Bhagat Et Al.., 2021 - SGD - Quant

STOTEN-151888; No of Pages 15
Science of the Total Environment xxx (xxxx) xxx
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Science of the Total Environment

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Salinity and temperature profiling for the submarine groundwater discharge

simulations: Quantification through heat and solute transport model
Chandrashekhar Bhagat a, Anant Misra b, Pranab Kumar Mohapatra a, D.S. Suresh Babu c, Manish Kumar d,
⁎
a
Discipline of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Gandhinagar 382355, India
b
Discipline of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Gandhinagar 382355, India
c
National Centre for Earth Science Studies, Akkulam, Thiruvananthapuram 695031, India
d
Sustainability Cluster, School of Engineering, University of Petroleum & Energy Studies, Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248007, India
H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T
• Temperature emerged as a better indica-

tor than salinity for the delineation of
mixing zones.
• SGD flux varied between 1.04 and
181 m3.year−1 which is lower than SGD
along the Bay of Bengal.
• Trace metal flux varied from below detec-
tion to 77.41 kg. year−1 along the Gujarat
cost of India.
• Order of metal flux (kg. year−1) was
Zn2+ ≫ Fe2+ > Cr2+ implying agricul-
tural imprints.
• Higher Fe and Zn loading corresponds to
higher environmental pollution vulnera-
bility.
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article history: Developed coastal regions are the hotspots for contaminated groundwater discharge, affecting sensitive marine ecosys-
Received 12 August 2021 tems. The present study aims to identify submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) locations and quantify the contam-
Received in revised form 14 November 2021 inant load reaching to the western coast of India (Gujarat coast) using stable isotopes, seepage meter, heat and solute
Accepted 18 November 2021
transport model. The coastal aquifers are highly enriched in trace metals due to various active natural processes and
Available online xxxx
anthropogenic activities across the coast. Terrestrial and recirculated SGD was a significant contributor to flow and
Editor: José Virgílio Cruz metal load, which ranged from 1.04 to 181.1 m3.year−1 and 0–77.41 kg.year-1, respectively. The highest estimated
SGD in the Gujarat coast was relatively less than the SGD reported in the Bay of Bengal and comparable to the
Keywords: South Chennai coast. The order of metal flux found in the study was Zn > Fe > Cr > Pb > Ni > Cu > Mn, whereas
SGD the highest flux of Zn (77.41 kg. year−1) was reported at Fansa beach, which was 7x Fe-flux and 45 x Cr-flux, respec-
Quantification tively. Higher micronutrients (Fe and Zn) load in the southern coast leads to increased vulnerability of eutrophication,
Seepage meter algal blooms and biotic ligand formation in aquatic species. This enrichment of micronutrients in the coastal ecosystem
Numerical modelling was evident by the growth of seaweeds on the seabed at SGD identified locations.
Metal load
Gujarat coast
⁎ Corresponding author at: Energy Acres, UPES, Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248007, India.
E-mail addresses: manish.kumar@ddn.upes.ac.in manish.env@gmail.com (M. Kumar).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151888
0048-9697/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: C. Bhagat, A. Misra, P.K. Mohapatra, et al., Salinity and temperature profiling for the submarine groundwater discharge
simul..., Science of the Total Environment, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151888
C. Bhagat et al. Science of the Total Environment xxx (xxxx) xxx
1. Introduction The state of Gujarat has the longest (approximately 1600 km) coastline
in India, which makes the identification and quantification of SGD a crucial
Interaction between two hydrological masses, i.e. seawater and ground- task. Only four west draining perennial rivers of India flow through the
water, manifests as seawater intrusion (SWI) or submarine groundwater state (Bhagat et al., 2021b). Hence, the biogeochemical and hydrological
discharge (SGD) (Taniguchi et al., 2002; Babu et al., 2021) in the coastal re- flux through the coastline of Gujarat is critical for the sustainable manage-
gions. SGD can be defined as the seepage of fresh groundwater and ment of the coastal zone. The presence of deccan traps along the southern
recirculated seawater through a sand bed or coastal aquifers reaching into coast of Gujarat, and the prevalence of limestone and quaternary sediments
the sea(Moore, 2006; Taniguchi et al., 2002). The rate of SGD is influenced in the northern area, represents a lithologically diverse aquifer system.
by numerous factors such as the coastal water table, aquifer characteristics, Moreover, the salt flats of the Kutch region, provide a unique interface be-
local climate, anthropogenic factors and density variations due to salinity tween coastal aquifers and the sea. The heavy industrialization along the
and temperature anomalies (Babu et al., 2021; Valiela et al., 1992). In addi- southern coast, oil exploration and maritime traffic through the state's
tion to these, seasonal intrusion/extrusion of seawater, changes in aquifer coastline are significant anthropogenic activities that serve as vital sources
thermodynamics due to geothermal heat (Valiela et al., 2002; 1992) and of contaminants in coastal groundwater. All the aforementioned factors
tidal influence (Taniguchi et al., 2002) can also be the potential factors af- may cause massive disturbances to the sensitive marine ecosystem along
fecting the process. SGD has been recognised as a potential pathway that in- the coastal region of Gujarat. Therefore, the present study aims to delineate
troduces solutes/contaminants from the land to the sea (George et al., 2021; the SGD prevalent locations and estimate the hydrological and contami-
Liu et al., 2001; Rodellas et al., 2014; Slomp and Van Cappellen, 2004; nants fluxes reaching the Arabian Sea in the coastal regions of Gujarat. In
Taniguchi et al., 2019; Urquidi-Gaume et al., 2016). The contaminants our previous article, Bhagat et al., 2021a, we have used the primary basis
like nutrients (Oehler et al., 2019), trace metals (Rodellas et al., 2014) for identifying SGD vulnerable zones was the positive hydraulic gradient to-
and several others which were originated from anthropogenic activities wards the seashore from the coastal aquifers. Additionally, sea surface tem-
(Chidambaram et al., 2015; Oehler et al., 2021; Bhagat et al., 2021; perature anomalies and the EC gradient approach were used to identify the
Kumar et al., 2010; Selvam et al., 2021) were transported to the coastal wa- areas that showed significant anomalies, which was the indication of SGD
ters through subsurface flow in the form of SGD along with a hydrological in the coastal region. In the present study, these delineated zones of SGD
flux from coastal aquifers. This flux of materials in the dissolved form has a from Bhagat et al., 2021a was used as a fundamental basis to identify the
profound impact on the coastal ecosystems (Oehler et al., 2019; Slomp and specific locations of SGD along the Gujarat coast. We have employed multi-
Van Cappellen, 2004; Urquidi-Gaume et al., 2016) and the biogeochemical ple techniques to delineate SGD locations such as salinity gradient along
cycles of several elements (Johannesson and Burdige, 2007; Kwon et al., beaches, stable isotopes of oxygen (δ18O) and strontium (87Sr/86Sr). The sa-
2014; Rodellas et al., 2014). The subsurface flow of SGD was an invisible linity gradient along the coast was used to identify the extent of SGD zones
pathway and hence, not considered as a significant pathway for the earth's on a preliminary basis. Further, stable isotopes of oxygen (δ18O) and stron-
hydrological cycle. (Peterson et al., 2009; Ravindran and Ramanujam, tium (87Sr/86Sr) were used to validate the occurrence of SGD at the derived
2014). Considering the massive discharge of water and solutes to the locations.
oceans (Moore, 2006), SGD can consider as a crucial component of the hy- To quantify the SGD and contaminant flux, we have used seepage me-
drological and biogeochemical cycle in the coastal regime (Johannesson ters and two numerical models based on the heat (temperature) and solute
and Burdige, 2007). In recent years, direct/indirect seepage of groundwater (salinity) mixing models in the beach sediments. In the heat mixing model,
to the marine environment has attracted many researchers, wherein most of temperature is used as a physical tracer (Debnath et al., 2015; Wilson,
the studies (Erler et al., 2014; Oehler et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2021) have 2005) to simulate porewater velocity in a vertical direction by employing
focused on SGD and solute fluxes, and their associated impacts on the ma- the 1-D heat conduction-advection equation (Bredehoeft and Papaopulos,
rine ecosystem. 1965). Additionally, to understand the process of SGD through the lens of
Identification and quantification of SGD is a tedious task as it is solute transport, a 1-D advection-dispersion model was used for the quanti-
governed by several factors such as the coastal water table, aquifer charac- fication of hydrological flux using salinity as a tracer. This model uses the
teristics, local climate, anthropogenic factors and density variations due to advection-dispersion equation, which is based on the mass conservation
salinity and temperature anomalies (Babu et al., 2021; Valiela et al., 1992), principle. The multi-faceted approach was used in this study wherein a pre-
seasonal intrusion/extrusion of seawater, changes in aquifer thermodynam- liminary analysis of coastal groundwater table and sea surface temperature
ics due to geothermal heat (Valiela et al., 2002; 1992) and tidal influence was used to identify vulnerable zones for SGD. Following this, the samples
(Taniguchi et al., 2002). Therefore, quantification of SGD using conven- from vulnerable zones were analysed for isotopic imbalances and salinity
tional techniques can provide only an approximate estimation (Taniguchi gradients to confirm the SGD occurrence. Finally, seepage meters were
et al., 2019). Also, it is impossible to use sophisticated techniques to inves- installed at the sites of confirmed SGD occurrences to quantify the SGD
tigate the SGD and associated fluxes reaching into the sea for the vast coast- and contaminant flux reaching into the sea. In addition to this, at Dehri
line like the Gujarat coast. Thus, a combination of several techniques is beach, thermal and salinity profiling along the depth was carried out in
generally employed to quantify the SGD. They include but are not limited order to create a flow simulation indicating SGD occurrences at extremely
to seepage meters (Debnath et al., 2015), stable isotopes (δ18O and high resolution by mapping the plumes of discharging groundwater. The
87
Sr/86Sr), mass fractionation (Peterson et al., 2008; Rahaman and Singh, multiple techniques used in this study aim to create a holistic understand-
2012), nutrient mass balance (Oehler et al., 2019), radon mass balance ing of the SGD process and contaminant transport for the coastal environ-
model (Peterson et al., 2008; Selvam et al., 2021; Yadav et al., 2019). In ment.
very recent studies, the use of geochemical and isotopic tracers such as
δ18O, 226Ra, 224Ra, 228Ra, 87Sr/86Sr for estimation of SGD has gained sub- 2. Materials and methods
stantial attraction (Babu et al., 2021; George et al., 2021; Povinec et al.,
2012; Selvam et al., 2021; Taniguchi et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2021). How- 2.1. Study area
ever, these techniques require sophisticated and expensive laboratory
equipment along with the trained personnel. Therefore, these methods The state of Gujarat is located on the western coast of India and has the
are not used extensively for SGD quantification. Furthermore, these tech- longest coastline in the country (1621 km) (Prakash et al., 2012; Book and
niques are more effective to understand the mixing sources in a closed sys- Delhi, 2020), situated between latitude N 20° 06′ 00" to N 24° 42' 00", lon-
tem (Petermann et al., 2018; Tamborski et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2021) but gitude E 68° 10' 00" to E 74° 28' 00". The coastline starts from Lakhpat
may prove to be inaccurate for an open system such as oceans. Moreover, (Kutch district), extends up to Umargam (Valsad district) and also stretches
the heterogeneity of coastal aquifers poses a challenge in pinpointing the through the union territory (Daman and Diu). The major west-flowing
precise location of SGD occurrence. Indian rivers through southern Gujarat are Narmada, Tapi and Mahi,
2
discharging into the Arabian sea (Krishnaswami and Singh, 2005). Other 3. Methodology
rivers like Vishwamitri and Sabarmati discharge waters into the Gulf of
Khambhat (Ramanathan et al., n.d.). Marshy and saline tracts in Rann of The methodology was designed with the aim of delineating SGD zones.
Kutch, alluvial plains from Banaskantha to Valsad, and low-lying coastal It was further extended to quantify the hydrological flux as SGD and corre-
