CHAPTER 1

REAL NUMBERS AND OPERATIONS WITH REAL NUMBERS

1.1 REAL NUMBERS: ODER AND ABSOLUTE VALUE
 Given any number, we know that n is real number where can be either rational or
irrational.
 The real numbers can be classified in to different groups which are Natural numbers
(N), Whole Numbers (W), Integers Numbers (I), Rational Numbers (R) and Irrational
numbers (IR). The Figure 1 indicate the subset for each group on the real number.

Figure 1: Real numbers categories

Example: Categorise the following numbers according to their classes.

{ 2.5 , √ 3 ,−0.65 , π ,0.333 3 , 2.1398230457 … . ,−6 , 0 ,, , 3 }
Natural Numbers 3 , √ 25
Whole Numbers 0 , 3 , √ 25
Integers −6 , 0
Rational numbers 2.5 ,−0.65 ,0.333 3 ,−6 ,, , 3
Irrational numbers √ 3 , π 2.1398230457 … .

Exercise: Categorise the following numbers according to their classes.

1.

{1
2
5 4 3 3 9 24
,−1 , 0 , 4 ,− , ,− , 0.86 , √ 2 , √ 9 ,−3 ,20 , π , , , 4.5 , 10 ,−82 ,− ,−8.2, √ 5 ,
8 2 1 2 3 3
1
5 }
2. {√13 ,− 52 , 6.5 ,−4.5 , 84 , 34 , 25 ,−1 , √ 3 ,1.5 ,−π , 0.444 4 , √ 16 ,−3.45}
pg. 1
Real Number Line
The real numbers can be visualized on a horizontal number line with original value which O
and from the left side listed all the negative values which are less than zero and from the right
side to 0 there are positive values which are greater than zero. In the Figure 2 Indicate the
Real number Line

Figure 2: Real Number Line

Absolute Value
For any real number, its distance from zero on the real number line is its absolute value. A
pair of vertical bars, | | is used to denote absolute value.
Example: Evaluate each expression
a. | 3 | = 3
b. |−3.2| = 3.2

1.2 PROPERTIES OF REAL NUMBERS

There are 9 properties of real numbers which work on same concpet in to two operation
which are addition (+) and Multiplication ( ×). Commuative , Associative , Identity , Inverse ,
and Distrubtive Property of the real numbers.

Figure 3: The Properties of real numbers

pg. 2
Exercise: Identify the property of real numbers illustrated by each statement
a. 3 ( 6+2 ) =3 ×6+3 × 2
1
b. 5 × =1
5
c. 7+ (5+ 4 )=( 7+5 )+ 4
d. ( 12+3 ) +0=12+3
e. 4(11) =11(4)
1.3 OPERATIONS WITH RATIONAL NUMBERS (Fraction)
A fraction is a number that is written as a quotient, with numerator and denominator.
Fraction can consider as rational numbers.
Simplest form of fractions: To write a fraction in simplest form, divide both numerator and
denominator by their greatest common factors.
6 3×2 2
Example: Simplify the following fraction to simplest form = =
21 3 ×7 7

Exercise: Simplify each fraction to simplest form:

18 35 24 9 16
, , , ,
24 21 72 36 32

Addition and Subtraction of fractions

a c a∓c
1. With like denominators: ∓ ≡
b b b
a c a .d ∓ c .b
2. With unlike denominators : Alternative rule ∓ ≡
b d b.d
Example:
3 4 3−4 −1
1. − = ¿
12 12 12 12

1 3 1 ×7 3× 3 7 9 16
2. + = + ¿ + ¿
3 7 3 ×7 7 ×3 21 21 21
Exercise: Evaluate the following expressions.
3 1
a. +
8 2
15
b. 5−
4
25 3
c. 3− −
6 4

Multiplication of fractions:

 Multiply the numerator by the numerator.

 Multiply the denominator by the denominator.

pg. 3
For all real numbers a, b, c, d (b ≠ 0, d ≠ 0)
a c ac
× =
b d bd
1 5 1 ×5 5
Example: Multiply × = ¿
4 6 4 × 6 24
Division of fractions
For all real numbers a, b, c, d (b ≠ 0, c ≠ 0, d ≠ 0)
a c a d ad
÷ = × = Invert divisor and multiply
b d b c bc
3 5 3 7 3 ×7 21
Example: Divide: ÷ = × ¿ ¿
4 7 4 5 4×5 20
Exercise: Evaluate the expressions and write the results in simplest form.

a. ( )
−9 −20
50 27
−7 21
b. ÷
16 28

c.
32 ( )
15 −5
÷
4
−3 5 3
d. + +
7 14 4
3 3
e. ÷
8 4

1.4 EXPONENTS
Repeated multiplication can be described in exponential form.
5 × 5 × 5 × 5 = 54 (Exponential form).
Example: Evaluate the following expressions.

