AHs ’20, March 16–17, 2020, Kaiserslautern, Germany Pataranutaporn & Vujic et al.

Living Bits : Opportunities and Challenges for Integrating

Living Microorganisms in Human-Computer Interaction
Pat Pataranutaporn∗ Angela Vujic∗ David S. Kong Pattie Maes Misha Sra
patpat@mit.edu avujic@mit.edu dkong@mit.edu pattie@media.mit.edu sra@cs.ucsb.edu
MIT Media Lab, MIT Media Lab, MIT Media Lab, MIT Media Lab, Computer Science
Massachusetts Massachusetts Massachusetts Massachusetts Department,
Institute of Institute of Institute of Institute of University of
Technology (MIT) Technology (MIT) Technology (MIT) Technology (MIT) California, Santa
Cambridge, MA Cambridge, MA Cambridge, MA Cambridge, MA Barbara, CA

Figure 1: The microbial cell is considered a biological computer with various input and output modalities.

ABSTRACT CCS CONCEPTS

There are trillions of living biological "computers" on, inside, and • Human-centered computing → HCI theory, concepts and
around the human body: microbes. Microbes have the potential to models; Interaction techniques; Interaction design theory,
enhance human-computer interaction (HCI) in entirely new ways. concepts and paradigms.
Advances in open-source biotechnology have already enabled de-
signers, artists, and engineers to use microbes in rede�ning wear- KEYWORDS
ables, games, musical instruments, robots, and more. "Living Bits",
Biotechnology, Biological Interfaces, Synthetic Biology, Microor-
inspired by Tangible Bits, is an attempt to think beyond the tradi-
ganism, Living Interfaces
tional boundaries that exist between biological cells and computers
for integrating microorganism in HCI. In this work we: 1) outline ACM Reference Format:
and inspire the possibility for integrating organic and regenerative Pat Pataran, Angela Vujic, David S. Kong, Pattie Maes, and Misha Sra. 2020.
living systems in HCI; 2) explore and characterize human-microbe Living Bits : Opportunities and Challenges for Integrating Living Microor-
interactions across contexts and scales; 3) provide principles for ganisms in Human-Computer Interaction. In AHs ’20: Augmented Humans In-
stimulating discussions, presentations, and brainstorms of micro- ternational Conference (AHs ’20), March 16–17, 2020, Kaiserslautern, Germany.
bial interfaces. We aim to make Living Bits accessible to researchers ACM, New York, NY, USA, 13 pages. https://doi.org/10.1145/3384657.3384783
across HCI, synthetic biology, biotechnology, and interaction design
to explore the next generation of biological HCI.
1 INTRODUCTION
∗ Authors contributed equally to this research.
With the ubiquitous nature of computing, the relationship between
humans and computers is becoming more intimate. In addition to
Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or
classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed wearable computers on the body, there are trillions of living "com-
for pro�t or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation puters" on, inside, and around the human body: microbes. The term
on the �rst page. Copyrights for components of this work owned by others than ACM microbe or microorganism refers to micron scale (1 ⇥ 10 6m) living
must be honored. Abstracting with credit is permitted. To copy otherwise, or republish,
to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior speci�c permission and/or a organisms, including bacteria, yeast, and fungi. These microorgan-
fee. Request permissions from permissions@acm.org. isms have been integrated with human life for thousands of years.
AHs ’20, March 16–17, 2020, Kaiserslautern, Germany We have used them in the form of ancient technology to create,
© 2020 Association for Computing Machinery.
ACM ISBN 978-1-4503-7603-7/20/03. . . $15.00 transform, and preserve materials and chemicals such as foods and
https://doi.org/10.1145/3384657.3384783 agricultural products.
Living Bits : Opportunities and Challenges for Integrating Living Microorganisms in Human-Computer Interaction AHs ’20, March 16–17, 2020, Kaiserslautern, Germany

Figure 2: Projects discussed in Living Bits. 1. Mushtari [4], 2. bioLogic [73], 3. Mold Rush [34], 4. Euglena Soccer Game [31], 5.
RGB E.Coli [15], 6. Breathing Shoes [40], 7. Biota Beat [35], 8. Antibiotic-Responsive Bioart [37], 9. OpenLH [23], 10. My First
Biolab [22], 11. Vespers [3], 12. Carbon Eaters [40], 13. Social Microbial Prosthesis [12], 14. Grown Microbial 3D Fiber Art [48],
15. Mycelium Artifacts [71], 16.Myco-accessories [64] 17. Growable Robot [52], 18. Biosensing Soft Robot [8], 19. Microbial
Home [47], 20. E. chromi [11], 21. Microbial Perfume[68], 22. Bio-electronic soil sensing device [38], 23. Gut-Brain Computer
Interfaces [67], 24. 3D Printed Living Responsive Materials and Devices [45].