tracts through Kutch and Saurashtra are observed. Also, Gaj beds belonging sponding solute flux discharging into the sea. Samples of seawater,
to the Miocene occur along the Saurashtra coast (CGWB Groundwater Year- porewater, and groundwater were collected; and further supplemented
book 2016–17). with groundwater level data and remotely sensed MODIS (further Moder-
The geology of Gujarat is divided into three main eras: Precambrian, ate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) thermal infrared images data
Mesozoic, and Cenozoic. Hardrock occupies 49% of the state, while Quater- (used to observe a sea surface temperature anomaly). The collected data
nary sediments cover the rest. Quaternary deposits were derived from di- was analysed graphically and statistically for detailed insights into the
verse environments such as marine, fluvial, lacustrine and aeolian. mixing processes along the coast. Based on the literature survey, a method-
Tertiary formations in the area have been used for commercial mining of ology for quantification of SGD flux (hydrological and material) was devel-
limestone, lignite, and bauxite (CGWB, 2013). Physiographically, the oped for the present study. Detailed methodology is explained in the
state is broadly divided into groups: Great Rann of Kutch, northern Aravalli following sections.
ranges, Narmada and Tapi floodplains of central Gujarat, and the Deccan
plateau, along with a lengthy and varied coastline consisting of salt flats, 3.1. Sampling strategy and data collections
marshes and deltas.
The aquifers along the coastline are covered with extrusive rocks from Water (seawater, porewater, and groundwater) sampling was carried
the Cretaceous period (Deccan Basalts), followed by quaternary sediments out along the coastline of Gujarat to delineate SGD zones and quantify the
and some patches of late Pleistocene to early Miocene sedimentary rocks. SGD flux reaching to the ocean. A two-fold sampling strategy was adopted,
Paleogene sedimentary rocks and Jurassic metamorphic rocks are observed consisting of a primary study region survey, followed by a detailed collec-
in the Kutch region. Major aquifer systems which govern the hydro- tion of groundwater, porewater and seawater samples. The sampling loca-
geological setup of area (as shown in Fig. 1, b) can be classified into: Qua- tions are shown in Fig. 1. Groundwater samples were collected from the
ternary to upper Tertiary (impure limestones, sandstones, conglomerates, hand pump, bore well and open well, whichever was available near the
silts stones, sands, pebbles, and gravel beds), which are characterised by un- coast. Several in-situ porewater measurements were taken for the delinea-
confined shallow aquifers and leaky confined deep aquifers; and Mesozoic tion of specific locations for the SGD, along with seawater measurements
(sandstones, shales, limestones, and grits) (CGWB 2013). Discontinuous at the respective beaches. A pore water samples were collected during the
aquifers of a limited thickness (50 to 300 m) characterize these forma- measurement of SGD using a seepage meter for the quantification of
tions with a hydraulic conductivity ranging between 2 and 10 m. contamitanant flux. In-situ parameters, such as electrical conductivity
day−1. The Mesozoic lava flows (basalt with intertrappean clays), Pa- (EC; μS.cm−1), total dissolved solids (TDS; mg.L−1), dissolved oxygen
leozoic, Archean and Precambrian formations (granites, gneisses, mar- (DO; mg.L−1), salinity (g.L−1), turbidity (NTU), pH, temperature (°C),
bles, schists, phyllites, and slates) show limited yield up to 2 to 5 L. and oxidation-reduction potential (ORP; mV), were measured using a hand-
s−1 (Prakash et al., 2012). held DSS-Multiparameter probe (Hanna Instruments, HI98194).
Fig. 1. Sampling locations in study area and geological setup and salinity gradient at seven potential SGD locations (a-g). These seven locations show the salinity gradient
along the beach (in longitudinal directions) and hence identify as the prominent locations of SGD in the entire Gujarat coast. Samples collected from these locations were
analyses and further these identified locations were verified.
3
Groundwater, seawater and porewater samples were collected in HDPE the R-SGD and F-SGD components from the total SGD, as shown in Fig. 2
bottles at an interval of ~5 to10 km, depending on the accessibility at the (a). A DSS-multiparameter probe was used to measure the pore water tem-
site. Porewater sampling was done using a push-point sampler of 1 to perature for obtaining the thermal profiling in the field. Porewater collec-
1.25 m in length. A push-point sampler was inserted vertically inside the tion at specified locations was carried out using a push-point sampler.
seabed to the desired depth to obtain porewater samples. The groundwater Thermal mapping was done along a grid of 40 m × 40 m at Dehri beach
level of the coastal aquifers was obtained with the help of piezometers, near Umargram village with five transects (AA’, BB’, CC’, DD' and EE’) per-
courtesy of the regional Central Groundwater Board (CGWB), Ahmedabad. pendicular to the high tide line (Fig. 3 (c and f)). Thermal profiling of
This data was used to delineate the locations/zones prone to SGD along the porewater was carried out up to the depth of 90 cm with an interval of
coastline of Gujarat. 15 cm below the seabed level. Total 175 porewater temperature measure-
ments were taken along the five transects during low tide to avoid any influ-
3.1.1. Temperature profile mapping ence of tidal inflow.
The susceptibility of surface water to ambient temperature
abnormalism (NOAA, 2021), is used as the basis for temperature profiling 3.1.2. Salinity profile mapping
of porewater (physical tracer) to delineate SGD zones. Generally, regional Salinity has been used as a direct indicator of seawater intrusion in the
shallow and deep groundwater aquifers bear the mean/annual seasonal sig- salinization investigation of the coastal aquifers (Abdalla, 2015). Salinity in
nature of ambient temperature (LaSage et al., 2008). Owing to this, there is water represents the sum of all noncarbonate dissolved solutes (Zarras and
a seasonal contrast between the thermal response of groundwater and sea Stenger-Smith, 2014). In seawater, the most abundant ions are Cl− and
surface water, which can be used as a tracer for identifying mixing zones Na+ (approximately 90%), whereas Ca2+, Mg2+, SO2− +
4 and K are present
(Debnath et al., 2015). Some of the factors influencing the horizontal and in minor quantities whereas, in the case of groundwater, the abundance
vertical distribution of porewater temperature are heat conduction, advec- patterns are completely different (Bhagat et al., 2021b). Hence, the salinity
tion, dispersion, and groundwater flux (Stallman, 1965, Lapham, 1989, profiling of porewater can be used as a proxy to delineate the SGD locations
Conant, 2004). Taking this into account, the porewater temperature has (Olesnavage, 2012). In the present study, salinity has been used to delineate
been used as a tracer for delineating the locations of SGD and quantifying the mixing zone and estimation of vertical porewater velocity for the quan-
the SGD flux (Stallman, 1965, Conant, 2004). Therefore, in the present tification of SGD flux through the 1-D advection-dispersion model. In addi-
study, porewater sampling has been conducted, and the temperature pro- tion to this, salinity has also been used to differentiate between F-SGD and
files have been investigated along five transects (Fig. 3, c) (AA’, BB’, CC’, R-SGD. Therefore, porewater samples with low salinity and TDS considered
DD' and EE’) at Dehri beach, Valsad to understand SGD patterns within fresh groundwater inputs as F-SGD, and those with salinity values compara-
the diffused zones of seepage in the shallow seabed. ble to seawater are considered as inputs of R-SGD (Debnath et al., 2015).
This work presumed that SGD would imitate the ambient diurnal/sea-
sonal air temperature, as groundwater is unaffected by diurnal temperature 3.2. Sample analysis
variations in seawater. The Porewater column in SGD zones has a lower
temperature than the sea surface during the summer season and vice- Water samples were collected in high-density polypropylene (HDPE)
versa for winter seasons, as shown in Fig. 2 (a). The recirculated/marine bottles (Polylab reagent bottles). 250 mL bottles were used for major
component of SGD (R-SGD) has a broader temperature variation because ions, and 60 mL bottles were used for stable isotope analysis, ensuring no
it inherits the sea surface water temperature before recirculating as R- leakage. Samples were labelled and packed immediately to avoid any exter-
SGD (Fig. 2, a), in contrast with the narrow range for fresh/terrestrial com- nal contamination. Samples in 250 mL bottles were acidified with 2% pure
ponent of SGD (F-SGD). Hence, this factor helps to differentiate between HNO3 (pH < 2) to stabilize the trace metals and to restrict microbial
Fig. 2. Schematic conceptual diagram infers the relationship between groundwater discharge (i.e. fresh/terrestrial component of SGD (F-SGD)) and recirculated component
of SGD (R-SGD) with variations in porewater (a) temperature and (b) salinity variation along the depth of the seabed. Vz represents the vertical porewater velocity which is a
function of depth (z), temperature (T), thermal conductivity and heat capacity of porewater and sediments. The maximum depth of atmospheric influence was observed up to
the 30 cm depth, and the boundary conditions were taken as Dirchler’s boundary condition to solve the models for the vertical porewater velocity (Vz).
4
a. b. c. Dehri beach Gujarat
Dense Seaweeds
Sea water
indicating the nutrient
E’ D’
enrichment C’ B’ A’
E
D
C B A
High tide line
Nargol Beach, Valsad Nagao Beach, Diu
E’
d. e. f.
D
’
C’
E B’
D A’
Grid
90 cm
Udavda Beach C
B
A
Pipe
Concentrated Seepage
Sampling Profile
Outlet
Air vent
Valve
Collection
Safety box Bag
(1 L) Dehri Beach, Umargaon
Fig. 3. a. Nargol Beach Valsad, b. Seaweed at Nagao beach at Diu, c. Sampling grid at Dehri beach, d. Installed Seepage meter, e. Concentrated seepage and f. Diffuse seepage
observed at the Dehri beach. Field photos indicate SGD sites and the installation of a seepage meter to calculate the SGD flux. At Nagao beach, Diu, we have observed dense
seaweed, which indicates that nutrient enrichment on the beach may be due to terrestrial groundwater discharge. We have performed 3D profiling porewater sampling
(Fig. b) on Dehri beach to estimate the SGD flux.
activities in water samples during storage. The standard methodology of graphically in Fig. 1 (a-h). The locations selected for salinity gradient sam-
APHA (American Public Health Association, 2012) was adopted for sample pling were based on the thumb rule that porewater salinity was less than
collection, handling, and preservation to ensure data quality and consis- seawater salinity (30 to 35). The investigation was carried out by analysing
tency. Samples were kept in a foam icebox and transported to the lab and porewater salinity along the coast face with a resolution of 100-200 m for a
stored at 4 °C to avoid temperature influence on samples. 60 mL samples stretch of 1000-1200 m on either side of the selected locations. Further, we
in sealed bottles were sent to Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) (IWIN di- used stable isotopes of oxygen (18O) and strontium (87Sr/86Sr) signatures to
vision), Ahmedabad, for stable isotopes analysis. Samples were filtered validate these identified locations. The conservative nature of these iso-
through vacuumed filter assembly using Millipore filter paper (0.45 μm) topes makes them ideal indicators for identifying mixing in natural waters
to analyse major ions and trace metals. The trace metals (Cu, Pb, Zn, Fe, from diverse sources (Turner et al., 1987). Moreover, their stability for an
Cd, Ni, Cr, Mn, and Sr) were analysed using ICP-OES and strontium isotopes extended period of time in the water systems due to their high half-life
(87Sr/86Sr) were analysed using ICP-MS in the Central Instrumentation Fa- makes them suitable for these investigations (Maurya et al., 2019;
cility of IIT Gandhinagar. All samples were diluted using deionised water Rahaman and Singh, 2012). Isotopic ratios of oxygen (δ18O) are reported
prior to the analysis with a target TDS of less than 200 mg/L. The accuracy as deviations from V-SMOW (Vienna standard mean ocean water) in parts
of estimated ions was tested using the percentage charge balance (%CB) per thousand or per mil (o/oo) (Bhattacharya et al., 1985) and calculated
within an error margin of 5%. Stable isotope (δ18O and δD) analysis was using Eq. (1). In Eq. (1), R represents the ratio of 18O/16O atoms.
done using the standard calibration method, where 300 μL samples were
equilibrated with CO2 and H2. The equilibrated gases (CO2 and H2) were Rsample
δ18 OðÞ ¼ −1 103 (1)
analysed in Delta V Plus isotope ratio mass spectrometer in continuous RV−SMOW
flow mode using Gas Bench II for 18O/16O and D/H ratios. The reproduc-
ibility of measurement was better than 0.1 0/00 for δ18O and 1 0/00 for Water has a unique isotopic signature making it a valuable tool for un-