()
4
2
a. (-3)4 b. -34 c.
3
a. -3 × -3 × -3 × -3 = 81.

b. -3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = -81

2 2 2 2 16
× × × =
c. 3 3 3 3 81

Rules of Exponents
1. Product Rules

pg. 4
 a m a n  a m n
(ab) m  a m b m
(a m ) n  a mn
2. Quotient Rules :
am
n
 a mn
a

( )
m
a am
=
b bm
3. Negative rules
1
a n  n
a
a 1
0

Example: Using the rules of Exponents simplify the following expression:

a. ( 2 x 2 y ) (−x y 4 )
( 2 x 2 y ) (−x y 4 ) =( 2 )(−1 ) ( x 2 . x ) ( y . y 4 )
3 5
¿−2 x y
3
b. x ( x3 y 2 )

2 3
x ( x y ) =x ( x y )
3 3.3 2.3

¿ x ( x 9 y 6 ) = x 10 y 6
8 2
12 x y
c. 4
4x y
8 2 8 2
12 x y 12 x y
4
= ∙ 4
∙ = 3 x4 y
4x y 4 x y

d. x 3 ( 2 x−4 )

x 3 ( 2 x−4 )=2 ( x 3 ) ( x−4 )

2
¿2 x
−1
¿
x
−2
y
e. −5
3y
−2
y 1 −2−(−5 ) 1 3 y3
= y ¿ y ¿
3y
−5
3 3 3

pg. 5
Exercise: Use rules of exponents to simplify the following expression
−2 −3
a. (2 u v )
8 −12 2
b. x x x
c. ¿
−5 3 6 −4
d. (9 r s )(3 r s )
−3 3
4 4
e. ( t w−2 ) ( t w−2 )
9 9
2 4
(2 h k )
f.
(7 h−1 k 2)2

1.5 RADICALS

The " √ " symbol is used to denote the nonnegative square root of a number, this symbol is
called radical symbol. The principal square root of a is written as a. The symbol is called a
radical, the term under the symbol is called the radicand, and the entire expression is called a
radical expression.

Figure 4: Radical Expression

Properties of radicals:
1. Product rule: √n ab=√n a √n b

√ a √a
n
n
2. Quotient rule: =
b √n b

3. Power rule: √n an =a
Simplifying Radical Expression

Example

1.

2.
√ 48 = =4 √3
When you are just simplifying the expression , the ONLY answer is "2"; this positive result
is called the "principal" root.

Exercise: Use radical rules to simplify expression

pg. 6
 a.
√ 48
√64

√
6
x
b. 2
16 y

c.
√ 84
√ 36

1.6 Percent and Ratio

Percent: Here, we deal with conversion from Percent to decimals (or fractions) and vice
versa

Decimal (or fraction) x 100 % = Percent

Percent ÷ 100 = Decimal /Fraction

3
Example1: Convert each number to a percent a)1.20 and b) 5
a. (1.20) (100%) = 120%

3 300
b. 5 (100%) = 5 % = 60%

Exercise
1. Convert the decimal to a percent.
a. 0.62
b. 0.57
2. Convert the fraction to a percent.
4
a.
5
5
b.
6

3. Convert the percent to a decimal

a. 12.5%
b. 125%

pg. 7
Ratios

a
The ratio of the real number a to the real number, b is given by and sometime written as
b
a: b. A ratio is a comparison of one number with another by division.

Example: Write Ratios in Fractional form

7
a. The ratio of 7 to 5 is given by
5

1 1
b. The ratio of 3 to 5 is given by
2 4

1 7
3
2 2 7 4 2
= = . =
1 21 2 21 3
5
4 4

Exercise: Write the ratio as a fraction in simplest form

a. 36 to 9
1 3
b. 3 : 5
5 10

Comparing Measurements:

When comparing two measurements by a ratio, you should use the same unit of measurement
in both numerator and denominator.
Find the ratio of 4 feet to 8 inches

4 feet 48 inches 48 6
= = =
8 inches 8 inches 8 1

Exercise: Find the compares the relative sizes of the quantities.

1. Forty – two inches to 21 inches
2. Three inches to 2 feet

1.7 ORDER OF OPERATIONS

Order of Operations in mathematical expressions must be evaluated in a systematic order,
which can be simplified using the acronym PEMDAS: P(arentheses) E(xponents)
M(ultiplication) andD(ivision) A(ddition) and S(ubtraction)
Given a mathematical expression, simplify it using the order of operations.
1. Simplify any expressions within grouping symbols.

pg. 8
 2. Simplify any expressions containing exponents or radicals.
3. Perform any multiplication and division in order, from left to right.
4. Perform any addition and subtraction in order, from left to right.

Example Evaluate 7−[ ( 5 ×3 ) +23 ] = 7- [(5×3)+23 ] ¿ 7−[ ( 5× 3 ) +8 ]

¿ 7−[ 15+ 8 ] ¿ 7−23 = -16

Exercise: Evaluate the expressions using the order of operations.

5+ [ (−12 ) ÷ 4 ] b. 4 – 3[4 –2(6 – 3)] ÷ 2

a.
24
2
3 −30 d.16 – 3(8 – 3)2 ÷ 5
c. 11− +1
8+1

CHAPTER 2

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA
2.1 WRITING AND EVALUATING ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
A collection of terms which contains letters (variables) and real numbers (constants,
Coefficient) combined by arithmetic operation called an algebraic expression.
Algebraic Expression component
1. Terms: Parts that are separated by addition or subtraction.
2. Variable: Letters
3. Constant : Term which contain only numeric value
4. Coefficients The numerical factors with the variable.
Example1:

1. Identify the terms of each algebraic expression:

Algebraic Expression Terms

i. x +2 x ,2
ii. 5 ( x−3 ) +3 x−4 5 ( x−3 ) , 3 x ,−4
x+ 9 x +9
iii. 4−6 x + 4 ,−6 x ,
3 3

pg. 9
2. Identify the coefficient of an algebraic expression:
Term Coefficient
i. −5 x
2
−5
2x 2
ii.
3 3
iii. −x
3
−1

Exercise: Identify the terms, variables, constants and coefficient, for the following algebraic
expressions
Expression terms coefficients constant variables
2 y−5 x−7
5 ( 2 x −3 ) +5 x−4
y +3
4−6 x +
3
2
x −4 x+5
2
y −2(x + y )

Evaluating the Algebraic Expression

To replace an algebraic expression with values in each variable given on the Expression.
Example
1. Expression 2 x+3 substitute x=2 , 2(2) + 3 new value of the
expression, 7

2. Evaluate the expression y−2 ( x + y )for x=−3∧ y=5 .

Solution: When x=−3∧ y=5 , the value of y−2 ( x + y ) is
y−2 ( x + y )=5−2 [ (−3 ) +5 ]
¿ 5−2(1)
¿1
Exercise: Evaluate each expression for the given values of the variables
a. −x when x=−3
b. x− y when x=−3∧ y=5
2
c. y −3 y when y=5
d. y−2(x+ y) when x=2∧ y=−2
e. x−3( x− y) when x=3∧ y=4
f. |x− y| when x=4∧ y=−6
Like Terms

pg. 10
 In algebraic expressions, like terms are terms that contain the same variables raised to the
same power. Only the coefficients of like terms are different.

