Module 1: Pre-Calculus Concepts

Unit 1a - Algebra

1.1 The Real Number System

Real Numbers

Rational Numbers Irrational Numbers

Non-Integers Integers

Negative Integers Whole Numbers

Zero Natural Numbers

ℝ : set of real numbers

ℕ : set of natural numbers = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . 

𝑊 : set of whole numbers = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . 

ℤ : set of integers = . . . , -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . 

ℚ : set of rational numbers

A rational number is one that can be expressed as a quotient of two integers.
Ex. 4, -6, ⅝, 0.75, 0.666…, 1.212121…, 4.374374374…

A terminating or a non-terminating but repeating decimal is a rational.

ℚ𝑐 : set of irrational numbers

An irrational number is one that cannot be expressed as a quotient of two integers.
Ex. √5, √10 , π, e
3

A non-terminating, non-repeating decimal is an irrational number.

1.1.1 Properties of Real Numbers (under Addition and Multiplication)

1. Closure a + b ∈ ℝ, a·b∈ℝ

2. Commutative a + b = b + a, a · b = b · a

3. Associative (a + b) + c = a + (b + c),
(a · b) · c = a · (b · c)

4. Distributive a · (b + c) = (a · b) + (a · c)

5. Identity a + 0 = a, 0 is the identity element for addition

a · 1 = a, 1 is the identity element for multiplication

6. Inverse a + (-a) = 0, the additive inverse of a is –a

a · (1/a) = 1, 1/a is the multiplicative inverse of a  0.
1.1.2 Properties of Equality
1. Reflexive a=a

2. Symmetric If a = b, then b = a.

3. Transitive If a = b, and b = c, then a = c.

4. Substitution If a = b, then a can be replaced by b in any statement involving a or b.

1.1.3 Fundamental Operations on Real Numbers

The absolute value of a real number x denoted by |x| is defined as
𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
|𝑥| = {
−𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
Examples:
|4| = 4
|-11| = -(-11) = 11

The operation on the set of real numbers is governed by the following rules:

Rule 1 To add two real numbers with like signs, add their absolute values and prefix the common sign.
For example,
4+5=9 -4+ (-5) = -9

Rule 2 To add two real numbers with unlike signs, subtract the smaller absolute value from the bigger
absolute value and prefix the sign as that of the bigger absolute value. For example,
6 + (-13) = -7 -13 + 18 = 5
-7 + 12 = 5 -22 + 16 = -6

Rule 3 To subtract two real numbers change the sign of the subtrahend and proceed to algebraic addition
(Rule 1 &2). For example,
7 – 15 = 7 + (-15) = -8
-7 – (-15) = -7 + 15 = 8
-7 –15 = -7 + (-15) = -22

Rule 4 To multiply (or divide) two numbers having like signs, multiply (or divide) their absolute values
and prefix a plus sign. For example,
8(3) = 24 (-8) (-3) = 24
8 -8
= 4
2 -2 = 4

Rule 5 To multiply (or divide) two numbers having unlike signs, multiply (or divide) their absolute values
and prefix a minus sign. For example,

(-15) (2) = -30 15(-2) = -30

10 -10
-2 = -5 2 = -5

1.1.4 Exponents and Roots

In algebra, exponents are used as a way of writing product of repeated factors.

Example: 5•5•5•5•5•5•5•5 = 58

The number 8 shows that 5 appears as a factor 8 times. The number 8 is the exponent and the number 5
is the base.

If a is a real number and n is a natural number,

an = a • a • a •a • …• a where n is the exponent, a is the base and an is an exponential or power.
1.1.5 The nth Root of a Number
If an = b, then a is called the nth root of b, written
n
b = a.
Examples:
a. √64 = 8 since 8 is a positive and 82 = 64
3
b. √8 = 2 since 23 = 8
5
c. √−243 = −3 since (-3)5 = -243
4
d. − √625 = −5
e. √−9 is not a real number

Remark: Order of Operations on Series of Real Numbers

1. Operations within grouping symbols must be performed first.
Note:
a. Within a grouping symbol, the order of operations will still apply.
b. If there are several grouping symbols intermixed, removed them by starting with innermost
one and working outward.
2. Perform indicated powers and roots.
3. Perform multiplication and division from left to right.
4. Perform addition and subtraction.