δD. The results obtained from the analysis were corrected using an inte- derstanding the mixing of seawater and groundwater in the coastal envi-
grated calibration curve based on VSMOW2, GISP and SLAP2 measurement ronment (Manivannan and Elango, 2019). It has also been used to trace
(International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna). the sources of contaminants (Xu et al., 2016) and to ascertain their flow di-
rection (Bhattacharya et al., 1985). Generally, the value of δ18O is greater
3.3. Identifying the SGD locations than or equal to zero for seawater in the Arabian sea. For the Gujrat
coast, Singh et al. (2010) and Delaygue et al. (2001), reported δ18O > 0
To identify the SGD locations, we have investigated the delineated SGD for the surface to 50 m deep seawater. Therefore, we have used δ18O to
zones in our previous article (Bhagat et al., 2021a), in which delineation identify SGD locations along the coastal areas of Gujarat. The concentration
was done based on a three-tier approach, i.e. groundwater level, EC gradi- of δ18O in collected porewater and groundwater samples has been plotted
ent approach and sea surface temperature anomalies. In the present work in Fig. 4 (a) to delineate SGD locations.
for the investigation of specific SGD locations, we have used two ap- Similarly, we used isotopes of strontium (86/87/88Sr) to validate the
proaches: salinity gradient and stable isotopes of oxygen (18O) and stron- identified locations of SGD (Capo et al., 1998). 87Sr is a stable isotope
tium (86Sr/87Sr). For evaluating the salinity gradient, porewater samples with a residence time of 2.4 million years in water (Kell-Duivestein, n.d.)
were collected using a push-point sampler along the coast at intervals of and shows the highest abundance, whereas 86Sr and 88Sr have lesser and
100-500 m. Then salinity variation in the samples was analysed and plotted fixed abundance in water (Krabbenhöft et al., 2010). In contrast, the
5
Fig. 4. a) Stable ratio isotopes (18O) for groundwater and seawater and b) Plots of dissolved 87Sr/86Sr Vs 1/Sr to identify SGD locations along the coast. Seawater is enriched
with δ18O (+ve concentration), whereas groundwater has depleted δ18O (−ve concentration). The dotted line indicates the separation of groundwater zone and seawater
zones. The porewater samples in the groundwater zones indicate the signature of SGD, which is marked by a dotted line circle. The dashed line in fig. b is the theoretical
mixing line for two end-member mixing; groundwater and seawater. Most data points plot away from the theoretical mixing line infering the non-conservative behaviour
of 87Sr/86Sr and mixing of groundwater-seawater.
concentration of 87Sr increases as a result of 87Rb β-decay (87Sr is the through porewater and sediments (Rodellas et al., 2014). Temperature pro-
daughter product of 87Rb) with a half-life of 4.92 × 1012 years (Kell- filing was carried out at different depths and spatial locations to represent
Duivestein, n.d.). 87Rb barely has any radioactive nature (28% in radioac- the quasi-steady-state condition. Vertical flow in the seabed sediments
tive form) due to its extended half-life period (Butterman and Reese, has been assumed for the flow conditions (Debnath et al., 2015). The
2003). Nevertheless, there is significant production of radiogenic 87Sr as governing equation for 1-D convective-conductive heat transfer in quasi-
sediments and aquifer matrix is relatively abundant in 87Rb. The isotopic steady-state represented by Bredehoeft and Papaopulos (1965) and
ratio of 87Sr/86Sr is globally reported as a constant value at 0.709172 Schmidt et al. (2006) has been used in the present work.
(Richter et al., 1992). Also, the mass balance model for strontium was The equation is given by;
used to calculate various end-member contributions in the ocean
(Holmden et al., 2012). As shown in Fig. 4 (b), water samples deviate ∂2 T cp ∂T
−v ρðzÞ ¼0 (2)
from the theoretical mixing line indicating mixing of two end-members ∂x2 k ∂x
(seawater and groundwater) in the coastal area (Rahaman and Singh,
2012). k ¼ εg kf þ 1−εg k s (3)
3.4. Quantification of submarine groundwater discharge Where, cp (J.kg−1.0C−1) is the heat capacity of porewater which is calcu-
lated using the empirical relation. Notations for the equations mentioned
In the present work, we used seepage meters and two numerical models above are as follows; k (W.m−1.K−1) - sediment thermal conductivity, v
to estimate the rate of SGD. The detailed methodology of SGD quantifica- (m.s−1) - vertical porewater velocity, ρ (z) (kg.m−3) - density of fluid,
tion is provided in the subsequent sections. which is a function of temperature and depth (z), T- Temperature in degree
Celsius (°C), kf (W.m−1.K−1) – thermal conductivity of porewater calcu-
3.4.1. Seepage meters lated using empirical relation suggested by Caldwell, 1974, ks (W.m−1.
Seepage meters were installed at identified SGD locations, and measure- K−1) – thermal conductivity of saturated sediments values adopted from
ments were taken during the low tide. The design of the seepage meter Goto et al. (2017), εg - porosity of sediments calculated using the empirical
adopted from Rosenberry, 2008; which consists of a canister with a diame- relation suggested by Wu and Wang. (2006). No significant change was ob-
ter of 32 cm and 30 cm in height. The canister is provided with an air vent at served in the density of porewater and hence assumed to be constant over
the top and an outlet pipe attached on the side to collect seepage into a 1 L depth z (cm). The 1-D conductive and convective heat transfer equation
collection bag, as shown in Fig. 3 (d). The air vent helps to remove the was solved by using the Dirichlet boundary condition, at z = 0, T = T0,
trapped air in the canister during the installation of the seepage meter. and at z = L, T = TL (Fig. 2, a). It is interesting to note that Eq. (2) was
Valves are provided to regulate the flow at the outlet pipe and inlet of the the non-linear differential equation which was solved by complementary
collection bag. After installing the seepage meter, the valves were closed, error function (Abramowitz and Stegun, 1964). However, in the present
and the collection bag was facilitated to measure the volume of water study, this equation is solved numerically, using the finite-difference ap-
over a fixed duration of time. The valves were subsequently opened to proach with the help of MATLAB v.2011. Furthermore, Eq. (2) was solved
allow the seepage into the collection bag for the fixed duration. The volume for unknown vertical velocity (v), and velocity values were optimised in
of water was then measured, and the porewater flux was calculated by di- order to minimise experimental and theoretical temperature value error.
viding the volume by time (L.s−1). Water samples from the collection Another numerical model employed in this study is the 1-D Advection-
bags were collected in a 250 mL bottle for chemical and isotopic analysis. Dispersion equation used to estimate the porewater velocity and calculate
the SGD reaching the coast based on solute (salinity concentration) trans-
3.4.2. Numerical modelling port (Rodellas et al., 2020). This Advection-Dispersion equation uses a sim-
Diurnal and seasonal (autumn to summer) fluctuations in groundwater ple mass conservation principle to trace the contaminant transport in
flux (SGD) lead to temperature variability in the seabed and porewater. The porous media (Walter et al., 2019). We used salinity concentration as a
temperature contrast between seabed and porewater can be attributed to tracer (Bönisch et al., 1997) to simulate the model for estimating the
the spatial variation in the porewater beneath the ocean floor (Schmidt porewater velocity. In the present model, we considered vertical displace-
et al., 2006). High-resolution thermal profiling can be used to evaluate ment of pore fluid through the seabed sediment and assumed that concen-
the flow patterns at the interface of porewater and seabed sediments. The tration does not change with respect to time (Eq. (5)). Salinity profiling was
2D (vertical and horizontal) temperature distribution in porewater and sea- done on the same grid as described in the previous section. Temperature-
bed is due to convective heat transfer by SGD and conduction of heat salinity concentrations were also measured over 175 locations to evaluate
6
the porewater flux and distinguish between F-SGD and R-SGD depending some porewater samples depicted in Fig. 4 (a). The signature of δ18O in
on the salinity concentration, as shown in Fig. 2. The same Dirichlet bound- porewater confirmed the mixing of fresh groundwater and recirculated sea-
ary conditions (z = 0, T = T0 and at z = L, T = TL) were used to solve this water into the coast at respective locations.
equation with the help of analytical solution of finite difference approached Furthermore, we used the stable isotopes of (86/87/88)Sr to confirm the
(Taylor series expansion), MATLAB was used to solve this model. 1-D identified SGD locations (Fig. 4, b) to carry out a detailed investigation.
Advection-Dispersion equation model is given below: Fig. 4, (b) shows that the theoretical mixing line, joining two end-
members, such as seawater and groundwater, indicate the conservative na-
∂C ∂C ∂2 c ture of Strontium (Rahaman and Singh, 2012), which have been used to dis-
þv ¼ DL 2 (4)
∂t ∂x ∂x tinguish the mixing of seawater and groundwater in the beach. The isotopic
ratio of Sr (86Sr/87Sr) has a unique value for the seawater, i.e. 86Sr/87Sr =
∂C=∂t ¼0 (5) 0.7076; based on this signature of seawater and fresh groundwater mixing,
SGD locations can be delineated easily. The range of 86Sr/87Sr ratio for
∂C ∂2 c groundwater varied from 0.71053 to 0.7160 greater than seawater,
v ¼ DL 2 (6)
∂x ∂x which was obvious as the aquifer served as the Sr reservoir. For porewater
samples from the identified locations, the 86Sr/87Sr ratio varied from
Where, C - concentration of salinity in ppt (parts per thousand), v - 0.70838 to 0.71840, which was almost greater than seawater, indicating
porewater velocity in m.s−1, DL – diffusion coefficient in m2.s−1 and the mixing of two end-member in the nearshore as shown in Fig. 4 (b).
value adopted was 6.5 × 10 −9 m2.s−1 from Toth and Lerman (1975) for Overall, the porewater samples collected from identified locations exhib-
the stratified seabed sediments. Finally, Eq. (6) was solved using the bound- ited deviation from the mixing line (Fig. 4, b), indicating a different signa-
ary conditions with finite-difference approached in MATLAB v.2011. ture than seawater and groundwater, hence confirming the SGD locations.
4. Results and discussion 4.2. Porewater characteristics
4.1. Identification of SGD locations Freshwater springs proximal to the coast are easily identifiable as poten-
tial sites for SGD. As freshwater residing in coastal aquifers has a distinct
The groundwater level has proven to be a vital tool for identifying SGD thermal signature than the surface water (seawater, in this case), any
and SWI vulnerable zones along the coastal areas (Manivannan and Elango, mixing would be signified by a change in the temperature along the mixing
2019). Based on zoning techniques, areas with a high probability of SGD oc- zone. However, any such freshwater spring was not observed along the
currences have been identified. The majority of locations vulnerable to SGD coast of the study area. The temperature during winters varied from 16 to
were identified along the southern coast of Gujarat and surrounding the 36 °C (December 2020) during the sampling event. Vertical thermal profil-
Gulf of Khambhat. The second parameter used to identify the SGD affected ing was carried out up to a depth of 90 cm below the seabed for the five
areas was the sea-surface temperature (SST) anomaly (Bhagat et al., transects (Fig. 5 (a)) at Dehri beach, near Umargam locality. The tempera-
2021a). Based on this approach, three probable zones were identified. ture varied from 26.2 to 29.7 °C across the transects. The observed annual
Out of three, two were along the Saurashtra region and one along the mean groundwater temperature near this site at Umargam was 27-29 °C
Southern coast. The EC gradient along the coastal waters was used for fur- (CGWB Data). Vertical porewater temperature profiles across the five tran-
ther validation of the SGD occurrences at these locations. The gradient be- sects showed a wide variation for temperature up to a depth of 30 cm.
tween EC value of groundwater, porewater and seawater was plotted for Minute variation in temperature was observed between the depth of
each sampling location, and based on that, SGD probable zones were iden- 30 cm to 75 cm. Among all the transects, AA's transect exhibited minimum
tified. EC was observed as a prompt indicator of seawater influence and variation in the temperature range, i.e., 26.9 to 29.65 °C with an average
hence used as a proxy to understand the mixing of seawater and groundwa- temperature of 27.69 °C.
ter in the coastal areas (Babu et al., 2021; Bhagat et al., 2021b; Manivannan Fig. 6 (a and b) shows the distribution of temperature and salinity across
et al., n.d.). Further identification of specific locations based on probable the grid of 40 m × 40 m on the Dehri beach. The average annual salinity of
