 39.6879 9.1869 4

SNNP Bero 35.2340 6.3427 1
C
Amhara Beyeda 38.4562 13.2372 1

U
Amhara Bibugn 37.7522 10.8311 0

R
Oromia Bilonopa 35.5288 8.4281 0

ST
Oromia Bishoftu Town 38.9883 8.7468 4

SNNP Bita 35.6719 7.3690 0
Benishangul
T
Gumuz Blo Jiganifado 35.5208 10.7631 0

AF
SOMALIE Boh 46.9369 7.6700 0

Oromia Boji Cheqorsa 35.5043 9.2834 0
R
Oromia Boji Dermeji 35.6374 9.4027 0

D
Oromia Boke 41.0223 8.3949 1

Addis Ababa Bole 38.8351 8.9788 3
SNNP Bolossa Bonibe 37.5511 7.1048 3
SNNP Bolossa Sore 37.7083 7.0712 4


Region Town
E N Zone
SNNP Bona Zuriya 38.7090 6.4995 2
Oromia Boneya Bushe 37.0370 8.9138 0
SNNP Bonga Town 36.2423 7.2665 1
TE
SNNP Bonke 37.2638 5.9127 3
Oromia Bora 38.9119 8.3034 4
O
Oromia Bore 38.7223 6.2479 2
N
SNNP Boreda 37.6550 6.5262 3
E
SNNP Boricha 38.2283 6.8860 3
Oromia Boset 39.5343 8.6476 4
R
Oromia Bule Hora 38.2016 5.6357 2
TU
Benishangul
Gumuz Bulen 34.7276 10.1033 0
C
Oromia Burayu 38.6386 9.0522 2
LE
Oromia Bure 35.1304 8.3203 0
Amhara Bure 37.0474 10.5410 0
SNNP Burji Special 37.7569 5.5064 2
SNNP Bursa N
38.5912 6.6142 3
IG
SNNP Butajira Town 38.3830 8.1164 3
ES
Chagni 36.9821 10.9571 0

Oromia Chelia 37.3666 9.0036 0
D
SNNP Chena 35.8776 7.2430 1

SNNP Chencha 37.5626 6.2627 3
AL
Oromia Chewaqa 36.1319 8.8913 0

Amhara Chilga 36.9186 12.6025 0
R
Oromia Chinakesen 42.6076 9.5272 4

TU
Oromia Chiro Town 40.8653 9.0769 2

Oromia Chiro Zurya 40.8207 9.0673 2
C
Oromia Chole 39.9713 8.1103 2

U
Oromia Chora 36.1425 8.3857 0

R
Oromia Chora Boter 37.2376 8.3365 1

ST
SNNP Chuko 38.3054 6.5597 3

Amhara Dabat 37.7025 13.0420 0
Oromia Dabo Hana 36.2871 8.7040 0
T
SNNP Dale 38.3962 6.7566 3

AF
Oromia Dale Sedi 35.1995 8.9287 0

Oromia Dale Wabera 35.0745 8.9415 0
R
Afar Dalifagi 40.3690 10.5154 5

D
SNNP Dalocha 38.2716 7.7713 3

Afar Dalol 40.0036 14.2877 4
SNNP Damot Gale 37.8847 6.9863 4
SNNP Damot Pulasa 37.8582 7.0440 4


Region Town
E N Zone
SNNP Damot Sore 37.6584 6.9439 4

SNNP Damot Woyide 37.9473 6.8402 4
TE
SOMALIE Danan 43.3032 6.6070 0
Benishangul
O
Gumuz Dangur 34.2977 9.4620 0
N
SNNP Daniboya 37.9554 7.3546 4
Oromia Dano 37.2884 8.7532 1
E
SOMALIE Danot 45.6584 7.6862 0
R
SNNP Dara 38.3897 6.4553 3
TU
Oromia Darimu 35.3763 8.6170 0
Oromia Daro lebu 40.6321 8.2277 1
C
SNNP Dasenech 36.1062 4.7198 3
LE
Amhara Dawa Chefa 39.8457 10.7766 4
Oromia Dawe Qachen 40.9309 6.5682 0
Oromia Dawo 38.1209 8.7988 2
Amhara Dawunt N
38.8373 11.4709 1
IG
Amhara Debark 37.8285 13.1942 0
ES
Debark 37.9851 13.1008 0

SOMALIE Debe woin 44.4353 6.1381 0
D
Debre Birhan 39.5565 9.6235 4

Oromia Debre Libanos 38.8521 9.6592 1
AL
Debre Markos 37.7671 10.2996 0

Amhara Debre Markos Town 37.7271 10.3243 0
R
Amhara Debre Sina 38.6944 10.7469 1

TU
Amhara Debre Tabor 38.0196 11.8602 0

Tigray Debub Mekele_Kuha 39.5448 13.4812 4
C
SNNP Decha 36.1654 6.8377 1

U
Oromia Deder 41.4352 9.2130 2

R
Oromia Dedessa 36.5379 8.1301 0

ST
Oromia Dedo 36.9376 7.4141 1

Amhara Dega Damot 37.6133 10.8590 0
SOMALIE Degeh Bur 43.5512 8.1853 0
T
SOMALIE Degehamedo 43.0836 8.0408 1

AF
Oromia Degem 38.5992 9.8134 1

Tigray Degua Temben 39.2289 13.6246 3
R
SNNP Deguna Fanigo 38.0498 6.9342 4

D
Amhara Dehena 38.6718 12.4348 1

Amhara Dejen 38.1765 10.2013 1
Oromia Deksis 39.5612 8.0406 3
Amhara Delanta Wereda 39.2200 11.6120 2


Region Town
E N Zone
Oromia Delo Mena 40.0457 6.2637 0
Amhara Dembecha 37.3619 10.5245 0
Oromia Dembi Dolo Town 34.7994 8.5307 0
TE
Amhara Dembia 37.2783 12.3738 0
SOMALIE Denbel 42.5052 9.9094 4
O
Oromia Dendi 38.1307 8.9934 1
N
SNNP Denibu Gofa 37.0105 6.4610 3
E
Amhara Dera 37.6966 11.5878 0
Oromia Dera 38.6331 10.2122 1
R
SNNP Deramalo 37.2956 6.2864 3
TU
SNNP Derashe Special 37.2568 5.6060 3
Dese 39.6707 11.0474 3
C
Amhara Dese Zuriya 39.4866 11.0458 3
LE
Benishangul
Gumuz Dibate 35.3314 10.1899 0
Oromia Didu 35.5512 7.9213 0
Oromia Diga N
36.1353 8.5944 0
IG
Oromia Diga 36.3151 9.0493 0
ES
Oromia Digeluna Tijo 39.2282 7.7418 3

SOMALIE Dihun 42.5563 7.1494 0
D
SNNP Dila Town 38.2989 6.4067 3

SNNP DilaZuria 38.3414 6.3512 3
AL
Gambella Dima 34.6670 7.0542 0

Oromia Dima 38.5143 6.2622 2
R
Oromia Dinsho 39.7694 7.0744 1

TU
Oromia Dire 38.0851 4.1930 1

Dire Dawa 41.8389 9.5034 3
C
SNNP Dita 37.4530 6.2808 3

U
Oromia Doba 41.0806 9.3172 2

R
Oromia Dodola 39.1507 6.8851 2

ST
Oromia Dodota 39.2685 8.2891 4

SOMALIE Dolo Odo 41.4301 4.2310 0
SNNP Doyo Gena 37.8045 7.3835 3
T
Afar Dubti 41.0174 11.8459 5

AF
Oromia Dugda 38.7533 8.1794 4

Oromia Dugda Dewa 38.4011 5.3602 1
R
Afar Dulecha 40.0582 9.4846 5

D
SNNP Duna 37.6609 7.3369 3

Oromia Ebantu 36.4430 10.0694 0
Amhara Ebinat 38.2351 12.1898 0
Oromia Ejerie 38.3610 9.0662 1


Region Town
E N Zone
Afar Elidar 41.7146 12.4115 5
Oromia Elifata 37.9227 9.1792 1
Amhara Enarj Enawuga 38.2163 10.6845 1
TE
Tigray Endamehone 39.4548 12.7564 4
Amhara Enebise Sar Midir 38.3909 10.8634 1
O
Amhara Enemay 38.1755 10.5031 1
N
SNNP Enemor Ener 37.7517 8.0005 2
E
SNNP Enidguagn 37.8540 7.8221 3
Oromia Enkelo Wabe 39.4457 7.4221 2
R
Amhara Ensaro 38.9057 9.8278 1
TU
Afar Erabti 40.1471 13.1384 4
SOMALIE ERER 41.1404 10.2706 2
C
Tigray Erob 39.6459 14.5120 4
LE
Gambella Etang 34.2149 8.3426 0
Afar Ewa 40.1733 11.8138 3
SNNP Ezha
N
38.0347 8.1405 3
IG
Amhara Fagita Lekoma 36.8961 11.0821 0
Amhara Farta 38.0773 11.8390 0
ES
Oromia Fedis 42.1246 9.0664 4

Oromia Fentale 39.8744 8.8827 4
D
SOMALIE Ferfer 45.0356 5.2009 0

Oromia Fiche 38.7349 9.7858 1
AL
SOMALIE FIK 42.6224 8.3844 2

R
SOMALIE Filtu 40.7407 5.0161 0

Amhara Finote Selam 37.2609 10.6824 0
TU
Amhara Fogera 37.7924 11.8797 0

Gambela 34.6212 8.2581 0
C
Gambella Gambela zuriya 34.7412 8.1446 0

U
Tigray Ganta Afeshum 39.3825 14.2350 4

R
Oromia Gasera 40.1517 7.3801 1

ST
SOMALIE Gashamo 45.3381 8.1616 0

Oromia Gawo Qebe 34.9321 9.1401 0
T
Oromia Gechi 36.4797 8.3614 0

AF
SNNP Gedeb 38.2916 5.9490 2

Oromia Gedeb Asasa 39.1708 7.1811 2
R
SOMALIE Geladin 46.2568 6.9013 0

Oromia Gelana 37.9999 5.9710 3
D
SNNP Gelila 36.6484 6.1722 3

Oromia Gemechis 40.9827 8.8555 1
SNNP Gena Bosa 37.3302 7.1584 3


Region Town
E N Zone
Oromia Genji 35.5941 9.0350 0
Oromia Gera 36.2300 7.6970 1
SOMALIE Gerbo 43.3126 7.2258 0
TE
SNNP Gesha 35.6881 7.6257 0
Afar Gewane 40.5209 10.0654 5
O
SNNP Gewata 35.9783 7.5440 0
N
SNNP Geze Gofa 36.8051 6.3555 3
E
SNNP Gibe 37.6665 7.7376 2
Oromia Gida Keremu 36.7171 9.9670 0
R
Oromia Gidame 34.4335 8.9099 0
TU
Amhara Gidan 39.3230 12.0542 3
Oromia Gimbi 35.8313 9.1721 0
C
Oromia Gimbichu 39.1898 8.9967 4
LE
SNNP Gimbo 36.2328 7.3595 1
Oromia Ginde Beret 37.7497 9.6359 0
Oromia Ginir
N
40.7139 7.1178 0
IG
Oromia Girar Jarso 38.7333 9.7905 1
Oromia Girawa 41.8643 9.0270 3
ES
Oromia Girja 39.1874 6.1393 1

Amhara Gishe 39.5992 10.5773 5
D
Oromia Goba 39.8963 6.8572 1

Oromia Goba Town 39.9744 7.0040 1
AL
Oromia Gobu Seyo 36.9747 9.1633 0

R
SOMALIE Gode 43.6412 6.1026 0

Gambella Godere 35.2535 7.2536 0
TU
Gambella Goge 34.2874 7.6204 0

Oromia Gole Oda 41.6276 8.3205 1
C
Afar Golina 39.9855 12.1875 3

U
Oromia Gololcha 40.1900 8.2765 2

R
Oromia Gololcha 40.6064 7.5351 1

ST
Oromia Gomma 36.5845 7.8772 1

Amhara Gonchasiso Enese 38.1679 10.9841 0
T
Amhara Gondar Town 37.4487 12.5727 0

AF
Amhara Gondar Zuriya 37.5891 12.3969 0

Amhara Gonji Kolela 37.6684 11.1732 0
R
SNNP Gorche 38.5801 6.8504 3

Dire Dawa Gorgora 42.0221 9.6253 4
D
Oromia Goro 37.8477 8.4162 2

Oromia Goro 40.5061 6.9450 0
SOMALIE Goro Bekeksa 41.2867 5.9714 0


Region Town
E N Zone
Oromia Goro Gutu 41.3485 9.4079 2
Amhara Gozamn 37.6339 10.2692 0
Amhara Guagusa Shekudad 37.0244 10.8249 0
TE
Amhara Guangua 36.5052 10.7836 0
Benishangul
O
Gumuz Guba 34.8118 9.6294 0
N
Amhara Guba Lafto 39.5925 11.8207 4
Oromia Guba Qoricha 40.4812 8.9162 3
E
Oromia Gudeya Bila 36.9579 9.3481 0
R
Oromia Guliso 35.3447 9.2315 0
TU
Tigray Gulo Meheda 39.4097 14.4063 4
Oromia Guma 36.4291 7.9691 0
C
SNNP Gumer 38.0684 7.9928 3
LE
Oromia Guna 39.9112 8.3265 3
SOMALIE Guna Gado 44.3428 7.8144 0
Oromia Guradamole 40.5306 6.3599 0
SOMALIE Guradamole N
40.9022 5.9860 0
IG
SNNP Guraferda 35.1718 6.8992 0
ES
Oromia Gursum 42.4046 9.3661 4

