Forensic Chemistry Ebook PDF

Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology 3
Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology

Second Edition
Philippine Copyright, 2018

By: ChapterHouse Publishing Incorporated
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The friendship built for almost two decades now is the main
reason why this book has been written. A college friend since the first
day of enrollment, PCINSP LOURDELIZA CEJES is not just a colleague
and co-author, but also a very good friend and a sister to me. I would
like to thank her for encouraging me to see through the realization of
this book.
I could not write a single sentence unless I am inspired, and
certainly, my main inspiration is my one and only son, Jomar Angel.
My son, you are the number one reason for living. You are my life.
To my parents, Reynaldo and Lucena, thank you for all the
support that you have given me. I would not have had the passion and
ambition to succeed if not for you.
To my brothers, Kuya Bobet and Kuya Danny, thank you for the
moral support you have given and for always encouraging me to believe
that hard work will lead to a good destination in life.
To my husband, Jonas: Papah, thank you for pushing me to fulfill
my passion.
I could not write any of these if not for the trainings and the nine
years of experience I have accumulated at the PNP Crime Laboratory.
To my EASTERN POLICE DISTRICT CRIME LABORATORY OFFICE
family, thank you for the support. To the father of the EPDCLO family,
PSUPT Wilfredo Cayabyab, thank you, Sir!
To all my students who keep requesting for a suitable reference in
my class, this is all for you. Finally, you can have a reference, courtesy
of PCI Cejes and myself. We sincerely hope that this reference will
serve as a useful guide in your endeavors as you strive to become an
effective law enforcer someday.
Finally, to God Almighty, the Creator of Heaven and Earth, I
would not be worthy of anything if it was not because of you. Thank
you, Lord!
MML-Etis
Acknowledgment
First of all, I would like to acknowledge my Father, Ludovico

Calugay Gural, who serves as my guardian angel. Likewise, I draw
strength from the support and prayers of my mother, Ligaya Mendoza
Gural, from my brother, Dick Anthony, as well as from my sister, Anna
Liza Gural-Goudesone, her husband, Vincent, and their son, David.
Moreover, I acknowledge the support given by my peers from the
PNP Crime Laboratory Office; my colleagues at the Northern Police
District Crime Laboratory Office in Caloocan, Valenzuela and Barugo
Satellite Offices; as well as the Eastern Police District Crime Laboratory
Office in Mandaluyong, Pasig, and Marikina Satellite Offices. Their
friendship and camaraderie through 14 years of Forensic Service have
been blissful.
To my husband, Geovanni, and loving son, Clive Nikolaus, both
of whom have always been my inspiration in all my endeavors in life,
thank you for making my life worth living.
Last but not least, I would like to express my gratitude to the
almighty GOD for all the blessings that I have received from the day I
was born.
LOURDELIZA GURAL CEJES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgment...........................................................................4
Acknowledgment...........................................................................5
UNIT 1 Forensic Chemistry and the Forensic Chemist

Chapter 1 Introduction to Forensic Chemistry.........................11
History of Forensic Chemistry...............................................12
Importance of Forensic Chemistry.........................................14
Forensic Laboratories in the Philippines................................15
The Forensic Chemist............................................................16
Functions of a Forensic Chemist...........................................17
Golden Rules in the Practice of Forensic Chemistry...............19
Review Questions..................................................................20
Chapter 2 Physical Evidence......................................................22

Value of Physical Evidence....................................................23
Collection of Physical Evidence..............................................24
Trace Evidence......................................................................24
Chapter 3 Chain of Custody.......................................................28

Proper Tagging and Labeling of Evidence...............................30
The Evidence Custodian........................................................30
The Evidence Room...............................................................30
Chapter 4 Dangerous Drugs........................................................34

Stimulants............................................................................35
Depressants..........................................................................37
Hallucinogens.......................................................................40
Narcotics...............................................................................46
Designer Drugs.....................................................................50
Inhalants..............................................................................50
Laws Against Abused Drugs..................................................52
UNIT 2 CHEMISTRY CASES
Chapter 5 Forensic Drug Analysis..............................................63
Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Drug Specimens......64
Steps in Conducting Qualitative Analysis..............................64
Physiology of Drugs...............................................................68
Drug Test..............................................................................68
Forms of Specimen Tampering..............................................70
Parameters for Validity Tests.................................................70
Initial Validity Test and Confirmatory Validity Test................70
Chapter 6 Explosives..................................................................76
What are Explosives?............................................................76
History of Explosives.............................................................77
Kinds of Explosives...............................................................77
Characteristics of Explosives.................................................83
Types of Explosion................................................................85
Effects of Explosion...............................................................86
Explosives Analysis...............................................................86
Chapter 7 Paraffin Test and Gun Powder Residue.....................89

What is a Paraffin Test?.........................................................89
Gunpowder...........................................................................90
Test for Gunpowder Nitrates..................................................91
Guidelines for Estimating Target Distances...........................92
Gunshot Residue (GSR).........................................................93
Chapter 8 Toxicology..................................................................98
What is Toxicology?...............................................................98
History of Toxicology.............................................................98
Importance of Toxicology.......................................................99
Collection of Sample for Toxicology........................................99
What are Poisons?.................................................................100
Commonly Used Types of Poison...........................................100
Types of Poisoning.................................................................101
Methods of Examining Poisons..............................................103
Entrance and Elimination of Poisons in the Body..................104
Chapter 9 Blood, Semen, and DNA Analysis..............................107
Importance of Serology in Crime Investigation.......................108
Examination of Blood............................................................109
Bloodstain Pattern Analysis (BSPA).......................................110
Uses of BSPA........................................................................111
What is Semen?....................................................................113
Forensic Examination of Semen and Seminal Stain...............116
What is DNA?........................................................................118
DNA in Forensics..................................................................119
Methods of DNA Profiling.......................................................119
UNIT 3 PHYSICAL IDENTIFICATION CASES

Chapter 10 Glass Fracture, Macro Etching,
and Bullet Trajectory..................................................................125
What is Glass?......................................................................126
The Strength of the Glass and the Glass Fracture..................127
Properties of Glass................................................................128
Theories Related To Glass Fracture.......................................128
Fracture Impacts...................................................................131
Factors that Contribute to the Resulting
Characteristics of the Fracture..........................................132
Value of Glass as Evidence....................................................132
Collecting and Handling Glass and Glass Fragments.............132
Laboratory Examination........................................................134
What is Macro-Etching?........................................................136
Purposes of Macro-Etching....................................................137
Importance of Number Restoration........................................137
Chemicals Used in Number Restoration.................................139
What Is Bullet Trajectory?.....................................................139
Bullet Hole Characteristics....................................................139
Tools Necessary for Trajectory Determination........................141
Chapter 11 Soil Analysis, Toolmarks, Casting, and Molding.....146

What Is Soil?.........................................................................146
Collection of Soil Sample.......................................................147
Laboratory Tests for Soil Samples..........................................149
Steps In Analyzing Soil Samples............................................149
Toolmarks.............................................................................150
What are Toolmarks?............................................................150
Characteristics of Toolmarks.................................................151
Types of Toolmarks...............................................................152
Places and Surfaces Where Toolmarks Might be
Observed in Criminal Investigations..................................154
Casting and Molding.............................................................155
Procedure of Casting.............................................................156
Laboratory Examination of Shoe Prints
and Tire Impressions.........................................................159
Chapter 12 Hair and Fibers........................................................163

Sources of Human Hair.........................................................166
Significance of Hair Evidence.................................................169
Collection of Hair Evidence....................................................171
Laboratory Analysis of Hair...................................................173
Hair Microscopy....................................................................174
Methods of Microscopic Analysis of Hairs..............................174
What is a Fiber?....................................................................175
Classes of Fibers...................................................................175
Other Sources of Fibers and Their Characteristics.................177
Fabrics..................................................................................180
Fabric Source Determination.................................................180
Fiber Transfer and Persistence..............................................181
Nature of Contact..................................................................181
Value of Fibers as Evidence...................................................182
Collection of Fiber as Evidence..............................................183
Chapter 13 Arson Cases..............................................................186

What is Arson?......................................................................186
What is Fire?.........................................................................187
Fire Triangle..........................................................................188
Collection of Samples for Arson Cases...................................189
Chapter 14 Ink and Paint...........................................................192

What is Ink?..........................................................................192
Pigments...............................................................................193
Importance of Ink Analysis in Forensics................................194
Paint.....................................................................................195
Physical and Chemical Features of Paints..............................196
Value of Paint as Evidence....................................................196
Forensic Examination of Paints.............................................197
Chapter 15 Ultraviolet Examination..........................................201

UV Powder............................................................................201
UV Light................................................................................202
Electromagnetic Spectrum....................................................202
Sources of Ultraviolet Radiation.............................................203
Fluorescence.........................................................................203
Use of Ultraviolet Light in Forensic Investigation...................203
UNIT 4 POLICE OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES

FOR FORENSIC FIELD INVESTIGATION
Chapter 16 Field Forensic Investigation....................................211
Scene of the Crime Operation................................................212
Important Considerations in Case Development....................213
The Criminal Cases Included for SOCO.................................213
SOCO Team Composition......................................................213
Eleven Stages of Crime Scene Search....................................214
Objective of Crime Scene Search...........................................215
The Different Methods of Crime Scene Search.......................215
Disaster Victim Identification (DVI)........................................217
When Are DVI Procedures Applied?.......................................217
Recording the Crime Scene....................................................218
Standards for Identification...................................................219
The Post Blast Investigation..................................................220
Clandestine Laboratory Investigation.....................................222
Clandestine Operation...........................................................223
Chemical Hazards and Their Properties.................................225
Usual Chemicals Found in the Clan Lab................................226
Suggested DOs in Clandestine Lab Processing.......................227
Bibliography................................................................................228
UNIT 1
Forensic Chemistry
and the Forensic Chemist
Chapter 1
Introduction to Forensic Chemistry
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Define “forensic chemistry” and its role in forensic
investigation;
• Identify the characteristics and main functions of a
forensic chemist;
• Discuss the four stages in the practice of forensic
chemistry; and
• Enumerate the golden rules in the practice of forensic
chemistry.
What is Forensic Chemistry?

Forensic chemistry refers to the branch of chemistry that deals
with the application of chemical theories and principles in the solution
of legal problems in relation to the administration of justice. This field of
study applies science and technology to investigate and establish facts
in criminal or civil courts of law. In simple terms, forensic chemistry
is the application of chemistry to law (Khan, Kennedy, & Christian,
2012).
The word “forensic” is derived from the Latin word forensis, which
means “of the forum,” or speaking the truth in public. The forum,
arguably the historical equivalent of modern-day courts, is also a place
where ancient Romans used to conduct public discussions. Therefore,
forensic science is the application of scientific principles to criminal
and civil laws, which are enforced by police agencies in a criminal
justice system (Bertino, 2012).
History of Forensic Chemistry

The history of forensic chemistry can be traced back to the use of
poisons by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. Demorates,
an ancient philosopher widely considered as the father of modern
science, was probably the first to study poisons. Poisoning was used
by the ancient world as a method of murder and execution, such
as when Socrates was sentenced to death by drinking hemlock, a
highly poisonous plant. The use of arsenic, a very poisonous metallic
element, was so widespread during this time that by 82 B.C.E., the
ancient Roman civilization created laws against poisoning. In 1752,
the first actual chemical test for poison was undertaken during the
Blandy trial. In 1836, the Marsh test was developed, which was the
first reliable analysis that scientifically demonstrated the presence of
arsenic in the body of a victim (Sullivan, n.d.).
Centuries later, Belgian chemist Jean Servais Stas (1813–1891)
conducted studies on various methods employed to detect certain
types of vegetable poisons in the body. Stas is best known for his work
in determining the atomic weights of the elements, and served as the
leading chemist in Belgium during his time. In 1851, Stas was required
to examine the organs of a dead body involved in a notorious murder
case, concluding that the victim had been poisoned by nicotine, a
natural product considered to have been responsible for unsolved
murders at that time (Newton, 2007).
The mid-19th century saw the rapid advancement of forensic
chemistry. Tests for blood were developed through the efforts of
German-Swiss chemist Christian Friedrich Schönbein who discovered
the first reliable method for identifying human blood in 1863, and
Dutch chemist Izaak van Deen, who developed another test for the
presence of blood at about the same time. In 1832, British chemist
James Marsh invented the Marsh test for arsenic. It was also during
this period when studies on bullet “fingerprinting” began, enabling
the identification of weapons used in crimes and the individuals
who used them. By the following century, more studies ushered in
the development of sophisticated methods for the “fingerprinting” of
bullets (Newton, 2007).
Locard’s Exchange Principle

Another key figure in the history of forensic science is Edmond
Locard (1877–1966) who also made several significant contributions
to the new science of fingerprinting. Locard succeeded in setting up
the first police laboratory in Lyon, France in 1910. He is best known
for the Locard’s exchange principle, which has been adopted as one of
the tenets of forensic science. The principle holds that “every contact
leaves a trace,” or that every contact between two objects results in an
exchange of traces between them. In other words, it is impossible for a
criminal to perform an act of violent crime without having some trace
of his or her presence. As an example, Locard highlighted the power
of the microscope to characterize the debris deposited on the clothing
of a person moving through different environments. This principle is
further explained below:
“Wherever he steps, whatever he touches, whatever he
leaves, even unconsciously, will serve as a silent witness
against him. Not only his fingerprints or his footprints, but
his hair, the fibers from his clothes, the glass he breaks,
the tool mark he leaves, the paint he scratches, the blood
or semen he deposits or collects. All of these and more,
bear mute witness against him. This is evidence that does
not forget. It is not confused by the excitement of the
moment. It is not absent because human witnesses are.
It is factual evidence. Physical evidence cannot be wrong,
it cannot perjure itself, it cannot be wholly absent. Only
human failure to find it, study and understand it, can
diminish its value.” (Kirk, 1953).
Orfila: Father of Modern Forensic Toxicology

Mathieu Joseph Bonaventure Orfila (1787–1853), a Spaniard who
worked at the University of Paris in the early 19th century, is regarded
as the father of modern toxicology. He pursued a career in medicine,
was appointed professor of Medical Jurisprudence and was a professor
of Chemistry in the School of Medicine, before serving as the dean of
the faculty at the University of Paris.
Orfila established numerous basic principles of modern toxicology
and is probably the first person to conduct experiments on the effects
of poisons. In 1813, he wrote the first book devoted exclusively to
toxicology, Traité des Poisons (Treatise on Poisons). He published other
books in medical chemistry (Elements of Medicinal Chemistry, 1830),
exhumed bodies (Treatise on Legal Exhumations, 1830), and the toxic
effects of arsenic (Research on Poisoning by Arsenians Acid, 1841).