Like terms are terms that contain the same variables raised to the same power. Only the
numerical coefficients are different. In an expression, only like terms can be combined.
We combine like terms to shorten and simplify algebraic expressions, so we can work
with them more easily. To combine like terms, we add the coefficients and keep the
variables the same

Example 3
Identify the like terms in expressions:
i. 5xy + 1 –xy like terms : 5xy , -xy
ii. 12 - x 2+ 3 x −5 like terms : 12 , -5
iii. 7x – 3 -2x +5 like terms: 7x , -2x and -3 , 5

Exercise: Identify like terms for the following algebraic expression

a. 16t 3+4t-5t+3t 2
b. a 2+ 5ab 2- 3b 2+7a 2b - ab 2+a 2
c. 2 x 2 y +5 x y 2−3 x 2 y+ 4 xy +7 x y 2
d. x 3+ 4 x 2y - 2 y 2+ 5x y 2+10 x 2y+ 3x

2.2 SIMPLIFYING ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

Written the expression in its most compact form, using the fewest symbols possible.

Examples
Simplify the following algebraic expression:
1. y−4 x−7 y + 9 y =−4 x +( y−7 y + 9 y )

¿−4 x + ( 1−7 +9 ) y ¿−4 x +3 y

2. −3 (−5 x )=(−3 ) (−5 ) x ¿ 15 x

3. 5 x−2 [ 4 x +3 ( x−1 ) ] =5 x−2 [ 4 x +3 x−3 ]
¿ 5 x−[ 7 x−3 ]
¿ 5 x−14 x +6 ¿−9 x+ 6

4. −7 y +3 [ 2 y−( 3−2 y ) ] −5 y+ 4=−7 y +3 [ 2 y −3+2 y ] −5 y +4

¿−7 y +3 [ 4 y−3 ] −5 y +4

pg. 11
 ¿−7 y +12 y −9−5 y + 4
¿ (−7 y +12 y−5 y ) + (−9+ 4 ) ¿−5

5. 2 x ( x +3 y ) +4 (5−xy )=2 x 2+ 6 xy+ 20−4 xy

2 2
¿ 2 x +6 xy −4 xy +20 ¿ 2 x +2 xy +20
x 2x 1 2
6. + = x+ x
4 7 4 7

¿ ( 14 + 72 ) x
¿
[ 1(7 ) 2(4)
+
4 (7) 7 (4)]x ¿
15 x
28

Exercise: Simplify the following algebraic expressions

a. 2 ( x−2 ) +4
b. ( 2 x−1 ) 2+ x + 9
2
c. ( 12 x+15 )+ 16
3
2.3 POLYNOMIALS
Polynomials is a special algebraic expression with terms that consist of real number coefficients and
variable factors with whole number exponents. A polynomial is a single term or a sum or difference
of terms in which all variables have whole-number exponents and no variable appears in the
denominator. Each term can be either a constant, a variable, or a combination of coefficients and
variables. The numerical part of the term is the coefficient. The highest power is the degree of the
polynomial.

Writing Polynomials in Standard Form

Write each polynomial in standard form and identify the degree and leading coefficient.
Polynomial Standard Form Degree Leading Coefficient
i. 4−9 x
2 2
−9 x + 4 2 −9
ii. 8 8 0 8
3 2 3 2
iii. 2+ x −5 x x −5 x + 2 3 1

Exercise Write each polynomial in standard form and identify the degree and leading
coefficient.
a. 7 x−5 x 2+ 10
b. 3 x 2−5−x 3 +2 x
c. 4 x 2−5 x 7 −2+ 3 x
Adding and Subtracting Polynomials

pg. 12
The key point of adding or subtracting polynomials is to recognise like terms those having
the same degree
a) Solve using horizontal format:
( 3 x 2 +x−6 ) + ( x 2 +4 x +10 )
Solution: Group Like Terms and Simplify

( 3 x 2 + x−6 ) + ( x 2 + 4 x +10 )= ( 3 x2 + x 2 ) + ( x +4 x ) + (−6 +10 )

¿ 4 x2 +5 x+ 4
b) Solve using the horizontal format:

( 4 x 2−3 x+5 ) −( 3 x 2−x−8 )

( 4 x 2−3 x +5 ) −( 3 x 2−x−8 )=4 x 2 −3 x +5−3 x2 +x+8
¿ ( 4 x 2−3 x 2 ) + (−3 x +x ) + ( 5+8 )
¿ x 2−2 x +13
Exercise: Perform the indicated operations and simplify the following:

a. ( 2 x 2+3 )−(3 x2 −4)

b. (x ¿¿ 2+3)−( x2−2 x−2)¿
c. ( 2 x 2+3 x +1 ) +(x 2−2 x +2)
d. ( 2 x 2−x+ 3 ) + ( 4 x 2−7 x+ 2 ) +(−x 2 + x−2)
e. ( x 2−2 x+ 2 )−[ ( x2 + x−3 )−(−2 x 2−4 x ) ]