As Mark Weiser, pioneer in ubiquitous computing said "The most built environments [47], food [11], games [9, 34] and robots [8, 52],
profound technologies are those that disappear. They weave them- demonstrating a rich spectrum of research in HCI that engages
selves into the fabric of everyday life until they are indistinguishable with microbes.
from it" [72]. His philosophy also applies to biotechnology, one of Though digital technology dominates modern industrialized so-
the oldest and impactful technologies that humans have invented. cieties, these projects demonstrate that there is a possibility to
In this paper, we introduce "Living Bits": the integration of mi- rethink computation using organic and living systems. Here, we
croorganisms in, with and as computing systems. Inspired by how seek to characterize and systematically study biological interfaces
Tangible Bits sought to bridge the gap between the digital and phys- in the context of HCI.
ical environment [28] and how Parkes & Dickie created a biological
imperative for interaction design [51], Living Bits is an attempt to
think beyond the traditional boundaries that exist between biolog- 2.1 The Microbe as a Bio-Computer
ical cells and computers. Our paper enables someone new to the
area to be able to think about a project, understand what is possible, Compared to other living organisms, a microbe is a unicellular or-
and realize what challenges exist in doing such work. We survey ganism utilizing minimal biological processes and genetic materials.
and classify research projects that integrate microorganisms as part Thus for its simplicity, the microbe is used as one of the model
of the computing system, conceptualize their key design elements, organisms for studying and engineering biological computation
and show how to apply the concept to future projects. Finally, we and fabrication in modern biotechnology research. For example,
discuss the ethical and societal implications of this work. We aim bio-pharmaceutical companies have successfully inserted a human
to inspire the integration of biology and computing to shift the gene responsible for producing insulin in E. coli to help individ-
traditional perspective of HCI. uals with type 1 diabetes produce insulin [21]. Researchers have
also developed synthetic biology methods to enhance the com-
putational capabilities of microbes by designing complex genetic
2 BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION circuits [6, 13, 24, 69] that function as biological logic gates, as well
In principle, biological cells "[compute] to build" [20]. A living cell as designing programming languages and software to create them.
could receive inputs such as chemical cues or physical signals from These genetic circuits allow researchers to sense, compute, and
its surroundings to metabolize and respond to the environment. In actuate at the micro-scale. More speci�cally, the resulting genetic
the past decade, researchers have used the ability of microorgan- circuits have various applications that span from health care to
isms to produce outputs (chemicals, smell, taste, color, movement, environmental protection. These microbes can act as biosensors to
and more) as part of interactive interfaces ranging from wearable report the presence of toxic chemicals in the environment [62] or
devices [3, 4, 12, 40, 48, 64, 67, 67, 73] to musical instruments [35], as photoreceptors to paint images [43].
AHs ’20, March 16–17, 2020, Kaiserslautern, Germany Pataranutaporn & Vujic et al.

2.2 Interfacing with Microbes Characteristic Digital Computer Microbial Computer

Living Bits rethinks microorganisms as a programmable biological
interfaces. Early works in biological HCI [53] have primarily been
focused on using microbes as biological actuators [34, 50, 73] and Input Visual, Audio, Haptic Chemical, Ion, Nucleic
tools for citizen science outreach [37, 39], but is still far from reach- Acid, Antigens, Light,
ing the full possibilities as a biological computer that can enhance Heat, Magnetic Field
digital technology.
Our goals for Living Bits are to: 1) outline and inspire the possi- Process logic computation logic computation, gra-
bility for HCI researchers to rethink computation beyond digital dient computation
technology using organic and regenerative living systems such
as microbes; 2) explore and characterize novel human-microbe Output Visual, Audio, Haptic, Pigment, Smell, En-
interactions across contexts and scales; 3) provide principles for Olfactory zyme, Motility, Cell
stimulating discussions, presentations, and brainstorms of future growth, Cell death,
microbial and biological interface designs. We aim to make Living Morphology change,
Bits accessible to researchers across HCI, synthetic biology, biotech- Chemical
nology, and interaction design to explore the next generation of
biological HCI [53] Fundamental Binary code DNA/RNA code
Language

3 METHODOLOGY Scale 10 2 100 m 10 6 100 m

We conducted a search across multiple existing �elds (HCI, syn-
thetic biology, biotechnology, interaction design, industrial design, Speed Fast, but discrete Slow, but continuous
speculative design, architecture, and art) using the following key-
words: "Microorganism", "Microbial", "Microbes", "Bacteria", "Yeast", Power source Electrical power Microbe dependent, pri-
"Biotic", "Bio HCI", and selected example projects that are well estab- marily carbohydrates
lished in each communities, have been published and exhibited to (i.e. sugar) and other
the public. The current community of practitioners and researchers nutrients
working in the area of living Bits or microbial interfaces (Microbial
HCI) is relatively small compared to other branches of the HCI Recyclability High recycling cost, Biodegradable or com-
community, so we aim to diversify the source of the projects as does not decompose, postable
much as possible. We also aim to highlight di�erent possibilities of toxic to environment
microbial HCI by selecting projects that show creative and unique Table 1: Comparison between microbial interfaces and digi-
applications of microorganisms in the context of human-computer tal interface.
interactions. Therefore, these examples were selected to represent
the rich spectrum of research within microbial HCI. The selected
microbial interfaces projects included Mushtari [4], bioLogic [73], 4 PARALLELS BETWEEN MICROBIAL AND
Mold Rush [34], Euglena Soccer Game [31], RGB E.Coli [15], Breath- DIGITAL COMPUTATION
ing Shoes [40], Biota Beats [35], Antibiotic-Responsive Bioart [37],
To help someone new understand the integration of microorgan-
OpenLH [23], My First Biolab [22], Vespers [3], Carbon Eaters [40],
isms in HCI, we provide a comparison of digital and biological com-
Social Microbial Prosthesis [12], Grown Microbial 3D Fiber Art
putation. A living cell shares many characteristics with a digital
[48], Mycelium Artifacts [71], Myco-accessories [64], Growable
computer in the sense that both systems can receive input infor-
Robot [52], Biosensing Soft Robot [8], Empathetic living media [8],
mation, compute, and then respond. However, both have unique
Microbial Home [47], E. chromi [11], Microbial Perfume [68], Bio-
advantages and disadvantages.
electronic soil sensing device [38], Gut-Brain Computer Interfaces
[66], 3D Printed Living Responsive Materials and Devices [45]
These example projects were used as the starting point for in- 4.1 Information
vestigation. In the process for conceptualizing Living Bits, we char- Like other organisms, microbes contain DNA as the fundamental
acterized and systematically studied the utilization of microbes as information system. In contrast to the binary system (0 or 1) used
biological interfaces in each project across scales and applications. in digital computers, DNA is a quarterly system composed of four
We identi�ed and compared the unique advantages between digital possible molecular digits (A, T, C, G). 215 petabytes (215 million
and biological computers, categorized the use cases of microbes gigabytes) could be stored in a single gram of DNA [14]. DNA se-
through a design rationale and proposition into di�erent applica- quencing could be used to "read" from "DNA memory", while gene
tion domain of microbial interfaces. Finally, we characterized the editing technology (e.g. CRISPR) [59] could be use to "write" to
design elements of Living Bits according to scale. We present our DNA by changing genes, similar to changing bits in a hard drive.
analysis in three parts: 1) parallels between microbial computation This has motivated researchers to explore the possibility of using
and digital computation, 2) di�erent application domains, and 3) DNA hosted in microbial cell as a storage system [59]. DNA stores
the design elements of the microbial interfaces. genetic code in the form of genes responsible for di�erent abilities
Living Bits : Opportunities and Challenges for Integrating Living Microorganisms in Human-Computer Interaction AHs ’20, March 16–17, 2020, Kaiserslautern, Germany