SOMALIE Gursum 42.5579 9.1827 4
D
Oromia Hababo Guduru 37.5197 9.8094 0

Oromia Habro 40.5101 8.7516 2
AL
Amhara Habru 39.7500 11.6671 3

SNNP Hadaro Tunito 37.6546 7.2293 3
R
Afar Hadeleala 40.2480 10.2562 5

TU
Amhara Hagere Mariam 39.3833 9.1917 3

Oromia Halu 35.3544 8.1746 0
C
Oromia Hambela Wamena 38.4853 5.9360 1

U
SNNP Hamer 36.4810 4.9845 3

R
SOMALIE Hamero 42.2993 7.6787 0

ST
Oromia Haromaya 41.9927 9.3414 4

SOMALIE Harshin 43.8356 8.9929 1
Oromia Haru 35.8488 8.9805 0
T
Oromia Hawa Gelan 34.9906 8.6246 0

AF
Hawasa 38.4741 7.0080 4

Tigray Hawzen 39.3839 13.9654 3
R
Oromia Hidabu Abote 38.5151 9.9576 1

D
Tigray Hintalo Wajirat 39.5584 13.1487 4

Oromia Hitosa 39.2409 8.0693 4
Oromia Holeta Town 38.4952 9.0538 2
Oromia Homa 35.7116 9.0674 0


Region Town
E N Zone
Benishangul
Gumuz Homosha 36.1571 11.2366 0
Oromia Horo 37.1108 9.6458 0
TE
Hosaina 37.8562 7.5083 3
SNNP Hula 38.5648 6.4932 3
O
Amhara Huletej Enese 37.8987 10.9865 0
N
SNNP Humbo 37.8504 6.6645 3
Humera 36.7236 14.2623 0
E
Oromia Hurumu 35.7882 8.2173 0
R
Oromia Ilu 38.3216 8.8408 2
TU
Amhara Jama 39.2594 10.4049 4
Amhara Jan Amora 38.2018 13.0114 0
C
Oromia Jarso 35.3122 9.4398 0
LE
Oromia Jarso 42.2893 9.5430 4
Oromia Jarte Jardga 37.1466 9.9008 0
Amhara Jawi 36.4036 11.6989 0
Oromia Jeju N
39.6554 8.3564 3
IG
Oromia Jeldu 37.9901 9.3274 1
ES
Oromia Jibat 37.4787 8.7296 1

Oromia Jido 39.0013 9.3969 2
D
Jijiga 42.7537 9.2426 3

SOMALIE Jijiga 42.8841 9.3489 4
AL
Gambella Jikawo 33.6615 8.2941 0

Amhara Jile Timuga 40.0251 10.2860 5
R
Jima 36.8541 7.6518 1

TU
Oromia Jima Geneti 37.1331 9.3935 0

Oromia Jima Rare 37.3483 9.2393 0
C
Oromia Jimma Arjo 36.5455 8.7159 0

U
Oromia Jimma Horo 34.7566 9.0129 0

R
Oromia Jimma Spe Town 36.8412 7.6802 1

ST
Jinka 36.6450 5.6425 3

Gambella Jore 33.7481 7.9162 0
SNNP Kacha Bira 37.7747 7.2236 3
T
Amhara Kalu 39.8320 11.0742 3

AF
Benishangul
Gumuz Kamashi 36.0353 10.8645 0
R
SOMALIE Kebri Beyeh 43.2120 9.0679 2

D
Kebri Dehar 44.1730 6.6757 0

SOMALIE Kebridehar 44.4153 6.8894 0
SNNP Kedida Gamela 37.8956 7.2388 3
SOMALIE Kelafo 44.2209 5.3959 0


Region Town
E N Zone
Amhara Kelala 38.9830 10.5386 1
SNNP Kemba 37.1364 6.0020 3
Amhara Kemise Town 39.8701 10.7156 4
TE
Oromia Kercha 38.4725 5.7550 1
Oromia Kersa 37.0311 7.7753 1
O
Oromia Kersa 41.8050 9.3786 3
N
SOMALIE Kersa Dula 40.2905 5.6480 0
E
Oromia Kersana Malima 38.5219 8.5760 3
Amhara Kewet 39.9075 9.9760 5
R
Oromia Kiltu Kara 35.2729 9.7016 0
TU
Oromia Kimbibit 39.2362 9.3985 3
SNNP Kindo Didaye 37.3530 6.7692 3
C
SNNP Kindo Koyisha 37.5155 6.9240 4
LE
Tigray Klite Awlalo 39.5268 13.7550 4
Amhara Kobo 39.6375 12.1102 4
SNNP Kochore
N
38.1895 6.0243 2
IG
Oromia Kofele 38.8401 7.0223 3
SNNP Kokir Gedebano 38.1937 8.3246 2
ES
Oromia Kokosa 38.8110 6.7881 2

Amhara Kombolcha 39.7193 11.0932 3
D
Oromia Kombolicha 42.1476 9.4660 4

Afar Konaba 39.8721 14.0030 3
AL
Konso 37.4249 5.3138 3

R
SNNP Konso Special 37.3677 5.3589 3

SNNP Konta Special 36.6093 6.8707 2
TU
Tigray Korem 39.5128 12.5037 4

Amhara Kuarit 37.4403 10.9724 0
C
SNNP Kucha 37.3620 6.5227 3

U
Oromia Kurfa Chele 41.8706 9.2276 3

R
Benishangul
ST
Gumuz Kurmuk 34.5691 10.4644 0

Amhara Kutaber 39.4590 11.2778 3
Oromia Kuyu 38.3033 9.7463 1
T
Tigray Laelay Adiabo 38.2020 14.3656 1

AF
Oromia Lalo Asabi 35.6722 9.2070 0

Oromia Laloqile 35.3297 8.8605 0
R
SNNP Lanifaro 38.3869 7.7790 4

D
Gambella Lare 33.9423 8.3618 0

Amhara Lasta 39.0470 12.0610 2
Amhara Lay Armachew 37.3678 12.7633 0
Amhara Lay Gayint 38.4329 11.8506 1


Region Town
E N Zone
Amhara Legamibo 39.1609 10.8539 2
Amhara Legehida 39.2567 10.6818 3
Oromia Legehida 41.2411 7.8508 0
TE
SOMALIE Legehida 41.8249 7.6676 0
SNNP Lemmo 37.8584 7.5395 3
O
Oromia Leqa Dulecha 36.4633 8.8998 0
N
Oromia Liben 39.5205 5.2096 0
E
Oromia Liben 38.8873 8.5017 4
Amhara Libo Kemkem 37.8042 12.1598 0
R
Oromia Limu 36.2482 9.8187 0
TU
Oromia Limu Kosa 36.9550 8.0255 1
Oromia Limu Seka 36.9502 8.4866 0
C
Oromia Limuna Bilbilo 39.2699 7.4272 2
LE
SNNP Loko Abaya 38.1701 6.6478 3
SNNP Loma 37.1757 6.8139 3
Oromia Lomme
N
39.1405 8.6038 4
IG
Oromia Lude Hetosa 39.4049 8.0957 3
Amhara Machakel 37.5429 10.4889 0
ES
SNNP Maji 35.6929 5.9313 2

SNNP Male 36.8793 5.7600 3
D
SNNP Malga 38.6502 6.9304 3

Oromia Mana 36.7586 7.7787 1
AL
Benishangul
Gumuz Mandura 36.0454 9.4329 0
R
Benishangul
TU
Gumuz Maokomo 35.9908 11.2810 0

SNNP Mareka / Esira 37.1422 7.0417 2
SNNP
C
Mareqo 38.5215 7.9833 4

SNNP Masha 35.4590 7.7300 0
U
Maychew 39.6139 12.7025 4

R
Tigray Maychew Town 39.5418 12.7803 4

ST
Amhara Mecha 37.1566 11.3312 0

Oromia Meda Welabu 39.6019 6.0044 0
T
Special EA Meda Welabu 39.8875 5.8441 0

AF
Tigray Medebay Zana 38.4454 14.0122 1

Afar Megale 39.9318 12.8245 3
R
Amhara Mekdela 38.9324 11.2401 1

D
Mekele 39.5515 13.4056 4

Amhara Meket 38.8251 11.8216 1
SNNP Melekoza 36.6866 6.5234 3
Oromia Melka Belo 41.3258 8.8953 1


Region Town
E N Zone
Oromia Mene Sibu 35.0273 9.7608 0
Benishangul
Gumuz Menge 34.4105 9.9114 0
TE
SNNP Menjwo 36.5543 7.2635 1
Amhara Menz Gera Meder 39.6362 10.3599 5
O
Amhara Menze Keya Gebriel 39.3656 10.1793 4
N
Amhara Menze Mama Mider 39.6464 10.1060 5
Amhara Merahbete 38.9751 10.0477 1
E
Oromia Merti 39.8378 8.5269 3
R
Oromia Mesela 41.1766 8.9852 1
TU
SNNP Meskan 38.3890 8.1376 3
Oromia Meta Geferssa 41.5811 9.3584 2
C
Oromia Meta Robi 38.2332 9.4657 1
LE
Amhara Metema Yohanis 36.3248 12.8824 0
Oromia Metu 35.5819 8.3012 0
Oromia Meyo 38.6104 3.8535 0
Oromia Meyu Muleke N
41.8957 8.6696 2
IG
SOMALIE Meyu Muleke 41.9363 8.3299 1
ES
Amhara Mida Oromo 39.0085 10.2434 2

Oromia Midakegni 37.5674 9.1987 1
D
Oromia Midega Tole 42.2000 8.7283 3

SOMALIE Mieso 40.5926 9.4891 4
AL
Afar Mile 40.6502 11.3843 2

Amhara Minjar Shenkora 39.4892 8.9259 4
R
SNNP Mirab Abaya 37.7151 6.3174 3

TU
Amhara MIrab Armacho 36.4239 13.7962 0

C

U
Mirab Azernet
SNNP Berbere 37.9304 7.7637 3
R
Amhara Mirab Este 37.9121 11.3701 0

ST
SOMALIE MIRAB IMI 42.1091 6.3771 0

Tigray Mireb Leha 38.7603 14.3732 3
T
SNNP Misha 37.7654 7.7528 2

AF
SNNP Misrak Badawocho 38.0079 7.1577 4

Amhara Misrak Belesa 38.1909 12.5426 0
R
Amhara Misrak Este 38.0717 11.4916 0

D
SNNP Mizan Aman Town 35.5600 6.9664 1

Amhara Mojana Wedera 39.5281 9.9254 5
Amhara Moret ena Jiru 39.1528 9.9398 3
Oromia Moyale 38.9118 3.6832 0


Region Town
E N Zone
SOMALIE Moyale 39.8274 4.0647 0
Special EA Moyale Special EA 39.0329 3.7067 0
SNNP Muhur NA Aklil 38.0925 8.2146 3
TE
Oromia Mulo 38.5725 9.2839 2
Special EA Mulo Special EA 40.7979 11.1170 2
O
Oromia Munesa 38.9819 7.5244 4
N
SOMALIE Mustahil 44.6573 5.2110 0
E
Tigray Nader Adet 38.6856 13.8435 1
Oromia Negele 39.5821 5.3353 0
R
Oromia Nejo 35.4743 9.5662 0
TU
Oromia Nekemte Town 36.5472 9.0826 0
Oromia Nensebo 39.2090 6.5801 1
C
Oromia Nole Kaba 35.7836 8.8026 0
LE
Oromia Nono 37.4374 8.5199 1
Oromia Nono Sele 35.1789 7.8903 0
Oromia Nunu Qumba
N
36.7168 8.7113 0
IG
Benishangul
Gumuz Oda Bildagul 35.3274 11.4208 0
Benishangul
ES
Gumuz Oda Bildagul 35.8853 12.1844 0

Oromia Odo Shakiso 38.9504 5.5169 1
D
SNNP OFA 37.5387 6.7160 3

AL
Oromia Omonada 37.2391 7.5410 2

Benishangul
Gumuz Pawe Special 35.7032 10.3856 0
R
Oromia Raitu 41.4126 6.7622 0

TU
Oromia Robe 39.7993 7.6887 2

Oromia Robe Town 40.0011 7.1120 1
C
Tigray Rya Azebo 39.7157 12.6425 4

U
Sabure 35.4670 8.7091 0

R
Tigray Saesi Tsadamba 39.6064 14.1593 4

ST
Saja 39.0383 8.2846 4

Sali 42.0738 9.4907 4
Saniga 37.2352 6.1242 3
T
SNNP Sankura 38.1671 7.5440 4

AF
Oromia Sasiga 36.3756 9.2317 0

Sawula 36.7675 6.2829 3
R
SNNP Sawula Wereda 36.8893 6.2910 3

D
Amhara Saya Debirna Wayu 39.2135 9.7823 3

SNNP Sayilem 35.8680 7.8941 0
Amhara Sayinit 38.7735 11.0663 1
Oromia Sebeta Town 38.6536 8.9292 2


Region Town
E N Zone
Oromia Seden Sodo 38.3019 8.4302 3
SOMALIE Segeg 42.8404 7.6502 0
Tigray Seharti Samre 39.1723 13.2261 2
TE
Oromia Seka Chekorsa 36.6576 7.5719 1
Amhara Sekela 37.2071 10.9972 0
O
Amhara Sekota 39.0592 12.6684 2
N
Amhara Sekota Town 39.0346 12.6158 2
E
SNNP Selamago 36.1615 5.9556 3
SOMALIE Selehad 41.9040 7.2078 0
R
SNNP Semen Bench 35.6446 7.0667 1
TU
Tigray Semene Mekele 39.4834 13.5064 4
Semera 38.1435 13.0413 0
C
Semera 41.1321 11.7297 5
LE
Afar Semurobina Gelalo 40.1447 9.8686 5
Oromia Sendafa Town 39.0188 9.1518 3
Oromia Seru
N
40.3373 7.7269 1
IG
Oromia Setema 36.2136 8.0618 0
Oromia Seweyna 41.2115 7.3671 0
ES
Oromia Seyo 34.8261 8.4567 0