Multiplying Polynomials
To multiply polynomials, we use many of the rules for simplifying algebraic expressions
1. The distributive property
2. Combine like terms
Examples:
1. Find the product of the following:

i. ( 3 x−7 )(−2 x )

( 3 x−7 )(−2 x )=3 x (−2 x )−7 (−2 x )

2
¿−6 x +14 x

ii. (m - 3)(m - 9)
m(m - 9) - 3(m -9)

pg. 13
 m2 - 9m - 3m + 27 m2 - 12m + 27

Exercise:
a. x 2 (4 x 2−3 x +1)
b. (6−2 x)( 4 x+ 3)
c. (3 x 3+ x+7)( x 2 +1)
d. ( x−1)2

Dividing Polynomials: Dividing a Polynomial by a Monomial

To divide a polynomial by a monomial, divide each term of the polynomial by a monomial.

Let a, b, and c be real numbers, variables, or algebraic expressions, such that c≠0

a+b a b a−b a b
= + = −
1. c c c 2. c c c
Example 4
1. Divide:
x 3 −5 x 2 x 3 5 x2
= 2− 2
x2 x x
=x−5

Exercise: Divide the following polynomials

4 x 2 −3 x
a. 3x

b. (5 x 3−4 x 2 −x+6)÷2x

c. (8 x 4 +6 x 3 +3 x 2−2x)÷3x 2

pg. 14
2.4 FACTORING POLYNOMIALS
1. Factoring Polynomials with Common Factors: To find the greatest common factor as
Coefficient and variable.
Example: factorize by GCF:
i. 3x – 12 = 3(x – 4)
ii. 12y3 – 5y2 = y2(12y – 5)
2. Factoring Special Polynomial Forms

 Difference of two squares

a 2 − b2 = ( a − b )( a + b )
Example: factorize by Difference of square
y2 – 16 = y2 – 42 = (y + 4 ) (y – 4)
 Perfect Square trinomial

a 2 + 2ab + b 2 = ( a + b )2
a 2 − 2ab + b2 = ( a − b )2
Example: factorize 4x2 + 12x + 9 = (2x + 3)
3. Factoring trinomials by Grouping
• The trinomial must be turned into a 4-term expression by breaking the middle term apart.
The grouping method can then be applied to complete the factorisation:
• Can be factored by trial method.

Exercise: Factorize the following polynomials

a. 4 x 2−25
b. 3 x 2−12 x
c. 2 x 2−8
d. 3 x 2+7 x −6
e. x 2−3 x−28
f. x 2−12 x+36
g. x 2−9 x +20

pg. 15
 CHAPTER 3
EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
3.1 LINEAR EQUATION:

A linear equation is one in which the variables are to the first power;

ax + b = c (a, b, c are constants)

Examples are 2x - 5 = 4 and 3x + 5y = 12.

When you are asked to solve a linear equation you are being asked to find the value of the
variable which will make the equation a true statement.

Example:
x = 4 is the solution to the equation 2x - 4 = 4. That means that if I substitute 4 into the
equation I will get a true statement; 2(4) - 4 = 8 - 4 = 4.

Solving linear equation

1) The object in solving an equation is to isolate the variable to one side with a
coefficient of positive one.

2) If you are bringing a term to the opposite side of the equal symbol, then do the
opposite operation.

GUIDELINE:

1) Simplify any grouping symbols.

2) If you would like to eliminate fractions, then multiply each term by the LCD.
2) Combine like terms.
3) Bring variables to one side of equal symbol.
4) Apply the addition property.
5) Apply the multiplication/division property.
6) Check your solution in the original equation.

pg. 16
EXAMPLES:

1) Solve x + 7 = 29
x = 22 is the solution. subtract 7 on both sides

3
2) Solve 4 + m = - 12
3
−12
m= 4 is the solution. subtract 3/4 on both sides

3) Solve 2x = 8 divide both sides by 2/3

3 or
multiply both sides by the
x = 12 is the solution. reciprocal, 3/2

4) Solve 4x – 3 = 29

4x = 32 add 3 to both sides

x = 8 is the solution. divide both sides by 4

5) Solve 7x + 12 = 13x - 21.

-6x + 12 = -21 subtract 13x on both sides

-6x = -33 subtract 12 on both sides
x = 33/6 is the solution. divide both sides by -6

6) Solve 3(2x - 1) = 4(x + 5).

6x - 3 = 4x + 20 simplify by distributing
2x - 3 = 20 subtract 4x on both sides
2x = 23 add 3 on both sides
x = 23/2 or 11.5 is the solution. divide both sides by 2

7) Solve 3[2m - (7 - 3m)] = m - 21.

3[2m - 7 + 3m] = m - 21 simplify grouping symbols

3[5m - 7] = m - 21
15m - 21 = m - 21

pg. 17
 14m - 21 = -21 subtract m on both sides
14m = 0 add 21 on both sides
m = 0 is the solution. divide both sides by 14

8) Solve 4 - 1x = 3x - 1 .
5 4 10

20 ∙ 4 - 20 ∙ 1x = 20 ∙ 3x - 20 ∙ 1 . Multiply each term by LCD of 20.