4.4 Energy Sources

In order for microorganisms to grow successfully, they must have
a supply of water, nutrients, and gas, such as oxygen. The major-
ity of chemical substances in microorganisms contain carbon in
some form. Based on the microorganism that you are working with,
there are diverse carbon sources for microbes to grow on ranging
from organic materials, such as leaves and sugar, to synthetic com-
pounds, and even waste such as plastic [58]. Certain microbes such
as Cyanobacteria can �xate chemicals in the air through photosyn-
thesis [4]. In nature, many microbes consume nutrients through
biodegradation processes and play a signi�cant role in nutrient
recycling and ecology restoration. Thus, in the process of using
microorganisms to perform certain functions, it can help recycle
Figure 3: Example inputs and outputs that the microorgan- materials and create conditions for other organisms to thrive. For ex-
ism can sense and produce. ample, fungus release enzymes to decompose cellulose compounds
and behaviors of the organism. The central dogma of molecular in wood. In the process, "hypha" a soft branching �lamentous struc-
biology articulates the two-step process, transcription and transla- ture of a fungus is formed. Researchers have utilized hyphae to
tion, by which information in genes enters proteins. In this, DNA is create growable rigid structures for architecture, furniture, and
transcribed into RNA, which is translated into proteins, an essential other applications [71].
bio-molecule with diverse functionality. The engineering of DNA
to make functional proteins is analogous to writing digital code for 4.5 Size and Speed
compiling into software. Microbial cells are at the micron sale (10 6 m), but microorganism
colonies can be visible to the naked eye, such as mushrooms. Mi-
crobial colonies have an exponential growth curve, but the speed
depends on the species and environment. E. coli, the widely adopted
4.2 Input and Output model microbe, divides every 15 minutes. As the colony grows, the
function of the microbe or "biological circuit" is continually exe-
In terms of input, process, and output, microbes are �exible com-
cuted throughout the colony.
pared to digital computers. Inputs to microbial cells can be molecu-
The genetic source codes responsible for programming these di-
lar, which include chemical, ionic, nucleic, and antigen molecules
verse input, process, and output modules are open-source and avail-
[69]. Inputs can also be physical conditions of the environment,
able online, as mentioned in a previous section. These databases
such as light, heat, and magnetic �elds [15, 56, 69].
are constantly expanding with new knowledge as researchers and
Similar to the input channel, microbes also have a wide range
practitioners make new discoveries, and current knowledge can be
of output modalities. Outputs can be visual, olfactory, mechanical,
applied to a broad array of applications. E�ort to implementation is
and chemical [69]. Examples include producing pigments or �uo-
higher for individuals without a biological background; it is recom-
rescent molecules for visual cues, releasing scents as olfactory cues,
mended to start with simple examples before proceeding to more
movement as a mechanical cue, and releasing enzymes that break
advanced genetic source codes.
down toxins in the environment as a chemical cue.

5 DOMAIN OF MICROBIAL INTERFACES

We identi�ed �ve di�erent categories of how microorganisms have
4.3 Computation been used as interfaces in the context of HCI: to embody, commu-
nicate, enhance, materialize, and play.
In digital computing, logic gates have a binary (0 or 1) output in
response to one or more inputs. In synthetic biology, cells can simu-
late this behavior. When these biological "logic gates" are combined, 5.1 Embody
it is possible to simulate digital-like computation solely using bi- Embodied microbial interfaces are those that captures and translate
ological functions [6, 13, 70]. Researchers have demonstrated the digital and experimental data into something tangible. Embodiment
ability to toggle biological functions in a binary fashion through is de�ned as a physical manifestation of a computational artifact
genetic toggle switch in bacteria [19]. Researchers also developed or phenomenon [2]. The idea of embodied interfaces in HCI is to
complex genetic circuits [6, 13, 24, 69] with multiple logic gates, as enrich human sensory experiences when interacting with a com-
well as designing programming languages and software to create puter using "physically-embodied digital information in physical
them. For example, Autodesk developed "Genetic Constructor", a space" [27]. In Vesper, the researcher conceptualized the process of
cloud-based computer aided design system (CAD) to support the embedding engineered microorganism in the 3D fabricated death
design of genetic circuits using a visual language that focuses on mask that could embody the last breath of a human being by con-
the functional parts of the gene [5]. These genetic circuits allow verting chemical compounds from the breath into visible pigments:
researchers to sense, compute, and actuate in the microorganisms. "Transitioning from vessels of representative neuro-vasculature to
AHs ’20, March 16–17, 2020, Kaiserslautern, Germany Pataranutaporn & Vujic et al.