zones was identified using three approaches: salinity gradient, stable iso- seawater along the Gujarat coast was observed to be 35 ppt (parts per thou-
topes of oxygen (δ18O), and 86/87Sr isotopes. Porewater sampling along sand) (Vinayachandran and Nanjundiah, 2009), and TDS was varying from
the entire coastline was done with a high resolution (~1-2kms) for under- 40 to 42 g.L−1 (Bhadja and Kundu, 2012). Porewater salinity ranged from
standing the salinity gradient (longitudinal section of beach). For suspected 5.74–32.7 across the transect. From Fig. 5 (b), it can be observed that a nar-
locations, the resolution was further increased to (~100-500 m) depending row range of salinity existed below 30 cm depth conforming to F-SGD
on the salinity of porewater. The locations which displayed salinity values (Debnath et al., 2015), as shown in Fig. 2(b). Also, the maximum depth of
of <25 ppt were identified as probable SGD hotspots. Fig. 1 (a-g) shows surface water interference was approximately 30 cm below seabed level be-
the salinity gradient along the beach's longitudinal direction at various lo- cause the signature of recirculated SGD component was observed up to this
cations. Among these seven locations, three sites (Dehri, Udvada and depth (Fig. 2 (b)). Transect EE’ exhibited the narrowest salinity range
Fansa beach) were found along the southern coast, other three were ob- among all transects, as shown in Fig. 5 (b). The salinity was used as a tracer
served along the Saurashtra coast (Kuda, Adri and Chorwad holiday camp to trace the SGD, as it has conservative nature and could be easily measured
beach), and one location on Nagao beach in Diu (Union Territory of India). (Vinayachandran and Nanjundiah, 2009).
Further, we have used stable isotopes of oxygen (δ18O) and strontium
(86/87Sr) to validate our results. Fig. 4 (a) shows the variation of δ18O for 4.3. Simulated porewater temperatures and estimation of SGD fluxes
porewater and groundwater samples along the coastline, indicating that al-
most all groundwater samples had a negative signature of δ18O. In contrast, The comparison between simulated porewater temperature and ob-
seawater had a positive value since seawater was enriched with 18O served field temperature profile for the intermediate transect CC' was repre-
(Muehlenbachs, 2018). Stable isotopes of oxygen (δ18O) were found sented in Fig. 7 (a). The range for simulated temperature varied from 27.71
enriched in the seawater in the present investigation (Fig. 4, a), which to 29.70 °C, with a residual error between the experimental and simulated
was obvious because the lighter isotopes of oxygen i.e., δ16O and δ17O evap- temperature as −0.56 to 0.3 °C. No definite pattern was observed in the dis-
orate initially and hence the concentration of δ18O increases in seawater. tribution of residual error. Maximum residual (R) error was found at 40 m
The porewater samples from the identified location using salinity gradient from the high tide line corresponding to a depth of 30 cm from the seabed.
give a different signature than seawater, as shown in Fig. 4 (a). These differ- The estimated porewater velocity at each node point using Eqs. (2) and (6)
ent signatures (samples highlighted by dash line circle) were identified for for the boundary condition as shown in Fig. 2 (a). The estimated porewater
7
Fig. 5. a) Temperature profile and b) Salinity profile along the five transects (AA’, BB’, CC’, DD’ and EE’). The temperature is almost constant after 30 cm depth up to the
certain depth indicating the influence of air ambient temperature up to 30 cm. The constant temperature indicates the signature of terrestrial SGD/fresh SGD. The range
of salinity was narrow after 30 cm depth up to the certain cm indicating the influence of recirculated seawater up to 30 cm. The wider window of salinity (up to 30 cm)
indicates the signature recirculated SGD.
flux based on the 1-D convective and conductive heat transfer model The present study found maximum average flux across the CC’ transects
ranged from ~0 to 744.665 m3.m−2. year−1. The range for SGD at each among all the transects. The mean value of SGD flux reaching the Gujarat
transect was estimated as ~0 to175.04 m3.m−2. Year−1 (transect AA’), coast could be extrapolated as 115.24 m3.m−2. year−1, using 1-D convec-
10.40 to 552.49 m3.m−2. Year−1 (transect BB’), 54.05 to 646.94 m3. tive and conductive heat transport model.
m−2. Year−1 (transect CC’), ~0 to 744.663 m3.m−2. Year−1 (transect
DD') and ~ 0 to 347.61 m3.m−2. Year−1 (transect EE’), respectively. SGD 4.4. Simulated porewater salinity and estimation of SGD fluxes
flux estimated along the Gujarat coast was comparable to SGD flux reported
by Selvam et al., 2021, as shown in Table 1, but characteristically lower Fig. 7 (b) depicts the comparison between experimental and simulated
when compared to the SGD flux reaching into the Bay of Bengal (Debnath porewater salinity for the CC’ transect. The experimental salinity ranged
et al., 2015; Mukherjee et al., 2007). For the Indian subcontinent, maxi- from 8.0 to 29.3, whereas the simulated salinity was 9.41 to 28.87, with a
mum SGD flux reaching into the Bay of Bengal coast was reported by residual error (difference between observed salinity minus simulated salin-
Debnath et al., 2015; Dowling et al., 2003; and Mukherjee et al., 2007. ity) of 0.166 to 3.36. Maximum residual error (3.36) was found at a depth
8
Fig. 6. 3D profiling of (a) Temperature and (b) salinity along the five transects The figure shows the 3D plots of temperature profiling and salinity profiling below the seabed
up to the 90 cm depth to understand the mixing of groundwater and seawater and estimation of vertical porewater velocity. The thermal response of surface seawater
observed in the figure as the temperature is lower at the sea surface and increases along the depth. In contrast, the salinity decreases along the depth, which means both
the tracer indicates the signature of the mixing process.
of 30 cm below the seabed level. The variation in the residual error of salin- due to the depleted groundwater in the coastal aquifers, less recharge in
ity was observed to be inconsistent throughout the depth of the profile. the region, and substantial surface losses due to heavy evaporation and
Porewater velocity was calculated at each point on the grid (175 grid evapotranspiration from the soil and plants, as Gujarat is classified as a
points) using Eqs. (5) and (6) (1-D advection-dispersion model) for the semi-arid region.
boundary condition mentioned in Fig. 2 (b). The value of dispersion coeffi-
cient (DL) was adopted from Toth and Lerman, 1975. The estimated 4.6. Quantification of contaminant flux reaching into the coast
porewater flux based on the 1-D advection-dispersion solute transfer
model ranged from ~0 to 70.0 m3.m−2. year−1. The quantified SGD flux SGD is a well-known invisible pathway carrying contaminant load
along each transect was: ~0 to 70.0 m3.m−2. year−1 (AA’ transect), ~0 (mass flux) from the land/aquifer to the marine environment (Babu et al.,
to 38.30 m3.m−2. year−1 (BB’ transect), ~0 to 17.10 m3.m−2. year−1 2021; Taniguchi et al., 2019). Fresh SGD (FSGD) carries nutrients along
(CC’ transect), ~0 to 54.23 m3.m−2. year−1 (DD' transect), and ~ 0 to with trace metals and other anthropogenic contaminants from the land to
7.59 m3.m−2. year−1 (EE’ transect), respectively. The mean SGD flux for the sea via SGD. Every year, huge amounts of hazardous contaminants
the 40 m × 40 m grid at Dehri beach Umargram was 4.51 m3.m−2. reach the seashore, posing severe risks to the sensitive marine ecosystem
year−1. It observed that the SGD flux estimated through the solute trans- such as eutrophication, metal contamination, bioaccumulation of metals,
port model was very less than that of the heat transport model and seepage and ecological disruptions (Liu et al., 2001; Vikas and Dwarakish, 2015).
meter. This relative difference between the magnitude of SGD flux indicates Excess nutrient input through various pathways leads to eutrophication
that the 1-D solute transport model underestimates the flux; this may be due along the estuarine zone, creating anoxia in the sea and disrupting the en-
to the assumed value of the dispersion coefficient. tire food chains of the marine ecosystem (Duarte, 2009; Rathore et al.,
2016). Metal contamination leads to bioaccumulation in aquatic species
4.5. Estimation of SGD flux by seepage meter (fishes and plankton species) and also increases the carcinogenic impact
on human health (dermal risk) (Achary et al., 2016). To estimate the con-
Seepage meters were installed at the SGD identified locations along the taminant load reaching the seashore, we have analysed the porewater sam-
Gujarat coast, and flux was quantified during the low tide. The seepage ples for the various trace metals (Zn, Sr, Cd, Pb, Cr, Ni, Mn, Cd, Co, Cu and
meter does not give the aerial discharge; it can only estimate the point Fe) and dissolved silica (DSi). The range of trace metals concentration in
SGD flux at a shallow depth of 1 to 2 m. However, due to the ease in logistics porewater was comparable to the concentration reported in nearshore
and assembly with average efficiency, seepage meters were used to esti- groundwater. Concentration of Zn reported to be highest among all the
mate SGD occurrences at point locations. SGD was quantified at six loca- trace metals studied, varying from 78.31 to 4897 mg.L−1, followed by Fe
tions out of seven through seepage meters, as the seepage meter could not (58.02 to 115.23 mg.L−1), Sr (7.20 to 85.14 mg.L−1), Mn (2.388 to
be installed at the seventh location (Adri beach) due to the unfavourable 20.1 mg.L−1), Cr (7.26 to 9.64 mg.L−1), Cu (2.8 to 7.72 mg.L−1), Pb
terrain. Five to six seepage meters were installed simultaneously at each (3.59 to 6.32 mg.L−1) and Ni (3.28 to 4.977 mg.L−1). Most of the trace
of the selected sites, depending on suitable terrain for the installation. metal's concentrations exceeded the permissible limits standardised by
The range of estimated SGD flux observed at each location was: 6.37 to the various agencies like WHO 2008, USEPA 2012, BIS 2011. In the study
56.01 m3.year−1 (Dehri beach Umargram), 1.24–88.33 m3. year−1(Fansa area, the reported trace metal concentrations were many orders higher
beach), 5.21 to 159.72 m3. year−1 (Udvada beach; here, we observed direct than the required/permissible limits. Such high concentrations of trace
flow from the seepage meter), 1.10 to 1.357 m3. year−1(Nagao beach, Diu metals pose a serious threat to the marine biota as well as human health.
UT), 0 to 1.04 m3. year−1 (Kuda beach, Bhavnagar), 16.93 to 19.91 m3. Fig. 8 illustrates the various contaminants that are being transported into
year−1 (Chorwad Holiday camp), respectively. Table 1 shows that the the Gujarat coast through SGD flux. The highest Zn2+ flux as SGD estimated
SGD flux reported in the present study was relatively low compared to for Fansa beach was 77.411 kg. year−1 followed by Dehri beach
the regional fluxes. This type of flux values might have been observed (37.824 kg. year−1), Chorwad Holiday camp (13.467 kg. year−1) and
9
Fig. 7. Comparison of observed and simulated porewater a) temperature and b) salinity for the profiles along transects CC’. Comparison were made in this fig. (a) so that we
can understand the error in the simulated values. To understand the error simulated and observed salinity were plot (Fig. b) in the 1D Advection-Dispersion simulated model
values. The positive value of porewater velocity indicates the significant discharge, whereas the negative value indicates no SGD flux.
Nagao Beach Diu (5.866 kg. year−1). Estimated Fe2+ flux ranges from contaminant flux was relatively lower than the flux reported in the various
0.061 to 10.5 kg. year−1. Udvada beach showed the highest load of Fe2+ studies as shown in Table 2.
whereas the lowest load was reported for Kuda beach of Bhavnagar district. These contaminants can be geogenic or anthropogenic depending on
The toxic metals such as Pb2+, Cu2+, Co2+, Cd2+, Ni2+, and Cr2+ exhib- the sources of contaminants around the coast (Bhagat et al., 2021b; Singh
ited comparable mass fluxes reaching into sea coast at various locations. et al., 2020). Most of the trace metals might have originated from natural
The highest toxic metals load was observed at Udvada beach of Valsad dis- sources like weathering of minerals, mining, erosion of sediments, and vol-
trict. The order of calculated flux as SGD for toxic metals was observed as canic eruption (Linhares et al., 2019; Stellato et al., 2020). The Gujarat
follows: Chromium (Cr2+) 1724.93 g.year−1, followed by Lead (Pb2+) coast is well known in the Indian subcontinent for the chemical processing
1142.94 g.year−1, Copper (Cu2+) 1080.9 g.year−1, Nickel (Ni2+) industries, ship dismantling workshops, fertilizer and salt production indus-
901.37 g.year−1,and Cadmium (Cd2+) 161.5 g.year−1. The estimated tries. Therefore, these industries generate huge amounts of waste, mostly
10
Table 1
SGD flux and techniques used in the various studies conducted around the world and present study.
Area of Study SGD flux (m3.year−1) Techniques used References
Gulf of Mexico 0.998–1.31 × 106 Seepage Meters Taniguchi et al., 2003