5 4 10

16 - 5x = 6x - 20
16 - 11x = -20 subtract 6x on both sides
-11x = -36 subtract 16 on both sides
x = 36/11 is the solution. divide both sides by -11

3 1 3
− =
9) Solve x x 5
2

10x ∙ 3 – 10x ∙ 3 = 10x ∙ 2 multiply each term by LCD of 10x

2x 5 x

15 - 6x = 20
-6x = 5 subtract 15 on both sides
x = -5/6 is the solution. divide both sides by -6

Exercise: Solve the equation and check your solution

1. 3 y +2(8−5 y)=4 ( y−5)
x
2. +3= x+6
3
3. −¿3(4 + x) = 5(10 + x)
4. 4 x+3 [ x−2 ( 2 x−1 ) ] =4−3 x
5. 3[(3x + 5)-7] = 3(4x - 3)
x x
6. + =1
3 4

10−x x +4
7. =
2 5

2 −1
8. (z + 5) (z + 24) = 0
3 4

pg. 18
pg. 19
3.2 TRANSLATING PHRASES HAVING SPECIFIED VARIABLES
Key words and Phrases Operation
Sum , plus , greater than , increased by , more than , exceeds , total of Addition (+)
Difference , minus , less than , decreased by , subtracted from , reduce Subtraction (-)
by, the remainder
Product , multiplied by , twice , times , percent of Multiplication (׿
Quotient , divided by , ratio , per Division (÷ ¿

Example 1: Translate each phrase into an algebraic expression:

i. Three less thanm . M–3
n
ii. The quotient ofn∧7.
7
x−3
iii. The difference of a number and 3, all divided by 12.
12
iv. Five decreased by the product of 3and a number. 5−3 x
v. k decreased by the product of8∧m. k −8 m
Example 2: Translate algebraic expression into verbal expression
i. x−12 Twelve less than a number.
x
ii. 5+ Five is increased by the quotient of a number and 2.
2
5+ x
iii. The sum of 5 and a number, all divided by 2.
2

Exercise

1. Write the phrase into an algebraic expression:

i. Three times the sum of a number and 4.

ii. The square of number increase by 1

iii. The ratio of a number and 50

iv. Fifteen more than the division of number and 5

2. Write a verbal description of the algebraic expression:

i. 3 x+ 2

( y −3)
ii.
4
3.3 APPLICATION OF ALGEBRA
Use linear equation to solve application problems
TRIANGLE
1
Area = . h . b where h is the height and b is the base
h 2
Perimeter = Sum of all sides.

RECTANGLE
Area = L.W
W
Perimeter = 2L+2W / Sum of all sides.
L

Example: 1 Write and simplify an expression for (a) the perimeter and (b) the area of the triangle.

2x 2 x+ 4

x +5
Solution: Perimeter of a Triangle = Sum of the Three Sides
¿ 2 x+ (2 x +4 ) + ( x+ 5 )

¿ ( 2 x+2 x + x )+ ( 4+ 5 )
¿ 5 x+ 9
1
b. Area of a Triangle = × Base × Height
2
1
¿ ( x+ 5 ) (2 x )
2
1
¿ ( 2 x ) ( x+ 5 )
2
¿ x ( x +5 ) ¿ x 2+ 5 x
Exercise:
1. Write and simplify expressions for
a. the perimeter
b. the area of the following figures:

x +7 3x+2
3x

3x

2x

3.4 LINEAR INEQUALITIES AND THEIR GRAPHS

Mathematical sentences that use any of the following symbols
 > Greater than  < Less than  ≤ Less than or equal to  ≥ Greater than or equal
to

Solving Inequalities
 Done the same way you solve equations.
 Exception: when you multiply or divide both sides of an inequality by a negative number, you
must change the direction of the inequality symbol.

Example: Solving Inequalities

Solve the following inequalities and graph the solution on the number line.
a. y + 3 > 5 b. x - 3 < 5
Step 1: Isolate y variable Step 1: Isolate the x variable
Subtract 3 from both sides add 3 to both sides
y+3>5 x-3<5
- 3 > -3 + 3 < +3
y >2 x < 9

–10–9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 –10–9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Example: Solving Inequalities
Solve the following inequalities and graph the solution on the number line.
a. 4y > 12 b. –3y > 15

Step 1: Isolate y variable Step 1: Isolate the y variable

divide both sides by 3 divide both sides by -3

> >
y>3 y < -5

–10–9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 –10–9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Example: Solve the following inequalities and graph the solution on the number line.
a. 2y + 3 < 9 b. 3y + 2y > 15

Step 1: Opposite of add is subtract Step 1: Add like terms

So subtract 3 from both sides So add 3y + 2y

Step 2: Perform the necessary operation Step 2: Perform the necessary operation
2y + 3 < 9 5y > 15
-3 -3
2y <6

Step 3: Opposite of multiply is divide Step 3: Opposite of multiply is divide

So, divide by 2 So, divide by 5

Step 4: Perform the necessary operation Step 4: Perform the necessary operation

<

>
 y<3

y > 3

–10–9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 –10–9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Exercise: Solve and graph the following inequalities

1. 3y -1 ≤−13
2. 3(2x-6) ¿ 10 x+ 2
x x
3. + ≤1
5 2
4. 10 ( 1− y ) ← 4 ( y−2 )

3.5 QUADRATIC EQUATION

An equation containing a second-degree polynomial is called a quadratic equation where the standard
form is ax2 + bx +c = 0, where a, b and c are real numbers with a ≠ 0. There are different methods of
solving and one of these methods is quadratic formula.