Orfila was also frequently summoned in criminal trials as an expert
witness on the use of poisons (Newton, 2007).
Sir Francis Galton: Finger Prints

The role of fingerprinting in the field of forensic science was
established with the publication of the first scientific book on
fingerprinting in 1892. This landmark work was entitled Finger Prints,
and was written by Sir Francis Galton (1822–1911). Using previous
studies, Galton developed a system wherein a precise pattern of a set
of prints could be used to identify its owner.
Galton’s scheme uses a categorization based on three main pattern
types: loops, whorls, and arches. A person’s fingerprint “identity”
consists of a sequence of these patterns. Originally, the system was
developed for Galton’s studies on racial characteristics and heredity,
and not for crime detection applications. However, within a decade,
law enforcement officers and criminal prosecutors have begun to use
Galton’s book to accurately identify and convict criminals (Newton,
2007).
Importance of Forensic Chemistry

Forensic science deals with the application of science to legal
matters and crime solving. Chemistry plays an essential role in the
interdisciplinary field of forensic science, especially in the crime
laboratory wherein the same principles and laws of chemistry are used
to examine evidence (Johll, 2009).
Crime scene analysis involves the use of forensic chemistry
principles in establishing the causes of unnatural death, detecting
illegal drugs in blood and urine, and determining the causes of fire.
Therefore, methods of research, practice, and presentation must meet
the needs of both the scientific and legal communities. At present,
forensic chemistry has proven to be very effective in reconstructing the
sequence of events that constitute the crime being investigated, thus
bringing a perpetrator close to the crime he or she has committed.
Such accurate information may eventually lead to the perpetrator’s
identification, arrest, and conviction.
Forensic Laboratories in the Philippines

In the Philippines, the practice of forensics began with the passage
of the Royal Decree No. 188 by King Philip during the Spanish rule in
the country. Under this decree, forensic physicians, called “Medicos
Titulares,” were assigned to the Philippine provinces to perform public
sanitary and medico-legal duties.
Today, there are several forensic laboratories in the country,
including those from the five district offices, two satellite crime
laboratories in Valenzuela City and Marikina City, regional and
provincial offices of the Philippine National Police (PNP); the University
of the Philippines-Philippine General Hospital (UP-PGH) in Manila; the
Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency (PDEA) in Quezon City; and the
National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) in Manila and its regional and
provincial offices.
The Crime Laboratory

A crime laboratory (or “crime lab” for short) is a scientific laboratory
that uses forensic science for the purpose of examining evidence from
criminal cases. It refers to a laboratory where highly trained technical
personnel render various related services. The PNP Crime Laboratory
consists of uniformed and non-uniformed personnel with high level
of expertise and the ability to provide scientific investigation services
through fieldwork, crime scene operations, forensic laboratory services,
as well as criminalistics training and research. Allied services include
autopsy, drug tests, DNA examinations, examination of questioned
documents, fingerprinting services, histopathological examinations,
macro-etching examinations, semen determination, and so on.
Requesting parties must submit an official letter of request for
the specific service, together with the evidence or specimen and other
details about the specimen, suspect, the time and date of confiscation,
the nature of the case, and the type of examination requested. In drug
specimen, a chain of custody form must be completed and signed
by all persons who handled the subject drug specimen. Below is a
table showing the jurisdiction of physical evidence according to the
examination to be performed.
Physical Nature, Evidence Branch of Examiner (PNP Crime Lab)

Fingerprints Fingerprint Division
Firearm Evidence Firearm Identification Division
Biological Evidence Biological Evidence
Trace Evidence Physical Identification Division
Document Evidence Questioned Document Division
Physical Matching
Physical matching Evidence
Evidence
Toxicology Evidence Chemistry Division
Drug Evidence Chemistry Division
Macro-Etching for vehicles Physical Identification Division
The Forensic Chemist

A forensic chemist is a professional chemist who analyzes
evidence from the crime scene and derives a conclusion based on tests
undertaken on such evidence. It is the task of the forensic chemist
to identify and characterize the evidence as part of the overall crime
solving process. Given that they handle the evidence collected from the
crime scene, they are often summoned to explain in a trial court what
was found and how they arrived at their conclusions. They can provide
technical explanation that can assist in a final judgment as well as
analyze the evidence. However, they cannot determine the verdict.
Versatility and patience are the oft-cited qualities of a forensic chemist.
Characteristics of a Forensic Chemist

The practice of forensic chemistry in the Philippines, similar to
other chemistry practices, is covered by Republic Act No. 754. Also
known as the Chemistry Law. This was enacted on June 18, 1952.
The Chemistry Law clearly states that a Registered Chemist is any
person who is engaged in the professional practice of chemistry, and
is duly registered with the Board of Chemistry and the Professional
Regulation Commission to undertake the professional practice of
chemistry. Among others, a forensic chemist must:
1. Be able to spend hours rigorously applying
analytical techniques to evidence;
2. Clearly and concisely answers challenges to his

findings; and
3. Possess moral integrity.
Functions of a Forensic Chemist

1. Conduct qualitative and quantitative examination
of dangerous drugs as well as volatile substances
(Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002 or R.A. 9165
& Presidential Decree 1619)
2. Conduct examination of explosives and/or explosive

ingredients (Presidential Decree 1866)
3. Conduct examination of firearms and paraffin casts to

detect the presence of gunpowder nitrates or gunpowder
residue (GPR)
4. Conduct gunpowder examination of clothing to verify

possible gunshot distance
5. Conduct chemico-toxicological examination of human

internal organs, gastric contents, blood water, food samples,
and other substances
6. Conduct examination of fake products in case of unfair

trade competition (e.g., bleach, cement, cigarette, beer or
liquor brands, etc.)
7. Conduct blood alcohol determination
8. Examine urine and other bodily fluids for the presence of

dangerous drugs
9. Conduct research and training related to the cases being

examined
10. Deliver lectures on forensic chemistry and toxicology to

police and military training centers, investigative units,
schools, and universities
11. Testify and provide expert opinion in court as well as attend

court duty as an expert witness
12. Respond to queries of all investigative units and render

expert opinion regarding matters related to the application
of chemical principles, for the purpose of assisting
investigators in developing investigative leads
13. Conduct field laboratory work and clandestine laboratory

investigation
Four Stages in the Practice of Forensic Chemistry

Stage 1: Collection and reception of the specimen –
Collection refers to the proper collection, handling, and
packaging of specimen before an analysis can be started.
Reception refers to the process of receiving the specimen by
entering the specimen condition on the log book.
Stage 2: Actual examination – The conduct of various
examination procedures for different specimens submitted as
requested by the requesting party
Stage 3: Report writing of the result – This step involves
the drafting of the positive or negative result (e.g., presence of
a drug)
Stage 4: Court appearance – This is the final stage,
wherein the chemist must explain to the court the findings of
the examination conducted on the specimen submitted
The Forensic Chemist as an Expert Witness in Court

A forensic chemist can be called in as an expert witness in a court
of law by virtue of the following qualifications:
1. Education – one must be a licensed/registered chemist,
preferably with a Master’s or Ph.D. degree
2. Training – one must have undergone trainings and seminars
in the field of forensics, and must be updated in the training
of forensic chemistry procedures in and outside the country
3. Experience – one must have hands-on experience involving
laboratory procedures and must know how to answer
court inquiries about chemistry principles during court
presentation
The forensic chemist, as an expert witness, must have sufficient

and specialized knowledge in the forensic sciences beyond that of an
average person, such that his or her expert opinion about a piece of
evidence can be considered dependable on legal grounds. A qualified
expert may testify “in the form of an opinion or otherwise” so long as
the following criteria are met:
1. The testimony is based on sufficient facts or data;
2. The testimony is the product of the application of reliable
principles and methods; and
3. The witness has applied the principles and methods reliably
to the facts of the case.
Golden Rules in the Practice of Forensic Chemistry

As with other disciplines, there are several important rules that
must be followed, which include the ones listed below:
1. Go slowly.
2. Be thorough.
3. Take notes.
4. Consult others.
5. Use imagination.
6. Avoid complicated theories.
Summary
There are different branches of forensic sciences that are applied at
the crime laboratory, and one of these is the field of forensic chemistry.
The forensic chemist who works at the crime laboratory is a registered
chemist who applies chemical theories and principles in providing
solutions to legal problems in connection with the administration of
justice. Such functions performed by the forensic chemist are not
only limited to the four walls of the laboratory but also include the
performance of forensic field work, such as crime scene response, DVI,
post blast, and clandestine laboratory investigation. Once pieces of
evidence are collected from the crime scene, these are duly documented
and submitted to the forensic chemist for further laboratory analysis.
Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:
Review Questions:
1. What is forensic chemistry?
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2. What are the characteristics of a forensic chemist?
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3. What are the main functions of a forensic chemist?

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4. What are the four stages in the practice of forensic chemistry?
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Chapter 2
Physical Evidence
Learning Objectives
• Identify the value of “physical evidence” in criminal
investigation;
• Determine the different kinds of physical evidence; and
• Identify the various methods employed in the
collection of physical evidence.
What is Physical Evidence?

Physical evidence refers to any material object introduced in a trial
for the purpose of proving a fact in issue based on its demonstrable
physical characteristics. This includes all or part of any conceivable
object.
Physical evidence found at a crime scene in small but measurable
amounts are called trace evidence. Such evidence include body fluids,
DNA, fingerprints, hair and fibers, paint, glass, explosives, ballistics,
impressions, questioned documents, and so on. The identification of
physical evidence can help determine the truth during the investigation
of a crime.
Physical evidence can be classified according to the following:
• Physical nature – microscopic, solid, liquid,
gaseous, etc.
• Type of examination to be conducted – drug test,
drug analysis, paraffin test, etc.
There are several types of physical evidence that are likely to

be found at the scene of a crime, and can be analyzed scientifically,
including those listed below.
• DNA – any tissue from the victim or suspect, such as
hair, fingernails, bones, teeth
• Body fluids – saliva, blood, sweat, semen, and urine of
the victim or suspect
• Impressions – tool marks, shoe prints, fingerprints, bite
marks, tire tracks, etc.
• Weapons – characteristics of firearms, ammunitions,
and residue; chemical composition of explosives, etc.
• Questioned documents – printing method or paper
and ink used in forged documents, handwriting style,
counterfeit bills, ransom notes, etc.
• Miscellaneous trace evidence, such as dust and dirt,
fibers, soil, glass, paint, skeletal remains, fracture
matches, etc.
Value of Physical Evidence

It has already been mentioned that physical evidence is much
more reliable than testimonial evidence, and the value of the former
over the latter is enumerated below.
• Human factor - Compared with testimonial evidence,
which may change, physical evidence “can’t lie, quit,
die, forget, or get fired;” in addition, the source of
testimonial evidence may also be lost, thus losing the
connection between the original and the court version
• Physical properties - Physical evidence cannot change,
whereas testimonial evidence is based solely on
interpretation that can change or be erroneous
Circumstantial Variability
If any type of physical evidence is found and subsequently
associated with a suspect where he or she had no right to be, then
upon proper identification, the evidence may:
• Establish proof beyond reasonable doubt;
• Establish probable cause; and

• Establish a suspect’s presence at the crime scene.
If the physical evidence is found for a period during which a

suspect may have had legitimate right to be (i.e., innocent access),
then the evidence may:
• Have no significance; and
• Provide leads to follow in order to establish the case via
other sources.
Collection of Physical Evidence

The scene of the crime operation (SOCO) team must have several
main goals in mind during the process of collecting evidence from a
crime scene: reconstruct the crime, identify the person who committed
the crime, preserve the evidence for analysis, and collect such evidence
in a way that will make them stand up in court.
Trace Evidence
Trace evidence constitute the most common type of physical
evidence, which an investigator and/or crime scene specialist is likely
to encounter. Trace evidence refers to microscopic materials found at a
crime scene, such as hair, blood, glass particles, foot/tire impression,
fiber, or paint, to name a few.
The collection of evidence begins once a crime scene has been
thoroughly processed, and the locations of the evidence have been
recorded. The collection process begins with the collection of the
evidence that is most likely to be easily lost. Priority can also be given
to special evidence or objects that must be moved to a new location.
Afterwards, collection continues along the crime scene trail or in some
other logical manner. Photographs should also be taken continuously
so that investigators can reveal layers of evidence not previously
documented because they were hidden from sight.
Most pieces of evidence are collected and placed in paper
containers, such as envelopes, packets and bags, whereas liquid
items are transported in leak-proof and non-breakable containers.
Meanwhile, evidence for cases of arson are usually placed in air-
tight metal canisters. Only large quantities of dry powder should be
collected and stored in plastic bags, while moist or wet evidence (blood,
plants, etc.) from a crime scene can be collected in plastic containers
at the scene itself and then transported back to an evidence receiving
area if the storage time in plastic is two hours or less. This is done to
prevent contamination of other pieces of evidence in the scene. Once
it is placed in a secure location, wet evidence—whether packaged in
plastic or paper—must be removed and allowed to completely dry at
ambient temperature. That evidence can then be repackaged in a dry
paper container.
It is important to note that evidence containing moisture should not
be packaged in plastic or paper containers for a period exceeding two
hours. This is because moisture facilitates the growth of microorganisms,
which can destroy or alter the quality of the evidence collected.
Trace evidence might also include illicit drugs, chemicals, paint
and gun-shot residues (GSR), and glass. A SOCO member can also
use a pair of tweezers, lidded plastic containers, a filtered vacuum
device, and even a simple knife to expertly collect trace evidence. The
investigator should also have a biohazard kit on hand, which contains
booties, face mask and gown, disposable latex gloves, and a biohazard
waste bag.
Guiding Principles in the Collection of Physical Evidence