Gulf of Mexico 7.88 × 105 Ra isotope mass balance Moore and Krest, 2004
a. Cockburn Sound, Australia 1.93 × 105 Seepage meters and Bulk Ground Conductivity measurements Stieglitz et al., 2008
b. Shelter Island, USA 5.80 × 105
c. Ubatuba Bay, Brazil 9.27 × 106
d. Flic-en-Flac Bay, Mauritius
Tolo Harbour, Hong Kong 3.022 × 109 226
Ra mass balance Lee et al., 2012
Northern South China Sea shelf 0.839–1.35 × 1011 Total Alkalinity and Ra isotopes (mixing model and mass balance Liu et al., 2012
Chokai, Northern Japan 2.26 × 107 Rn mass balance Hosono et al., 2012
Atlantic and Indo Pacific Oceans (60°N to 9–15 × 1013 228
Ra Optimised Inverse Model Kwon et al., 2014
70°N)
Gautami -Godavari Estuary, India 2.48–4.63 × 109/0.48–2.71 × 109 Ra mass balance model/RaSi Three end member mixing model Rengarajan and Sarma, 2015
(Radium isotopes)/
Tauranga Harbour, New Zealand 1.12 × 109 226
Ra mass balance Stewart et al., 2018
French Mediterranean coastline 3.14–53.6 × 106 Ra isotope mass balance Bejannin et al., 2017
Sydney Harbour, Australia 1.53–4.4 × 108 Ra isotope mass balance Correa et al., 2020
Kuwait 1.27–1.99 × 109 Ra isotope mass balance Bhandary and Sabarathinam,
2020
Hanko, Finalnd 2.82–3.60 × 105 Groundwater flow model simulation Luoma et al., 2021
Osaka Bay, Japan 0.08–0.36 m.d−1 Seepage meter Taniguchi et al. (2002)
Donnalucata, Sicily 10–30 m3 m−2 d−1 Seepage meter Taniguchi et al., 2006
Ubatuba Brazil 0.5–2.7 m.d−1 Seepage meter Burnett et al., 2003
Southwest coast, India 1.8–12.2 × 108 222
Rn isotope mass balance George et al., 2021
Mumbai Harbour, India 2.17–23.6 × 109 Radon mass balance model Yadav et al., 2019
South-East coast of India 0.04 to 0.12 and 0.03–0.15 m3 m−2 222
Ra and 226Ra isotope mass balance Selvam et al., 2021
d−1
Bay of Bengal, India 1.16 × 107 m3 .year−1 Simulated (1D convective and conductive heat transfer model) Debnath et al., 2015
Westren Benagal Basin India 5.9 × 107 Simulated (water balance study) Mukherjee et al., 2007
Coleroon Estuary, Tamil Nadu, India 6.9 × 106 Water budget Raja et al., 2021
3.2 × 103 to 308.3 × 103 Darcy law
Pulluvila Southwest India 9.94 × 106 Simulation of model Anish, n.d.
Western (Gujarat) cost of India 1.1 to 181.2 m3 .year−1 Seepage meter Present study
0–744.5 m3.m−2 .year−1 Numerical models
0–70.5 m3.m−2 .year−1 1D convective-conductive heat transport model
1D advection-dispersion model
enriched with trace metals or toxic elements, owing to poor waste manage- 4.7. Local fluxes, their implication to Gujarat coast and novelty of work
ment and poor treatment infrastructure (Ahuja and Abda, 2015; Sharma
et al., 2009). The high concentration of Cr found in most of the groundwa- Some researchers reviewed the global SGD reaching the oceans and
ter and porewater samples depicted the high influence of anthropogenic ac- found that a considerable amount of fresh groundwater reaches the coastal
tivities across the coastal region of Gujarat. interface per year (Burnett et al., 2003; Taniguchi et al., 2019). Luijendijk
Fig. 8. Submarine groundwater discharge and contaminant load reaching into the Gujarat coast at the six locations. The highest SGD flux was reported at the Udvada beach
among all six locations. Zn2+ load was reported highest among all the contaminants, followed by Fe2+, Cr2+, and Cu2+ respectively. The results indicated the groundwater
reaching the coast is less as compared to flux reported in the various studies around the world. Locations of beaches start from the south coast i.e. Dehri beach to Saurashtra
Gujarat coast (chorwad holiday camp beach).
11
et al. (2020) has attempted to quantify F-SGD to the oceans around the
Jeong et al., 2012