Example Perform the indicated operations.

a. 12 – 5(6 – 2) + 33
Solution:
12 – 5(6 – 2) + 33 = 12 – 5(4) + 27 = 19
12+4
b. 6 + 3 {2 + 5(8 − 15 ÷ 5 + 4) − 7 × 6} − 32 −1
Solution:
12 + 4 16
6 + 3 {2 + 5(8 − 15 ÷ 5 + 4) − 7 × 6} − 2
= 6 + 3{2 + 5(8 − 3 + 4) − 42} −
3 −1 8
= 6 + 3{2 + 5(9) − 42} − 2 = 6 + 3(5) − 2 = 19

1.2 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

A constant is a symbol whose value is fixed.

Examples: 5, -13, π, e

A variable is a symbol that can assume different values in the given discussion.
Examples: x, y, a

An algebraic expression is a constant, a variable, or a combination of constants and variables by the fundamental
operations, including raising to powers and extraction of roots.
Examples: 2x, 4x2 – 5y3, 6a – 2b +5c

An algebraic term is that part of an algebraic expression separated by plus or minus sign with this sign included.

If a term is a product of two or more symbols, each of the symbols is called a coefficient of the rest of the product.
Example: In the expression –6x2y3z4,
–6 is the numerical coefficient,
x2 is the coefficient of –6 y3z4

Similar terms or like terms are those which differ only with their numerical coefficient.
Example: 4a2b and –9a2b are similar terms

An algebraic expression of the form am is called a power of which a is called the base and m is called the
exponent.

am = a • a • a • . . . • a
1.2.1 Types of Algebraic Expressions
A polynomial is an algebraic expression of one or more terms each of which is a product of constants and
variables, where each variable is raised to a positive integral exponent including zero.

Classification of Polynomials
A. According to the number of terms
1. Monomial – a polynomial of one term
1. Binomial – a polynomial of two terms
2. Trinomial – a polynomial of three terms
4. Polynomial – 4 or more terms

B. According to the degree

1. Linear – a polynomial whose degree is 1
2. Quadratic – a polynomial whose degree is 2
3. Cubic – a polynomial whose degree is 3
4. Quartic – a polynomial whose degree is 4
5. nth degree – a polynomial whose degree is n

The degree of a monomial is the sum of the exponents of the literal coefficients.

The expression y2 is of second degree while the expression -3a2b3c is of sixth degree.

The degree of a polynomial is the highest of the degrees of its terms.

The polynomial 3x3 – 2x2 + x – 4 is of third degree while the polynomial 5x2y2+ 3x3y3 – 4x4y4 is of
eighth degree.

C. According to numerical coefficient

1. Integral – the numerical coefficients are integers
2. Rational – the numerical coefficients are either fractional or decimal or both
3. Real – the numerical coefficients include irrational numbers

1.2.2 Rational Expressions

A rational expression is an algebraic expression in the form of a fraction whose numerator and
denominator are polynomials.
1 2𝑦 𝑎2 +4𝑎𝑏- 2𝑏 2
Examples: , ,
𝑥−2𝑦 𝑥 𝑎2 +𝑏 2

An irrational expression is an algebraic expression with variables raised to non-integral exponents.

5
Examples: 2𝑥 5⁄2 , √6𝑎3 𝑏, 3𝑥𝑦 √5𝑥 3 𝑦 2

1.2.3 Integer Exponents

The laws that govern exponents are summarized below.
Let a and b be real numbers and m and n are positive integers.