−b±√ b2 −4 ac
x=
2a
2
Discriminant of the quadratic expression is b −4 ac which indicate the number of solution , if the
result was positive that means there are two solution , if the results was equal to zero that means there
is only one solution and if the results was negative there will be no solution
Example 1
2
Use the quadratic formula to solve x + 3 x = 9
x 2 +3 x−9=0
−b±√ b 2−4 ac
x=
2a
−3±√ ( 3 )2 −4 ( 1 ) (−9 )
x=
2 ( 1)
−3±√ 45
x=
2
−3±3 √5
x=
2

−3+3 √ 5 −3−3 √5
x= x=
The two Solutions are 2 and 2
Example 2

Use the quadratic formula to solve

Exercise:
1. Use the discriminant to determine the number of real solutions of the quadratic equation

a. 2 x 2−5 x+5=0
b. −5 x2 −4 x+1=0
2
c . 2x −x−1=0
d . x 2 −4 x+4=0
2. Solve the quadratic equation using formula method
a. 2 x 2+ x−1=0
b. 25 x 2−20 x+ 3=0
c. x 2+ 8 x−4=0
 CHAPTER 04
LINES AND GRAPHS

4.1 THE RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEM AND GRAPHS

The Cartesian plane:

The Coordinate Plane A rectangular coordinate system is formed by two perpendicular number lines that
intersect at the point corresponding to the number 0 on each line. This point of intersection is called the
origin and is denoted by the symbol O. The horizontal and vertical number lines are called the x-axis
and the y-axis, respectively. These axes divide the plane into four regions, called quadrants.

Figure 5: The Cartesian plane

Example : Plot the points A (1, 2), B(-4, 3), C(-3/ 2, -2) , D(0, 4) and E(3.5, 0). Specify the quadrant in
which each point lies.

Figure 6: Plotting Points on the Cartesian plane

Sketching the graph by constructing a Table of Values:
Example:

Each equation represents a specific relationship between the variables x and y. If we find values of x and
y that satisfy the equation, we can plot the pairs of values on a two dimensional graph. Let’s find some
values of x and y that make –x + y = 2 a true statement.

X Y -x + y = 2
0 2 0+2=2
1 3 -1 + 3 = 2
2 4 -2 + 4 = 2
3 5 -3 + 5 = 2
4 6 -4 + 6 = 2
5 7 -5 + 7 = 2

Assuming that each pair of values represents the coordinates of a point we now have the points (0, 2), (1,
3), (2, 4), (3, 5), (4, 6), (5, 7)
Plotting these points on a rectangular coordinate system we have:

Graph of -x + y = 2

8
7
6
5
y axis

4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x axis

4.2 The Slope of a Line

The slope of a nonvertical line is the number of units the line rises or falls vertically for each unit of
horizontal change from left to righ.
Notice that the line has pitch to it. If this was the roof line of a house we might talk about this pitch as
rise over run, or a ratio of the vertical distance (rise) divided by the horizontal distance (run) as we move
from point to point along the line. We can calculate what we refer to as slope by setting up a ratio of the
difference between the y coordinates divided by the difference between the x coordinates for two points:
Slope = rise = y2 – y1
run x2 – x1
Using the first two point in our table (0, 2) and (1, 3) for (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) to calculate slope gives us
the following:

Slope = 3 – 2 = 1 = 1
1–0 1

So, this line has a slope of positive one. A line with a positive slope slants up and to the right. Slope is
an important concept in determining trends. Another way to calculate slope is to write the equation in
terms of y giving us the standard form: y = mx + b
When we write the equation for a line in this form, the coefficient m is the slope and the constant b is
the y-intercept (the point where the line crosses the y axis).
Solving –x + y = 2 for y involves the following steps:
Add x to both sides of the equation: y = x + 2 OR y = 1x + 2
The equation is now in the form y = mx + b. The coefficient of x is 1 which is the slope, and the y-
intercept is 2. If you look at the graph of the equation you can see that the line crosses the y axis at 2.

Example: Find the slope of a line through the Two points

a. (-2, 0) and (3, 1) b. (0, 2) and (2, 0)

a. Let ( x 1 , y 1 ) = (−2 , 0 ) and( x 2 , y 2 ) = ( 3 , 1 ) . The slope of the line through these points is
y 2− y 1
m = x 2−x 1
1−0
= 3 − (−2)
1
= 5
b. The slope of the line through (0, 2) and (2, 0) is
0−2
m=
2− 0
−2
= 2
= -1
Horizontal and Vertical Lines and their slopes
Example: Find the slope of the line passing through each pair of points
a. (-1, 2) and (2, 2) b. (3, 1) and (3, 4)
Solution
a. The line through (-1, 2) and (2, 2) is horizontal because
its y - coordinate are the same.
Let (x1, y1) = (-1, 2) and (x2, y2) then apply to the formula
The slope of this horizontal line is
y 2− y 1 2 −2 0
m=
m = x 2−x 1 , 2 − (−1 ) = 3 = 0

b. The line through (3, 1) and (3, 4) is vertical because its x - coordinates are the same.
Let (x1, y1) = (3, 1) and (x2, y2) = (3, 4)
y 2− y 1
m = x 2−x 1
4−1 3
m= = = undefined
3−3 0
Note: Slope of a Line
1. A line with positive slope (m > 0) rises from left to right.
2. A line with negative slope (m < 0) falls from left to right.
3. A line with zero slope (m = 0) is horizontal.
4. A line with undefined slope is vertical.

Using the slope and y - intercept to sketch a line

Example: Use the slope and y-intercept to sketch the graph of the equation, x – 3y = -6
Rewrite the equation in slope intercept form of the equation

x – 3y = - 6
-3y = -x -6
−x−6
y = −3

1
y = 3x + 2
Figure 8: Graphing by Slope and Y-intercept
 The intercepts are points that across either x – axis (x-intercept ) or y – axis (y-intercept ).
Example: Find x and y –intercept for 2y = 2x -4
To find x- intercept, y =0
2(0) = 2x -4
-2x = -4
X=2 x – int (2 ,0)
To find y- intercept, x=0
2y = 2(0) -4
2y = -4
Y = -2 y –int (0 , -2)
Exercise:
1. Find the slope of the line passing through each pair of points:
a. (-1,2) and (2,2)
b. (3,4) and (3,1)
2. Use slope and y- intercept to sketch the graph of the following equations
a. y=2 x−5
1
b. y= x−1
2
c. 2 x+ 6 y=9
3. Find x and y- intercept of the following equations:
a. 4x + 5y = 20
b. 3x + y = 2
c. 4x – y – 3 = 0
Equations of Lines

The equation of a line can be written in Standard Form (Ax + By = C) or in Slope-Intercept Form (y
= mx + b). In either form, you will need two pieces of information to write the equation of a line: 1)
slope and 2) y-intercept.