There are several guidelines in the collection of physical evidence.
These help ensure that the appropriate protocols are followed, resulting
in the generation of useful evidence.
1. Sufficiency of sample – sufficient weight, volume, or
pieces of sample for analysis should be submitted
so that a series of lab tests can be performed
2. Standard for comparison – a standard should be
submitted so that comparative analysis can be
performed and facilitate the evaluation of unfair
trade completion
3. Maintenance of individuality – different specimens
should be packed individually to prevent
contamination
4. Labeling and sealing – individually packed
specimens should be labeled and sealed properly to
avoid confusion in the preparation of requests and
documentations
Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:
Review Questions:
1. What is the value of “physical evidence” in criminal
investigation?
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2. What are the different types of physical evidence?
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3. What are the various methods used in the collection of

physical evidence?
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Chapter 3
Chain of Custody
Learning Objectives
• Define the concept of “chain of custody”;
• Discuss the importance of proper tagging and labeling
of evidence; and
• Identify the role of the evidence custodian.
Chain of Custody
The chain of custody refers to a written record of all the individuals
who maintained unbroken control over certain items of evidence
collected from a crime scene. This establishes the proof that the items
of evidence collected at the crime scene are the same items being
presented in a court of law, hence validating their origin.
Although some specimens submitted to the crime lab do not
require a chain of custody form, it is essential that during court
presentation, the prosecutor can clearly establish the chain the
evidence has undergone through the testimony of the witnesses,
thereby maintaining the integrity of the evidence.
Drug-related cases are the ones that strictly require a chain of
custody form. Through a written document, the prosecutor establishes
all individuals who handled the drug specimen submitted and the
specific times and dates at which they had the evidence in their
possession. The evidence is officially turned over to the court once the
testimony of the forensic examiner has been heard and admitted to the
court.
The so-called “chain of custody”

aims to establish several things:
• The date and time at which the evidence was handled;
• Those who had contact with the evidence;
• What changes, if any, were made in the evidence; and
• The circumstances under which the evidence was handled.
The Scene
Evidence
Seal, Markings, Evidence Log
Evidence Collector
(Officer on case) - Letter Request
Forensic Examiner
Evidence Custodian
Court Presentation
As can be seen in the diagram, the chain of custody follows a

specific sequence. From the crime scene, evidence is collected, stored,
labeled, and recorded by the evidence collector. He or she then turns
it over to the forensic examiner, who submits the evidence to the
evidence custodian up until the date at which it has to be presented
to the court. It is important to note that the evidence must stay in the
evidence room for safekeeping until a subpoena is served to the crime
lab to retrieve that evidence and its documentation.
Proper Tagging, Labeling, and Marking of Evidence

Certainly, it is very important to properly tag and label items of
evidence. A crime scene investigator or evidence recovery technician
must be able to tag and label/mark items of evidence so that these can
be easily identified at a later date. The tagging, labeling, and marking
of the evidence ensures the proper identification of the evidence and
ensures the credibility of the evidence collected.
The Evidence Custodian

An evidence custodian is the person responsible for preserving the
chain of custody of each item of evidence submitted by the examiner;
he or she ensures the security and integrity of such evidence. The
evidence custodian is also responsible for receiving inventories, logs,
stores, packages, and issues and providing assistance in the release of
that adjudicated piece of evidence. Furthermore, the custodian must
keep the evidence safe by placing it inside the evidence room.
The Evidence Room

An evidence room or property room refers to a secure facility or
room, in which evidence related to criminal cases or investigations are
stored. The evidence custodian always has direct supervision of this
room. The evidence room is often located inside the forensic laboratory
itself, and is used to store old evidence. It is also used to store physical
evidence apart from transcripts, recordings, and other supporting
information. Sometimes, case files are also stored in the evidence
room, depending on the organizational structure of the department.
The contents of the evidence room are stored and organized through
a database that has references for all items stored in the room, along
with notations indicating their specific locations.
Summary
There are different kinds of evidence that require special handling
and treatment, such as trace evidence, which could be very minute.
Before they reach the court, such items of evidence must undergo
a chain of custody, which ensures the integrity and security of the
items of evidence. The evidence collector must ensure proper tagging,
labeling, and marking of the evidence to ensure proper identification.
For the purpose of security, the items must be stored in the evidence
room, under the watchful eye of the evidence custodian.
Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:
Review Questions:
1. What is the “chain of custody?”
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2. Why is it important to properly tag, label, and mark evidence?
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3. What is the important role of the evidence custodian?

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Chapter 4
DANGEROUS Drugs
Learning Objectives
• Identify the main classifications of dangerous drugs;
• Determine the types of dangerous drugs, including
stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, narcotics,
designer drugs, and inhalants;
• Identify the commonly abused drugs in the
Philippines; and
• Identify the major laws against abused drugs in the
Philippines.
Drugs
A drug is any synthetic or natural substance that is used to
produce psychological or physiological effects in humans; it can
also play a central role in the daily lives of many people regardless
of whether it is used legitimately or illegitimately. The legality and
social acceptance of a particular drug often relies on the purpose and
duration of its use, its side effects, and the person using it. As we will
see later in this chapter, the use of illegal drugs for pleasure can be
quite dangerous.
A drug that is intended to affect the body’s normal functions
can be distinguished from a medicine, which cures illnesses and/or
relieves signs or symptoms of diseases when taken into the human
body in specific doses.
Dangerous drugs include those listed under Republic Act No. 9165
or the Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002, which is based
on the United Nations’ 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs (as
amended in 1972 and the 1971 Single Convention on Psychotropic
Substances).
Drug evidence comprises any illegal or legal substance under

legal regulations. The evidence may comprise large quantities or trace
amounts of a drug, such as powder on a spoon. Drug evidence also
includes those pertaining to the ingestion, manufacture or distribution
of controlled substances. As a result, paraphernalia such as pipes,
syringes, scales, and plastic bags can be considered drug evidence if
they appear to have been used to ingest, manufacture or distribute
dangerous drugs.
Classifications of Dangerous Drugs

Drugs are typically classified as stimulants, depressants,
hallucinogens, narcotics, designer drugs or inhalants. Each
classification is discussed in detail in the following sections.
Stimulants
Drugs that increase the rate of the body’s systems, resulting in
increased alertness and physical disposition are called stimulants. These
include prescription drugs (e.g., amphetamines, methylphenidate, diet
aids) and illicitly produced drugs (e.g., methamphetamine, cocaine,
and methcathinone). Stimulants typically come in the form of powder,
pills or capsules, rocks, or injectable fluids.
Stimulants create a sense of exhilaration that may boost one’s
self-esteem; they can also improve mental and physical performance,
reduce appetite, increase activity, extend wakefulness for longer
periods, and the sensation of being “high,” hence the name. When
used in chronic and high doses, these can lead to paranoia, hostility,
agitation, aggression, panic, hallucinations, and even homicidal or
suicidal tendencies.
Examples of Stimulants
Amphetamine
This is a stimulant prescribed by physicians to reduce appetite,
relieve minor cases of mental depression, or to ease discomforts
brought on by fatigue and sleepiness. This is often used to promote
wakefulness and/or increase energy. It is known through the following
street names: “lid poppers,” “eye openers,” “pep pills,” “uppers,” and
“hearts.”
Caffeine
Caffeine is a slightly bitter alkaloid or methylxanthine. It is a
widely used drug that is often found in cocoa, soft drinks, and over-
the-counter medications.
Cocaine
Cocaine is extracted from coca
bush leaves. Natives of the Andes
mountain used to chew its leaves to
combat fatigue and to be recharged
while working at high altitudes. In
pure form, cocaine has a white color,
and is made of shiny, colorless crystals
that look like crystalline snow. In
powder form, it is odorless and bitter.
It is known through the following street
names: “coke,” “crack,” “gold dust,”
“heaven’s dust,” “stardust,” “white
girl,” and “speedball” (when mixed with
heroin).
Cocaine extends the activity of dopamine by blocking its
reabsorption. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter, which transmits
“pleasure signals” in the brain. Cocaine use also causes peripheral
blood vessels to constrict, while increasing heart rate and blood
pressure, thus leading to heart failure. It can also cause the explosion
of blood vessels in the brain, leading to brain damage and death.
It is quite dangerous for people to mix cocaine and alcohol
because they are compounding the dangerous effects of each drug.
As the human liver combines cocaine and alcohol, it produces a third
substance called cocaethylene, which intensifies cocaine’s effects,
including increased risk of sudden death.
Methamphetamine Hydrochloride
Locally known as shabu, this is a white, odorless crystal or
crystalline powder with bitter numbing taste. It is known through
several street names, such as “poor man’s cocaine,” “S,” “shabs,”
“ubas,” “siopao,” “sha,” “ice,” “bato,” and so on. It is often taken by
direct ingestion, inhalation (chasing the dragon), sniffing (snorting),
injection, or smoking with a small pipe from a heated aluminum foil

containing the drug.
Meth and heroin users who “chase the dragon” use the following
paraphernalia:
• Tooter – it aids in smoking gases converted from burning
methamphetamine
• Lighter – the source of heat that converts the crystals
into gases; it is also a rolled aluminum foil or a sheet of
metal with hollow opening on both sides
• Foil – it is used to convert crystal into gases and is
suitable for smoking; the shiny side of the foil is the one
that touches the flame
Effects on the Body

Stimulants change the heart’s muscle fibers, which tend to
lose their cross-striations, leading to decreased cardiac contractility.
Stimulants mimic the hormones responsible for the release of energy
in the body. Other effects on the body include the following:
• Extended wakefulness and increased mental alertness
• Heightened mental activity, relieved fatigue, and
offset drowsiness
• Memory loss
• Loss of sexual desire
• Lack of interest towards work
• Fear, anxiety, and irritability
• Lack of appetite and decreased body weight
• Mental retardation in the unborn babies of pregnant users
• Irritation of the nose and frequent nose bleeding for
chronic snorters
Depressants
Depressants are the kinds of drugs that induce sleep, prevent
seizures, as well as relieve anxiety and muscle spasms. Using
depressants can rapidly lead to dependence and tolerance. This means

that the users’ need increases consistently so that they can function
normally, thus increasing the likelihood of coma or death. Legally
manufactured and marketed depressants, such as sedative-hypnotic
medications for the short-term treatment of insomnia, may be used
illegally (e.g., depressants used for date rape).
Examples of Depressants
Alcohol
Alcohol is also known by the
following trade names: whisky, beer,
brandy, gin and wine. This is a
commonly used legal drug that affects
the mind and body in unpredictable
ways, resulting in the high incidence
of assaults, homicides, and highway
deaths.
Barbiturates
The word barbiturate is a
combination of the words “Barbara”
and “urea.” German chemist Adolf von
Baeyer discovered it on Saint Barbara’s
Day, while urea was used by von Baeyer
in 1863 when the molecule was first
synthesized.
Made from barbituric acid or
“barbs,” barbiturates is used in a wide
spectrum of central nervous system
illnesses, such as depression, mild
sedation, and coma. Barbiturates are legally restricted and must be
prescribed. These are prescribed to induce sleep or provide a calming
effect, when taken in small doses. They are also used as sedatives,
hypnotics, anesthetics, and anticonvulsants. These are generally
abused to decrease inhibition, alleviate anxiety, and treat unwanted
effects of illicit drugs. These can easily lead to an overdose and even
death. Barbiturates are also known as “yellow jackets,” “blue devils,”
“rainbow,” “Amy’s,” and “reds” (based on the color of the capsule or
tablet).
Tranquilizers (Benzodiazepines)
Tranquilizers produce sedation, induce sleep, relieve anxiety
and muscle spasms, as well as prevent seizures. These are legally
available through prescription, and the most common examples
include Valium, Xanax, Halcion, Ativan, Klonopin, and the date rape
drug called Rohypnol. Often, abusers maintain their drug supply
by getting prescriptions from several doctors, forging prescriptions,
or buying them illicitly. Tolerance can lead to physical dependence,
and when the drug intake is stopped, it causes typical symptoms of
withdrawal ranging from nightmares to convulsions. Tranquilizers can
lead to coma or even death when combined with substantial amounts
of alcohol.
Examples of Tranquilizers
a. Rohypnol
Rohypnol is a central nervous
system (CNS) depressant that produces
hypnotic, sedative, anti-anxiety, and
muscle relaxant effects. Commonly
known as the “date rape” drug, it is
prescribed to treat insomnia. It is
an oblong, olive green tablet with a
speckled blue core; it can be swallowed
whole, crushed, or snorted. When
dissolved in light-colored drinks, it
will give the liquid a blue tint. Some
adolescents abuse Rohypnol to produce
a euphoric effect, which minimizes
inhibitions and impairs judgment. It is also abused in combination
with alcohol to produce an exaggerated intoxication. Cocaine addicts
may use benzodiazepines, such as Rohypnol, to relieve the side effects
that are often associated with cocaine binges, such as irritability and
agitation.
Rohypnol has garnered the public’s attention because it has been
misused to physically and psychologically incapacitate women who
subsequently become victims of sexual assault. The drug is often placed
in the alcoholic drink of an unsuspecting possible victim, incapacitating
them and preventing resistance once they are attacked. Unfortunately,
the drug leaves the victim unaware of what has happened to them.
b. GHB
Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid
(GHB) is a generic drug sodium oxybate
that is usually available as an odorless,
colorless liquid with a slightly taste.
Sometimes, the substance is available
as a powder, or in a capsule form. In its
liquid form, GHB is sold in small (30 ml)
bottles enough to contain three doses.
It is difficult to give a clear “safe” dose
given that the liquid’s concentration
often varies.
They are also illegally sold as bodybuilding supplements, as well
as used as chemical components for products that promote fat loss,
reversal of baldness, improved eyesight. GHB is also used to combat
aging, depression, drug addiction, and insomnia.
GHB abuse became popular among teens and young adults at
dance clubs and “raves” in the 1990s, eventually gaining notoriety as a
date rape drug. GHB is taken alone or in combination with other drugs,
such as alcohol (primarily), depressants, stimulants, hallucinogens,
and marijuana.
GHB and its analogues are abused due to their euphoric and
calming effects. Others abuse them to either build muscles or lose
weight. They are also misused for their ability to increase levels of
suggestibility and passivity, as well as libido. When added into a drink,
the victim may have no memory of events while under the influence
of the substance, making them vulnerable to sexual assault and other
criminal acts.
The average dose ranges from 1 to 5 grams (depending on
the purity of the compound) and can be added to a beverage (1-2
teaspoons). However, the concentrations of these “home-brews” have
varied so much that users are often unaware of the actual dose they
are drinking.
Hallucinogens
Hallucinogens are drugs that produce delusions and hallucinations
as well as severe changes in mood and behavior. In fact, users speak
of “hearing” colors and “seeing” sounds. This major classification
includes Marijuana, Cannabis, or Indian Hemp.
Marijuana, Cannabis, or Indian Hemp