1. mth power of a: am = a • a • a • . . . • a

2. Product of powers: am • an = am+n

3. Quotient of powers: am / a n = am – n

4. Power of a power: (am)n = amn

5. Power of a product: (ab)m = ambm

6. Power of a quotient: (a/b)n = an/bn

7. Negative exponent: a– n = 1/an

8. Zero exponent: a0 = 1, provided that a  0

1.2.4 Operations on Polynomials

1.2.4.1 Addition and Subtraction of Polynomials

To add or subtract polynomials, arrange similar terms in column and find the sum or the difference of the
terms in each column.
Example 1 Find the sum of the given expressions: 9x2 – 8x + 3, 6x2 + 7x +4, -11x2 + 2x – 5
Solution:
Arrange the following polynomials in column we have,
9x2 – 8x + 3
6x2 + 7x +4
-11x2 + 2x – 5
4x2 + x + 2
Example 2 Subtract the sum of 2x + 3y – 5z and 3x – 4y + 7z from the sum of –2x +3y – 4z and 5x + 2y – 3z.
Solution:
The sum of 2x + 3y – 5z and 3x – 4y + 7z is 7x – y + 2z, while the sum of –2x +3y – 4z and
5x + 2y – 3z is 3x + 5y – 7z. Now, arrange these sums in column starting with minuend followed by subtrahend.
3x + 5y – 7z
– (7x – y + 2z)
-4x + 12y – 9z

Grouping Symbols
The commonly used grouping symbols are the parentheses ( ), braces { }, brackets [ ], and vinculum .
Terms inside a grouping symbol form a single quantity.

Rules in Simplifying Algebraic Expressions

1. Remove the grouping symbols by applying the distributive property of multiplication over addition.
2. In case a grouping symbol encloses another grouping symbol, remove the innermost symbol first and work
from the inside out.
3. Collect similar terms as they appear.
4. Arrange the resulting expression in alphabetical and descending power of the variable.

Example Remove the grouping symbols and combine similar terms.

2a –[2c –3b – (2a + 4c – 3b) – 2a] – (c – b)
Solution:
2a –[2c –3b – (2a + 4c – 3b) – 2a] – (c – b) = 2a –[2c –3b – 2a – 4c + 3b– 2a] – c + b
= 2a –[– 4a – 2c] – c + b = 2a + 4a + 2c – c + b
= 6a + b + c

1.2.4.2 Multiplication of Polynomials

To multiply polynomials, arrange the terms of both polynomials in descending powers of one variable,
then multiply each term of one polynomial by all the terms of the other polynomial. Combine similar terms. The
resulting expression must be in alphabetical and descending order of one variable.

Example 1 Find the product of 2x2y and 3xy3 – 5x2y4.

Solution:
By distributive property and applying law of exponents we have
2x2y(3xy3 – 5x2y4) = 2x2y(3xy3) – 2x2y(5x2y4) = 6 x3y4 – 10 x4y5
Example 2 Find the product of 2x – 3y and 3x2 + 2xy – y2.
Solution:
Applying the horizontal method, use distributive property and law of exponents we get,
(2x – 3y)(3x2 + 2xy – y2) = 2x(3x2 + 2xy – y2) – 3y(3x2 + 2xy – y2)
= 6x3 + 4x2 y – 2xy2 – 9x2 y – 6xy2 + 3y3
= 6x3 – 5x2 y – 8xy2 + 3y3
Alternative Solution:
Applying the column method, we have
3x2 + 2xy – y2
2x – 3y
6x3 + 4x2 y – 2xy2
– 9x2 y – 6xy2 + 3y3
6x3 – 5x2 y – 8xy2 + 3y3
1.2.4.3 Division of polynomials
1. Arrange the terms of the dividend and divisor in descending powers of one variable.
2. Divide the first term of the dividend by the first term of the divisor to get the first term of the
quotient.
3. Multiply the first term in the quotient by each term of the divisor and subtract the product from the
dividend.
4. Treat the difference as the new dividend. Repeat steps 1 to 3 until a remainder whose degree is less
than the divisor is obtained.

Example 1. Find the quotient and remainder when x3 – 3x2 + 2x + 5 is divided by x + 2.

Solution:
x2 – 5x + 12
x + 2  x3 – 3x2 + 2x + 5
–(x3 + 2x2)
– 5x2 + 2x + 5
– (– 5x2 – 10x)
12x + 5
– (12x + 24)
– 19
𝑥 3 – 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5 19
= 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 12 − 𝑥+2
𝑥+2

Example 2. Find the quotient and remainder when 3x4 – 4x2 + 8x + 3 is divided by 3x2 + 6x + 2.
Solution:
x2 – 2x + 2
3x + 6x + 2 3x4 + 0x3 – 4x2 + 8x + 3
2

– ( 3x4 + 6x3 + 2x2)

– 6x3 – 6x2 + 8x + 3
– (– 6x3 –12x2 – 4x)
6x2 + 12x + 3
– (6x2 + 12x + 4)
–1
4 2
3𝑥 – 4𝑥 + 8𝑥 + 3 1
2
= 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 2 − 2
3𝑥 + 6𝑥 + 2 3𝑥 + 6𝑥 + 2