Figure 4: Domain applications of microbial interfaces.

actual biological urns" [3]. The researcher further characterized the electric signals microbes produce in response to soil to commu-
such composite materials as "Hybrid Living Materials" [60] nicate the soil quality and versatility of soil microbes. It was used
In Biota Beats [35], researchers explore the concept of musical as an educational tool to the public for studying ecology [38].
embodiment by designing a microbiome record player. The player
uses an algorithm to extract location, density, and cluster size from
a petri dish that contain microbes cultured from di�erent parts of 5.3 Materialize
the body to algorithms that generate a musical composition. The
Bio-fabrication is one of the largest domains of research in biotech-
microbiome record player is currently used as an outreach tool for
nology and biodesign. Several types of microbes such as bacteria and
the public to learn about the “music of their microbiomes."
fungus naturally produce bio-materials as the by product of their
Lastly, "Living Empathetic Media" [8] demonstrates the use of mi-
metabolism. Researchers have developed processes for cultivating
crobial populations to embody human interactions. The researchers
microbes to produce biodegradable materials such as cellulose [49],
developed a closed-loop control system which measured the user’s
mycelium [30], and others. These materials has been woven into
empathetic interactions to control the liquid nutrients provided to
biological interfaces across applications.
a colony of E. coli. The more empathetic interactions the user had,
For example, artists and designers have created wearable "mi-
the more the E. coli glowed. Thus, the social interaction information
crobial 3D �ber art" [48] and a fashion collection: BioCouture [41]
is embodied in living organisms which promote empathy.
using microbial cellulose produced from Kombucha culture of yeast
and bacteria.
5.2 Communicate Further, Growable robot [52] is a robot made of �exible elec-
Microbes has been used as the medium for communication through tronics embedded in regenerative microbial cellulose. The research
di�erent signals across scales and environments. They work as the team proposed the application of microbial cellulose as a biological
signals ampli�er by taking the inputs, and turn it to observable and exoskeleton of the electrical system with renewable, self-healing,
measurable outputs. and shape changing properties .
In the E.Chromi project, researchers used microbes to develop In "Mycelium Artifacts", researchers used "mycelium", the self-
a yogurt which changes an individual’s feces color in response to reproducing part of a fungus containing thread-like "hyphae" to
speci�c health and disease biomarkers. They accomplished this by create various design forms. The project demonstrated the use
engineering pigment production via a metabolic pathway inside of mycelium as a multipurpose sustainable bio-material for rapid
the bacteria [11]. By connecting the pathway for producing visual prototyping, sculpting, and physical replication of 3D models [38].
output with the sensing modality of the cell, researchers can in- Researchers also coupled mycelium composites with electronic
tegrate living organisms as ubiquitous sensors that communicate circuits and digital fabrication techniques, replacing plastic with
surrounding information. For example, researchers demonstrated growable materials [63]. Moreover, the researchers proposed using
the use of stretchable, robust, and biocompatible hydrogel [45, 61] biodegradable materials to create a more sustainable electronic
to host engineered bacteria for creating a chemical sensor that can life cycle. For example, "Myco-accessories: sustainable wearables
be attached on body [44] and a robot [29]. with biodegradable materials" presents an accessory for which the
Further, the visual signals created by the microbes have been electronic components can be re-used, and the wearable design
extensively used for creative expression in the form of biological composted [64].
ink. Researchers had used the biological ink to engage the public Finally, in "Breathing Shoes", researchers collaborating with the
in learning biotechnology [23, 37] Puma company piloted personalized biofabrication. First, they grew
Beyond visual communication, microbes have also been used for shoes from bacteria which respond to heat. When the heat increases,
scent production [68]. Further, natural signals produced by microor- the bacteria open air passageways to lower the temperature inside
ganisms in their natural habitats could be used as an environmental the shoe. Over time, each shoe molds to the pro�le of their users
indicator. In Bio-electronic, a soil sensing device, researchers used foot [40].
Living Bits : Opportunities and Challenges for Integrating Living Microorganisms in Human-Computer Interaction AHs ’20, March 16–17, 2020, Kaiserslautern, Germany