Hallucinogens encompass every class, genus or specie of the plant
Cannabis Sativa L, including Cannabis Americana, hashish, bhang,
guaza, churrus, and ganjab. Cannabis Sativa is an annual plant grown
in many temperate parts of the world; it consists of crushed cannabis
leaves and its flowers. About 40% to 50% of the plants are male; these
male plants produce pollens that pollenate the flowers of the female
plants that, in turn, produce seeds.
The dried flowering or fruiting top of the Cannabis Sativa
L., also called Indian hemp, has green serrated (saw-edge) edges.
Smoke from marijuana is harsh, and smells like dried grasses or
burnt rope. Marijuana’s three strengths are low grade [0% to 1%
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content], medium grade (1.1% to 2.8%
THC content), and high grade (2.9% to 4.8% THC content).
During its flower development stage, the tips of the branches
where the bud develops start to grow into little buds or little balls,
although there are no white hairs coming out of the plant at this stage.
If the female plant is not pollenized (i.e., when no male plants nearby
produce pollen), the flower/buds continue to develop and produce THC.
Female plants that are not pollenized are referred to as sensemilla (i.e.,
without seeds). Females have no balls and have small white hairs.
Hashish (concentrated cannabis) refers to the concentrated resin
that has been extracted from marijuana. It is eight to ten times stronger
than commercial-grade marijuana. Its street names include “Flower,”
“Mary Jane,” “Brownies,” “Pampapogi,” “Damo,” “Pot,” “Tea,” “Joint,”
and “Dope.”
Marijuana Paraphernalia
• Cigarette rolling paper (Zig zag) – This is a brand of rolling
paper known for its package, which features the silhouette
of a bearded smoker.
• Water pipe – In this method, cannabis smoke is passed
through water before inhaling. This has the effect of
cooling the smoke and filtering it by removing the heavy tar
elements, thus producing less harsh smoke without tobacco
contaminating the high. Smoking in this way makes the
user stoned much quicker than when smoking joints; in
particular, inexperienced smokers may get too high quickly.
• Marijuana vaporizers – These work by heating the cannabis
to a temperature at which the active ingredients evaporate
into a thin mist. Here, the cannabis is heated to 356 to 392

degrees Fahrenheit, which is below the point of combustion
where smoke is produced. The amount of carcinogens or
toxins decreases without combustion; then, the vapor is
captured in a glass and inhaled through a tube.
Modes of Absorption of Marijuana

• The most common method of absorption is smoking.
Either in a loosely rolled cigarette called a joint, or
through a pipe or water pipe.
• However, it can also be baked as brownies or brewed
as a tea.
Effects of Marijuana
• Being “zonked,” which is slang for being very stoned, spaced-
out, wasted, ripped, destroyed, wrecked, or intoxicated.
• THC destroys the nerve cells of the hippocampus, which
is the part of the brain that is responsible for learning,
memory, and the integration of sensory experiences with
emotions and motivation. In fact, marijuana abuse is often
associated with attention and memory problems.
• It causes changes in the brain, priming the user to be easily
addicted to other drugs.
• The daily use of about three marijuana sticks produces
about the same degree of lung damage and potential cancer
risk as smoking cigarettes. For this reason, marijuana
users are as prone to cancer as tobacco users.
• Users are also more likely to acquire chest cold or even
bronchitis.
MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine)
This substance is more commonly known as “Ecstacy,” “Adam,”
“Eve,” “superman,” “Martian,” “X,” “E,” “XTC,” “hug,” “beans,” and so on.
This semi-synthetic and psychoactive compound shares the stimulant
and hallucinogenic attributes of amphetamine and LSD. Ecstasy
may contain cough suppressants, amphetamines, tranquilizers, and
caffeine, and is considered neurotoxic at levels exceeding 193.25 g/

mol. Ecstasy is both a stimulant and a hallucinogen, and is sold
mostly in pill form, although it can also come in powder form. Ecstasy
pills are made in illegal labs.
Effects of Ecstasy Use

Entactogenesis (“touching within”) - This refers to a generalized
feeling that all is well and good with the world. People on MDMA often
describe being “at peace” or experiencing a generalized “happy” feeling.
Ecstasy users also see mundane everyday things as excessively
beautiful or interesting.
Empathogenesis - This is a feeling of emotional closeness to others
accompanied by a breakdown of communication barriers. People on
MDMA are known to feel much more at ease talking to others. They
also feel that hangups with regards “opening up” to others are reduced
or completely eliminated. Due to this effect, the MDMA is known as a
“hug drug,” that is, the increased emotional closeness makes personal
contact quite common and very rewarding. A lot of people use MDMA
primarily for this effect, simply because it makes often awkward or
uncomfortable social situations (dance clubs, singles bars, etc.) easier
to deal with.
An enhancement of the senses - MDMA can significantly enhance
or distort the senses (i.e., proprioception, touch, taste, vision, and
smell]. MDMA users can also be seen running their hands over
differently textured objects, repeatedly tasting and smelling various
foods/drinks. This effect also contributes to the “hug drug” effect due
to the novel sensation brought about by running one’s hands over
someone’s skin or having one’s skin rubbed by someone else’s hands.
Why is Ecstasy Used?

• For Socialization – Especially in places, such as rave parties,
bars, etc., Ecstacy may be used to minimize awkward
situations among strangers.
• For Self-Psychotherapy – The hit of ecstasy is worth three
months of conventional psychotherapy. It helps a user
release his or her repressed memories and deal with
emotional problems.
• For Sensory enhancement – Ecstacy makes sensual activity
unusually enjoyable. For example, touching can become
intensely pleasurable, and as mentioned earlier, Ecstasy
enhances prioperception, making normal movements more

pleasant.
• As a substitute for Speed – Ectsacy can be used in activities
that require concentration, motivation, and energy.
Ecstacy Paraphernalia
• Vicks Vapor rub/ nasal inhalers
• Baby pacifiers/ candy suckers
• Dust masks/ tampon tubes with Vicks
• Glow sticks
• Blow pops
Mescaline
Mescaline is a chemical that is extracted from the peyote cactus.
Peyote buttons have an average size of one to two inches, have a brown
in color, and look like the underside of a dried mushroom. The buttons
are typically ground into a dark brown powder and placed in clean
gelatin capsules. Peyote has an intensely bitter taste.
Components of Mescaline
Phenethylamine - In the Phenethylamine group of alkaloids,
nitrogen is not in the ring, but is in the amine (NH2-) group, which
is part of the ethylamine(C2H4NH2-) group. This chain bonds to one
of the carbon atoms in the ring, thus forming Phenethylamine. This
major side group has a carbon labeled as “1.”
Methoxy - This consists of a group of carbon and hydrogen atoms
arranged in a methyl-(CH3-) group. This is joined to an atom of oxygen
through one of its two available bonds, thereby forming the methoxy-
(CH3O-) group, while the other is used to bond to one of the carbon
atoms in the ring.
Tri - This just means “3,” which indicates that there are three of
these methoxy side groups. The numbers 3,4,5 indicate the position
of the carbon atom, around the ring, to which the methoxy side groups
are attached. The Phenethylamine group is attached to carbon number
1 and the other carbon atoms are numbered such that the additional
side groups have the lowest number.
Phencyclidine or PCP (angel’s dust)

This is a dissociative anesthetic that was originally experimented
on humans before it hit the racks as an anesthetic in veterinary
medicine. In its purest form, it is a crystal white powder that comes
in the form of powder, capsules or pills. It can be sniffed, swallowed
or even injected and is sometimes rolled in joints and smoked. Street
names for PCP are “peace pill” and “angel’s dust”.
Ketamine
Ketamine is a tranquilizer that
is most commonly used on animals.
It comes either in a white/off-white
powder form or in a clear liquid form,
which can be injected, consumed in
drinks, or added to substances that
can be smoked. Meanwhile, the powder
form can be dissolved and then injected.
In fact, in some areas, Ketamine is
often injected intramuscularly. Its
street names include “jet,” “super acid,”
“Special K,” “green,” “K,” and “cat,” to
name a few.
Ketamine was first synthesized in 1962 as an attempt to identify
a safer anesthetic alternative to PCP. Ketamine was first used on
American soldiers during the Vietnam War. At present, it is largely
avoided because of its tendency to cause unpleasant out-of-body
experiences.
LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)

LSD is a semi-synthetic alkaloid
extracted from fungus, which
specifically grows on grains like wheat
and rye. LSD is a strong hallucinogen
with a high potential for abuse.
Although it is accepted in the US as
a controlled substance for medical
treatment. In its original form, LSD
is tasteless, odorless, and colorless.
Abused orally, LSD is typically added
to absorbent paper, such as blotter
paper, and then divided into small squares, each representing one
dose.
LSD is sold on the street in capsules, tablets, and liquid form.
Its street names are “Lucy in the sky with diamonds,” “acid,” “white
sugar,” “lightning,” “cubes,” “weddings bells,” and “brain eaters.”
About an hour upon ingestion, users may experience visual
changes and extreme changes in mood. During the hallucination
stage, a user may suffer from impaired depth and time perception
along with distorted perceptions of shapes and sizes of objects,
colors, movements, touch, sound, and one’s own body image. The
user becomes susceptible to personal injury because his/her ability
to make sound judgments is often impaired. In addition, users may
suffer acute anxiety and depression after an LSD “trip” and even have
flashbacks days or months after taking the last dose.
Psilocybin
Psilocybin is obtained from certain
types of fresh or dried mushrooms.
These mushrooms are commonly
found in Mexico, Central America,
and the United States. Psilocybin
mushrooms are ingested orally, added
to other foods to hide their bitter
flavour, or they can be brewed as a
tea. The psychological consequences of
psilocybin use include hallucinations
and the inability to discern fantasy from
reality. Panic reactions and psychosis
may also occur, particularly if a user
ingests a large dose. The common
street names for psilocybin include
“magic mushrooms,” “mushrooms,”
and “shrooms.”
Narcotics
The term “narcotic” comes from the Greek word for “stupor.” The
term was originally used to refer to a variety of substances that relieved
pain and dulled the senses. Although some people still refer to all
drugs as “narcotics,” the term “narcotic” today refers to opium, opium
derivatives, and their semi-synthetic substitutes. A more current term
for these drugs is “opioid,” and some examples include heroin and
some pharmaceutical drugs such as fentanyl, OxyContin®, codeine,
Vicodin®, methadone, and morphine.
Examples of Narcotics
Opium
Opium is made of the coagulated juice of the opium poppy (Papaver
Somniferum L.), and may also include crude preparations containing
morphine or any alkaloid of opium as an ingredient. This is prohibited
even for decorative, floral, or culinary (bread seasoning) purposes.
Opium Poppy
This refers to any part of the plant of
the species Papaver Setigerum L. (found
in west Asia), Papaver Somniferum L.
(found in wild coast Mediterranean),
and Papaver Bracteatum Papaver
Rhoeas, and Papaver orientale (found
in Asia).
When ingested, opiates have several effects on the human body

as follows:
• Inhibits cells in the brain stem, which are responsible
for respiration, that is, it can slow down or even stop
respiration in some cases;
• Provides an entryway for many kinds of infections due
to the use of needles for IV drug injection;
• Stimulates cells of the vomiting center in the brain
stem, thus causing vomiting and nausea;
• Binds to the cells of the hypothalamus, thereby affecting
hormone release in the body;
• Causes constipation by inhibiting intestinal peristalsis;
and
• Lowers testosterone levels.
Heroin
Heroin or diacetylmorphine (INN)
is a semi-synthetic opioid, which is
the 3,6-diacetyl derivative of morphine
(hence diacetylmorphine), commonly
synthesized by acetylation. It often
has a crystalline white form (i.e., the
hydrochloride salt, diacetylmorphine
hydrochloride). Heroin is known
by several street names, including
“Blanco,” “sugar,” “brown,” “kengkoy,”
“kabayo,” “gamut,” “pulbos,”
“matsakao,” “sapsap,” and “tinik.” A
variant of heroin, known as speedball,
contains a mixture of cocaine and
heroin or morphine.
Codeine
Codeine is a component of opium and a derivative of morphine,
and is known to be as much as 10 times less effective as morphine and
is the physicians’ choice for an ideal antitussive. It goes by its street
name “schoolboy.”
Morphine
Known by its street names “M,” “dreamer,” “emma”, “emsel”,
“pulbos”, this is the principal active component of opium plant,
Papaver Somniferum. The term “morphine” comes from the name of
the Greek god of dreams “Morpeus.” Morphene can come in different
forms, such as a white crystalline powder, light porous cubes, or small
white tablets.
Hydromorphone
Hydromorphone is part of a class of drugs called “opioids,”
which includes morphine. These have an analgesic potency that is
two to eight times stronger than that of morphine, but has a shorter
duration of action and greater sedative properties. Users typically
abuse hydromorphone tablets by ingesting them. Hydromorphone
comes in tablets, rectal suppositories, oral solutions, and injectable
formulations. Injectable solutions and tablets that have been crushed
and dissolved in a solution may be injected as a substitute for heroin.
At present, hydromorphone is legally manufactured and distributed