Oromia Seyo Nole 35.5800 8.8366 0
D
Oromia Shala 38.3793 7.3016 4

Oromia Shambu Town 37.1018 9.5660 0
AL
SNNP Shashago 38.0328 7.4974 4

R
Oromia Shashemene 38.5881 7.2003 3

SNNP Shay Bench 35.7501 6.9003 1
TU
Oromia Shebe Senbo 36.4601 7.5221 1

SNNP Shebedino 38.4380 6.8814 3
C
Amhara Shebel Berenta 38.3714 10.3447 1

U
SNNP Sheko 35.4636 7.0716 0

R
SOMALIE Shekosh 44.0070 7.3147 0

ST
Sheno 38.9885 9.2545 2

Benishangul
Gumuz Sherkole 34.7257 9.8316 0
T
SOMALIE Shilabo 45.2861 5.9772 0

AF
SOMALIE Shinile 41.6162 10.4491 1

Tigray Shiraro Town 37.7896 14.3989 1
R
Shire 38.3859 14.0345 1

D
Tigray Shire Enida Silase 38.2803 14.0995 1

Oromia Shirka 39.5758 7.5686 2
Oromia Sibu Sire 36.8092 9.1534 0
Oromia Sigmo 36.0391 7.8791 0


Region Town
E N Zone
SNNP Silite 38.3314 7.9627 3
Amhara Simada 38.3683 11.3339 1
Oromia Sinana 40.1283 7.1261 1
TE
Oromia Siraro 38.1981 7.1251 4
Benishangul
O
Gumuz Sirba Abay 36.3427 11.0714 0
N
Oromia Sire 39.5006 8.2957 4
Oromia Sodo Dac'ha 38.6552 8.4797 4
E
SNNP Sodo Town 37.7570 6.8534 4
R
SNNP Sodo Wereda 38.5400 8.2918 4
TU
SNNP Sodo Zuriya 37.7275 6.8320 4
SNNP Soro 37.5539 7.4343 3
C
Oromia Sude 39.8087 8.0090 2
LE
Oromia Sulullta 38.7418 9.3175 2
Suphe 35.7762 8.8055 0
SNNP Surma 35.2815 5.8804 2
Amhara Tach Armacho N
37.0826 13.0355 0
IG
Amhara Tach Gayint 38.5600 11.5613 1
ES
Tigray Tahitay Adiyabo 38.4472 14.4176 1

Tigray Tahitay Maychew 38.5876 14.0879 1
D
Amhara Takusa 36.7989 12.2232 0

Tigray Tanqua Abergele 38.8901 13.4047 1
AL
Tapi 36.6982 7.8815 1

Amhara Tarma Ber 39.8109 9.8665 5
R
Tebila 38.6121 10.5621 1

TU
Tefera Kela 36.1126 7.3037 1

Amhara Tehuledere 39.6895 11.3254 3
C
Afar Telalak 40.2911 10.9709 2

U
Oromia Teltele 37.3300 4.7588 2

R
Oromia Tena 39.5029 7.7887 3

ST
SNNP Tenbaro 37.4880 7.2696 3

Amhara Tenta 39.2243 11.2219 2
Tenta 39.2505 11.3474 2
T
Tericha 38.3839 5.9319 2

AF
Afar Teru 40.4495 12.5696 4

Tijo 39.0419 7.6847 3
R
Tikili Dinigay 38.1330 11.2576 0

D
Oromia Tikur Enchini 37.6490 8.7863 1

Oromia Tiro Afeta 37.2707 7.9843 1
Oromia Tiyo 39.1255 7.8879 3
SNNP Tocha 36.9705 7.1160 2


Region Town
E N Zone
Oromia Toko Kutaye 37.6779 8.9401 1
Oromia Tole 38.3904 8.6187 3
Tongo 34.4699 9.4074 0
TE
Tora 38.2804 6.1267 2
Amhara Tsegede 37.0241 13.3227 0
O
Tigray Tsegede 37.0753 13.5149 0
N
Amhara Tselemeti 38.4541 13.4365 1
E
SNNP Tulo 36.4552 7.0954 1
Tulubolo 38.3321 8.9785 2
R
Tunto 38.2246 6.6049 3
TU
SNNP Uba Debretsehay 36.8692 6.0597 3
SOMALIE Udet 39.5954 4.5188 0
C
Oromia Uraga 38.5646 6.0744 1
LE
Oromia Wadera 39.2854 5.8430 1
Amhara Wadla 39.0120 11.6586 1
Gambella Wantawo
N
33.8434 8.4124 0
IG
SOMALIE Warder 45.3793 6.8724 0
Oromia Wayu Tuqa 36.6828 9.0242 0
ES
Amhara Wegera 37.7758 12.7785 0

Welede 40.8276 8.9581 2
D
SNNP Weleikite 37.7781 8.2831 2

Welidiya 39.6349 10.9241 4
AL
Oromia Weliso 38.0432 8.5463 2

R
Oromia Weliso Town 37.9750 8.5396 1

Oromia Welmera 38.5180 9.0586 2
TU
Tigray Welqayet 37.4036 13.7565 0

SNNP Wenago 38.2582 6.2795 2
C
Benishangul
U
Gumuz Wenbera 36.1846 10.1173 0

R
Amhara Wenberma 36.8000 10.4887 0

ST
SNNP Wendo Genet 38.6199 7.0391 3

SNNP Wensho 38.5107 6.7323 3
Amhara Were Babo 39.8875 11.4365 3
T
Amhara Were Ilu 39.4525 10.6929 4

AF
Oromia Were Jarso 38.2157 9.9530 1

Tigray Were Lehe 39.0917 13.9859 2
R
Wereilu 38.9945 10.5519 1

D
Werejeru 35.6704 9.3288 0

Wereta 35.9933 7.3123 1
SNNP Wilbareg 38.1310 7.7471 3
Amhara Wogidi 38.6792 10.5327 1


Region Town
E N Zone
Wolayita 37.5141 8.3627 1
Woldya 1 38.6389 7.6940 4
Woldya 2 38.6336 7.6778 4
TE
Oromia Wonchi 37.8864 8.6695 1
Wonji Gora 39.1564 7.9801 4
O
Wonji Gora 39.1637 7.9905 4
N
Woyen Amba 39.5562 10.2889 5
E
Woyinwuha 38.0662 11.7473 0
Oromia Wuchale 38.9146 9.5813 1
R
Wuchale 39.1174 9.1736 3
TU
WuhaLmat 38.6154 7.1720 3
Wukro 38.9135 13.7337 2
C
Wukro 38.9259 13.7314 2
LE
Wukro 38.9297 13.7528 2
Wusha Gendo 39.6469 11.8068 3
Wushagidel
N
39.0912 9.8027 2
IG
Yabelo 38.6942 7.1301 3
Afar Yalo 39.9326 12.4255 3
ES
Yaso 34.9689 9.0028 0

Yaso 34.9781 8.9897 0
D
Benishangul
Gumuz Yaso 35.8634 11.2760 0
AL
Oromia Yaya Gulele 38.6201 9.5910 1

Yayu 35.4476 9.3511 0
R
Yayu 35.4696 9.2412 0

TU
Oromia Yayu 35.9378 8.2705 0

Yechereka 37.8676 10.5835 0
C
SNNP Yeki 35.4660 7.2452 0

U
SNNP Yem Special 37.4971 7.8166 2

R
Oromia Yemalogi Welel 34.8571 8.8050 0

ST
Amhara Yilmana Densa 37.4906 11.2596 0

Yirga Alem 36.2772 7.2124 1
SNNP Yirgachefe 38.2125 6.1589 2
T
Yubdo 37.3694 9.2058 0

AF
Yubdo 37.3792 9.2060 0

Zada 37.6073 11.2614 0
R
SNNP Zala 37.0819 6.2878 3

D
Zalanibesa 39.5715 14.1417 4

Zana 37.8754 14.2785 1
Zarema 39.6722 13.9220 4
Zege 37.8854 12.6585 0


Region Town
E N Zone
Zemero 39.0741 12.1584 2
Zigem 36.4221 10.9641 0
Amhara Ziquala 38.7045 12.8046 1
TE
Oromia Ziway 38.7185 7.9283 4
Oromia Ziway Dugda 38.9577 7.9754 4
O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
AF
R
D

6 Strip Method for slab
TE
Introduction
O
The upper bound theorem of the theory of plasticity was present in yield line theory. The yield
N
line method of slab analysis is an upper bound approach to determine the capacity of slabs.
E
R
Disadvantage:
TU
 In upper bound analysis if an error occurs it will be on the unsafe side. The actual carrying
C
capacity will be less than, or at best equal to the capacity predicted, which is certainly a cause
LE
for concern in design.
 When applying this method it necessary to assume the distribution of reinforcement is known
N
over the whole slab. It can be used for design only in an iterative sense i.e. trial design until a
satisfactory arrangement is found. IG
ES
These circumstances motivated Hillerborg (1956) to develop what is known as the strip method
D
for slab design. In contrast to yield line analysis, the strip method is a lower bound approach,
AL
based on the satisfaction of equilibrium requirements everywhere in the slab. By the strip
method, a moment field is first determined that fulfills equilibrium requirements, after which the
R
reinforcement of the slab at each point is designed for this moment field.
TU
C
Lower Bound Theorem

U
R
If a distribution of moment can be found that satisfies both equilibrium and boundary conditions
ST
for a given external loading, and if the yield moment capacity of the slab is no where exceeded,
then the given external loading will represent a lower bound of the true carrying capacity.
T
AF
Advantages:
 The strip method gives results on the safe side, which is certainly preferable in practice.
R

D
The strip method is a design method by which the needed reinforcement can be calculated.
1
Basic Principles
TE
The governing equilibrium equation for a small slab element having sides dx and dy is:
 2 mx  2 m y  2 m xy
   W
O
x 2 y 2 xy
N
Where: W = The external load per unit area.
E
mx and my = BM’s per unit width in x and y directions respectively.
R
mxy = the twisting moment.
TU
Hence, according to the lower bound theorem, any combination of mx , my and mxy that satisfies
C
the equilibrium equation at all points in the slab and that meets boundary conditions is a valid
LE
solution, provided that the reinforcement is placed to carry these moments.
N
The basis for the simple strip method is that the torsional moment is chosen equal to zero; no
IG
load is assumed to be resisted by the twisting strength of the slab. (The reinforcements are
ES
parallel to the axes in the rectilinear coordinate system)
 mxy  0
D
The equilibrium equation then reduces to

AL
 2 mx  2my
  W
x 2 y 2
R
TU
This equation can be split conveniently in to two parts, representing twist less beam strip action,
 2 mx
  kW
C
x 2
U
 2my
  1  k W
R
y 2
ST
Where the proportion of the load taken by the strips is k in the x- direction and (1-k) in the y-
direction. In many regions in slabs, the value k will be either 0 or 1 i.e. load is dispersed by strips
T
AF
in x- or in y- direction. In other regions, it may be reasonable to assume that the load is divided
equally in two directions (i.e. k = 0.5).
R
D
2
Choice of Load Distribution
TE
Theoretically, the load W can be divided arbitrarily between x- and y- directions. Different
divisions will of course, lead to different patterns of reinforcement, and all will not be equally
O
appropriate. The desired goal is to an arrangement of steel that is safe and economical and that
N
will avoid problems at the service load level associated with excessive cracking or deflections.
E
Knowledge of the moment field according to the elastic theory is thereby very helpful. In
R
general, the designer may be guided by his knowledge of the general distribution of elastic
TU
moments.
C
To see an example of the strip method and to illustrate the choices open to the designer. Consider
LE
the square, simply supported slab shown below, with side length a and a uniformly distributed
N
factored load w per unit area. The simplest load distribution is obtained by setting k = 0.5 over
the entire slab, as shown. IG
ES
y
simple supports 4 sides
D
wa2/16
AL
a
R
TU
A A
C
(a) x (d) wx across x = a/2

a
U
w/2
R
(b)
ST
wa2/16
(c)
T
mx along A-A
AF
R
The load on all strips in each direction is thus w/2 (with k = 0.5), as illustrated by the load
D
dispersion arrows. This gives maximum design moments

mx = my = wa2/16
3
Implying a constant curvature for strips in the x- direction at x = a/2 corresponding to a constant
moment wa2/16 (see fig. d). Similar constant curvatures are also expected at various x’s
TE
corresponding to the constant BM’s at x = constant. The same applies for y-direction strips.
O
It is recognized however that the curvatures, hence the moments, must be greater in the strips
N
near the middle of the slab than near the edges. If the slab were reinforced according to this
E
solution extensive redistribution of moments would be required, certainly accompanied by much
R
cracking in the highly stressed regions near the middle of the slab.
TU
So what we need is a type of load distribution which can give a moment distribution such that we
get great curvatures in say x- direction strips near slab middle and less near the edges.
C
LE
Try the alternative, more reasonable distribution shown below. Here the regions of different load
N
dispersion, separated by the dashed dotted discontinuity lines, follow the diagonals, all of the
IG
load on any region is carried in the direction giving the shortest distance to the nearest support (k
= 0 or k = 1 in the different regions)
ES
D
y
Simple supports 4 sides
AL
wa2/8
R
TU
a
C
A A
U
y
R
(a) x (d) wx across x = a/2