5.4 Enhance virtual ball into the goal. Euglena is a microorganism with a whip-
Through embedding living microorganisms inside everyday ob- like appendage called �agella used for moving around. The game
jects, researchers could tap into the biological functions found in developers used "phototaxis", a behavior of Euglena where the cell
microbes to augment the capabilities of materials and devices. This moves toward light. Thus, the player orients the Euglena using 4
enhancement ranging from photosynthesis to shape changing abil- LEDs, one in each corner. By tapping the "Shoot Ball" button, the
ity could lead to a symbiotic relationship between human and the ball is shot in the direction of the current Euglena orientation. The
microbes. Nature: Collaborations in Design features diverse exam- Euglena Soccer Game was one of the pioneering biotic games that
ples of projects that aspire to establish this symbiotic relationship inspired many game researchers and developers to integrate living
[10]. systems in game design [31].
For example, Mushtari is a wearable embedded with synthetic One of the games that was inspired by the Euglena Soccer Game
microorganisms that can augment human biological functionality is called Mould Rush. Mould Rush is a hybrid physical-digital mul-
for space travel. Researchers 3D printed wearable �uidic channels tiplayer strategy game, that is played on a slow but constantly-
containing two genetically engineered microorganisms: a photosyn- evolving biological landscape of living microorganisms such as
thetic microbe such as microalgae or cyanobacteria that converts bacteria, yeast, and fungi. As di�erent species of microbes (with
sunlight to sugar, and compatible microbes such as yeast and E. di�erent colours and shapes) grow and move across a nutrient ter-
coli that convert sugar into useful materials for the wearer such as rain, they are digitally captured with a high-resolution scanner for
drugs, food, fuel and more [4]. Alongside the design for the extreme the players to observe any physical changes when they occur. The
environment, "Carbon Eaters" is a small round button containing goal of Mould Rush is to compete with fellow players and collect
algae "Oscillaloria" that absorb and respond to carbon dioxide in as many microbial cells as possible, over a �ve-day period. Points
the air, changing colour to indicate air quality and the presence of are awarded based on the coverage of cells on the selected segment,
high levels of substances to improve the performance of the wearer and it is calculated using an image processing tool. The research
[40]. team discovered that the "slowness of microbial growth may not
Further, bioLogic is a responsive bio-skin using living actuators necessarily compromise playing experience, but rather, enhance
created by an automatic deposition method for printing bacteria it instead" [34] showing a promise for the future of interactive
cells on soft materials [50]. With environmental humidity changes, biotechnology.
the cell grows and shrinks, which in�uences the material to change
its shape. The researchers have demonstrated various use cases of 6 DESIGN ELEMENTS
the technology from applying the microbial actuator on fabric to The projects presented in the previous section demonstrate how
creating a synthetic bio-skin that reacts to body heat and sweat. The HCI researchers have already begun paving the way to biological
design of the bio-skin includes �ap structures around heat zones interfaces by exploring how to work and design with microbes [53].
that open and close for cooling down the body [73]. Researchers This body of research is growing, and there are many more possible
also show the ability to actuate robots using molecular motors future directions. However, to systematically understand biological
assembled into multiscale ensembles [55]. systems for an HCI perspective, we will describe Living Bits in 5
Beyond wearable devices, Microbial Home [47] is a collection of levels: cell, colony, system, interface, and interaction. We arrange
appliances that integrate microorganisms into the design for mak- these levels from smallest to largest scale.
ing homes more self-su�cient and less wasteful of natural resources.
The project includes six integrated pieces that heat, refrigerate, di- 6.0.1 Cell. The fundamental unit of Living Bits is the cell. When
gest and generate food using microbes to recycle nutrients. The setting forth to create an interaction, the designer could adopt the
central piece of the project is the "Methane Bio-digester", a kitchen natural abilities of a microbial cell for an interactive system. For
table that collects food waste for bacteria to produce biogas. The example, Acetobacter bacteria can develop microbial cellulose to
gas powers the lights and water heating components in other parts serve as the self-building body of a robot used in Growable Robot.
of the system. Other key designs in the collection include "Paternos- The microbial home uses the natural ability of microbes to digest
ter" - a device for up-cycling plastic into mushrooms, and Bio-Light, food waste and produce bio-gas.
an array of glass cells containing bioluminescent bacteria that can If the natural abilities of a microbe are not suitable for the inter-
be hung on the wall as a biological light bulb [47]. active system, synthetic biology techniques can be used to modify
these properties. For example, in E. Chromi, bacteria are engineered
to turn a speci�c color upon encountering biomarkers for disease
in the GI tract. When excreted, the color of excrement will signify
5.5 Play whether the disease is present in the body. The well-characterized
Researchers have introduced the concept of a "biotic game", a game microbial model systems, such as E. coli, yeast, and algae o�er a
that incorporates a biological system as the gaming element. The solid foundation for synthetic biology exploration [36].
biotic game is created to motivate student learning at the intersec- In the past decade, accessible methods and protocols for engi-
tion of life sciences and device engineering [9]. The game uses the neering biology have been published for the DIY community such
real-time interactivity of living microorganisms "turning classic as BioBuilder (Book) [36]. The synthetic biology process follows
observational microscopy into an interactive experience" [32]. an engineering cycle through design, building, and testing phases.
In Euglena Soccer Game, the player needs to score points by The �rst step is to design the biological circuit to insert into the
observing and controlling the position of a Euglena cell to shoot a microbes through browsing DNA libraries to �nd speci�c genetic
AHs ’20, March 16–17, 2020, Kaiserslautern, Germany Pataranutaporn & Vujic et al.

Figure 5: The �ve levels of microbial interface elements.

parts that serve the intended applications. The second step would movement of photo-sensitive microbes. Biota Beats and Biosensing
be to synthesize and fabricate the gene construct using a DNA soft robot use cameras and computer vision algorithms to track
synthesizer and other biological assembly methods, and �nally to visual markers of microbial growth. On the other hand, an organic
inject the genetic construct into the host microorganism, a process interface can use nutrients, humidity, molecular cues, and pigments
referred to as ‘transformation,’ to test if the circuit could execute as inputs and outputs as demonstrated by bioLogic, Wanderer, and
its designed function inside the living system. E. chromi.
6.0.2 Colony. A colony is a group of microbes living in the same 6.0.5 Interaction. The interaction level concerns the way in which
environment. Colonies can be pure, consisting of a single type of the individual interacts with the microbial interface. The interaction
cell, or mixed. Interactive systems can adopt pure cultures for a spe- can be a one-way interaction or a complex feedback loop.
ci�c purpose. Biologic used a pure culture of Bacillus Subtilis natto, In a one-way interaction, the human provides an input that
the cells of which expand and contract in reaction to atmospheric creates a desired result. For example, a person provides samples for
moisture, to open the shirt �aps and allow sweat to evaporate. In- bacterial cultures from di�erent parts of the body in Biota Beats to
teractive systems can also be driven by mixed culture properties. make music. Or, such as in the RGB bacteria project, a person uses
For example, Biota Beats uses properties of di�erent colonies from optogenetic tools to direct red, green and blue (RGB) light on E. coli
the body (hands, feet, etc.) to generate music. A designer could bacteria whose gene expression changes upon RGB light. The end
also create a symbiotic environment that advantageously combines result is a "photograph" made on a bacterial culture.
mixed microbe types that augment each other’s abilities [25]. In In a two-way interaction, the human changes their actions based
Mustashi, the design combined Cyanobacteria and other compli- on feedback from the microbe. In a GBCI, a person would change
mentary microbes into a colony that can harvest sunlight to create their dietary, sleep or stress habits to improve their microbial health
sugar, and use the sugar to create other useful materials. Growable based on feedback from the device. In the Wanderer, a person would
Robot also combined yeast and bacteria to co-produce cellulose for change the input from their body to produce usable energy from
the robotic body. bacteria.