in the US. However, abusers prefer to obtain hydromorphone by using
forged prescriptions, “doctor-shopping,” stealing from pharmacies, and
by scoring them from friends and acquaintances. The common street
names of hydromorphones include “Smack,” “Dillies,” “D,” “Dust,”
“Juice,” and “Footballs.”
Oxycodone
Oxycodone is a popular, semi-synthetic narcotic analgesic that can
be abused orally or intravenously. It is synthesized from a constituent
of the poppy plant known as thebaine. Oxycodone is marketed alone
as controlled-release tablets like OxyContin®, which comes in 10, 20,
40 and 80 mg tablets, as well as immediate-release capsules like 5 mg
OxyIR®. Oxycodone is also combined with aspirin (e.g., Percodan®) or
acetaminophen (e.g., Roxicet®).
In terms of ingestion, the tablets can be sniffed, crushed, or
dissolved in water and injected. The tablets can also be placed on a
piece of foil and then heated, allowing the abuser to inhale the vapor.
Some of the common street names for oxycodone include “Hillbilly
Heroin,” “Roxy,” “Ox,” “Perc,” “OC,” “Oxy” and “Kicker.”
Methadone
As a synthetic (man-made)
narcotic, methadone was originally
synthesized by German scientists
during World War II because of a
shortage in morphine. Methadone was
then introduced to the US in 1947 as
an analgesic (Dolophinel). Currently,
it is available as a disc, oral solution,
tablet, or injectable liquid and can be
ingested by swallowing or injecting.
Tablets are available in 5 mg and 10
mg formulations. Some of its common
street names include “Chocolate Chip Cookies,” “Amidone,” “Fizzies,”
“Pastora,” “Maria,” “Street Methadone,” “Salvia,” and “Wafer.”
As of January 1, 2008, majority of US manufacturers of
methadone hydrochloride tablets that come in 40 mg dispersible forms
have voluntarily agreed to restrict distribution to hospitals and other
facilities authorized for detoxification and maintenance treatment of
opioid addiction.
Designer Drugs
This classification pertains to drugs that combine the effects
of chemically related but different known psychotropic and narcotic
substances. These are designed by clandestine chemists with the aim
of manufacturing compounds that produce the “high” of the main
drugs and to avoid penalties imposed against those illegally trafficking
the controlled substance. Common examples include ecstacy (MDMA)
and amphethamine, to name a few.
Inhalants
Inhalants are volatile substances derived
from chloroform or ether. These are often inhaled
through the nose to experience intoxication.
Common household products, such as lighter
fluid, glue, paint, and cleaning fluids produce
chemical vapors that can be inhaled.
Other examples include thinner, rugby,
gasoline, solvent, and other gasoline-based
products like kerosene, cuticle remover, nail
polish, dry-cleaning fluid, and lighter fluid.
Often, the fumes can displace oxygen in the
lungs, causing the body to suffocate, resulting
in brain damage, nerve damage, and even death. Major chemical
components of these products can cause heart failure, hearing loss,
and liver and kidney damage
Inhalants cover a wide range of substances whose main common
characteristic is that they are rarely taken by any route other than
inhalation. Inhalants are breathed in through the nose or the mouth
in a variety of ways, such as “Sniffing,” “snorting,” and inhaling from
balloons filled with nitrous oxide. Other methods of ingestion can
include “Bagging,” which refers to the sniffing or inhaling of fumes
from substances sprayed or deposited inside a plastic or paper bag,
and “Huffing,” which is done by inhaling vapors from inhalant-soaked
rags stuffed in the mouth.
Effects of Using Inhalants

Inhalants are known to cause damage to the parts of the brain
that control moving, thinking, seeing, and hearing. Prolonged abuse
can lead to cognitive abnormalities ranging from mild impairment to
severe dementia. In addition, inhaled chemicals are rapidly absorbed
through the lungs into the bloodstream, from which they are quickly
distributed to the brain and other organs.
Almost all inhalants produce effects similar to anesthetics, which
slow down the body’s functioning. Within minutes of inhalation, the
users tend to experience intoxication combined with other effects
similar to those produced by alcohol. Furthermore, depending on the
degree of abuse, the user can experience reduced inhibition, loss of
consciousness, or slight stimulation.
These effects may include, among others, euphoria, an inability
to coordinate movements, slurred speech, and dizziness. After heavy
use of inhalants, abusers also feel drowsy for several hours, which
could lead to a lingering headache. Additional symptoms exhibited
by long-term inhalant abusers include muscle weakness, weight
loss, inattentiveness, disorientation, lack of coordination, depression,
irritability, and severe damage to the nervous system and other
organs. Although some of these damaging effects to the body are
partially reversible when abuse is stopped, many other effects are
irreversible. In fact, prolonged sniffing of the highly concentrated
chemicals in aerosol sprays or solvents can induce irregular and rapid
heart rhythms, leading to heart failure and death within minutes.
Furthermore, research has found a common link between inhalant use
and problems in school such as failing grades, chronic absences, and
general apathy.
Risk of an Overdose
Given that intoxication lasts only a few minutes, abusers
attempt to prolong the high by continuing to repeatedly inhale the
substances over the course of several hours, which is a very dangerous
practice. With subsequent inhalations, abusers tend to suffer loss of
consciousness and/or death. For example, “sudden sniffing death” can
result from a single session of inhalant use by an otherwise healthy
young person. Inhalant abuse can also cause death by asphyxiation
from repeated inhalations that lead to high concentrations of inhaled
fumes displacing the available oxygen in the lungs. In turn, this leads
to suffocation by preventing air from entering the lungs when inhaling
fumes from a plastic bag placed over the head, and choking from
swallowing vomit after inhaling substances. “Sudden sniffing death” is
associated particularly with the abuse of propane, butane, and aerosol
chemicals.
Commonly Abused Drugs in the Philippines

1. Shabu (Methylamphetamine Hydrochloride)
2. Marijuana (Tetrahydrocannabinol)
3. Ecstacy/ MDMA (Mehylene dioxy Methylamphetamine)
Effects of Drugs
Personality
• Becomes disrespectful (verbally and physically abusive)
• Easily gets extremely angry, acts paranoid and/or confused,
has extreme mood swings
• Depressed and less outgoing than usual
• Secretive - lies about his or her activities
• Stealing or “losing” possessions he/she used to value
• Either has a lot of money, or is always asking for more
• Withdraws from the family and common family activities
Appearance
• Neglects hygiene and grooming
• Either does not sleep or sleeps too much
• Loss of appetite
• Weight gain
• Too hyperactive or too little energy
Laws Against Abused Drugs

In the Philippines, there are several laws against these drugs, as
listed in the categories (schedules) formulated by the Department of
Health.
Controlled Substance
The Controlled Substances Act of 1970 separates drugs that may
be abused into five (5) categories (schedules) based on the use and
biological effects of the drugs. Strict regulations for the use and supply
of the drugs in each schedule are also established.
Schedule 1
Almost all the drugs in this schedule (e.g., heroin, LSD, marijuana)
are illegal and have a high potential for dependence and abuse. It is
illegal to have these types of drugs in your possession.
Schedule 2
These drugs (e.g., cocaine, amphetamines, morphine, some
barbiturates) are highly addictive but can remain in medical use because
of the lack of satisfactory non-addictive alternative medications. For
these types of drugs, renewal of prescription is not allowed without a
new prescription from your doctor.
Schedule 3
This schedule includes drugs that have some potential for abuse
or dependence (e.g., acetaminophen or aspirin with codeine, some
appetite suppressant). Prescriptions can be renewed up to five times
within a six-month period if your doctor so authorizes. In some states
in the US, prescriptions phoned to the pharmacist by your doctor must
be confirmed in writing.
Schedule 4
These drugs (e.g., Diazepam, choral hydrate, phenobarbital) are
considered less likely to cause dependence or to be abused as much as
the drugs in Schedule 3; however, the prescriptions are covered by the
same regulations that govern Schedule 3.
Schedule 5
These drugs (e.g., some antidiarrheal medications and cough
medicines) are included in the regulations because they contain small
amounts of narcotics. However, they are the ones that are least likely
to be abused.
In The Republic of the Philippines

PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No. 1619
AN ACT PENALIZING THE USE OR POSSESSION OR THE
UNAUTHORIZED SALE TO MINORS OF VOLATILE SUBSTANCES
FOR THE PURPOSE OF INDUCING INTOXICATION OR IN ANY
MANNER CHANGING, DISTORTING OR DISTURBING THE
AUDITORY, VISUAL OR MENTAL PROCESS
REPUBLIC ACT 9165

AN ACT INSTITUTING THE COMPREHENSIVE DANGEROUS
DRUGS ACT OF 2002, REPEALING REPUBLIC ACT NO. 6425,
OTHERWISE KNOWN AS THE DANGEROUS DRUGS ACT OF
1972, AS AMENDED, PROVIDING FUNDS THEREFOR, AND
FOR OTHER PURPOSES
Also known as the Comprehensive Dangerous Drug Act of 2002
Signed: June 7, 2002
Published: June 19, 2002
Took effect: July 4, 2002
IRR: August 30, 2002
Published: October 31, 2002
Article I
Definition of Terms
Section 3. Definitions. As used in this Act, the following terms shall
mean:
(a) Administer – Any act of introducing any dangerous drug into
the body of any person, with or without his/her knowledge,
by injection, inhalation, ingestion or other means, or of
committing any act of indispensable assistance to a person
in administering a dangerous drug to himself/herself unless
administered by a duly licensed practitioner for purposes of
medication.
(b) Board - Refers to the Dangerous Drugs Board under Section
77, Article IX of this Act.
(c) Centers - Any of the treatment and rehabilitation centers

for drug dependents referred to in Section 34, Article VIII of
this Act.
(d) Chemical Diversion – The sale, distribution, supply or
transport of legitimately imported, in-transit, manufactured
or procured controlled precursors and essential chemicals,
in diluted, mixtures or in concentrated form, to any person
or entity engaged in the manufacture of any dangerous
drug, and shall include packaging, repackaging, labeling,
relabeling or concealment of such transaction through
fraud, destruction of documents, fraudulent use of permits,
misdeclaration, use of front companies or mail fraud.
(e) Clandestine Laboratory – Any facility used for the illegal
manufacture of any dangerous drug and/or controlled
precursor and essential chemical.
(f) Confirmatory Test – An analytical test using a device, tool
or equipment with a different chemical or physical principle
that is more specific which will validate and confirm the
result of the screening test.
(g) Controlled Delivery – The investigative technique of allowing
an unlawful or suspect consignment of any dangerous
drug and/or controlled precursor and essential chemical,
equipment or paraphernalia, or property believed to be
derived directly or indirectly from any offense.
(h) Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals – These
include those listed in Tables I and II of the 1988 UN
Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and
Psychotropic Substances as enumerated in the attached
annex, which is an integral part of this Act.
(i) Cultivate or Culture – Any act of knowingly planting,
growing, raising, or permitting the planting, growing or
raising of any plant which is the source of a dangerous
drug.
(j) Dangerous Drugs – Include those listed in the Schedules
annexed to the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs,
as amended by the 1972 Protocol, and in the Schedules
annexed to the 1971 Single Convention on Psychotropic
Substances as enumerated in the attached annex which is
an integral part of this Act.
(k) Deliver – Any act of knowingly passing a dangerous drug to

another, personally or otherwise, and by any means, with
or without consideration.
(l) Den, Dive or Resort – A place where any dangerous drug
and/or controlled precursor and essential chemical
is administered, delivered, stored for illegal purposes,
distributed, sold or used in any form.
(m) Dispense – Any act of giving away, selling or distributing
medicine or any dangerous drug with or without the use of
prescription.
(n) Drug Syndicate – Any organized group of two (2) or more
persons forming or joining together with the intention of
committing any offense prescribed under this Act.
(o) Employee of Den, Dive or Resort – The caretaker, helper,
watchman, lookout, and other persons working in the den,
dive or resort, employed by the maintainer, owner and/
or operator where any dangerous drug and/or controlled
precursor and essential chemical is administered, delivered,
distributed, sold or used, with or without compensation, in
connection with the operation thereof.
(p) Financier – Any person who pays for, raises or supplies
money for, or underwrites any of the illegal activities
prescribed under this Act.
(q) Illegal Trafficking – The illegal cultivation, culture, delivery,
administration, dispensation, manufacture, sale, trading,
transportation, distribution, importation, exportation
and possession of any dangerous drug and/or controlled
precursor and essential chemical.
(r) Instrument – Anything that is used in or intended to be used
in any manner in the commission of illegal drug trafficking
or related offenses.
(s) Laboratory Equipment – The paraphernalia, apparatus,
materials or appliances when used, intended for use or
designed for use in the manufacture of any dangerous
drug and/or controlled precursor and essential chemical,
such as reaction vessel, preparative/purifying equipment,
fermentors, separatory funnel, flask, heating mantle, gas
generator, or their substitute.
(t) Manufacture – The production, preparation, compounding

or processing of any dangerous drug and/or controlled
precursor and essential chemical, either directly or
indirectly or by extraction from substances of natural
origin, or independently by means of chemical synthesis
or by a combination of extraction and chemical synthesis,
and shall include any packaging or repackaging of such
substances, design or configuration of its form, or labeling
or relabeling of its container; except that such terms do
not include the preparation, compounding, packaging or
labeling of a drug or other substances by a duly authorized
practitioner as an incident to his/her administration or
dispensation of such drug or substance in the course of his/
her professional practice including research, teaching and
chemical analysis of dangerous drugs or such substances
that are not intended for sale or for any other purpose.
(aa) PDEA – Refers to the Philippine Drug Enforcement
Agency under Section 82, Article IX of this Act.
(bb) Person – Any entity, natural or juridical, including
among others, a corporation, partnership, trust
or estate, joint stock company, association,
syndicate, joint venture or other unincorporated
organization or group capable of acquiring rights
or entering into obligations.
(cc) Planting of Evidence – The willful act by any
person of maliciously and surreptitiously
inserting, placing, adding or attaching directly
or indirectly, through any overt or covert act,
whatever quantity of any dangerous drug and/
or controlled precursor and essential chemical
in the person, house, effects or in the immediate
vicinity of an innocent individual for the purpose
of implicating, incriminating or imputing the
commission of any violation of this Act.
(dd) Practitioner – Any person who is a licensed
physician, dentist, chemist, medical technologist,
nurse, midwife, veterinarian or pharmacist in the
Philippines.
(ee) Protector/Coddler – Any person who knowingly
and willfully consents to the unlawful acts provided
for in this Act and uses his/her influence, power
or position in shielding, harboring, screening
or facilitating the escape of any person he/she