a
ST
w w
(b) wx along A-A
T
wy2/2
AF
(c) mx along A-A

R
D
The lateral distribution of moments shown in figure (d) would theoretically require a
continuously variable bar spacing, obviously impracticality. A practical solution would be to
4
reinforce for the average moment over a certain width, approximating the actual lateral variation
in figure (d) in a stepwise manner. Hillerborg notes that this is not strictly in accordance with
TE
equilibrium theory and that the design is no longer certainly on safe side, but other conservative
assumptions, e.g., neglect of membrane strength in the slab or strain hardening of the
O
reinforcement, would surely compensate for the slight reduction in safety margin.
N
E
A third alternative is with discontinuity lines parallel to the edges. Here again the division load is
R
made so that the load is carried to the nearest support, as before, but load near the diagonals has
TU
been divided, with one-half taken in each direction. Thus k is given values 0 or 1 along the
middle edges and 0.5 in the corners and center of the slab, with load dispersion in the directions
C
indicated by the arrows.
LE
y
Simple supports 4 sides
N
IG
ES
B B
a
D
AL
A A
R
y
TU
(a) Plan view x

a (d) mx across x = a/2
C
U
(b) wx and mx along A-A

R
ST
T
AF
(c) wx and mx along B-B

R
D
Fig. Square slab with load near diagonals shared equally in two directions
5
Two different strip loadings are now identified. For an x- direction strip along section A-A, the
maximum moment is:
TE
w a a wa 2
mx    
2 4 8 64
O
And for a strip along section B-B, the maximum moment is:
N
a a w a 3a 5wa 2
mx  w      
E
4 8 2 4 8 64
R
This design leads to a practical arrangement of reinforcement, one with constant spacing through
TU
the centre strip of width a/2 and a wider spacing through the outer strips, where the elastic
curvatures and moments are known to be less. The averaging of moments necessitated in the
C
second solution is avoided here, and third solution is fully consistent with the equilibrium theory.
LE
The three examples also illustrate the simple way in which the moments in the slab can be found
N
IG
by the strip method, based on familiar beam analysis. It is important note, too, that the load on
the supporting beams is easily found because it can be computed from the end reactions of the
ES
slab-beam strips in all cases.
D
Rectangular slabs
AL
y y
R
b/2*b/2 a - b/4 b/2*b/2 b/4 a - b/4 b/4

TU
b/4 w/2
b/2
w/2
C
b
U
b/2
w w
b
R
b/2
x w
ST
a
(c) Rectangular slab with discontinuity
lines originating at corners b/4
T
AF
x
a
R
(b) Rectangular slab with discontinuity

lines parallel to the sides
D
6
The second, preferred arrangement, shown in Fig. (b) gives design moments as follows:
In the x- direction
TE
Side strips: mx = w/2 * b/4 * b/8 = wb2/64
Middle strips: mx = w * b/4 * b/8 = wb2/32
O
In the y- direction
N
Side strips: my = wb2/64
E
Middle strips: my = wb2/8
R
This distribution, requiring no averaging of moment across band widths, is always on the safe
TU
side and is both simple and economical.
C
LE
Fixed edges and continuity
Up to now we have dealt with positive moments in strips, where a large amount of flexibility in
N
assigning loads to the various regions of the slab was provided. This same flexibility extends to
IG
the assignment of moments between negative and positive bending sections of slabs (strips) that
are fixed or continuous over their supported edges. Some attention should be paid to elastic
ES
moment ratios to avoid problems with cracking and deflection at service loads.
D
The figure below shows a uniformly loaded rectangular slab having two adjacent fixed edges and
AL
the other two edges simply supported. Let us consider slab strips with one end fixed and one end
R
simply supported as shown below. In determining by strip method, slab strips carrying loads only
TU
near the supports and unloaded in the central region are encountered (see figure). It is convenient
if the unloaded region is subject to a constant moment (and zero shear) because this simplifies
C
the selection of positive reinforcement.

U
R
ST
The following are recognized:

 Although the middle strips have the same width as those of the rectangular slab with simple
T
supports, the discontinuity lines are shifted to account for the greater stiffness of the strips with
AF
fixed ends. Their location is defined by coefficient , with a value clearly less than 0.5, so that
the edge strips have widths greater and less than b/4 at the fixed end and simple end
R
respectively (see fig.).

D
7
y (1-)b/2 b/2
a - b/2 2wb2/2
B
TE
w/2 w/2
b/2
w/2 b
O
w/2
N
A A
b
b/2
E
R
(1-)b/2
TU
x
wb2/2
C
B
(a) Plan a
LE
(d) wy and my along B-B
N
(1-2)wb2/8
IG (b) wx and mx along A-A
ES
2wb2/8
D
 For a BM diagram for x- direction middle strips (section A-A) with constant moment, over the
AL
unloaded part the following maximum moments are achieved.

R
Positive moment in the span

TU
w
 b  wb  1 b   2 wb 2
C
2
V=0 m xf  w      =
mxf
U
wb/2  2  2 2 2  8
b/2
R
w
ST
wb2/8 Negative moment at the left support

b  2 wb 2
m xs  w1     1    
mxs V=0 b
T
b/2 2 4 8
AF

1  2 wb 2
8
R
D
8
Observing, the absolute of the negative moment at a support plus the span moment = the
“cantilever” moment. =
 2 wb 2
+
1  2 wb 2 =
1   2 wb 2
TE
8 8 8
Now the ratio of negative to positive moments in the x-direction middle strip is:
O
m xs 1  2

N
m xf 2
E
Hillerborg notes that as general rule for fixed edges, the support moment should be about 1.5 to
R
2.5 times the span moment in the same strip.
TU
 For mxs/mxf = 2
22 + 2 - 1 = 0   = 0.366
C
LE
Higher values should be chosen for longitudinal strips that are largely unloaded and in such cases
a ratio of support to span moment of 3 to 4 may be used. However Asmin may govern for such
N
high ratios with too small positive moment.
 Next moment in the x- direction edge strips: IG
ES
Note that they are one half of those in the middle strips because load is half as great.
 Moment in the y- direction middle strips:
D
It is reasonable to choose the same ratio between support and span moments in the y- direction
AL
as in the x- direction.
 Choose the distance from the right support to maximum moment section as b [the
R
cantilever span = (1- )b  mys = (1-2)wb2/2].

TU
C
wb
U
b w
R
 b 
m yf  wbb   wb   w
b   2 wb 2
2
ST
 2  2 2
V=0
myf
T
AF
V=0 wb 2
wb 2 m ys  w1   b.1   
b
 2
R
2 2 2
b
2 2
D
 1   
2 wb wb
w  2
2 2
2
 1  2 
wb
mys 2
9
Hence, the ratio of negative to positive moment is as before:

m xs 1  2

2
TE
m xf
Moment in the y-direction edge strips:
O
wb
wb  b  w b b wb 
N
2
b/2
4 m yf    
w/2 2  2  2 2 2 16 Cantilever moment
E
2
b/2 myf m ys 
w
1    b .1    b   2 wb
R
2 2 4 16
TU
w/2 1    b 2 2
wb 2
 1     1  2 
2 wb wb
2
mys  2
16 16 16
C
One-eighth of those in y- direction middle strip
LE
With the above expressions, all the design moments for the slab can be found once a suitable
N
value for  is chosen. 0.35 ≤ ≤ 0.39 give corresponding ratios of negative to positive moments
IG
from 2.45 to 1.45, the range recommended by Hillerborg. For example, if it is decided that
ES
support moment is to be twice the span moments, the value of  = 0.366 and the negative and
positive moments in the central strip in the y- direction are respectively 0.134wb2 and 0.067wb2.
D
In the middle strip in the x- directions, moments are one-fourth those values; and in the edge
AL
strips in both directions, they are one-eighth of those values.

R
Example
TU
Figure below shows a typical interior panel of a slab floor in which support is
C
provided by beans on all column lines. Hence the slab can be considered
U
fully restrained on all sides. The floor must carry a live load of 6 kN/m2 with
R
C25 grade concrete and steel having fyk = 420 MPa. The dimensions of the
ST
slab panel are shown in the figure. Find the moments at all critical sections
and determine the required slab thickness and reinforcement.
T
AF
R
D
10
Solution: Depth required for serviceability:
 0.6 f yk  Le
d  
 0.4  
TE
Effective depth of slab =
 400  a
O
Here Le = span of the joist = 6 m
N
βa for slab span ratio 2:1 (for interior spans) = 35
E
βa for slab span ratio 1:1 (for interior spans) = 45
R
TU
βa for slab span ratio 1.25:1 (Interpolated) = 42.5
C
d  1.03  1.03
Le 6000
 145.4mm
LE
a 42.5
Overall depth of the slab = h = 145.4 + 15 + 12 = 172.4 mm,
N
Provide h = 175 mm
Loads on the slab

IG
ES
DL of the slab = (0.175 * 25) =.4.375 kN/m2

D
LL given in the problem = 6 kN/m2

AL
Design load = 1.3(4.375) + 1.6(6) = 15.29 kN/m2

W = 15.3 kN/m2 W/2 = 7.65 kN/m2
R
Strips in the slabs

TU
The discontinuity lines are selected as shown in the figure below.

C
Edge strip width = b/4 = 6/4 = 1.5 m

U
In the corners the load is divided equally in the two directions; elsewhere 100 percent of
R
load is assigned to the direction indicated by the arrows.

ST
A ratio of support moment to the span moment of 2 is used

Calculation of moments
T
X direction middle strip along A-A: w= 15.3kN/m

AF
Cantilever moment: mx = 15.3 * 1.52/2 = 17.21 kNm

mxs
R
Negative Moment: mxs = 17.21 * 2/3 = 11.475 kNm

1.5 m
D
Positive moment: mxf = 17.21 * 1/3 = 5.7375 kNm
11
y 1.5m 1.5m
4.5 m
TE
1.5m
7.65 B 7.65
O
N
A A
6m
3m
E
15.3 15.3
15.3
R
7.65 7.65
1.5m
TU
x
C
B
(a) Plan
LE
7.5m
15.3 15.3
N
7.5 m
11.475
IG (b) wx and mx along A-A
ES
5.7375
7.65 7.65
D
AL
7.5 m
(c) wx and mx along Edge strip
5.74
R
2.87
TU
15.3
C
U
6m
R
(b) wy and my along B-B

45.9
ST
22.95
T
7.65 7.65
AF
6m
(b) wy and my along Edge strip
R
(1-2)wb2/8
D
2wb2/8
12
X direction edge strip:

TE
O
Y direction middle strip along B-B:
N
Simply supported span moment: my = 15.3 * 62/8 = 68.85 kNm
E
Negative Moment: mys = 68.85 * 2/3 = 45.9 kNm
R
Positive moment: myf = 68.85 * 1/3 = 22.95 kNm
TU
Y direction edge strip:
Cantilever moment: my = 7.65 * 1.52/2 = 8.61 kNm
C
Negative Moment: mys = 8.61 * 2/3 = 5.74 kNm
LE
Positive moment: myf = 8.61 * 1/3 = 2.87 kNm
N
Depth As = Sp.
Moment St ratio ρmin Spacing Dia of
Desgn chk ρbd Prov
X-
(kNm)
(mm)
ρ IG
condition 2
(mm )
(mm)
(mm)
rod
ES
midd
Mxs = 11.475 53.46 0.001424 0.001424 213.54 235.41 230 8mm
D
Mxf = 5.7375 37.80 0.000705 0.00119 178.50 281.62 280 8mm

X-
AL
edge
Mxs = 5.74 37.81 0.000705 0.00119 178.50 281.62 280 8mm
R
Mxf = 2.87 26.74 0.000351 0.00119 178.50 281.62 280 8mm

TU
Y-
midd
Mys = 45.9 106.92 0.006082 0.006082 912.36 123.96 120 12mm
C
Myf = 22.95 75.61 0.002906 0.002906 435.94 259.44 250 12mm

U
Y-
R
Edge
5.74 8mm
ST
Mys = 37.81 0.000705 0.00119 178.50 281.62 280

Myf = 2.87 26.74 0.000351 0.00119 178.50 281.62 280 8mm
T
Unsupported edges
AF
Problems with unsupported edges could not be handled by conventional

R
procedures so easily. The real power of the strip method becomes evident
D
when dealing with non-standard problems, such as slabs with unsupported

edge, slabs with holes, or slabs with reentrant edges (L – shaped slabs).
13
For a slab with one edge unsupported, a reasonable basis for analysis by the
simple strip method is that a strip along the unsupported edge takes a
TE
greater load per unit area than the actual load acting, i.e., the strip along
the unsupported edge acts as a support for the strips at right angles. Such
O
strips have been referred to by Wood and Armer as “strong bands”. A strong
N
band is, in effect, an integral beam, usually having the same total depth as
E
the remainder of the slab but containing a concentration of reinforcement.
R
The strip may be made deeper than the rest of the slab to increase its
TU
carrying capacity, but this will not usually be necessary.
C
Slab with free edge in short span direction
LE
Consider the rectangular slab carrying a uniformly distributed ultimate load
per unit area, with fixed edges along three sides and no support along one
N
short side.
IG
Consider a strip along A-A in the x direction. Summing moments about the
ES
left end, with unknown support moment mxs,
1  32mxs / wb 2
D
wb 2 kwb  b
mxs +  a    0 From which, k 
32 4  8 8(a / b)  1
AL
Thus k can be calculated after the support moment is selected.