Synthetic Division
Steps in synthetic division:
1. Arrange the coefficients of the dividend in descending powers of the variable involved supplying zero as
the coefficient of each missing power.
2. Replace the divisor x – c by c.
3. Bring down the coefficient of the largest power of the variable involved, multiply it by c, place the product
beneath the coefficient of the second largest power of the variable, and add the product to that coefficient.
Multiply this sum by c and place the product beneath the coefficient of the next largest power of the
variable. Continue this process until there is a product added to the constant term.
4. The last term in the third row is the remainder, and the other numbers, reading from left to right, are the
coefficients of the quotient which is one degree less than the dividend.

Example 1 Using synthetic division, divide x3 – 3x2 + 2x + 5 by x + 2.

Solution:
x – c = x + 2; c = -2
coefficient: x3 x2 x constant
-2  1 -3 2 5
-2 10 -24
1 -5 12 -19 → remainder
coefficient: x2 x constant

𝑥 3 – 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5 19
= 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 12 −
𝑥 + 2 𝑥+2
Example 2 Using synthetic division, divide 2x3 + x2 – 12 by 2x – 3.
Solution:
2x – 3 = 2(x – 3/2), thus, c = 3/2
coefficient: x3 x2 x constant
3/2  2 1 0 -12
3 6 9
2 4 6 -3→ remainder
coefficient: x2 x constant
2𝑥 3 +𝑥 2 −12 2𝑥 3 +𝑥 2 −12 1 2𝑥 3 +𝑥 2 −12 1 3
2𝑥−3
= 3 = (
2 3 )=2 (2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 6 − 3 )
2(𝑥− ) 𝑥− 𝑥−
2 2 2
2𝑥 3 +𝑥 2 −12 3
= 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3 −
2𝑥−3 2𝑥−3

1.2.4.4 The Remainder Theorem

If a polynomial P(x) is divided by another polynomial x – c, the result is Q(x) + R where Q(x) is the
quotient and R the remainder.
Theorem: If a polynomial P(x) is divided by x – c, the remainder is P(c).

Example 1 Use the remainder theorem to determine the remainder when x3 – 3x2 + 2x + 5 is divided by x + 2.
Solution:
P(-2) = (-2)3 – 3(-2)2 + 2(-2) + 5 = -19

Example 2 Use the remainder theorem to determine the remainder when 2x3 + x2 – 12 is divided by 2x – 3.
Solution:
P(3/2) = 2(3/2)3 + (3/2)2 – 12 = -3

1.2.5 Special Products

There are certain cases of products of polynomials, which have been classified because of the special
forms of the factors. These products can be obtained easily by applying the Special Product Formulas.

A. Product of Two Binomials (FOIL method)

(ax + b)(cx + d) = acx2 + (ad + bc)x + bd

Example Find the product of (a) (3x + 5y)(4x – 7y); (b) (2x2 – 3y3)(5x2 + 4y3); (c) (3.4a + 5.3b)( 7.4a + 2.3b)
Solution:
(a) (3x + 5y)(4x – 7y) = (3x)(4x)+ [(3x)(-7y) + (4x)(5y)] + (5y)(-7y) = 12x2 – xy – 35y2
(b) (2x2 – 3y3)(5x2 + 4y3) = (2x2)(5x2) + [(2x2)( 4y3) + (5x2)(- 3y3)] + (-3y3)( 4y3) =10x4 – 7x2y3 – 12y6
(c) (3.4a + 5.3b)(7.4a + 2.3b) =(3.4a)( (7.4a) + [((3.4a)( 2.3b) + (7.4a)(5.3b)] + (5.3b)( 2.3b)
= 21.42a + 21.4a.3b + 10.32b