6.0.3 System. The system is a combination of both a pure or mixed 7 APPLYING LIVING BITS TO A PROJECT
colony and its byproduct. The designer could create a living system
or use the non-living materials produced by microbes. A consid- The use of microbes as computers is not limited to scientists and
eration for the living system is that it requires resources such as researchers in academia or industry. DIY (Do-it-yourself) and cit-
nutrients and oxygen to stay alive. For example, Microbial House izen biotech communities have been making progress toward de-
is a kitchen table that integrates microbial incubators, so living mocratizing biotechnology and synthetic biology genetic source
microbes can recycle food waste into bio-gas. Non-living prod- code, knowledge and protocols. This community includes artists,
ucts from the microbes could be a pigment used in E. Chromi, designers, tinkerers, scientists, and hackers. The practices, tools,
mycelium used in Myco-accessories, or microbial cellulose used and challenges of the biotech community have also been studied in
in the Growable Robot. These products are used in the interactive the context of HCI [16, 39].
system regardless of the living microbe. One of the most in�uential platforms for synthetic biology ed-
ucation is iGEM (International Genetically Engineered Machine
6.0.4 Interface. The interface is the way that the microbial system Competition), where participants from around the world ideate,
interacts and communicates with the surrounding environment. A design, build, and test genetically engineered organisms for a wide
designer could use digital [33] or organic interfaces to read inputs variety of applications. The development of well-speci�ed, standard-
or provide outputs. Digital interfaces can use sensors and actuators ized, and interchangeable biological parts is a critical step towards
to convert biological activities to digital signals and vice versa. For the design and construction of integrated biological systems. The
example, a gut-brain computer interface (GBCI) uses electrodes to Registry of Standard Biological Parts hosted on the iGEM platform
collect electrical activity of gut neurons [67], which are in�uenced supports this goal by recording and indexing biological parts and
by the microbiome. The Euglena Game uses lights to guide the o�ering resources to construct new parts, devices, and systems [1].
Living Bits : Opportunities and Challenges for Integrating Living Microorganisms in Human-Computer Interaction AHs ’20, March 16–17, 2020, Kaiserslautern, Germany

microbes, you could use them to specify di�erent elements in the

microbial interface design. In the hypothetical scenario where you
want to �nd a way to integrate a "microbial second skin" with your
sensor, you would follow the microbial cellulose articles cited in
this paper to understand more about the process for cultivating the
microbial cellulose. Afterwards, you could realize a microbial cellu-
lose by cultivating bacteria and yeast found in kombucha drinks,
giving the microbes carbohydrates (sugar) as the input. The microbe
would process the carbohydrates monomer into a cellulose polymer
sheet. You would also think about how would you place your sensor
in the microbial container, so when the microorganisms grow, they
can seamlessly fuse with your sensor.

7.3 Finding resources

Figure 6: A screen capture of DIYbio Sphere, an online inter- After you have developed an understanding of how the microorgan-
active map of labs, incubators, networks, events related to isms could be integrated into your design system at di�erent levels
citizen biotechnology. according to the framework, you could perform additional research
to �nd speci�c protocols and instructions on how to cultivate or
As the citizen science community continues to grow, microbes have engineer the microbes to have speci�c desirable functions. Many
become the key material entry point to the world of biotechnology. biological standardized parts, protocols, and past projects are avail-
Many open source protocols on how to isolate, cultivate, and en- able online on the iGEM website as an inspiration and repeatable
gineer microbes using everyday materials and tools are becoming instructions. Many open source tools for cultivating microorgan-
available to the public. ism such as DIY incubators [16] are also available on many citizen
Moving forward, applying the concept of Living Bits to de- science websites. If the system that you are trying to build require
sign research could be an intimidating process as every paradigm sophisticated engineering tools and protocols, it is advisable for the
shift requires courage, a spirit of experimentation and exploration. user to �nd relevant research in academic journals or conferences
Whether you are a HCI researcher in industry, academia, or any that publish in-depth studies on microbiology or synthetic biology.
other background, it is possible that you could use microbes to Reaching out to experts for collaboration is also highly advisable.
augment your design in multiple ways. From the author’s experi- In many cities, there are citizen science, or "community biology"
ences working, researching, and talking to other researchers who laboratories, which could provide access to local expert as well
have worked in the area, we came up with four steps that may help as a laboratory space. Newcomers can locate the community labs,
integrate microbes into HCI projects. incubators, networks, events related to citizen biotechnology by
browsing DIYbio Sphere, an online interactive map of organizations
7.1 Deciding what microbes are right for your involving biotechnology.
design In our scenario, since the microbial cellulose project does not
This paper has categorized and showed several examples of how require either the pure microbial culture, or the pathogenic microbe,
living microorganisms could be used in interactive systems across you would learn from the paper that you could do it by yourself.
scales, contexts, and applications. Understanding the challenge that You could decide whether you want to collaborate with other re-
you are trying to solve is the key for getting started. Looking at searcher, or grow the kombucha microbes by yourself. If you decide
the advantages, disadvantages, and characteristics of biological and to grow them by yourself, you would prepare your sensor and �nd
digital systems discussed in the prior sections is fundamental to the materials such as kombucha drink, sugar, tea, liquid container
answering whether the biological system is appropriate for your described in the paper, and locate the area in your work space to
challenge. For example, if you are a HCI researcher working with start incubating them according to the protocol. Once the process
wearable technology developing a new body sensor, you would is done, you will have your �rst microbial interface project.
discover in this paper that there are artists and designers who
design with microbes, using them as creator of regenerative �exible
second skin interface [4, 41, 48]. Thus, this might inspire you to 7.4 Growing the project and growing the
embark on a journey to integrate them with the sensor you are community
working on. Biotechnology has become democratized and increasingly more
open-source thanks to the e�orts of a global community of re-
7.2 Designing your system searchers from multiple disciplines. These e�orts have made the
Once you decide to design with microbes, referring to Figure 1, diverse and exciting projects related to microbes possible. We rec-
which lays out the microbial cell architecture. The �gure could ommend that as you continue to grow your project, you could
provide a mental framework for the integration of microbes in also share some experiences and lesson learned with the larger
your design. By analyzing the input, process, and output of your biotech community by joining and participating in local or global
AHs ’20, March 16–17, 2020, Kaiserslautern, Germany Pataranutaporn & Vujic et al.