R
The appropriate value of mxs to be used in the above equation will depend
TU
on the shape of the slab. If a is large relative to b, the strong band in the y
C
direction at the edge will be relatively stiff, and the moment in the left
U
support in the x direction strips will approach the elastic value for a propped
R
cantilever. If the slab is nearly square, the deflection of the strong band will
ST
tend to increase the support moment; a value about half the free cantilever
moment shall be selected.
T
Once mxs is selected and k value is known, it is easily shown that the
AF
maximum span moment occurs when

R
b
D
X= (1 – k)*
4
14
TE
b/4 a - b/2 b/4
B C D
O
w/2 -kw/2
b/4
N
w/2 (1+k/2)w
E
A A
w
R
b
b/2
-kw
TU
(1+k)w
w/2
-kw/2
b/4
C
w/2 (1+k/2)w
LE
x
B C D
(a) Plan a (d) wy and my along B-B
N
w
mxs
IG
ES
-kw
(b) wx and mx along A-A
mxs
D
mxf
AL
b
w/2 w/2
(c) wy along B-B
R
TU
b/4 b/4
w
C
(b) wy along C-C

U
(1+w)k
R
(1+k/2)w (1+k/2)w
(b) wy along D-D
ST
Fig. Slab with free edge along short side

T
AF
And it has a value,

R
kwb2  8a 
mxf =  3 k
D
32  b 
15
The moments in the x direction edge strips are one-half of those in the
middle strip.
TE
Y- direction middle strip along C-C: Simply supported span Moment = wb2/8
Adopting a ratio of support to span moment of 2,
O
wb 2 wb 2
N
mxs = & mxf =
12 24
E
moments along sections B-B and D-D can also be found by the same
R
principles for the corresponding load values, with appropriate ratios of
TU
negative and positive moments.
C
LE
Slab with free edge in long span direction
y
N
C
-k2w (1+k2)w
IG
ES
βb
A A
(1-k1)w
D
b
B B
(1-β)b
k1 w
AL
R
TU
x
C
(a) Plan a
C
U
R
(1+k2)w
ST
(b) wx along A-A
(1-k1)w
T
(c) wx along B-B

AF
k1 w
R
(d) wx along C-C

D
-k2w
16
Suitable discontinuity lines for the load distribution are shown in the figure
below. Width of strong band along the free edge is βb (normally chosen as
TE
low as possible considering the limitations on tension reinforcement ratio in
the strong band).
O
Moment equilibrium equation for Y direction strip =
N
k1w(1   )2 b2  
 k2 wb2 1    0
E
mys +
2  2
R
TU
From which,
k1 (1   ) 2  2m ys / wb 2
k2 
C
 (2   )
LE
Having the value of k1 selected, k2 can be found.
N
Example 2 IG
Rectangular slab with long edge unsupported
ES
The 3.65 m x 5.8 m slab shown in the figure with three fixed edges and one
D
long edge unsupported must carry a uniformly distributed service live load of
AL
6 kN/m2. Consider concrete grade to be used as C30 and steel to be used

has fyk = 420 MPa. Select an appropriate slab thickness, determine all
R
factored moments in the slab, and select reinforcing bars and spacing for the
TU
slab.
C
U
Solution
R
Depth required for serviceability:

ST
 0.6 f yk  Le
Effective depth of slab = d  
 0.4  
 a
T
 400
AF
Here Le = span of the slab = 3.65 m

R
D
βa for slab span ratio 2:1 (for exterior spans) = 30

βa for slab span ratio 1:1 (for exterior spans) = 40
17
Slab span ratio for the probem = Ly/Lx = 5.8/3.65 = 1.59

βa for slab span ratio 1.59:1 (Interpolated) = 34.1
TE
d  1.03  1.03
Le 3650
 110.25mm
a
O
34.1
N
Overall depth of the slab = h = 110.25 + 15 + 12 = 137.25 mm,
E
Provide h = 140 mm
R
Loads on the slab
TU
DL of the slab = (0.14 * 25) =.3.5 kN/m2
C
LL given in the problem = 6 kN/m2
LE
Design load = 1.3(3.5) + 1.6(6) = 14.15 kN/m2
W = 14.15 kN/m2
N
Assumptions:
Width of strong band along the free edge = 0.65 m
IG
ES
In the main slab portion k1 = 0.45
Slab load in y direction = 0.45 * 14.15 = 6.37 kN/m2
D
In x direction = 0.55 * 14.15 = 7.78 kN/m2

AL
Y direction slab strip

R
As an initial assumption,
TU
Negative moment at the supported edge = ½ * the free cantilever moment

Consider the strip length as to span up to the center of the strong band;
C
ie. 3 + 0.65/2 = 3.325 m

U
Hence mys = ½ * (6.37*3.3252)/2 = 17.6 kNm

R
ST
k1 (1   ) 2  2m ys / wb 2
k2 
 (2   )
T
0.45(1  0.65 / 3.65) 2  2 *17.6 / 14.15 * 3.652

AF
k2  = 0.36
0.65 / 3.65(2  0.65 / 3.65)
R
Uplift in the strong band for Y direction strips = 0.36 * 14.15 = 5.095 kN/m2
D
18
Revised negative moment at the left support

mys = 6.37*32/2 – 5.095*0.65*3.325 = 17.65 kNm
TE
The maximum positive moment in the Y direction strip will be located at the
point of zero shear.
O
ie. 5.095 * 0.65 – 6.37(y1 – 0.65) = 0
N
y1 = 1.17 m
E
R
y
TU
C
C
0.65
-5.095 19.244
m
LE
A A
7.78
3.65m
N
B B
6.37
IG
3m
ES
x
D
C
(a) Plan
5.8 m
AL
R
19.244
TU
(b) wx along A-A

C
7.78
(c) wx along B-B
U
R
6.37
ST
(d) wx along C-C

-5.095
T
17.65
6.37
AF
(e) mx along C-C

R
6.37
D
19
Maximum Positive moment at (y1 = 1.17 m)

= 5.095 * 0.65 * (1.17 – 0.65/2) – 6.37 * (1.17 – 0.65)2/2 = 1.94 kNm
X direction moments:
TE
In strip along A-A:
O
Load = (1+k2)w = (1+0.36) * 14.15 = 19.244 kN/m2
N
Load per meter run along the strip = 19.244 * 0.65 = 12.51 kN/m
E
Simply supported span moment = 12.51 * 5.82/8 = 52.6 kNm
R
Negative moment at the supports = (2/3) * 52.6 = 35.1 kNm
TU
Positive moment at the span = (1/3) * 52.6 = 17.5 kNm
C
In strip along B-B:
LE
Load per meter run along the strip = 7.78 kN/m
Simply supported span moment = 7.78 * 5.82/8 = 32.71 kNm
N
Negative moment at the supports = (2/3) * 32.71 = 21.8 kNm
IG
Positive moment at the span = (1/3) * 32.71 = 10.9 kNm
ES
Slabs with holes

D
Example:
AL
A rectangular slab, 5 m x 8 m with fixed supports at all the four sides has a
R
central opening of 1.2 m x 2.4 m. Slab thickness is Calculated to be of

TU
200mm. The slab is to carry a uniformly distributed factored load of 15

kN/m2 including its self weight. Device an appropriate system of strong
C
bands to reinforce the opening and determine moments to be resisted at all

U
critical sections of the slab.

R
ST
Solution
T
Moments for slab without holes

AF
X direction middle strips: w = 15 kN/m2

R
Cantilever moment: mx = 15 * 1.252/2 = 11.72 kNm

D
Negative Moment: mxs = 11. 72 * 2/3 = 7.81 kNm

Positive moment: mxf = 11. 72 * 1/3 = 3.91 kNm
20
2.75 m 2.75 m
0.6 m 0.6 m
TE
2.5 m
y 1.25m 0.9 m 0.9 m 1.25m
E F G
O
7.5 15 7.5
1.25
N
m
1.875 m
E
2.5m
5m A
R
15 1.25 m
B 15
TU
B D 15
15 D
1.25m
7.5 7.5 1.875 m
C
C
C
LE
E F G x
A
(a) Plan
8m
N
15 IG15
ES
(b) wx and mx along middle strip
8m For slab without hole
7.81
D
3.91
AL
R
7.5 7.5
TU
(c) wx and mx along edge strip

For slab without hole
8m
C
& wy and my along Edge strip

7.81 For slab without holes
U
3.91
R
ST
15
T
AF
5m (d) wy and my along middle strip

For slab without hole
R
31.25
15.63
D
21
X direction edge strips: w = 7.5 kN/m2

TE
O
N
Y direction middle strips: w = 15 kN/m2
E
Simply supported span moment: mx = 15 * 52/8 = 46.88 kNm
R
TU
C
LE
Y direction edge strips: w = 7.5 kN/m2
N
IG
ES
Because of the hole, certain strips lack support at one end. To support them 0.3m wide
D
strong bands will be provided in the X direction at the long edges of the hole and 0.6m
AL
wide strong bands in the Y direction at the short edges of the hole.
R
Strip A-A
TU
Assuming propped cantilever action with restraint moment along the slab edge, taken
C
as mys = 31.25 kN m as in the basic case,

U
15 kN/m
R
31.25 kNm wy along A-A

ST
w1
1.575 m 0.3
T
AF
By moment equilibrium about the left support,

R
31.25 + w1*0.3*(1.575+0.3/2) – 15*(1.875)2/2 = 0

D
w1 = - 9.44 kN/m
22
The negative value of w1 indicates that the cantilever strips are serving as
support for strip D-D and in turn for the strong bands in the Y direction,
TE
which is hardly a reasonable assumption. Hillerborg suggests the restraint
moment to be as close to the “basic case” as possible without w1 being
O
negative i.e. choosing w1 = 0 (cantilever alone).
N
E
mys = 15*(1.575)2 / 2 = 18.6 kNm
R
TU
15 kN/m
18.6 kNm
C
LE
1.575 m
mys at the support in
N
wy along A-A Strip A-A
Strip B-B
IG
ES
The restraint moment at the support from the basic case = 7.81kNm
D
15 kN/m
AL
0.6m
7.81kNm
C
R
1.25 m -2.66
(b) wx and mx along B-B
TU
7.81kNm
C
U
R
Summing moments about the left end of the strip, results in an uplift
ST
reaction at the right end to be provided by strip E-E.

7.81 + w2*0.6*(1.25+0.9+0.6/2) – 15*(1.25)2/2 = 0
T
AF
W2 = - 2.66 kN/m
R
Taking moment about C,

D
Left support reaction = {7.81 + 15 * 1.252/2} / 1.25
23
= 15.623 kN
Point of zero shear: 15.623 – 15x = 0
TE
X = 15.623/15 = 1.042 m
Max. BM in the span = 15.623 * 1.042 – 7.81 – 15 * 1.0422/2
O
= 0.3259 kNm
N
Strip C-C
E
BM values for strip C-C are half of the corresponding values for
R
strip B-B
TU
Strip D-D
C
The 0.3m width strip D-D carries 15 kN/m in the X direction with
LE
reactions provided by the strong bands E-E.
N
0.6m IG
15 * 0.3 = 4.5 kN/m 0.6m
ES
-9.375kN/m -9.375kN/m
2.5 m
D
AL
R
Reaction on E-E = ½ * 4.5 * 2.5/0.6 = 9.375 kN/m

TU
or 9.375/0.3 = 31.25 kN/m2

C
The maximum +ve moment is

U
Mxf = 0.6 * 9.375 * 1.55 – 4.5 * 1.252 /2 = 5.2 kNm

R
ST
Strip E-E
The strong bands in the Y direction (the strips along section E-E) carry
T
AF
the directly applied load of 15 kN/m2 plus the 2.66 kN/m2 load from strip B-
B, the 1.33 kN/m2 load from the strip C-C, and the 31.25 kN/m2 end reaction
R
from strip D-D.

D
24
w4
w3
w2
TE
w1
O
N
0.95 m 0.3 m 0.3 m 0.95 m
2.5 m
E
R
1.25 m 2.5 m 1.25 m
TU
5m
C
31.25
LE
All the above mentioned loads are converted to kN/m loads by multiplying
N
IG
the width of the strip as follows and are indicated in the figure above also.
w1 = 15 * 0.6 = 9 kN/m
ES
w2 = 1.33 * 0.6 = 0.798 kN/m

D
w3 = (2.66 – 1.33) * 0.6 = 0.798 kN/m

AL
w4 = 31.25 * 0.6 = 18.75 kN/m

Cantilever moment:
R
9 * 2.5 * 1.25 + 0.798 * 2.5 * 1.25 + 0.798 * 1.25 * (1.25+0.625)

TU
+ 18.75 * 0.3 * (0.95+0.15) = 38.68 kNm

C
Negative moment: 38.68 * 2/3 = 25.78 kNm

U
Positive moment: 38.68 * 1/3 = 12.89 kNm

R
ST
Strip F-F
The moments for the Y direction middle strip of the basic case (without hole)
T
AF
may be used with out change.