B. Square of a Binomial
(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
(x – y)2 = x2 –2xy + y2

Example Find the product of (a) (4a – 3b)2; (b) (5x2y4 + 2z3)2; (c) [3a2 – (2b3 – c4)]2
Solution:
(a) (4a – 3b)2 = (4a)2 – 2(4a)(3b) + (3b)2 = 12a2 – 24ab + 9b2
(b) (5x2y4 + 2z3)2 = (5x2y4)2 + 2(5x2y4)( 2z3) + (2z3)2 = 25x4y8 + 20x2y4z3 + 4z6
(c) [3a2 – (2b3 – c4)]2 = (3a2)2 – 2(3a2)(2b3 – c4) + (2b3 – c4)2 = 9a4 – 12a2b3 + 6a2c4 + 4b6 – 4b3c4 + c8

C. Sum and Difference of Two Like Terms

(x + y)(x – y) = x2 – y2

Example Find the product of (a) (5x + 3y)(5x – 3y); (b) (6a2 + 7b3)( 6a2 – 7b3); (c) (x4m + 5y3n)(x4m – 5y3n)
Solution:
(a) (5x + 3y)(5x – 3y) = (5x)2 – (3y)2 = 25x2 – 9y2
(b) (6a2 + 7b3)( 6a2 – 7b3) = (6a2)2 – (7b3)2 = 6a4 – 49b6
(c) (x4m + 5y3n)(x4m – 5y3n) = (x4m)2 – (5y3n)2 = x8m – 25y6n
D. Cube of a Binomial
(x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3
(x – y)3 = x3 – 3x2y + 3xy2 – y3

Example Find the product of (a) (3x2 +y5)3; (b) (2ax – 5by)3
Solution:
(a) (3x2 +y5)3 = (3x2)3 + 3(3x2)2(y5) + 3(3x2)( y5)2 + (y5)3 = 27x6 + 27x4y5 + 9x2y10 + y15
(b) (2ax – 5by)3 = (2ax)3 – 3(2ax)2(5by) + 3(2ax)( 5by)2 – (5by)3 = 8a3x – 60a2xby + 150axb2y – 125b3y

E. Square of a Trinomial
(x + y + z)2 = x2 + y2 + z2 + 2xy + 2xz + 2yz

Example Find the product of (a) (3x – 2y + 4z)2; (b) (a + b – c – d)2

Solution:
(a) (3x – 2y + 4z)2 = (3x)2 + (– 2y)2 + (4z)2 + 2(3x)( – 2y) + 2(3x)( 4z) + 2(– 2y)( 4z)
= 9x2 + 4y2 + 16y2 – 12xy + 24xz – 16yz
(b) (a + b – c – d)2 = [(a + b – c) – d]2 = (a + b – c)2 – 2(a + b – c)d + d2
= a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab – 2ac – 2bc – 2ad – 2bd + 2cd + d2
= a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 + 2ab – 2ac – 2ad – 2bc– 2bd + 2cd
1.2.6 Factoring

Factoring is a process of expressing the given number or expression in terms of its prime factors. Factors
are quantities that when multiplied yield an algebraic expression.

When the factors of a number are just 1 and the number itself, the number is called a prime number.
However, if a number is greater than 1 and it is not a prime number, it is called a composite number.

Types of Factoring

A. Greatest Common Factor: ax + ay = a(x + y)

The easiest type of factoring occurs when the terms have a common factor.

Example Factor each expression: (a) 3x2 – 6x; (b) 8x4y2 + 6x3y3 – 2xy4
Solution:
(a) 3x2 – 6x = 3x(x – 2)
(b) 8x4y2 + 6x3y3 – 2xy4 = (2xy2)(4x3) + (2xy2)(3x2y) + (2xy2)(–y2) = 2xy2(4x3 + 3x2y – y2)

B. Difference of Two Squares: x2 – y2 = (x + y)(x – y)

Example Factor each expression completely: (a) 2x4 – 8x2; (b) x5y2 – xy6
Solution:
(a) 2x4 – 8x2 = 2x2(x2 – 4) = 2x2(x – 2)(x + 2)
(b) x5y2 – xy6 = xy2(x4 – y4) = xy2(x2 + y2)(x2 – y2) = xy2(x2 + y2)(x + y)(x – y)

C. Sum or Difference of Two Cubes: x3 + y3 = (x + y)(x2 – xy + y2) or x3 – y3 = (x – y)(x2 + xy + y2)

Example Factor each polynomial: (a) 27x3 – 1; (b) x6 + 8

Solution:
(a) 27x3 – 1 = (3x)3 – 13 = (3x – 1)[(3x)2 + (3x)(1) + 12= (3x – 1)(9x2 + 3x + 1)
(b) x6 + 8 = (x2)3 + 23 = (x2 + 2)(x4 – 2x2 + 4)

D. Perfect Square Trinomial: x2 + 2xy + y2 = (x + y)2 or x2 – 2xy + y2 = (x – y)2

Note that we recognize a perfect square if the middle term (2xy or –2xy) is plus or minus twice the
product of the square roots of the outer two terms.