You will decide what approach to find the equation of the line depending on the information given.

If the information given is the slope and y-intercept:

substitute the given values of slope and y-intercept into the y = mx + b form.

EXAMPLES:
1) Write the equation of a line in slope-intercept form with a slope, 3/4, and passes through the y-
intercept, -2

use y = mx + b: y = 3/4x - 2

2) Write the equation of a line in standard form with a slope, -2, and passes through the point, (0, 5).

It should be recognized that (0, 5) is the y-intercept point and therefore, 5 = b.

m = -2 and b = 5 then y = -2x + 5 (slope-intercept form)

2x + y = 5 in Standard Form.

Point-Slope Formula is given by the following:

y - y1 = m(x - x1) where x1 and y1 are from the ordered pair

m is the slope
x and y are the variables

The point-slope formula is best used when you have slope and ordered pair.

If the information given is the slope and an ordered pair, (x1, y1):

 substitute the given slope and ordered pair into the point-slope formula
 solve for y

EXAMPLES:

1) Write the equation of a line in slope-intercept form with slope, -3/5, and passes through the point
(5, -2).

m = -3/5, x1 = 5 and y1 = -2

Substitute y - (-2) = -3/5(x - 5)

y + 2 = -3/5x + 3
y = -3/5x + 1

2) Write the equation of a line in standard form with slope, 4, and passes through the point,
(-1/3, 6).

m = 4, x1 = -1/3 and y1 = 6
 Substitute y - 6 = 4(x - (-1/3))
y - 6 = 4(x + 1/3)
y - 6 = 4x + 4/3
y = 4x + 22/3
-4x + y = 22/3

3) Write an equation of a line in slope-intercept form with slope, 0, and passes through the point, (8,
-4).

m = 0, x1 = 8 and y1 = -4

Substitute y - (-4) = 0(x - 8)

y+4=0
y = -4
EXAMPLES:

1) Write the equation of a line in slope-intercept form that passes through the points (-5, 7) and (4, -
9).

m = 7 - (-9) = 16
-5 - 4 -9

m = -16/9, using the point, (4, -9) x1 = 4 and y1 = -9

Substitute y - (-9) = -16/9(x - 4)
y + 9 = -16/9x + 64/9
y = -16/9x - 17/9
2) Write the equation of a line that passes through the points, (9, 2) and (9, 7).

m = 2 - 7 = -5
9-9 0

The slope is undefined. Therefore, the graph of the line is a vertical line. The equation of a vertical
line is in the form, x = a where a is the constant.

Therefore, the equation of the line is x = 9.

EXAMPLES:

1) Write an equation of a line that passes through the point (0, 4) and is perpendicular to 4x + 5y =
25.
 Need to find slope. The slope of the perpendicular line (y = -4/5x + 5) is -4/5. Then, take the
negative reciprocal which is 5/4.

m = 5/4, x1 = 0 and y1 = 4,
Substitute y - 4 = 5/4(x - 0)
y - 4 = 5/4x
y = 5/4x + 4

2) Write an equation of a line that passes through the point (1, 3) and is parallel
to y = 2x.

Need to find slope. The slope of the parallel line is 2.

m = 2, x1 = 1 and y1 = 3,
Substitute y - 3 = 2(x - 1)
y - 3 = 2x - 2
y = 2x + 1

Equations of horizontal and vertical lines

A horizontal line has a slope of zero. From the slope- intercept form of the equation of a line,
y = ( 0 ) x +b or y= b Horizontal Line

vertical line has an undefined slope, so its equation is written in the form x = a Vertical Line

Examples: Write an equation of the line for each of the following points

a. Vertical line through ( -3,2) , x = −3

b. Line passing through (-1, 2) and (4, 2) , y = 2
X = 4 is a vertical line passing through the X – intercept of 4
Y = -3 is a horizontal line passing through the Y – intercept of – 3
4.3 PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES

 Two lines are parallel, if and only if their slopes are equal. i.e. m1 = m2
 Two lines are perpendicular, if and only if their slopes are negative reciprocals to each other. i.e.
1
m1 = −
m2
Example: Find the slope – intercept form of the equation of the line that pass through the point (2,-1)
and is parallel to the line 2x – 3y = 5.
To begin , write the original equation in slope- intercept form.
2 x − 3 y =5
−3 y = −2 x + 5
2 5
y= x−
3 3
2
m=
slope 3
for parallel lines m1=m2

So the equation of the line through (2, -1), parallel to the original line is

y − y 1 = m ( x − x 1)
2
y − (− 1) = ( x − 2 )
3
2 4
y +1= x−
3 3
2 7
y= x−
3 3
Example: Find the slope – intercept form of the equation of the line that pass through the point (2,-1)
and is perpendicular to the line 2x – 3y = 5.
To begin , write the original equation in slope- intercept form.
2 x − 3 y =5
−3 y = −2 x + 5
2 5
y= x−
3 3
2
m=
slope 3