Strip G-G
R
The moments for the Y direction edge strip of the basic case (without hole)
D
may be used with out change.
25
Chapter Three
3. Distribution of Lateral Load
3.1. Introduction
Structural systems in the early twentieth century buildings were basically designed to resist vertical
loads. Today, thanks to developments in this field and to high-strength materials, with the increase in
the height of buildings and the decrease in their weight, wind and earthquake induced lateral loads
TE
have become the primary loads, especially in tall buildings, and have begun to pose more of a threat
than before. As a result, for structural engineers, providing the strength to resist lateral loads in tall
O
buildings, whether wind or earthquake induced, has become an essential input in the design of new
structural systems.
N
Buildings can be classified on the basis of the materials used in their structural systems [structural
E
materials of the columns, beams, shear trusses (braces), shear walls and outriggers] as:
R
• steel
• reinforced concrete
TU
• composite.
C
The structural systems of tall buildings
The set of tall building structural systems has developed over time, starting with rigid frame systems, and
LE
with the addition of shear-frame, mega column (mega frame, space truss), mega core, outriggered
frame, and tube systems, it has made much taller buildings possible.
N
To resist these internal effects on the building different economical methods or systems of lateral force
IG
resisting systems are available. Among these methods are: -
• Rigid frame systems
ES
• Flat plate/slab systems
• Core systems
D
• Shear wall systems

• Shear-frame systems
AL
• Shear trussed frame (braced frame) systems

• Shear walled frame systems
• Mega column (mega frame, space truss) systems
R
• Mega core systems

TU
• Outriggered frame systems1

• Tube systems
• Framed-tube systems
C
• Trussed-tube systems
U
• Bundled-tube systems.
R
ST
T
AF
R
D

TE
O
N
E
R
TU
C
rigid frame systems
LE
Frame system, consists of beam and columns framed together to produce moment of resisting system.
When succoring lateral stability through frame action it is preferable to use a structural system when
N
necessary rigid joints can be ready obtained. Since carrying lateral forces via frame actions include
service bending moments, in both beam and column sizes are large.
IG
Rigid frame systems, also called moment frame systems, are used in steel and
reinforced concrete buildings. This system consists of beams and columns (Figure below).
ES
A rigid frame is an unbraced frame that is capable of resisting both vertical and lateral loads by the
bending of beams and columns. Stiffness of the rigid frame is provided
D
mainly by the bending rigidity of beams and columns that have rigid connections.
Rigid framing is based on the principle that beam-column connections have adequate rigidity to hold
AL
the original angles between intersecting members unchanged under the effect of both vertical and
lateral loads. Thus, reinforced concrete is an ideal material for this system by virtue of its naturally
monolithic behaviour, resulting with inherent rigidity at connections. For steel buildings, rigid framing is
R
achieved by reinforcing beam-column connections.

TU
The structural stiffness of rigid frames is directly proportional to the cross-sectional dimensions and
bending rigidity of the beams and columns, and inversely proportional to their length and spacing. In
this system, columns are placed in locations that least restrict architectural planning. At the same time,
C
columns should be of sufficient length to provide minimum storey depth. To obtain effective rigid frame
U
behaviour, it is necessary to have closely spaced columns, and for the beams connecting them to
R
be sufficiently deep.
ST
T
AF
R
D

TE
O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
Flat plate/slab systems
IG
Flat plate/slab systems are used in reinforced concrete buildings. This system consists of beamless floor
slabs of constant thickness and columns. Shear walls also can be placed in addition to or instead of
ES
the columns (Figure 3.6a). Column capitals (Figure 3.6b) or gussets (Figure 3.6c) can be placed on the
upper ends of the columns in order to reduce the punching effect created by shear forces in the
D
connections between the columns and slabs. Using a flat ceiling instead of one with beams, and thus
attaining the maximum net floor height, is a major architectural advantage of this system. In resisting
AL
lateral loads, flat plate/slab systems may be insufficient, compared with rigid frames. The reason for this
is the shallow-wide-beam behaviour of the floor slab, with low bending/flexural rigidity. Thus real frame
behaviour that has beams having sufficient depth cannot be achieved. The addition of shear walls to
R
flat plate/slab systems mitigates this problem and increases the resistance against lateral loads.
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
AF
R
D

TE
O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
Core systems IG
Core systems are used in reinforced concrete buildings. This system consists of a reinforced concrete
ES
core shear wall resisting all the vertical and lateral loads (Figure 3.7). In general, a core wall is an open
core that is converted into a partially closed core by using floor beams and/or slabs so as to increase
the lateral and torsional stiffness of the building. Although the behaviour of closed cores is ideal against
D
building torsion under lateral loads, a partially closed core is used to approximate this for architectural
reasons. Thus, a partially closed core is produced by supporting the open part of the core with beams
AL
and/or slabs having satisfactory strength against shear and bending. In core systems, floor slabs are
cantilevered from the core shear wall independently
R
(Figure 3.8a), or else cantilevered modules of floor slabs are used (Figure 3.8b). In the
case of cantilevered modules, floor slabs, except the bottom slab of each module, are cantilevered
TU
from the core shear wall and are supported by discontinuous perimeter columns down through the
height of the modules. The bottom slab of each module is a strengthened cantilever floor slab which
C
supports the perimeter columns of the upper storeys in the module.

U
R
ST
T
AF
R
D

TE
O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
shear wall systems IG
Shear wall systems are used in reinforced concrete buildings. This system consists of reinforced concrete
ES
shear walls, which can be perforated (with openings) or solid. Shear wall systems can be thought of as
a vertical cantilever rigidly fixed at the base, and can resist all vertical and lateral loads on a building
without columns (Figure 3.9). Owing to the nature of cantilever behaviour, the inter-storey drift between
D
adjacent floors is greater in the upper floors than in the other floors. For this reason, in supertall buildings
it is difficult to control the lateral drift at the building top. Shear wall system, normally constructed in
AL
reinforced concrete vertical elements or wall. In steel structure construction shear walls are formed with
bracing one story and effective structural systems. Shear walls are commonly incorporate in multi-story
R
building to provide lateral stability. Shear walls which are made up of reinforced concrete or masonry
walls, act as vertically cantilever resisting horizontal forces.
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
AF
R
D

TE
O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
IG
ES
Dual or shear-frame systems
Rigid frame systems economically do not have sufficient resistance against lateral
loads in buildings over 25 storeys because of bending on columns that causes large
D
deformations. In this case, the total stiffness and so the economical height of the
building can be increased by adding vertical shear trusses (braces) and/or shear walls
AL
to the rigid frame to carry the external shear induced by lateral loads (Figure 3.10).
This interactive system of frames and shear trusses and/or shear walls is called the
R
“shear-frame system”, and is quite effective against lateral loads (Figure 3.11).
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
AF
R
D

TE
O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
AF
R
D
mega column (mega frame, space truss) systems

Mega column systems consist of reinforced concrete or composite columns and/or shear walls with
much larger cross-sections than normal, running continuously throughout the height of the building. In
this system, mega columns and/or mega shear walls can resist all the vertical and lateral loads (Figure
7

3.21). In mega column systems, horizontal connections are of primary importance. Due to the probable
insufficiency of floor slabs acting as rigid floor diaphragms, to support this behaviour of restraining the
columns laterally, belts, vierendeel frames, and mega braces are used. In this way, all external mega
columns and/or shear walls are connected together to participate in the lateral stiffness of the structure
(Figure 3.21a).
TE
O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
outriggered frame systems

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Outriggered frame systems have been developed by adding outriggers to shear-frame systems with
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core (core-frame systems) so as to couple the core with the perimeter (exterior) columns. The outriggers
are structural elements connecting the core to the perimeter columns at one or more levels throughout
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the height of the building so as to stiffen the structure (Figure 3.29). An outrigger consists of a horizontal
shear truss or shear wall (or deep beam). This structural element is a horizontal extension of the core
D
shear truss/wall to the perimeter columns in the form of a knee. To make them sufficiently effective,
outriggers are at least one storey deep, and have a high flexural and shear rigidity (adequately stiff in
flexure and shear). Because the outriggers affect the interior space, they are generally located at the
mechanical
8 equipment floors in order not to hinder the use of normal floors.

The outriggers, which are connected rigidly to the core and by hinges to the
perimeter columns, increase the effective flexural depth and so the flexural stiffness of the system in
the direction of bending under lateral loads by enabling the core to receive support from the perimeter
columns. The outrigger supports the core shear truss/wall against bending, creating axial tension and
compression on the perimeter columns. In this way, the cantilever tube behaviour of the system is
ensured, and the stiffness of the shear-frame system is increased, while reducing the lateral drift of the
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building to a significant degree.
O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
Tube systems
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The tube system was innovated in the early 1960s by the famous structural engineer Fazlur Rahman
U
Khan who is considered the “father of tubular design” (Weingardt, 2011). The tube system can be
likened to a system in which a hollow box column is cantilevering from the ground, and so the building
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exterior exhibits a tubular behaviour against lateral loads. This system is evolved from the rigid frame
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system and can be defined as a three-dimensional rigid frame having the capability of resisting all
lateral loads with the façade structure. The tube system was used for the first time as the framed-tube
system in the 43-storey, 120m high The Plaza on Dewitt (formerly Dewitt-Chestnut Apartments)
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(Chicago, 1966) (Figure 3.52) by Fazlur Rahman Khan.

AF
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D

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O
N
E
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(a) Framed tube (b) Braced framed tube
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Passive Seismic Control System
Base Isolation and Isolating Devices
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In contrast to the current norms of designing an entire structure to withstand the distortions resulting
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from earthquake motions, an adaptive system is designed to isolate the upper portions of a structure
from destructive vibrations, by confining the severe distortions to a specially designed portion at its
base. The building is detached or isolated from the ground in such a way that only a very small portion
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of seismic ground motions is transmitted up through the building.
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
3.2. Frame system,

R
ST
Frame system consists of beam and columns framed together to produce moment of resisting system.
When succoring lateral stability through frame action it is preferable to use a structural system when
necessary rigid joints can be ready obtained. Since carrying lateral forces via frame actions include
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service bending moments, in both beam and column sizes are large.
AF
R
D
10

If all the frames are identical, the load can be equally distributed and only one frame
need to be analyzed. If on the other hand some frames are stiffer than the other some
method of load distribution between various frames according to relative stiffness, must
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be used.
This method is known as D-value method, can be computed as follws
O
N
A uniform story height
E
The D-value of a column is obtained from
R
D=αKc Where α=constant determined based on h and E
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Kc=stiffness ratio of the column Case 1: General
C
LE
∑
Kb1 Kb2 =
N
Kc
IG
ES
Kb3 Kb4
D
Case 2: One end fixed

AL
Kb1 Kb2 =
∑
R
TU
Kc .
C
U
Case 3: One end pin ended

R
∑
Kb1 Kb2 =
ST
T
Kc
AF
R
.
D
20

Different story height
Case 4: when height of one column h’, different from standard

e valu
TE
′= ′ ′
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h’ D’,kc’
N
D,kc h
E
′
R
The value of α is obtained by
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the
previous indicated formu
C
Case 5: Beam mid up
column
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)
′=
(
N
h2 D2
D h D’
IG
ES
h1 D1
D
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R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
AF
R
D
21

Center of Mass and Center of Rigidity
Location of center of rigidity is the point on the horizontal plane through which the lateral
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force pass is determined from
- Location of center of rigidity
O
N
∑
=
∑
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
AF
R
D
22

Load combinations
Gravity load combination G1Lc=1.35Gk+1.5Qk
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Seismic load combination
 Combo1=1.35DL+1.5VLL
 Combo 2=1DL+0.3LL
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 Combo 3=combo2+EQx+ + 0.3EQy+
N
 Combo 4=combo2+ EQx+ + 0.3EQy-
 Combo 5=combo2+ EQx- + 0.3EQy+
E
 Combo 6=combo2+ EQx- + 0.3EQy-
R
 Combo 7=combo2+EQx+ - 0.3EQy+
 Combo 8=combo2+ EQx+ - 0.3EQy-
TU
 Combo 9=combo2+ EQx- - 0.3EQy+
 Combo 10=combo2+ EQx- - 0.3EQy-
C
 Combo11=combo2-EQx+ + 0.3EQy+
 Combo 12=combo2- EQx+ + 0.3EQy-
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 Combo 13=combo2- EQx- + 0.3EQy+
 Combo 14=combo2- EQx- + 0.3EQy-
 Combo15=combo2-EQx+ - 0.3EQy+
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 Combo 16=combo2- EQx+ - 0.3EQy-
 Combo 17=combo2- EQx- - 0.3EQy+
 Combo 18=combo2- EQx- - 0.3EQy-
IG
ES
 Combo19=combo2+EQy+ + 0.3EQx+
 Combo 20=combo2+ EQy+ + 0.3EQx-
 Combo 21=combo2+ EQy- + 0.3EQx+
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 Combo 22=combo2+ EQy- + 0.3EQx-

 Combo23=combo2+EQx+ - 0.3EQy+
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 Combo 24=combo2+ EQx+ - 0.3EQy-

 Combo 25=combo2+ EQx- - 0.3EQy+
R
 Combo 26=combo2+ EQx- - 0.3EQy-

TU
 Combo27=combo2-EQx+ + 0.3EQy+
 Combo 28=combo2- EQx+ + 0.3EQy-
 Combo 29=combo2- EQx- + 0.3EQy
C
 Combo 30=combo2- EQx- + 0.3EQy

U
 Combo31=combo2-EQx+ - 0.3EQy+
 Combo 32=combo2- EQx+ - 0.3EQy-
R
 Combo 33=combo2- EQx- - 0.3EQy+

ST
 Combo 34=combo2- EQx- - 0.3EQy-

 Envelope=(combo1 up tocombo34)
T
AF
R
D
23

Shear walls
TE
Shear walls are reinforced concrete vertical elements of a structure which are being used
to resists lateral force, torsion and bending moment of a building. Their lateral force
resisting system is as a vertical cantilever system i.e. they are constructed and assumed
O
fixed at the base with the ground. The term fixed is to indicate that shear walls can resist
N
flexural, shear and axial actions at the point of attached. The construction process is
done with a construction joint as side to side with other building components. They are
E
assumed to act as continuum throughout its height. Shape and geometry of shear walls
can be vary according to the interest of Architectural engineer first, based on the
R
discussion of structural engineer with Architectural engineer it can be changed for better
TU
lateral force resisting of the system. Most of the time shear walls are located on the lift
area in multi-story buildings. They cover large space side wise, however their thickness is
C
small which is 15 to 20 centimeters, due to this may create obstacle for light openings.
For a better resistance of shear walls in a given building the configuration of they on the
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plan is determinant factor. In a given perimeter or length of shear wall their arrangement,
shape, size and geometry dramatically changes performance of building lateral force
resisting in the system. Many recent researches and codes provide different configuration
N
of shear walls for different shapes of buildings.
IG
The following figures show how response a given building have the same geometrical
and material data, but with different configuration of shear walls. In figure 1 the building
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has good tensional stiffness in both axes; however in figure 2 the building is torsionally
unstable besides to this it might cause high internal actions. We will check it in the
research.
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
AF
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D

structural deformation
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fig 2. Torsionaly unstable
O
N
E
R
TU
C
fig 1. Better configuration of shear
walls
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Ground
motion
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IG
Some of consideration arrangements of shear walls in plan are as follows: -
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Stability, in order to have a stability shear wall arrangement the following should be
fulfilled
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 There must be a minimum of three walls

 The line of forces in the wall should not intersect at a point
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 At most two of three walls parallel

 Avoid high torsion by holding the eccentricity between story shear and center of
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mass as low as possible.