Wang et al., 2019
Trezzi et al., 2016
1400 × 103 Tovar-Sánchez
world and reported that approximately 0.6% of total freshwater input
Rodellas et al.,
Present study
et al., 2014
reaches the coast. The proportion of SGD seems insignificant compared to
References
the world's oceans but can be critical for the marine ecosystem as it inter-
2014
rupts/imbalance the biogeochemical cycles (Babu et al., 2021; Luijendijk
et al., 2020). The severe threats such as eutrophication, growth of harmful
algal bloom, and accumulation of trace metals that the contaminants can
0.005–7.3
DSi pose to the marine ecosystem, and the growing dependency on groundwa-
NA
NA
NA
NA
ter in the last few decades, make SGD an integral part of the hydrological
cycle (Taniguchi et al., 2019).
240.6–541.41
Tables 1 and 2 summarize SGD flux and contaminant load reaching the
0.003–0.44
oceans, reported across the world. When compared with the present aver-
× 103 age SGD flux, it was observed that the flux reaching the Gujarat coast was
42.2
Mn
NA
NA
NA relatively low. The range of SGD flux quantified in the present investigation
was varied from 1.1 to 181.2 m3. year−1 (using seepage meter) and
512.4–1404.4
0–744.5 m3.m−2.year−1 (simulated), was relatively less than the simulated