biotech events. Examples of events include iGEM, the Global Com- materials still produce waste, they can improve the environmental
munity Bio Summit, and SynBioBeta. Establishing ethical com- and social impacts of electronic production and disposal.
munity norms is also important as biotechnologies proliferate. For
example, at the Bio Summit 3.0 conference, hundreds of participants 8.2 Technical, Societal and Ethical Challenges
co-created a "community ethics" document, articulating 12 ethical Though standardized biological parts and protocols are becoming
principles for laboratories to adopt when working with the life more open-source, there is a gap between the community of HCI
sciences and biotechnology. We believe the intentional co-creation researchers, interactive designers, and biologists. We believe this
and adoption of such ethical principles is critical to the safe and gap is caused by, 1) the lack of a holistic accessible to people across
secure exploration of biotechnology and Living Bits. backgrounds, 2) the actual or perceived lack of access to wet-lab
space and materials, and 3) the nature of biological systems that
8 THE POTENTIAL IMPACTS AND make them more unpredictable than digital systems. In this paper
CHALLENGES OF LIVING BITS we aimed to address 1) and 2) by explaining key components of mi-
Living Bits o�ers the opportunity to harness natural properties of crobial systems in accessible terms and references to open-source
microorganisms either in or beyond traditional computing paradigms resources. However, because we do not have a complete under-
and architectures. It can have positive impacts on our digital life, standing of biology, we must assume that unpredictable behavior
health, and natural environment. However, technical, societal and may occur more frequently than with digital devices. We hope
ethical challenges remain. Though the categories are not exhaus- to encourage HCI researchers to "approach non-living and living
tive, we aim to stimulate discussions and debates about the future matter as a continuum for computational interaction" [51].
of microbial interfaces, even biological HCI at large, and its impact Living Bits raises ethical concerns regarding the integration of
on society. biological matters as design elements. We know synthetic biology
has potential to a�ect all persons, positively and negatively, yet we
8.1 Environmental Impacts do not have a complete understanding of biology. It may be di�cult
to predict and control outcomes of experiments and projects.
"Digital life" herein is de�ned as the relationship and ecosystem so- Further, manipulating the genetic materials and behaviors of
ciety has built around devices with computers or micro-controllers microbes in the design process may contribute to anthropocentrism,
with digitally represented data. Our digital life creates waste for a problematic point of view that humans are the only important
the environment and harmful stimulus for our health. Microbial entity in the ecosystem. In this paper, we study microbial interfaces
design can o�er less disruptive interactions between individuals in the context of human-computer interaction, which may support
and media. TVs, smartphones, computers and subsequently their this notion. Living Bits is the idea of co-existence computation,
applications produce visual stimuli that disrupt our sleep cycles therefore the researchers that work with microbial interfaces should
[42]. Instead of LCD screens, displays could one day adopt biolu- think of human-microbe interactions as a symbiotic relationship
minescent bacteria [15]. By using visual stimuli in ranges of the rather than the materialistic exploitation of biological entities.
electromagnetic spectrum that do not cue our circadian rhythms, In response to the rapidly evolving body of biotechnology re-
may lead to fewer sleep disruptions. search, New directions: The ethics of synthetic biology and emerging
One of the emerging themes from the example projects is the technologies compiled views on the science, ethics, and social issues
use of microbes to create sustainable and renewable materials. The of synthetic biology. The book was published by the U.S. Presiden-
electronic life cycle produces environmental polluters and exposes tial Commission for the Study of Bio-Ethical Issues (PCSBI) which
humans to toxic materials at multiple stages of production. Mi- gathered and analyzed input from public meetings, open forums,
crobes synthesized in laboratories can o�er alternative materials and interviews with scientists, engineers, faith-based and secular
for lead, mercury, and even rare-earth metals. Some of these metals ethicists, and the general public. Though it focuses on basic scien-
continue to be harvested in territories that potentially use child ti�c research, it can be extended to microbial HCI research. New
labor [46]. Instead of relying on inorganic material, devices can be Directions identi�ed �ve ethical principles: (1) public bene�cence,
created from microbial organisms and their byproducts sustainably (2) responsible stewardship, (3) intellectual freedom and responsi-
grown in laboratories. For example, "traces" in circuit boards can be bility, (4) democratic deliberation, and (5) justice and fairness [18].
created using ion channels bacteria currently use to communicate Here, we de�ne and contextualize these principles for microbial
by electrical activity [54]. HCI, with an important limitation.
Furthermore, when electronics become obsolete, they become "E- Given that New Directions and the authors sourced opinions that
Waste." E-waste cannot decompose. It releases endocrine-disrupting were WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic)
chemicals (EDCs) into the environment and food chain that are [26], we must assume a limitation that it may not extend to all
later metabolized by gut microbiota with toxic e�ects; this e�ect cultures worldwide.
has even been linked to the global diabetes epidemic [65]. E-waste
contains other materials toxic to humans. The negative impacts 8.2.1 Public Beneficence. Public bene�cence is maximizing public
disproportionately a�ect individuals in low-income communities or bene�ts while minimizing public harm, and promoting activities
in developing countries [7]. Instead of being made with EDCs and with the potential to improve well-being. From the landmark Bel-
other materials harmful to humans, electronics could be created in mont Report on ethical principles for research involving human
part or one day in full using organic material. For example, plastics subjects, bene�cence requires not only treating persons in an eth-
can be replaced by cellulose [52]. Though the production of organic ical manner, but putting in e�ort to secure their well-being [17].
Living Bits : Opportunities and Challenges for Integrating Living Microorganisms in Human-Computer Interaction AHs ’20, March 16–17, 2020, Kaiserslautern, Germany