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Analysis shear wall systems
Location of center of stiffness

C
U
=
R
ST
=
T
AF
Where , is m oment of inertia of wall i with respect to x and y-axis respectively and
d stance of stability element from shear center
Symmetrical
an shear wall assembly: - where the center of stiffness considers with center of
R
di
mass,
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the portion of the bed to be carried by the shear wall i is

TE
O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
How to evaluate different configuration of shear walls

TU
The performance of structural system is measured based on their internal action for a
given loading. Thus actions are deflection, story shear, base shear, base overturning
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moment and torsion. Computation of these actions is mentioned above, but this is done
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for a two dimensional structures. For computing three dimensional structures there are
soft-ware programs developed by different companies over the market. One of them is
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Sap-2000 which can analyze structures based on finite element method.

ST
T
AF
R
D
26

Chapter 5
PLASTIC ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION
The elastic design method, also termed as allowable stress method (or Working stress method), is a
conventional method of design based on the elastic properties of steel. This method of design limits
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the structural usefulness of the material upto a certain allowable stress, which is well below the elastic
limit. The stresses due to working loads do not exceed the specified allowable stresses, which are
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obtained by applying an adequate factor of safety to the yield stress of steel. The elastic design does
not take into account the strength of the material beyond the elastic stress. Therefore the structure
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designed according to this method will be heavier than that designed by plastic methods, but in many
cases, elastic design will also require less stability bracing.
E
R
In the method of plastic design of a structure, the ultimate load rather than the yield stress is regarded
as the design criterion. The term plastic has occurred due to the fact that the ultimate load is found
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from the strength of steel in the plastic range. This method is also known as method of load factor
design or ultimate load design. The strength of steel beyond the yield stress is fully utilised in this method.
C
This method is rapid and provides a rational approach for the analysis of the structure. This method also
provides striking economy as regards the weight of steel since the sections designed by this method
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are smaller in size than those designed by the method of elastic design. Plastic design method has its
main application in the analysis and design of statically indeterminate framed structures.
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BASIS OF PLASTIC THEORY
2.1 Ductility of Steel
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Structural steel is characterised by its capacity to withstand considerable deformation beyond first
yield, without fracture. During the process of 'yielding' the steel deforms under a constant and uniform
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stress known as 'yield stress'. This property of steel, known as ductility, is utilised in plastic design methods.
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Fig. 1 shows the idealised stress-strain relationship for structural mild steel when it is subjected to direct
tension. Elastic straining of the material is represented by line OA. AB represents yielding of the material
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when the stress remains constant, and is equal to the yield stress, fy. The strain occurring in the material
during yielding remains after the load has been removed and is called the plastic strain and this strain
is at least ten times as large as the elastic strain, y at yield point.
R
TU
C
U
Strain hardening
R
ST
T
A B
AF
fy
Strain hardening
R
commences
Stress f
D
O Strain 
Fig. 1 Idealised stress – strain curve for steel in tension
When subjected to compression, the stress-strain characteristics of various grades of structural steel are
largely similar to Fig. 1 and display the same property of yield. The major difference is in the strain
hardening range where there is no drop in stress after a peak value. This characteristic is known as
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ductility of steel.
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Perfectly Plastic Materials
The stress-strain curve for a perfectly plastic material upto strain hardening is shown in Fig. 2. Perfectly
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plastic materials follow Hook's law upto the limit of proportionality. The slopes of stress-strain diagrams
in compression and tension i.e. the values of Young's modulus of elasticity of the material, are equal.
E
Also the values of yield stresses in tension and compression are equal. The strains upto the strain
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hardening in tension and compression are also equal. The stress strain curves show horizontal plateau
both in tension and compression. Such materials are known as perfectly plastic materials.
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STRESS
C
LE
fy TENSION
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IG
STRAIN
ES
fy
COMPRESSION
D
AL
Fig. 2 Stress - Strain Curve for perfectly plastic materials

R
TU
Fully Plastic Moment of a Section

C
U
The fully plastic moment Mp, of a section is defined as the maximum moment of resistance of a fully
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plasticized or yielded cross-section. The assumptions used for finding the plastic moment of a section
are:
ST
The material obeys Hooke's law until the stress reaches the upper yield value; on further straining, the
stress drops to the lower yield value and thereafter remains constant.
T
AF
(ii) The yield stresses and the modulus of elasticity have the same value in compression as in tension.
R
The material is homogeneous and isotropic in both the elastic

and plastic states.
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(iv) The plane transverse sections (the sections perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam)
remain plane and normal to the longitudinal axis after bending, the effect of shear being neglected.

(v) There is no resultant axial force on the beam.
(vi) The cross section of the beam is symmetrical about an axis through its centroid parallel to plane
of bending.
(vii) Every layer of the material is free to expand and contract longitudinally and laterally under the
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stress as if separated from the other layers.
In order to find out the fully plastic moment of a yielded section of a beam as shown in Fig. 3, we
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employ the force equilibrium equation, namely the total force in compression and the total force in
tension over that section are equal.
N
fy
E
b
R
TU
d/2 C
C
d d/2
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T
N
fy
IG
ES
Figure 3 Plastic theory
D
Total compression , C = Total tension , T

= fy . (d/2).b
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Moment set up in the section = fy . (d/2).b*d/2 = fy . bd2/4

Plastic Moment of resistance, Mp = fy . Zp
R
Where Zp = Plastic section modulus

TU
Hence for a rectangular section, equating the moment set up internally and the external moment, Zp
= bd2/4
C
Similarly, based on figure 4, in elastic theory,

U
Total compression , C = Total tension , T

= f .½ (d/2).b = f.bd/4
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Moment set up in the section = f.bd/4 * 2d/3 = f . bd2/6

ST
Elastic Moment of resistance, Me = f . Ze

Where Ze = Plastic section modulus
Hence for a rectangular section, equating the moment set up internally and the external moment, Ze
T
= bd2/6
AF
R
D

f
b
d/6
C
d/2
TE
d 2d/3
O
N
T
E
f
R
TU
Figure 4 Elastic theory
C
Collapse load
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The load which causes the collapse moment (Plastic moment) Mp is referred as collapse load
Shape factor
The ratio of the plastic modulus (Zp) to the elastic modulus (Ze) is known as the shape factor (S)
N
Mp = Zp . fy; Me = Ze . fy
IG
Therefore, shape factor can also be said as the ratio of the collapse moment (Mp) to the elastic
moment (Me).
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For a rectangular cross section the plastic moment Mp is about 1.5 times greater than the elastic
moment capacity (ie. Shape factor is 1.5). In developing this moment, there is a large straining in the
D
extreme fibres together with large rotations and deflection. This behaviour may be plotted as a
moment-rotation curve. Curves for various cross sections are shown in Fig. below.
AL
1
R
S
TU
a (S 1.00) b
1.00
0.87
C
(S  1.15)
U
R
0.67 (S  1.50)
ST
(S  1.80)
bd 2
M  fy
6
T
AF
Rotati
R
D
Moment – rotation curves
For the theoretically ideal section in bending i.e. two flange plates connected by a web of insignificant
thickness, this will have a value of 1. When the material at the centre of the section is increased, the

value of S increases. For a universal beam the value is about 1.15 increasing to 1.5 for a rectangle.
Load factor
The ratio of the collapse load to the working load is called load factor
Elastic Neutral Axis (ENA) and Plastic Neutral Axis (PNA)
ENA: An axis passing through CG of the section
PNA: An axis which divides the area of the section equally
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For a section which is symmetrical about the CG axis, PNA and ENA will be the same.
For a rectangular section, Zp = bd2/4
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= bd/2 *d/2 = 2(bd/2 *d/4)
= 2(Area of the section above PNA * Centroidal distance of that
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area from PNA)
The plastic modulus of a completely yielded section is defined as the combined statical moment of
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the cross-sectional areas above and below the neutral axis or equal area axis. It is the resisting modulus
R
of a completely plasticised section.
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bending Of Beams Symmetrical About Both Axes
The bending of a symmetrical beam subjected to a gradually increasing moment is considered first.
C
The fibres of the beam across the cross section are stressed in tension or compression according to
their position relative to the neutral axis and are strained in accordance with Fig. 1.
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f
N
f  fy
Neutral Axis IG
ES
D
f
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Fig. 5 Elastic stresses in beams

While the beam remains entirely elastic the stress in every fibre is proportional to its strain and to its
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distance from the neutral axis. The stress (f) in the extreme fibres cannot exceed fy. (see Fig. 5)
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When the beam is subjected to a moment slightly greater than that, which first produces yield in the
extreme fibres, it does not fail. Instead the outer fibres yield at constant stress (fy) while the fibres nearer
C
to the neutral axis sustain increased elastic stresses. Fig. 6 shows the stress distribution for beams
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subjected to such moments.

R
Such beams are said to be 'partially plastic' and those portions of their cross-sections, which have
ST
reached the yield stress, are described as 'plastic zones'.

Plastic Zone (Compression)
fy
T
AF
Neutral Axis
R
D
fy
Plastic Zone (Tension)
(a) Rectangular section (b) I - section (c) Stress distribution for (a) or (b)
The depths of the plastic zones depend upon the magnitude of the applied moment. As the moment
is increased, the plastic zones increase in depth, and, it is assumed that plastic yielding can occur at
yield stress (fy) resulting in two stress blocks, one zone yielding in tension and one in compression. Fig.
7 represents the stress distribution in beams stressed to this stage. The plastic zones occupy the whole
of the cross section, and are described as being 'fully plastic'. When the cross section of a member
is fully plastic under a bending moment, any attempt to increase this moment will cause the member
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to act as if hinged at the neutral axis. This is referred to as a plastic hinge.
O
The bending moment producing a plastic hinge is called the full plastic moment and is denoted by
'Mp'. Note that a plastic hinge carries a constant moment, MP.
N
fy
E
b
R
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Neutral Axis
d
C
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N
fy
(a) Rectangular (b) I - section

IG
(c) Stress distribution
for (a) or (b)
section
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Fig. 7 Stresses in fully plastic beams

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4.0 Plastic Hinges

In deciding the manner in which a beam may fail it is desirable to understand the concept of how
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plastic hinges form where the beam is fully plastic.

At the plastic hinge an infinitely large rotation can occur under a constant moment equal to the plastic
moment of the section. Plastic hinge is defined as a yielded zone due to bending in a structural
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member at which an infinite rotation can take place at a constant plastic moment Mp of the section.
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The number of hinges necessary for failure does not vary for a particular structure subject to a given
loading condition, although a part of a structure may fail independently by the formation of a smaller
number of hinges. The member or structure behaves in the manner of a hinged mechanism and in
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doing so adjacent hinges rotate in opposite directions.

U
Theoretically, the plastic hinges are assumed to form at points at which plastic rotations occur. Thus the
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length of a plastic hinge is considered as zero.

ST
The values of moment, at the adjacent section of the yield zone are more than the yield moment up
to a certain length L, of the structural member. This length L is known as the hinged length. The hinged
length depends upon the type of loading and the geometry of the cross-section of the structural
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member. The region of hinged length is known as region of yield or plasticity.