0.009–1.8 SGD reported by Debnath et al., 2015 and Mukherjee et al., 2007 in the Bay
× 103
of Bengal (1.16 × 106 m3. year−1) and Western Bengal Basin, India
NA
5.7–120.7 × 103 100.5–1619.4 × 103 5.27–111.5 × 103 0.44–1.2 × 103 24.8–784.5 × 103 NA
NA
NA
Cr
(5.9 × 107 m3. year−1), respectively. Estimated SGD in the present study
was comparable to SGD flux (10.95 to 54.75 m3.m−2. year−1) reported
by Selvam et al., 2021 on the South-East coast of India. However, in a
10.5–147
semi-arid region and developing state like Gujarat, the loss of such a high
2 × 103
0.6 77.4
volume of water through SGD is alarming as most of the villages in the Sau-
NA
NA
Zn
rashtra, central Gujarat and Kutch region face water scarcity. Seawater in-
trusion (SWI) or salinization of coastal aquifers has become a prevalent
phenomenon resulting in the deterioration of groundwater quality and,
0.004–1.2
hence, is not suitable for domestic use. The loss of freshwater due to SWI
0–3.66
along with its associated problems is another issue arising in the state's
NA
NA
NA
Pb
coastal region. The southern region of Gujarat is drained by four westward