For synthetic biology this extends beyond the individual to the How many communities does the project reach (tangibly or through
institution, community, and public at large. When considering the media and communications)?
integration of microorganisms in HCI projects, it is important to
ask: What are the bene�ts and risks of this project? Does it have 9 CONCLUSION
the potential to contribute to public good? What are the strate- Microorganisms formed the foundation for human life. Their ex-
gies, speci�cally, that researchers will take to minimize harm and istence predates ours by 3 billion years [57], and is crucial to the
maximize bene�t? basic functioning of our brains and bodies. In addition, we have
adopted microbes as a technology: we have worked with microbes
8.2.2 Responsible Stewardship (123). Responsible stewardship is to
to ferment food and alcohol for thousands of years all the way to
establish processes for assessing bene�ts, risks, safety, and security
genetically modifying microbes to cure disease today. It is under-
before and after projects. It is crucial researchers have the safety
stood that digital life exists orthogonal to microbial life. However,
training required and appropriate for the microbial HCI project, e.g.
it does not have to stay this way.
wet lab training. In addition, researchers can establish partnerships
Recent advances in synthetic biology have led to the ability to
with �eld experts (as discussed in 7.3 Finding Resources) to transfer
adopt microbes as computers. These tiny organisms can be "pro-
knowledge, resources, and processes for microbial HCI projects.
grammed" to accept a wide variety of inputs and subsequently exist
8.2.3 Intellectual freedom and responsibility (141). Intellectual free- in binary states, akin to logic gates that form the basis of computing.
dom and responsibility advocates for the balance between creativity But these organisms have an incredibly wide array of capabilities
and oversight. During the process of designing a microbial HCI compared to a traditional circuit. They can self-heal by growing and
project, it is important to consider which institution or individual multiplying without outside interference; they can create renew-
is ensuring oversight, security and safety. Before implementing able materials and energy; and even turn speci�c colors to report
a project, it is recommended to consult this resource to evaluate human health and disease conditions. All of this in a package a
responsible stewardship and public bene�cence. thousandth of a meter or smaller.
Living Bits aims to bridge the digital and the microbial. We show
8.2.4 Democratic Deliberation (151). Democratic deliberation in- how researchers have integrated microorganisms into technology
cludes respectful debate of opposing views, the ongoing exchange projects. Further, we explain parallels between computing compo-
of ideas publicly, and “careful attention to processes through which nents and microbial components to help someone new understand
decisions are reached and justi�ed.” Researchers should open the and approach this emerging area. We explain each level of scale for
opportunity for public input through multiple methods. For in- the Living Bits, from the cell to the colony, and classify microbial
person feedback, this could include organizing meetings to discuss projects. Lastly, we provide resources and an ethical perspective
the ethical implications of future microbial HCI research projects to further help guide the reader in the direction of microbial in-
and inviting members of the community, via email lists, �yers, and terfaces. Through these contributions, we aim to help researchers
post. If conducting user studies, researchers can include free-text understand microbial HCI and its opportunities and challenges.
survey questions or semi-structured interview questions asking Living Bits allows someone new to the area to be able to think
participants to provide their opinion on e.g. the bene�ts and risks about a project, understand what is possible, and realize what chal-
(bene�cence) of the project. Online, this can include blog posts lenges exist in doing such work. We believe that as we integrate
accompanied by open calls on social media platforms to gather biology and computing, we can shape a new era of HCI beyond the
feedback and input. In online forums, we recognize the possibility digital, towards organic computation through regenerative living
of trolling. While identifying these comments, researchers should systems.
continue to welcome critical thoughts on work and general feed-
back. 10 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Next, researchers should analyze the decision-making process We would like to acknowledge M.S. Suryateja Jammalamadaka,
behind the project. Which individuals, groups, and institutions were Jack Forman, Sunanda Sharma, Rachel Smith, Judith Amores, Oscar
involved? What are their interests and concerns, and what kind of Rosello, Abhinandan Jain, Valdemar Danry, Brandon Dorr, Felix
resources did they invest in the project (time, funding, equipment, Mosser, Luis Ruben Soenksen, Peter Q. Nguyen, Professor James J.
etc.)? The answers to these questions should be public, accessible, Collins, and members of the Fluid Interfaces Group at MIT Media
and unobscured, and made available to all a�ected parties in their Lab for their support, helpful comments, and insightful discussions
primary language (see Justice and Fairness). on our work.
8.2.5 Justice and Fairness (161). Justice and fairness calls for pre-
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