AF
Hinged Length of a Simply Supported Beam with Central Concentrated Load

R
D

TE
L/2 b
L/2
O
Fig. 8
x
N
MY MY
Mp
E
R
TU
C
In a simply supported beam with central concentrated load, the maximum bending moment occurs
at the centre of the beam. As the load is increased gradually, this moment reaches the fully plastic
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moment of the section Mp and a plastic hinge is formed at the centre.
Wl
N
Mp 
4 IG
bh 2  bh 2 
 Z p 
ES
 fy    
4  4 
D
bh 2  bh 2  2
My  fy    fy  
6  4  3
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 
Let x (= L) be the length of plasticity zone.
From the bending moment diagram shown in Fig. 8
R
2
 My M Mp M p
TU
y
3 
L x L

C
2 2 2
U
L x
M 
R
y
 2 2
L
ST
M p
2
M x
T
y
 1 
AF
M p L
L  x M p  L  M y
R
2
D
L  x M p  L  M p
3
1
x  L
3
Therefore the hinged length of the plasticity zone is equal to one-third of the span in this case.
5.0 FUNDAMENTAL CONDITIONS FOR PLASTIC ANALYSIS

Mechanism condition: The ultimate or collapse load is reached when a mechanism is formed. The
number of plastic hinges developed should be just sufficient to form a mechanism.
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Equilibrium condition : Fx = 0, Fy = 0, Mxy = 0
Plastic moment condition: The bending moment at any section of the structure should not be more
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than the fully plastic moment of the section.
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5.1 Mechanism
When a system of loads is applied to an elastic body, it will deform and will show a resistance against
E
deformation. Such a body is known as a structure. On the other hand if no resistance is set up against
R
deformation in the body, then it is known as a mechanism.
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Various types of independent mechanisms are
C
5.1.1 Beam Mechanism
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Fig. 9 sketches three simple structures and the corresponding mechanisms.
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(a) A simply supported beam has to form
one plastic hinge at the point of
maximum bending moment.
Redundancy, r = 0
IG
ES
D
A propped cantilever requires two

hinges to form a mechanism.
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Redundancy, r = 1
No. of plastic hinges formed,
= r + 1 = 2
R
TU
C
A fixed beam requires three hinges to

U
form a mechanism.
R
Redundancy, r = 2
No. of plastic hinges = 2 + 1 = 3
ST
Fig. 9
T
AF
From the above examples, it is seen that the number of hinges needed to form a mechanism equals
the static redundancy of the structure plus one.
R
D
5.1.2 Panel or Sway Mechanism

Fig. 10(A) shows a panel or sway mechanism for a portal frame fixed at both ends.
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(A) Panel Mechanism (B) Gable Mechanism (C) Joint Mechanism
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Fig. 10
E
R
5.1.3 Gable Mechanism
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Fig. 10 (B) shows the gable mechanism for a gable structure fixed at both the supports.
C
5.1.4 Joint Mechanism
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Fig. 10 (C) shows a joint mechanism. It occurs at a joint where more than two structural members meet.
N
5.1.5 Combined Mechanism
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
AF
R
D

Various combinations of independent mechanisms can be made depending upon

whether the frame is made of strong beam and weak column combination or strong
column and weak beam combination. The one shown in Fig.11 is a combination of a
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beam and sway mechanism. Failure is triggered by formation of hinges at the bases of
the columns and the weak beam developing two hinges. This is illustrated by the right
hinge being shown on the beam, in a position slightly away from the joint.
O
N
Two hinges developed on the beam
E
R
TU
C
LE
Fig. 11 Combined Mechanism
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6.0 Load Factor and Theorems of Plastic Collapse
IG
Plastic analysis of structures is governed by three theorems, which are detailed in this
ES
section.
The load factor at rigid plastic collapse (p) is defined as the lowest multiple of the design
D
loads which will cause the whole structure, or any part of it to become a mechanism.
In a limit state approach, the designer is seeking to ensure that at the appropriate
AL
factored loads the structure will not fail. Thus the rigid plastic load factor p must not be
less than unity.
R
The number of independent mechanisms (n) is related to the number of possible plastic
TU
hinge locations (h) and the number of degree of redundancy (r) of the frame by the
equation.
n=h–r
C
The three theorems of plastic collapse are given below for reference.
U
R
6.1 Lower Bound or Static Theorem

This theorem states that for given frame and loading, if there exists any distribution of BM
ST
throughout the frame which is both safe and statically admissible, with a set of loads W,
the value of W must be less than or equal to Wc (Collapse load)
(If the distribution of BM is such that it satisfies all conditions of equilibrium it is a statically
T
admissible distribution.
AF
If the distribution of BM is such that the fully plastic moment is not exceeding any where
in the frame, it is called a safe distribution.)
R
In other words, a load factor (s ) computed on the basis of an arbitrarily assumed
D
bending moment diagram which is in equilibrium with the applied loads and where the
fully plastic moment of resistance is nowhere exceeded will always be less than or at best

equal to the load factor at rigid plastic collapse, (p).

p is the highest value of s which can be found.
TE
6.2 Upper Bound or Kinematic Theorem
For a given frame subjected to a set of loads W, the value of W which is found to be
corresponding to any assumed mechanism will always be greater than or equal to the
O
actual collapse load Wc.
N
If the values of W corresponding to a number of mechanisms for a given frame under
given set of loading are found, the collapse load Wc will be the smallest of all these
E
found.
A load factor (k) computed on the basis of an arbitrarily assumed mechanism will always
R
be greater than, or at best equal to the load factor at rigid plastic collapse (p )
TU
p is the lowest value of k which can be found.
C
6.3 Uniqueness Theorem
If both the above criteria are satisfied, then the resulting load factor corresponds to its
LE
value at rigid plastic collapse (p).
Example 1:
N
Determine the shape factor for a circular section of diameter d.
IG
ES
2d/3π
Ze = I/ymax =
PNA &
D
Zp = Moment of areas above and ENA

AL
below PNA about PNA

d
R
=
TU
Shape factor Zp/Ze =

C
U
R
ST
Example 2:
Determine the plastic moment of resistance of a symmetrical I section shown in the figure.
Area of the section = 2(0.4D*0.1D)+(D – 0.2D)*(0.1D) = 0.16D2
T
Depth of PNA = 0.5 D

AF
R
D

Plastic Modulus of section = Moment of

areas above and below PNA about PNA
TE
Zp = 2[0.4D * 0.1D * 0.45D] + 0.1D
2[0.1D * 0.4D * 0.2D] D
O
3
= 0.016D
N
Plastic Moment of Resistance
E
Mp = fy * Zp = 0.016 D3fy
R
0.4D
TU
Example 3:
Determine the shape factor for the beam section shown below. Find also the fully plastic
C
moment of the beam section. Take fy = 230 N/mm2.
PNA falls at 150/2 = 75 mm from extreme
LE
fibres
Plastic Modulus of section = Moment of
N
12.5
mm
areas above and below PNA about PNA
Zp = 2[100 * 12.5 * 68.75] +
IG 150 mm
ES
2[12.5 * 62.5 * 62.5/2]
= 2.207 * 105 mm3
D
100mm
AL
Moment of Inertia I = [100 *1503/12] – [87.5 * 1253/12]

= 13883464 mm4
R
13883464

TU
Elastic modulus of section Ze = I/ymax = 75 1.851 * 105 mm3

2.207 * 10 5
C
 1.19
U
Shape factor Zp/Ze = 1.851 * 10 5

R
Plastic Moment of Resistance

ST
Mp = fy * Zp = 230 * 2.207 * 105 * 10-6 = 50.761 kNm

Example 4
A UB 305 * 127 * 37 section is used as a simply supported beam of span 5m. Find the shape
T
factor of the beam section. If the beam carries a point load of 80 kN at the mid span,
find the load factor. Take the yield strength of steel as 250 MPa.
AF
From steel tables, Iy = 7160 cm4 = 7160 * 104 mm4

R
tf = 10.7 mm; tw = 7.2 mm h = 303.8 mm b = 123.5 mm

Wel,y = 472 * 103 mm3 (Ze) Wpl,y = 540 * 103 mm3 (Zp)
D

540
 1.144
Shape factor Zp/Ze = 472
TE
To find the load factor we need to find the collapse load.
Let the collapse load be C
BM due to collapse load = Cl/4 = C * 5/4 = 1.25 C Nm = 1250 C Nmm
O
Moment of resistance corresponding to the collapse condition
N
Mp = fy * Zp
ie. 1250 C = 250 * 540 * 103
E
C = 108000 N = 108 kN
R
108
 1.35
TU
Load factor = Collapse load / Working load = 80
C
Determination of collapse load for some standard cases
LE
Simply Supported beam carrying a non central concentrated load W
Static method:
Maximum BM under the load = Wab/l
N
When the load is increased to collapse load, Max. BM = Wc*ab/l = Mp
Mp *l IG
Therefore, Wc = ab
ES
Kinematic method: Collapse load causes a hinge under the load.
θ = Angle of rotation of the left portion of the beam
D
Deflection below the load = a θ

AL
W
a b
R
TU
l
C
U
R
θ θ1=aθ/b
ST
aθ
(θ + θ1)
T
θ1 = Angle of rotation of the right portion of the beam = a θ/b

AF
Rotation of the hinge under the action of plastic moment = θ+θ1

a  * l
R
 
b b
D

 *l
The work absorbed by the hinge = Mp * b
TE
Mp *  * l
b
O
Work done by the load = Wc * a θ =
Mp *l
N
ab
E
Wc = as before.
R
Fixed beam carrying UDL throughout the span
The moment at collapse of a fixed beam with a uniform load is worked out from Fig
TU
below. It should be noted that three hinges are required to be formed at A, B and C just
before collapse.
C
W / unit length
LE
P=0 P=0
Loading
A C B
M MB
N
L
MP  
IG MP
ES
Collapse
MP MP
D
2
AL
Fixed Beam
Work done at the three plastic hinges =Mp ( + 2 +  ) = 4Mp
R
Work done by the displacement of the load =W/L . L/2 . L/2 . 

TU
WL
  4M p
C
4
U
WL  16 M p
R
WL
Mp 
ST
16
In other words the load causing plastic collapse of a section of known value of Mp is
T
given. All the three hinges at A, B and C will have a plastic moment of Mp.
AF
3. Continuous Beams
Consider next the three span continuous beam of uniform section throughout (constant
R
Mp) as shown in Fig. below. Here a conventional approach is more laborious but the
D
collapse load may be readily determined by consideration of the collapse patterns. Each
pattern represents the conversion of each of the three spans into mechanism.

10W 10W 6W
TE
O
2L 2L 3L 2L 2L 3L
N
E
Collapse pattern 1:
R
TU
10W 10W 6W
C
LE
 
2
N
Work done in hinges= Mp ( 2 +  ) = 3 Mp
Work done by loads =
Collapse load, Wc =
10 W( 2L ) =
3 Mp / 20L =
IG 20WL
0.15 Mp / L
ES
Collapse pattern 2:
D
10W 10W 6W
AL
R
2 3
TU
5
C
U
Work done in plastic hinges = Mp ( 2 + 5 + 3 ) = 10 Mp 

Work done by loads = 10W( 6L ) = 60 WL
R
Collapse load, Wc = 10 Mp / 60 L = 0.17 Mp / L

ST
Collapse pattern 3:
T
10W 10W 6W
AF
R
3 2
D
5

Work done in hinges= Mp ( 3 + 5 ) = 8 Mp 

Work done by loads = 6W (6L  ) = 36 WL
Collapse load, Wc = 8 Mp / 36L = 0.22 Mp / L
TE
Thus collapse will occur in the mode of Fig. (b) when Wc = 0.15 Mp / L
O
N
E
R
TU
C
LE
N
IG
ES
D
AL
R
TU
C
U
R
ST
T
AF
R
D

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STRUCTURAL DESIGN 3/1/2020

Actions / Loads may be classified in different ways:

 By their variation in time:

 Permanent actions, e.g. self-weight of structure, fixed equipment’s

 Accidental loads, e.g. explosions, or impact from vehicles

 Direct action can be classified in to spatial variation:

 Fixed actions, direct actions which have no freedom of moment with in or on

 Static actions, which do not cause significant acceleration of the structure or

LECTURE NOTE Page 1 of 140

(See Fig, 1.2)

LECTURE NOTE Page 2 of 140

zi is the reference height for the internal pressure given in Section 7

Figure 5.1 — Pressure on surfaces

LECTURE NOTE Page 3 of 140

Site Altitude (m) AboveAir density, ρ(kg/m3)

But ES EN1991-1-4-2015 recommended as ρ is air density = 1.25kg/m3

Fundamental and Basic Wind Velocity

of at least 20 obstacle heights.

The basic wind velocity shall be calculated from Expression

Expression (4.4) and is based on a logarithmic velocity profile.

z0 is the roughness length

kr terrain factor depending on the roughness length z0 calculated using

Terrain category Z0 Zmin m

CO(z) - The orography factor

considered up to a distance of 10 times the height of the isolated orographic feature.

Ct = 1 for Φ < 0.05

Ct = 1 + 0.6 S for Φ > 0.30

Where s is the factor to be obtained by interpolation from the value of

the length of the effective upwind slope length, Le

effective length of the upwind slope, defined in Table A.2

Lu is the actual length of the upwind slope in the wind direction

H is the effective height of the feature

LECTURE NOTE Page 6 of 140

Type of slope (Φ = H/Lu)

LECTURE NOTE Page 7 of 140

Figure A.2 — Factor s for cliffs and escarpments

LECTURE NOTE Page 8 of 140

Cpe =Cpe,1 for A≤1 m 2

Cpe =Cpe,10 for A≥10 m2

LECTURE NOTE Page 9 of 140

Vertical walls Reference heights, Ze

LECTURE NOTE Page 10 of 140

LECTURE NOTE Page 11 of 140

LECTURE NOTE Page 12 of 140

b) Pressure coefficients for roofs Types of roofs

LECTURE NOTE Page 13 of 140

 Flat roofs: Table A.2

Fig 1.8 internal pressure in structure

Internal pressure on a building or a plane is given by Wi= Ce(Zi)Cpi qref

Cpt=the internal pressure coefficient. The magnitude of cpt depends on the

given Fig. 1.9, and is a function of the opening ratio μ defined as

LECTURE NOTE Page 14 of 140

Wind force on structures

by calculating forces using force coefficients (see (2)) or

by calculating forces from surface pressures (see (3))

The wind force Fw acting on a structure or a structural component may be

Fw = cscd⋅ cf ⋅ qp(ze) ⋅ Aref (5.3)

LECTURE NOTE Page 15 of 140

LECTURE NOTE Page 16 of 140

Figure 7.5 — Key for vertical walls