knows, or has reasonable grounds to believe on
or suspects, has violated the provisions of this Act
in order to prevent the arrest, prosecution and
conviction of the violator.
(ff) Pusher – Any person who sells, trades, administers,
dispenses, delivers or gives away to another, on
any terms whatsoever, or distributes, dispatches
in transit or transports dangerous drugs or who
acts as a broker in any of such transactions, in
violation of this Act.
(gg) School – Any educational institution, private
or public, undertaking educational operation
for pupils/students pursuing certain studies
at defined levels, receiving instructions from
teachers, usually located in a building or a group
of buildings in a particular physical or cyber site.
(hh) Screening Test – A rapid test performed to
establish potential/presumptive positive result.
(ii) Sell – Any act of giving away any dangerous
drug and/or controlled precursor and essential
chemical whether for money or any other
consideration.
ARTI-
UNLAWFUL ACTS FINE IMPRISONMENT
CLE II
Importation of
Life
Dangerous Drugs and/ PhP 500,000 –
Sec. 4 imprisonment to
or Controlled Precursors PhP 10M
death
and Essential Chemicals
Sale, Trading,
Administration,
Life
Delivery, Transport PhP 500,000 –
and Distribution of PhP 10M
death
Dangerous Drugs and/
or Controlled Precursors
Life
Maintenance of a Den, PhP 500,000 –
Dive or Resort PhP 10M
death
Employees and Visitors PhP 100,000 – 12 years & one (1)
Sec. 7
of a Den, Dive or Resort PhP 500,000 day to 20 years
ARTI-
CLE II
Manufacture of
Dangerous Drugs and/ Life
PhP 500,000 –
or Controlled Precursors Sec. 8 imprisonment to
PhP 10M
and Essentials death
Chemicals
Illegal Chemical
12 years & one
Diversion of Controlled PhP 100,000 –
Sec. 9 (1) day to 20
Precursors and PhP 500,000
years
Essential Chemicals
Manufacture or Delivery
of Equipment and
12 years & one
other Paraphernalia for Sec. PhP 100,000 –
(1) day to 20
Dangerous Drugs and/ 11 PhP 500,000
years
and Essential Chemicals
Life
Possession of Sec. PhP 500,000 –
imprisonment to
Dangerous Drugs 11 PhP 10M
death
Possession of
Equipment, Instrument, Six (6) months
Sec. PhP 10,000 –
Apparatus and other & one (1) day to
12 PhP 50,000
Paraphernalia for four (4) years
Dangerous Drugs
Possession of Dangerous
Life
Drugs During Parties, Sec. PhP 500,000 –
imprisonment to
Social Gatherings or 13 PhP 10M
death
Meetings
Possession of
Equipment,
Instruments, Apparatus Six (6) months
Sec. PhP 10,000 -
and Other Paraphernalia & one (1) day to
14 PhP 50,000
for Dangerous Drugs four (4) years
During Parties, Social
Gatherings or Meetings
Six (6) months
None for 1st
& one (1) day to
Offense
Sec. four (4) years
Use of Dangerous Drugs
15 PhP 50,000 – Six (6) months
PhP 200,000 & one (1) day to
for 2nd Offense four (4) years
ARTI-
CLE II
Cultivation or Culture Life
Sec. PhP 500,000 –
of Plants Classified as imprisonment to
16 PhP 10M
Dangerous Drugs death
Failure to Maintain &
Keep Original Records Six (6) months
Sec. PhP 10,000 –
of Transaction on & one (1) day to
17 PhP 50,000
Dangerous Drugs and/ four (4) years
Unnecessary 12 years & one
Sec. PhP 100,000 –
Prescription of (1) day to 20
18 PhP 500,000
Dangerous Drugs years
Life
Unlawful Prescription of Sec. PhP 500,000 –
imprisonment to
Dangerous Drugs 19 PhP 10M
death
Summary
In the Philippines, the most widely abused drugs are shabu
(methylamphetamine hydrochloride), marijuana, and ecstacy.
Dangerous drugs are those drugs that are listed under Republic Act
9165. The common routes of ingestion include swallowing, snorting,
smoking or injecting depending on the paraphernalia available. The
most common paraphernalia involved in abusing shabu include
lighters, tooters, and the tin foil. Each drug has different effects to the
body (e.g., stimulant, depressant, hallucinogens, and narcotic, among
others). The main negative effect of these drugs is that they affect brain
functioning that, in turn, could lead an abuser to become an attacker in
many heinous crimes. Fortunately, the law provides penalties for each
violation, as listed under RA 9165. As for the forensic chemists, they
are active participants in attending court duties related to violations of
provisions under RA 9165.
Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:
Review Questions:
1. What are the major classifications of dangerous drugs?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. What are the effects of each type of dangerous drug on
humans?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. What are the commonly abused drugs in the Philippines?

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4. What is the major law against abused drugs in the
Philippines?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
UNIT 2
Chemistry cases
Chapter 5
Forensic Drug Analysis
Learning Objectives
• Define “Forensic Drug Analysis” and identify its role
in processing drug specimens;
• Enumerate the various ways by which to conduct
qualitative and quantitative analyses of drug
specimens; and
• Learn the steps involved in conducting qualitative
analyses.
Forensic Drug Analysis

Forensic drug analysis mainly refers to the process of identifying
and quantifying specimens of illegal drugs. These forensic drug tests
are carried out via screening and confirmation for the purpose of
analysis. The results can be used as evidence in a court of law.
Drug Chemist
A drug chemist is a specialist who conducts chemical analyses
of evidence confiscated during criminal investigations, which involve
dangerous drugs and clandestine labs.
Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Drug Specimen

In the analysis of drug specimens, it is important to know the
qualitative and quantitative characteristics of said specimens. The
results of a well executed drug analysis can be used as the basis upon
which a prosecutor can file a case against a suspect. In drug parse,
knowing the quantity is knowing its degree of purity, while knowing
the quality simply means knowing the existence or the presence of
dangerous drugs on the specimen. Both qualitative and quantitative
analyses use the analytical method of identifying volatile substances
and dangerous drugs.
Steps in Conducting Qualitative Analysis
Physical Test
This kind of test is
performed by describing
the physical properties
of a specimen by ocular
inspection, weighing, or
through a microscopic
exam.
Instruments used in physical tests, such as an

analytical balance and a microscope
Chemical (Color) Test

In the chemical
test, a specific reagent
or series of reagents is
used for a presump-
tive test. Color reaction
is expected to occur in
order to determine the
presence of a dangerous
drug. Different reagents
are used for different
dangerous drugs and
examples include Si-
mons test, Marquis test, Reaction obtained upon the addition of Simon’s
and so on. reagent in a suspected Shabu sample

Confirmatory Test
There are three types of confirmatory tests: thin layer
chromatography (TLC), spectrophotometry, and gas chromatography
mass spectrophotometry.
a. Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)
This type of test requires the comparison of Rf (retention in time
values) between the specimen in question and the standard.
A TLC result of an analyzed marijuana sample

b. Spectrophotometry (UIV and IR)

Ultraviolet spectrophotometry (UIV) offers conclusive proof for the
positive identification of drugs because other materials could produce
an indistinguishable spectrum. Meanwhile, infrared spectrophotometry
(IR) can specifically identify the substance. The IR pattern is unique
to each compound and can be considered as being analogous to the
“fingerprint” of the compound being examined.
c. Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrophotometry

This test is performed by combining gas chromatography and
mass spectrophotometry, that is, as the sample emerges from the gas
chromatography, it immediately enters the mass spectrometer. Then,
the sample is exposed to high-energy electrons, causing the sample
to fragment or break a part. The fragmentation pattern serves as a
“fingerprint” of a chemical substance.
Reporting
A complete laboratory report should be able to indicate all the
necessary information, which includes the following: the specimen
submitted and its description, the time and date at which the specimen
was received by the authorized personnel, data about the suspect/s,
the name of the requesting party, the findings and conclusion, the
time and date at which the analysis was completed, and the name and
signature of the examiner and the approving officer.
Testing for the Presence of Dioxy methamphetamine (DMA)

Drug Test via Urine Sample – Here, the drug test uses a Marquis
reagent in order to obtain a positive result for users of amphetamine
and methamphetamine during the screening test.
a. Single use: 1- 3 days
b. Heavy use: 3- 5 days
Hair Testing- This test generally uses the most recent 1.5 inch
of hair growth, which provides a detection period of approximately 90
days.
Results of the Marquis Test and How to Analyze Them
Color Substance Present

No Reaction Does not contain MDMA,MDE,MDA
Either MDMA,MDE,MDA,DXM or opiates
Dark Purple to Black
are present
Dark Grey DXM will emit a small amount of smoke
Bright Yellow Either DOM or DOB is present
Either speed or methamphetamine
Bright Orange
is present
Metabolism of Drugs
• Methamphetamine amphetamine
• Heroin morphine
• Aspirin salicylic acid
• Diazepam oxazepam
• Ecstacy amphetamine
(oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis etc.)
Drug Dependency
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), this refers to
the cluster of physiological, behavioral, and cognitive phenomena in
which the use of a drug results in a strong desire and accompanying
difficulties in controlling it. A drug dependency test is often performed
in order to determine an appropriate treatment for the person addicted
to a particular narcotic or psychoactive drug.
Conditions that Modify the Effects and Metabolism of Drugs

1. Age, sex, and physical state
2. Exhaustion
3. Habit and tolerence
4. Idiosyncracy
5. Disease
6. Sleep
Physiology of Drugs
Physiology is the study of the functioning of living things.
Three Factors Considered in Drug Physiology

• Absorption
• Distribution
• Metabolism
Elimination of drugs
This refers to the method of eliminating body toxins and other
unabsorbed products of metabolism (e.g., via the liver) and excretion
(e.g., via the kidney, bile). The urine can also be the main route of
excretion.
Drug Test
It is the process of determining the presence of a drug and its
metabolites in the human body through the fluids. Other specimens
that can be used in a drug test include the following:
a. Blood
b. Fingernails
c. Hair
d. Saliva
e. Sweat
f. Tissue
Validity Test in Urine Samples

Performing a validity test on a urine sample helps determine the
integrity of the sample. The typical reasons for performing the validity
tests are (1) to analyze unobserved urine collection and (2) to determine
whether a urine sample that has been submitted has been tampered. A
urine sample is considered invalid when it is improperly documented,
diluted, substituted, adulterated and improperly collected, handled.
Qualitative Examination of Urine

1. Screening test
The drug test kit (DTK) is an easy, fast, and qualitative binding
immunoassay method that produces a visual result. This is the type
of screening without the need of instrumentation. The method uses
a combination of monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies to selectively
identify the drugs of abuse and their metabolites.
Principle of Drug Test Using DTK

This kind of drug test is based on the principle of competitive
binding. Drugs that may be present in the urine specimen compete
against the drug conjugate for binding the antibody. During the testing,
urine specimen migrates upward via capillary action.
A test kit outcome showing a negative result

for both meth and THC
2. Confirmatory test- This type of test uses GCMS as an instrument
Cut Off Values

Presumptive Positive- the urine sample has a concentration value
that is above the cutoff level
Presumptive Negative- the urine sample has a concentration value
that is below the cutoff level
It must be noted that a negative result does not indicate the
absence of the analyte being examined.
Drug Detection based on Urine Samples
Window of Drug Detection Initial Screen

Drugs
in Urine ng/dL
Marijuana 2 days to 3 weeks 50
Methamphetamine 2 to 3 days 500
Forms of Specimen Tampering

• Dilution- This is done by adding water into the urine sample
so that minimum required quantity sample can be achieved.
Dilution reduces the concentration of normal constituent.
Two types of dilution techniques are (a) internal dilution
(drinking plenty of water to facilitate dilution or taking
diuretics like coffee, beer, and tea), and (b) external dilution
(through the addition of water to the actual specimen).
• Substitution- This is done by replacing a urine sample with
the urine sample of another person.
• Adulteration- This is done by adding endogenous substances
at a concentration that is not a normal physiological
concentration.
Parameters for Validity Tests

Initial Validity Test and Confirmatory Validity Test
1. Physical characteristics, such as color, odor, etc., can be
visually determined
2. Volume - same as the physical characteristics
3. Temperature - a thermometer can be used (normal urine
has a lukewarm temperature)
4. pH levels - can be determined using a pH meter
5. Specific gravity - can be determined using a refractometer
6. Nitrites – can be measured via the calorimetric method
7. Creatinine levels
8. Oxidizing agents
Analyzing the Color of a Urine Sample After Testing

White color
Also known as albinuria, white urine often appears milky white
to thinly white. Some diseases related to white urine color include the
following:
• Hyperoxaluria (i.e., excess component of kidney stones
known as oxalates)
• Lymphatic fistula (i.e., abnormal connection between
urinary tract and lymphatics)
• Chyluria (i.e., leakage of lymphatic fluid in urine)
• Filariasis (roundworm infestation)
• Propofol infusion (i.e., injection with Propofol)
• Pyuria (i.e., pus cells in urine)
• Proteinuria (i.e., excessive protein in urine in kidney disease)
• Urinary tuberculosis (i.e., TB of the urinary tract)
• Hypercalciuria (i.e., elevated calcium in urine)
• Phosphaturia (i.e., phosphate in urine)
• Schistosomiasis (urine, parasitic infection with liver fluke)
• Lipiduria (presence of fat cells in urine due to nephrotic
syndrome)
Brown color
It is often difficult to distinguish brown from dark red urine. In
addition, brownish urine color may be caused by the same diseases as
those caused by red urine due to the presence of blood in the urine.
Foods that produce brown urine include fava beans and rhubarb, to
name a few. There are also some medications that specifically cause
urine to turn brown, and these include the following:
• Nitrofurantoin (treatment for urinary tract infection)
• Metronidazole (antibiotic for vaginal infections and
amoebiasis)
• Acetaminophen overdose (pain reliever)
• Niridazole (treatment against flatworms)
Orange color
Ranging from bright yellow-orange or dark yellow, this color is
often produced by lack of fluid intake, dehydration or urinary tract
infection (UTI).
Black color
Black urine disease, also known as alkaptonuria is a genetic
disorder involving tyrosine and phenylalanine metabolism. The toxic
byproduct of this disease can cause heart valve damage, kidney stones,
and osteoarthritis. Common medications that could cause black urine
are as follows:
• Sorbitol (i.e., sugar alcohol found in apples, pears,
peaches, prunes)
• Cresol (i.e., food additive in ketchup, cheese, bacon,
smoked foods)
• Iron (i.e., included in multivitamins)
• Methyldopa (i.e., antihypertensive)
• Laxative (i.e., stool softener)
• Methocarbamol (i.e., muscle relaxant)
• L-dopa (i.e., anti-Parkinson’s drug)
Blue or green color