Example Factor each trinomial: (a) x2 + 6x + 9; (b) 4x2 – 4xy + y2

Solution:
(a) Since the outer terms are perfect squares and the middle term is twice the square roots of the outer
terms we have, x2 + 6x + 9 = (x + 3)2
(b) Again, the outer terms are both perfect squares and the middle term is twice the square roots of the
outer terms we have, 4x2 – 4xy + y2 = (2x – y)2
E. Factoring Quadratic Trinomial
Case 1:
To factor a trinomial of the form x2 + bx + c, we note that
(x + r)(x + s) = x2 + (r + s)x + rs
so we need to choose numbers r and s so that r + s = b and rs = c.

Example Factor: x2 + 7x + 12
Solution:
We need to find two integers whose product is 12 and whose sum is 7.
By trial and error we find that the two integers are 3 and 4. Thus, the factorization is
x2 + 7x + 12 = (x + 3)(x + 4)
CASE 2:
To factor a trinomial of the form ax2 + bx + c with a  1, we look for factors of the form px + r and qx + s:
ax2 + bx + c = (px + r)(qx + s) = pqx2 + (ps + qr)x + rs
Therefore, we try to find numbers p, q, r, and s such that pq = a, rs = c, ps + qr = b.
If these numbers are all integers, then we will have a limited number of possibilities to try for p, q, r,
and s.

Example Factor each expression: (a) x2 – 2x – 3; (b) (5a + 1)2 – 2(5a + 1) – 3

Solution:
(a) x2 – 2x – 3 = (x – 3)(x + 1)
(b) This expression is of the form where represents 5a + 1. This is the same form as the expression in
part (a), so it will factor as (5a – 2)(5a + 2)

F. Factoring by Grouping
Polynomials with at least four terms can sometimes be factored by grouping terms. Here, terms are grouped
together so that a common factor between factors can be collected.

Example Factor each polynomial: (a) x3 + x2 + 4x + 4; (b) x3 – 2x2 – 3x + 6; (c) m2 – 4n2 + 12n – 9
Solution:
(a) x3 + x2 + 4x + 4 = (x3 + x2) + (4x + 4) = x2(x + 1) + 4(x + 1) = (x2 + 4)(x + 1)
(b) x3 – 2x2 – 3x + 6 = (x3 – 2x2) – (3x – 6) = x2(x – 2) – 3(x –2) = (x2 – 3)(x – 2)
(c) m2 – 4n2 + 12n – 9 = m2 – (4n2 – 12n + 9) = m2 – (2n – 3)2 = [m + (2n – 3)][m – (2n – 3)]
= (m + 2n – 3)(m – 2n + 3)

G. Factoring by Adding and Subtracting a Suitable Term

This type of factoring is usually applied to polynomials of degree 4 with two terms being perfect squares. By
addition and subtraction of suitable terms, the given polynomial will lead to the difference of two squares.

Example Factor each polynomial: (a) a4 + 4b4; (b) 16x4 – 24x2y2 + 25y4
Solution:
(a) a4 + 4b4 = (a4 + 4b4) + 4a2b2 – 4a2b2 = (a4 + 4a2b2 + 4b4) – 4a2b2 = (a2 + 2b2)2 – (2ab)2
= (a2 + 2b2 + 2ab)( a2 + 2b2 – 2ab) = (a2 + 2ab + 2b2)( a2 – 2ab + 2b2)
(b) 16x – 24x2y2 + 25y4 = (16x4 – 24x2y2 + 25y4) + 64x2y2 – 64x2y2
4

= (16x4 +40x2y2 + 25y4) – 64x2y2 = (4x2 + 5y2)2 – (8xy)2

= (4x2 + 5y2 + 8xy)(4x2 + 5y2 –8xy) = (4x2 + 8xy + 5y2)(4x2 –8xy + 5y2)