draining perennial rivers (Tapi, Narmada, Mahanadi and Purna), which
help to maintain the coastal aquifer's groundwater reservoir. The long
coastline of Gujarat (~1600kms) makes it difficult to quantify the SGD
`0.004–0.9
12.3–61.3
flux considering its heterogeneity in every aspect, such as the geology

42.8
(surface and subsurface), hydrology, and groundwater discharge/recharge

NA
NA
Ni
pattern.
Estimation of SGD is essential for understanding the mixing processes
and estimating the fresh groundwater loss at the seawater groundwater in-
35.87–1793.5
terface. Moreover, it is important to account for SGD to better understand

111.7–3350
3.2 × 103
4.7 × 103
0.06–10.5
terrestrial solutes transport in the marine environment, separately from sol-

× 103
ute inputs as riverine discharge. The fraction of water being discharged

Fe
from aquifers might seem insignificant compared to riverine discharge

but may have a profound impact on the marine ecosystem, as the mass bal-
ance of organic and inorganic species get disturbed due to the influx of
Contaminant fluxes reported in the various part of the world and present work.
0.004–1.1
these solutes. Therefore, the observed pore water salinity and temperature
7.2–54
13.91
were used to estimate vertical porewater velocity using the 1D convective-

Heavy metal flux (kg. year−1)
NA
NA
Cu
conductive heat transfer model and 1D advection-dispersion model. Hence,

the application of salinity and temperature profiling is not only for the de-
0.12–3.1
0.001–0.17 0–0.042
× 103
lineation of groundwater seawater mixing zones but also to identify the

3.06
NA
NA
NA
sources of total SGD. The outcome of this work is the first-hand approxi-
Co
mated range of SGD flux and contaminants load entering the coast of Guja-
26.8–80.4
0.085–3.7
rat from the inland aquifers of western India.

× 103
× 103
This is the first study highlighting mixing zones, estimating SGD and
3.1 × 107 m3 day−1 NA
NA
NA
Cd
contaminant flux reaching the coastal region. In this study, we have quan-
tified the SGD flux and contaminant load reaching the coastal ecosystem
(3.2–7.7) × 108 m3
Palma Beach, Balearic 56 × 103 m3 day−1
0–744.5 m3. m−2

(0.3–4.8) × 1012
of Gujarat from the shallow aquifers with the help of different techniques,
89 m3. m−2.a−1
Heavy metals
i.e. seepage meter and numerical modelling. While using numerical model-
ling, we made some assumptions and used the defined empirical relation to
SGD flux
m3·y−1
day−1
year−1
calculate the coefficient/constant required for solving the aforementioned

models. The porewater temperatures and salinity mass balance have
been used here effectively to delineate and quantify SGD flux along
Majorca Island, Spain
Mediterranean Sea
Gujarat coast, India
the coast. However, these models are heavily dependent on parameters

Bohai Bay, China
Bangdu bay Jeju
that vary based on location and time. We expect the SGD flux from the
North Western
coastal aquifers of Gujarat to be higher than the estimated discharge

Study area
Islands
Korea
in the present study. In the future, more reliable techniques such as

Table 2
radon (222,226Rn/223,224Ra) mass balance can be used to evaluate the

results of this study. Furthermore, the present study suggests more
12
exhaustive research in future, focusing on the seasonal variability of Acknowledgement

SGD flux and contaminant load along with their impacts on the marine
ecosystem. This research work was financially supported by the National Centre for
Earth Science Studies Trivandrum Kerala (India) and the Ministry of Earth
5. Conclusions Sciences Government of India under the National Mission of Submarine
Groundwater Discharge along the Indian coast. The authors acknowledged
The current study presents a methodical scientific approach to estimate the contribution of the Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar (India)
SGD flux and contaminant load that reaches the coastal waters of Arabian and Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) Ahmedabad (India) for analysing
Sea. Signatures of porewater, such as salinity, temperature, stable isotopes the groundwater samples for various parameters. The authors express their
of oxygen (δ18O) and strontium (86,87Sr), were found to be very effective for gratitude to the WET Lab at IIT, Gandhinagar, for helping in conducting
identifying the SGD locations or for extent mapping of seawater and sampling and analysis. The authors are also grateful to the journal editor
groundwater mixing in the sub-terrain estuaries. Also, the applicability of and reviewer for their critical comments and valuable suggestion to im-
salinity and temperature as a tracer to quantify the SGD flux in combination prove this research article.
with seepage meter could help refine the accuracy of the method. The esti-
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STOTEN-151888; No of Pages 15

Science of the Total Environment xxx (xxxx) xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Science of the Total Environment

Salinity and temperature proﬁling for the submarine groundwater discharge

• Temperature emerged as a better indica-

a. b. c. Dehri beach Gujarat

4. Results and discussion 4.2. Porewater characteristics

Gulf of Mexico 0.998–1.31 × 106 Seepage Meters Taniguchi et al., 2003

Jeong et al., 2012

0–744.5 m3.m−2.year−1 (simulated), was relatively less than the simulated

coastal region. The southern region of Gujarat is drained by four westward

ﬂux considering its heterogeneity in every aspect, such as the geology

(surface and subsurface), hydrology, and groundwater discharge/recharge

terface. Moreover, it is important to account for SGD to better understand

terrestrial solutes transport in the marine environment, separately from sol-

ute inputs as riverine discharge. The fraction of water being discharged

from aquifers might seem insigniﬁcant compared to riverine discharge

were used to estimate vertical porewater velocity using the 1D convective-

conductive heat transfer model and 1D advection-dispersion model. Hence,

lineation of groundwater seawater mixing zones but also to identify the

rat from the inland aquifers of western India.

Palma Beach, Balearic 56 × 103 m3 day−1

0–744.5 m3. m−2

calculate the coefﬁcient/constant required for solving the aforementioned

Gujarat coast, India

the coast. However, these models are heavily dependent on parameters

Bangdu bay Jeju

coastal aquifers of Gujarat to be higher than the estimated discharge

in the present study. In the future, more reliable techniques such as

radon (222,226Rn/223,224Ra) mass balance can be used to evaluate the

exhaustive research in future, focusing on the seasonal variability of Acknowledgement

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