Blue- or green-colored urine could be due to several diseases
such as Blue Diaper Syndrome or Hartnup Disease (i.e., defect in
tryptophan absorption), biliverdin (liver disease), pseudomonas UTI
(antibiotic-resistant UTI), and herbicide ingestion. There are several
medications that may cause the urine to turn into an unusual color,
and these include the following:
• Amitriptyline (i.e., anti-depressant)
• Methylene blue (i.e., anti-malarial drug, dye,
component of urinary analgesic)
• Clorets breath mints
• Flupirtine (i.e., analgesic)
• Cimetidine (i.e., anti-ulcer)
• Zaleplon (i.e., sedative)

• Metoclopromide (i.e., antiemetic for nausea and vomiting)
• Promethazine (i.e., antihistamine for allergy)
• Indomethacin (i.e., anti-inflammatory)
• Tetrahydronaphthalene (i.e., used in dyes, fat solvents, resins)

Summary
There are different specimens submitted to the Crime Lab for drug
analysis, which include the drug specimen itself or other specimens
(e.g., body fluids in the form of urine, saliva, and sweat). Hair and tissue
can also be submitted for drug analysis. In the Philippine setting, the
most commonly submitted specimen other than the drug specimen
itself is the urine sample of the suspect. The drug test method using a
suspect’s urine sample is the easiest and most cost-effective method,
and simply relies on the metabolism of the person. However, before a
urine specimen can be accepted as evidence, urine validity test must
first be conducted. In this case, the proper procedure in handling urine
sample must be observed.
Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:
Review Questions:
1. What is “Forensic Drug Analysis” and what is its role in
processing of drug specimens?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. What are the various methods of conducting qualitative and
quantitative analyses of drug specimens?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. What are the steps involved in conducting qualitative

analyses?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________
Chapter 6
Explosives
Learning Objectives
• Define “explosives” and explain their history;
• Determine the types of explosives and their
characteristics;
• Identify the effects of explosion;
• Define “explosives analysis”; and
• Identify the common methods of analyzing
explosives and explosive contents.
What are Explosives?

An explosive refers to a substance containing a large amount of
stored energy, which is capable of undergoing a rapid chemical reaction.
This reaction releases super heated gases that expand with great force
and does not require atmospheric oxygen to sustain combustion. In
several bombing incidents, it has been found that the commonly used
explosive device is the incendiary explosive device (IED). Its popularity
could be due to the ubiquity of materials for its production and its low
cost without compromising its effectiveness as a bomb.
In addition, explosives are reactive substances containing great
amount of potential energy that—if released suddenly—can produce
an explosion, usually accompanied by the production of light, sound,
heat, and pressure. The quantity of an explosive material is measured
through its explosive charge.
History of Explosives
Approximately 1,000 years ago, the Chinese invented the first
chemical explosive called gunpowder (also called black powder). It
consisted of a mixture of charcoal, sulfur, and potassium nitrate (or
saltpeter). For hundreds of years, gunpowder was mainly used to create
fireworks and the Chinese did not use it as a weapon of war until after
Europeans began using it to shoot stones and projectiles from tubes as
well as metal balls from guns and cannons.
The Europeans may have learned about gunpowder from travelers
coming from the Middle East. In fact, in the West, gunpowder was used
more for wars than for fireworks by the early 13th century. The English
and the Germans also began to manufacture gunpowder in the early
1300s. It remained the only explosive for 300 hundred years, until
1628, when another explosive, called fulminating gold, was discovered.
Although Eastern nations, such as China and Japan, rejected
the widespread use of gunpowder in warfare until the 19th century,
it has successfully changed the lives of both civilians and soldiers in
every Western country that used it. For example, the rebellious Czech
Taborites fighting the Germans in 1420 and the English Navy fighting
the Spanish in 1587— the forces who learned to use gunpowder first—
scored early victories that quickly forced their opponents to learn to use
gunpowder as well. Over the years, the widespread use of gunpowder
changed the way wars were fought, and won. Eventually, gunpowder
helped end the servitude of peasants to local lords and masters, and
countries with national armies became more important than local
rulers as war became deadlier, mainly due to the use of gunpowder.
By the 17th century, gunpowder took on an industrial application when
Europeans began to use explosives in peacetime to loosen rocks in
mines and clear fields of boulders and trees.
Kinds of Explosives
Explosives are generally classified into two categories, namely, low
and high explosives. Compared with high explosives, low explosives
burn at a much slower rate and create less pressure. Low explosives
are typically used as propellants to send a rocket into space or force
a bullet out of a gun. Meanwhile, chemicals that explode faster than
the speed of sound comprise high explosives. Explosives can also be
categorized according to their sensitivity, that is, sensitive materials
that can be exploded by a smaller amount of pressure or heat are called
primary explosives, while materials that remain relatively insensitive
are called secondary explosives.
Low Explosives
Low explosives consist of a combustible substance and an oxidant
that burns (deflagrates) at speed levels that range from a few cm/sec
to 400 m/sec. Low explosives combine a combustible substance and
an oxidant at sufficient temperature, thus releasing heat and rapidly
expanding gases. Low explosives work the same way as burning wood
or coal, and the burning occurs with more or less speed depending
on the amount of oxygen in the surrounding. At the higher levels,
deflagrations resemble detonations.
For many years, black powder or gunpowder has been used as
the most common low explosive throughout the world. Although it
produced a large amount of smoke and was deemed dangerous to use,
gunpowder was still used for special effects, pyrotechnics (fireworks),
and other specialized works. At present, it has been replaced in
commercial blasting by safer and more productive explosive materials.
High Explosives
Compared with low explosives, high explosives detonate
instantaneously, burn more rapidly, and create more pressure.
There are many reaction sequences involved in a detonation process.
Commonly, it involves the combination of a metal with chlorine, which
releases excess energy. Other reactant combinations could include
metal with oxygen, hydrogen with chlorine, carbon with oxygen,
oxygen with carbon monoxide, hydrogen with oxygen, and nitrogen
with hydrogen. In any explosive, one or many of these reactions may
occur, thus releasing large energy levels.
Known as the “blasting oil,” nitroglycerine was the first high
explosive used in commercial blasting. It is considered dangerous
because it is an unstable chemical. In the late 1800’s, Alfred Nobel
combined a mixture of nitroglycerine (NG) with a special type of clay
called kieselghur, which he packed into sticks. The resulting dynamites
were the first type of high explosive that was safer to use. Dynamites
do not accidentally explode when hammered, dropped, or burned.
Dynamite Contents
• Nitroglycerin or NG • Support compounds
• EGDN (ethylene glycol dinitrate) • Ammonia-gelatin
• Sawdust wrapped in buff, red, white, or orange wax paper
Nitroglycerine Type of Dynamite

The types of dynamites that use NG include the following:
• Straight Dynamite
• Ammonia Dynamite
• Gelatin Dynamite
• Ammonia-Gelatin Dynamite
1. Straight Dynamite
• Its NG content makes it the most
dangerous type of dynamite to handle
and store
• NG vapor is quickly absorbed, thus
causing severe headache
• Produces toxic fumes that make them
unsuitable for underground or confined
space blasting
• Handler should be extremely cautious
if NG content is leaking
• Sodium nitrate is often added to it to
supply oxygen and increase strength
• Has a velocity of 17,000 psi
• Has a heavy odor that is pungent yet sweet
2. Ammonia Dynamite
• Has a tan to light brown color
• Lower cost and less sensitive
than straight dynamite
• Portion of NG is replaced by
ammonia and sodium nitrate
• Percentage strength ranging
from 5% to 70%
• Pushing heavy effect
• Detonation velocity ranging from 3,600 to 13,000 fps

• Possesses same odor effect as straight dynamite and may
cause headaches resulting from the NG base
• Most widely used dynamite
3. Gelatin Dynamite
• Detonation velocities up to 23,600 fps
• Percentage strength ranging from 20%
to 100%
• Unconfined, lower percentage strength
that can detonate at 7,000 fps; confined
percentage strength of up to 13,000 fps
• Consists of water - resistant gel
made of sodium, nitrocellulose, and
nitroglycerine
• Suitable for wet blasting on tough rock
or ore
• Has a semi-gel consistency with properties shared with
ammonia and ammonia-gelatin dynamites
4. Ammonia-Gelatin Dynamite
• Similar characteristics as those
of the gelatin dynamite, but uses
less costly ammonium nitrate as
part of the explosive mixture
• Percentage strength ranging
from 25% to 90%.
• Detonation rate ranging from
7,000 to 13,000 fps
5. RDX Mixture
• C1: Composition 1 = RDX + plasticizer
• C2 = RDX + TNT + DNT + MNT + NC + dimethformamide
• C3 = C2 w/o DMF + tetryl
• C4 = RDX + secabate + fuel oil + polyisobutylene
6. Military Dynamite
• Equivalent to 60%
straight dynamite
• Contains 75% RDX
(Cyclonite) and 15%
TNT (Trinitrotoluene),
5% engine oil, and 5%
cornstarch
• Does not freeze or exude
crystals
7. C4
• Moldable
• Has a shattering effect
• Contains 91% RDX (Cyclonite), 8% plasticizer, and 1%
other ingredients
• Detonation velocity of up to 26,400 feet/second
Initiating or primary explosives (Initiators)

These types of explosives are highly sensitive to shock, friction
or heat, and under normal conditions can detonate violently instead
of burning. Also referred to as primers, blasting caps or detonators,
primary explosives are generally used to set off other explosives and
must be handled with great care. Some common examples of primary
explosives include mercury fulminate, lead stypnate, lead azide, and
picric acid.
Non-initiating explosives
Compared with primers, non-initiating explosives are relatively
insensitive to heat, friction or shock, and will normally burn than
detonate when ignited in small quantities in the open air. This group
consists of the majority of high explosives used for military and
commercial blasting. Typical examples include dynamite, Trinitrotoluene
(TNT), Cyclotrimethyltrinitramine (RDX), Pentaerythritol tetranitrate
(PETN), and Tetryl (2,4,6-trinitrophenylmethylnitramine). Ammonium
nitrate detonates at velocities between 3,300 feet/second, while HMX
detonates at 29,900 feet/second.
Examples of Secondary High Explosives

• Straight dynamites, which are NG-based
• Water gels
• Detonation cord
• Military explosives
• Emulsions
• Boosters
• Slurries
Other Classifications
Nuclear explosives – Owing to extensive research done during
World War II (1939–45), an entirely new kind of explosive was
invented: nuclear explosives. Compared with traditional explosives,
these produce explosive power not by chemical reactions but through
nuclear reactions. In some types of nuclear reactions, large atomic
nuclei are split (or fissioned) into two pieces. Here, the release of large
amounts of energy combines small atomic nuclei to make a single large
nucleus,
Characteristics of Explosives
The standard qualities a compound or mixture must possess the
following characteristics to qualify as an explosive:
• Generation of heat due to the exothermic reaction;
• Rapid expansion of gases;
• Can be controlled in terms of rapidity and initiation of the
reaction when ignited; and
• Must have limited amount of toxicity
A bomb is defined as a hollow projectile with a generally spherical
shape, containing an explosive material and is made of iron. It is fired
by concussion or by time fuse. Improvised explosive devices (IEDs),
also known as roadside bombs, are homemade bombs constructed
and deployed in ways other than those in conventional military action.
An IED can be made of conventional military explosives, such as an
artillery round, which is attached to a detonating mechanism. An
IED typically consists of an explosive charge (potentially assisted by
a booster charge), a detonator, and an initiation system, which is a
mechanism that initiates the electrical charge setting off the device.
An IED is a bomb fabricated in an improvised manner, which
incorporates destructive, lethal, noxious, pyrotechnic, or incendiary
chemicals and are designed to destroy or incapacitate personnel or
vehicles. IEDs may be used in terrorist attacks or in unconventional
warfare by commando forces or guerrillas in a series of operations.
Composition of an IED
Chemical Compound (Explosive)
(Non-electric) (Electric)
Blasting caps
An explosion refers to the rapid combustion and decomposition

of gases with consequent violent increase of pressure that often causes
a load report.
Functional group of explosives responsible

for the sudden release of energy
• Organometallic explosives
• N3 (azides)
• -NO2 and -NO3 (nitrates and nitrites)
• -NX2 (halogenated amines)
• -OClO2 & -OClO3 (chlorates and perchlorates)
• -ON=C (fulminates)
• -O-O- & -O-O-O- (peroxides and ozonides)
• Acetylene and Acetylides
Types of Explosion
1. Mechanical – This type of explosion is caused by the
expansion of gas that produces high pressure beyond the
capacity of the container.
2. Atomic or Nuclear – This type of explosion results from the
atomic transformation of atomic elements. It undergoes
three stages as follows:
• Fission - splitting of the nucleus of atoms;
• Fusion - under great force joining together the
nuclei of atoms; and
• Tremendous release of energy, gas, heat, and shock
3. Chemical – This type of explosion is produced through the
extremely rapid transformation of unstable substances
accompanied by heat formation.
Detonation refers to a violent explosion resulting from the

practically instantaneous combustion or decomposition of unstable
compounds.
Effects of Explosion
1. Heat Thermal Effect (Incendiary) – 3000 °C – 4000 °C
2. Blast Pressure Effect= 1/10,000 of a second
(hot expanding gas)
Secondary Effects of Explosion

1. Focusing
2. Reflection
3. Structural Fire
4. Shielding
5. Earth and Water Shock
Explosives Analysis
Explosives analysis can be undertaken using the following methods:
1. Infrared Spectrophotometry
2. Color Test
• Griess Reagent
• Diphenylamine Reagent
• Alcoholic KOH
Summary
There are different types of explosives with the accompanying
set of characteristics unique to them; for example, explosives can be
generally classified into low or high explosives. The most common
explosive used is the black powder, which has been written in history
as the first ever explosive to be invented. Explosives are characterized
by the explosion and the detonation they create. Common examples of
high explosives are used by terrorists to create terror and to sabotage
governments and corporate entities. Meanwhile, the analysis of
explosives or explosive contents can be done using chemical tests or
instrumentation.
Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:
Review Questions:
1. What are the different types of explosives and their
characteristics?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. What are the mains effects of explosions?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. What is explosives analysis?