−1
For perpendicular lines m2=
m1
−3
m 2= ,
2
so the equation of the line passess through the point (2,-1) and perpendicular to the original line is

y − y 1 = m ( x − x 1)
−3
y − (− 1) = ( x − 2)
2
−3
y +1= x+3
2
−3
y= x +2
2

Exercise:
1. Determine whether the pairs of the lines are parallel or perpendicular
1
a. y=−3 x−2 and y= x +1
3
 1 1
b. y= x +1 and y= x−1
2 2

2. Find the slope – intercept form of the equation of the line that pass through the point (2,-3) and
is
a. parallel to the line 4x - 2y = 3
b. perpendicular to the line 4x - 2y = 3
3. Write the equation of the line that passes through the point (5, 3) and is parallel to 2 x− y=3

SYMMETRY
Type of symmetry Description of symmetry Graph
x-axis symmetry: Each half of the curve is a
mirror image of the other
half through the x-axis. If
an ordered pair (a, b) is a
solution for the equation,
then the ordered pair (a, -
b) will also be a solution.

y-axis symmetry Each half of the curve is a

mirror image of the other
half through the y-axis. If
an ordered pair (a, b) is a
solution for the equation,
then the ordered pair (-a,
b) will also be a solution.

origin symmetry Each half of the curve is a

mirror image of the other
half through the origin. If
an ordered pair (a , b) is a
solution for the equation,
then the ordered pair (-a,-
b) will also be a solution.

Chapter 5
 Trigonometry

Trigonometry is the study of the relations between the sides and angles of triangles. The
measure of an angle is the amount of rotation from the initial side to the terminal side. Probably the
most familiar unit of angle measurement is the degree. An angle is in standard position if its vertex is
located at the origin, and its initial side extends along the positive x-axis. If the angle is measured in a
counter clockwise direction from the initial side to the terminal side, the angle is said to be a positive
angle. If the angle is measured in a clockwise direction, the angle is said to be a negative angle.

Name of Angle Measurement

Acute angle between 0° and 90°
Right angle exactly 90°
Obtuse angle 90° and 180°
Straight angle exactly 180°
Reflex angle more than 180° but less than 360

Figure 9. Kinds of Angles

Complementary and Supplementary Angles

Two angles can also be classified according to the sum of their measures.
 Two acute angles are complementary if their sum equals 90°.
 Two angles between 0° and 180° are supplementary if their sum equals180°.

Ways of Measuring Angles

The central angle of a circle is an angle whose vertex is the center of the circle. A degree,
denoted by (°), or A radian (rad) is the measure of the central angle, which intercepts an arc
equal in length to the radius of the circle.
The following will remind you on how to convert one unit of measure to another.

From To Multiply by
Degree Radian
Radian Degree
Figure 10. Measurement of Angles

Examples:
A. The following converts degree measures to radian measures. Answers are expressed as
multiple of .

1. 2.

B. The following shows how to convert radian measures to degree measures.

 1. 2.
Exercise:
1. Express the following in radian measures.
1. 180⁰
2. 45⁰
3. 135⁰

2. Express the following in degree measures.

1.
2.

3.
3. Find the complementary angle of the given angles.
1. 16°
2. 60 °
3. 55°

4. Find the supplementary angle of the given angles.

1. 98°
2. 135°
3. 105°

5.2 ARC LENGTH AND AREA OF A SECTOR OF A CIRCLE

Arc length = C where m is the measure of the central angle and C is the circumference.

Area of sector = where m is the measure of the central angle and r is the radius of the circle.

Example 1: Given: P and m APC = a. Find the length of

120˚
Arc length =

P
4
A Arc length =

C
B Arc length = units

Given: P and mAPC = 120˚ b. Find the area of the shaded sector.

Asector =

4 Asector =

Asector = units2

Exercise:

1. Find the length and area of the arc on a circle of radius r intercepted by a central angle θ.

Given: Radius = 9 feet Central Angle θ = 60°

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Larson, R. (2010). Elementary algebra. 5th ed. Brooks/Cole ISBN- 13:978-1-439-04667-8
 2. Find the area and length of the sector of the circle with radius r and the central angle θ.

Given: Radius = 6 inches Central Angle θ =

3. In a circle with radius 10 cm, an arc is intercepted by a central angle with measure . Find
its Length and Area

5.3 The Trigonometric Functions

Right Angle Triangles:

The adjacent side and opposite side depend on which angle you are using.

Abbreviation Definition
A
B

cc sin A =
b
BB
B
cos A =
C B
B a
B tan A =

Example 1. For the right triangle ∆ ABC shown on the right, find the values of trigonometric
functions of the acute angles A and B. B
5
Solution: 3

The hypotenuse of ∆ ABC has length 5. For angle A, C A

4
the opposite side BC has length 3
and the adjacent side AC has length 4. Thus:

sin A cos A tan A

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Larson, R. (2010). Elementary algebra. 5th ed. Brooks/Cole ISBN- 13:978-1-439-04667-8
For angle B, the opposite side AC has length 4 and the adjacent side BC has length 3. Thus

sin B cos B tan B

Rule: Pythagorean Theorem

a2 = b2 + c2 - Where a is the hypotenuse
1 B
◦
Example 2: Find the values of trigonometric functions of 45 .

Solution: By the Pythagorean Theorem, 1 1

the length c of the hypotenuse is given by
45◦5
A C
1

Thus, using the angle A we get:

sin 45◦ cos 45◦ tan 45◦

Exercise:
1. Evaluate three Trigonometric functions for each of the following figures
3
1. θ 2. B
17 x
15 4 B
B
55 B
θ
x
B
3. θ

x 2

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Larson, R. (2010). Elementary algebra. 5th ed. Brooks/Cole ISBN- 13:978-1-439-04667-8