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4. What are the common methods of analyzing explosives and
explosive contents?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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Chapter 7
Paraffin Test and Gun Powder Residue
Learning Objectives
• Define what a paraffin test is;
• Identify the types of gunpowder;
• Describe the process of testing for gunpowder nitrates;
• Describe the guidelines for estimating target
distances; and
• Define “gunshot residue”.
What is a Paraffin Test?

A paraffin test is a method used for detecting gunshot residue.
This test determines whether or not a person has fired a gun, and is an
important means by which to provide conclusive evidence in a clinical
trial. A paraffin test is also called Lunge’s test, Diphenylamine tes
Dermal nitrate test, and the Gonzales test, named after the scientist
who improved the test.
The paraffin test, originating from Cuba, was first employed by
Dr. Gonzalo Iturrios when he used paraffin to collect and examine
gunpowder residues from discharged firearms. The basis of this test is
the presence of nitrates in the gunpowder residue. The test is done by
applying warm melted paraffin wax on the hands of the alleged shooter,
which causes the pores of the skin to open and exude the particles of
gunpowder residue (if present). These particles are extracted by the
paraffin cast (made of paraffin wax and absorbent cotton) and would
then appear as blue specks, when diphenylamine (DPA) reagent is
added on the cast. The specks are generally located on the area of the
thumb and forefingers.
The ideal time allotment for performing a paraffin cast is 72
hours (3 days) from the time of the alleged shooting incident. After this
specific period, it will be impossible to extract the gunpowder nitrates
from one’s hands. Nitrates from pores cannot be removed by ordinary

washing of the skin and stays on the hands for 72 hours. This is why
it is important to perform paraffin casting within said period.
The characteristics of a positive result for nitrates from gunpowder
residue include the following: “tailing deep blue specks” (nitrate from
other sources like fertilizers will give off the same blue color but
without the “tailing”). Other substances similar to nitrate—known as
oxidizers—will also react with the reagent in the same way, thus giving
a false positive result. These substances include the following:
1. Cigarette
2. Fertilizer
3. Tobacco
4. Explosives
5. Certain cosmetics
6. Urine
7. Food samples
As mentioned previously, a paraffin test is not conclusive
evidence but just corroborative evidence, which intends to support the
testimony of eyewitness/es. There are instances in which testing the
person who actually discharged a gun can still give a negative result
because of several factors.
Gunpowder
Types of Gunpowder
1. Black powder – a mixture of carbon or charcoal (15%), sulfur
(10%), and potassium nitrate (75%)
2. Smokeless powder – is either single base (composed of
nitrocellulose) or double base (composed of nitrocellulose and
nitroglycerine and other stabilizers)
The presence of gunpowder residues on the target help reveal
information about gunshot range or distance. If it is present on the
hands, it can help determine if the person has fired a gun.
Tests for Gunpowder Nitrates

1. Gunshot Range (GSR) Test
When a gun is discharged, gunpowder residue may also be
deposited on the clothing of the victim. The size and density found
on the clothing as well as pattern of gunpowder will determine the
appropriate distance of the firer to the victim. As the distance to
the victim increases, the size of the pattern increases while density
decreases.
2. Neutron Activation Analysis

This refers to the use of access to the nuclear reactor and facilitates
to determine radiation.
3. Gunpowder Residue Test (GPR) Test

Diphenylamine reagent is applied to cotton swabbing of the barrel
and chamber of the gun to determine if firearms were fired. A deep blue
color results from the reaction of nitrates with the reagent indicating
presence of gunpowder residue.
4. Paraffin-Diphenylamine Test (Dermal nitrate test)

Taking a paraffin cast on the hands of the alleged gunman should
be taken within 72 hours from the alleged time of firing. Here, the
reagent used is Lunge’s reagent, which is prepared by dissolving
0.5grams of diphenylamine in 100 cc of C.P. sulfuric acid, and adding
20 cc of water otherwise known as DPA reagent.
A positive result is indicated by the presence of blue specks when
the paraffin cast is treated with diphenylamine reagent. The blue
specks are caused by the nitrates present in gunpowder. However, a
positive finding is not conclusive evidence but only a corroborative one.
Factors that affect the result of a paraffin examination:

• Length of the barrel
• Type of caliber of ammunition
• Wind velocity and direction
• Age of gun/efficiency of mechanism
• Humidity/percent moisture in air

• Use of gloves
• Direction of firing
• Passage of 72 hours
Guidelines for Estimating Target Distances

1. When contact is less than 1 inch from the target:
• heavy concentration of smoke-like vaporous usually
surrounds the entrance hole of the bullet
• scorch marks in the loose fiber surrounding the
bullet entry hole
• presence of stellate (star-shaped) tear pattern
around the hole due to the blue back of muzzle gases
2. When contact is 12 to 18 inches or less from the target,
there is a hole of vaporous lead (smoke) deposits around
the bullet hole
3. When contact is 25 inches, there are scattered specks
of unburned and partially powder grains without any
accompanying soot.
4. When contact is 36 inches, there are scattered gunpowder
particles with ball powder ammunition.
5. When contact is more than 3 feet from the target:
• typically no deposit of any powder residues unto
the target
• a bullet wipe or a dark ring around the perimeter of
the bullet hole; this is the only visual indication to
characterize the hole made by a bullet
In comparison, if the gun is discharged when held close to the

body of the victim, it produces two types of discoloration:
1. Tattooing
• occurs when the gun is held at about 36 inches away
from the target
• presence of a black coarsely peppered pattern due to

the partially burned and unburned particles of the
gunpowder
• the size of the powder tattooing depends on the powder
charge, caliber, and the distance of firing
2. Smudging
• occurs when the gun is held about 2 inches to a
maximum of 8 inches away from the target
• a dirty grimy appearance deposited around the entrance
hole due to the soot from the burned powder
• the size of smudge depends on the caliber of the gun,
type of powder used, length of the barrel of the gun, and
the distance of the muzzle of the gun was held from the
body
Gunshot residue (GSR)

Gunshot residue is mainly composed of burned and unburned
particles from the propellant, the explosive primer, the components
from the bullet, as well as the cartridge case and the firearm used.
Some authors use other definitions, such as firearm discharge residue
(FDR) or cartridge discharge residue (CDR). This process can be likened
to a cork in a vigorously shaken champagne bottle. When the bullet
exits the muzzle, pressure behind it blows the gunshot residues out of
the firearm’s barrel under high velocity. The residues are expelled from
the barrel in a smoky cone shaped pattern.
When the firing pin of a firearm strikes the primer of a cartridge,
the primer compound ignites thus sending a flame into the cartridge
case. Gunpowder in the cartridge case starts to burn, causing it to
change from solid to gas. This change creates pressure within the
cartridge that then forces the bullet down the barrel and down range.
Meanwhile, pressure building behind the bullet is released when the
bullet exits the muzzle of the firearm.
Gunshot residue is an extremely fragile evidence and should be
collected immediately (preferably within three hours of the firearm’s
discharge). In collecting evidence of this type, one should use the
laboratory-supplied GSR kits and follow the directions carefully. In the
case of live subjects, if more than 6 hours have passed or if the subject
has already washed his hands, it is unlikely that meaningful results

can be obtained. Whenever possible, gunshot residue collection should
be performed prior to moving the body if a body is to be sampled. If this
is not possible, the hands should be protected using paper bags.
As the firearm gets closer to its target the residue concentrations
increase and the actual size or diameter to the pattern gets smaller.
When the muzzle of the firearm comes into contact with the
target, hot gases escaping from the muzzle at high velocity can typically
tear, rip, shred, and/or melt the material of the target. A very intense
deposit of gunshot residues will also be deposited around the margins
of a contact or near the bullet entrance hole.
Gunpowder residue can contain unburned gunpowder particles,
partially burned gunpowder particles or the carbonaceous soot from
completely burned gunpowder.
Streaks of burning
gunpowder, smoke, and
unburned particulate
can be seen exiting the
barrel as well.
Visible gunshot
residues around bullet
entrance hole
Contact gunshot
entrance hole.
Gunpowder particulate
residue around bullet
entrance hole
Summary
The most common method used in testing for the presence of
gunpowder nitrates from the firer’s hands is through paraffin test. A
paraffin test is not a conclusive test but rather a type of corroborative
evidence. Many paraffin examinations yielded negative result
regardless if it has already been established that the suspect fired a
gun. This false positive result can be due to several factors mentioned
in this chapter. The common reagent used in the analysis of GSR in
the hands of the gunman or clothing of the victim is the DPA reagent.
Chemical tests yield positive result if a blue-colored streak appears
after depositing DPA on the subject specimen. The size and shape
of the bullet entrance hole on the body of the victim could also help
identify the most probable distance of the firer from the victim.
Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:
Review Questions:
1. What are the types of gunpowder commonly used today?
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2. Describe the process of testing for gunpowder nitrates.
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3. What are the guidelines for estimating target distances.

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4. What is a “gunshot residue”?
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Chapter 8
Toxicology
Learning Objectives
• Define toxicology and understand its history;
• Present the role of toxicology in criminal investigation;
• Enumerate the methods in collecting samples for
toxicology examination;
• Identify the commonly used types of poison and their
classifications; and
• Determine the methods of examining poisons.
What Is Toxicology?
Toxicology refers to the science of detecting and identifying the
presence of drugs and poisons in tissues, organs, and body fluids.
There is a specialized area of toxicology called, toxinology, which deals
specifically with animal, plant and microbial toxins; however, this is
considered a science in its own right. Toxins are natural substances
produced by living organisms, whereas toxic substances are synthetic
substances from chemicals, which are considered toxicants.
History of Toxicology
The history of toxicology dates back to the 16th century when
Paracelsus stated that “all substances are poison.” In 1786 Plenck
stated that “poison must be identified in the body.” In 1821, Mathieu
Orfila of France, first classified the poisons and in 1836, arsenic was
first extracted in a cadaver. By 1836, scientist James Marsh performed
the first arsenic test, while in 1842, the Reinsch test for arsenic and
mercury was designed. In 1850, tests for metals were conducted, and
the Stratas-Otto, a method to extract alkaloid, was first introduced; this
was followed by alcohol testing by examining the reduction of chromic
acid. Finally, in 1910, Dr. Alexander Gettler, a chemistry professor,
started the field of forensic toxicology in the US.
Importance of Toxicology
Toxicology is used to verify if a case being examined is poisoning
or if there is a foul play in the crime scene, which may have caused
the death of the victim. Toxicology is an important tool in conducting
criminal investigations that rely heavily on the analysis of toxins and
toxic substances.
Tolerance and Idiosyncrasy

Tolerance refers to the condition wherein a toxic substance
does not affect the body the way it used to be (e.g., in the case of
benzodiazepines, amphetamines, morphine, heroin, and methadone).
Meanwhile, Idiosyncrasy is the opposite of tolerance, that is, small
amounts can have fatal effects (e.g., in the case of aspirin, penicillin,
cocaine, etc.)
Collection of Samples for Toxicology Examination

There are many sources of samples for a toxicology examination,
and these include the following:
• Lungs: aside from blood, lungs can also be checked for
samples to determine solvent abuse
• Liver, kidney, brain, and fat: many drugs tend to
concentrate on these areas
• Organs: these are sources for bodies that are already
decomposed
• Hair and nail clippings: these are excellent sources of
samples to determine heavy metal poisoning, such as
arsenic, antimony, or thallium
• Kidneys: heavy metals often concentrate in the kidneys
• Lungs: excellent sources of volatile compound samples
• Vitreous humor: can be a source of alcohol/drug samples
• Brain: can be a source of samples of non-polar solvents,
freon, or chloroform
• Blood: storage of blood should be -20 °C, fluoride+oxalate
Intoxication via Alcohol

Sources of alcohol include ethanol, which is produced by the
enzymatic action of yeast on a vegetable substrate containing sugars.
Alcohol fermentation yields 12%–15% alcohol, while distillation
concentrates alcohol to 40%–60%. A breathalyzer is used to detect
alcohol intoxication, especially among drivers suspected to be under
the influence of liquor.
What are Poisons?

A poison is a substance that, when introduced to the body, may
cause changes that will result to injury and death. Poison, especially
an overdose of pills, is the second most popular form of suicide.
With the right kind of poison, it would be a relatively painless death.
Poisoning is a very popular form of murder. Poison can be easily be
slipped into a victim’s food or drink and depending on the intended
outcome, can either act slowly, over a long period of time, or rapidly,
within minutes or hours. Certain types of poisons can imitate diseases,
causing the doctor to misdiagnose a medical problem, or can cause
a steady weakening of the body making it susceptible to other more
serious diseases.
Criminal poisoning has received little attention due to its apparently
rare occurrence. Although statistics indicate that poisonings account
for only 3% to 6% of homicides, many cases of criminal poisoning may
go undetected resulting from the difficulties associated with detecting
this type of crime. This type of crime frequently becomes known only
after exhumation of the victim’s remains.
Commonly Used Types of Poison

Arsenic
Historically, arsenic is a favorite killer poison. In the UK, arsenic
is available to be purchased at a pharmacy to facilitate rat and pest
management. When used as a poison, arsenic symptoms include
vomiting, diarrhea with blood, and severe stomach discomfort.
Cyanide
Cyanide kills by preventing red blood cells from absorbing the
sufficient amount of oxygen it needs. This resulted in a process known
as “internal shortness of breath”. During World War II, cyanide capsules
were allegedly used by spies of World War II as an easy escape option
to avoid persecution.
Types of Poisons
1. Corrosive poisons – they destroy tissues when they come
in contact with the body (e.g., hydrochloric acid or muriatic
acid)
2. True poison – natural poisons, such as cyanide present in
silver cleaners
3. Cumulative poisons – poisons whose intensity lies on the
gradual accumulation of the poison (e.g., arsenic).
Types of Poisoning
There are two types of poisoning. One is acute poisoning, which
refers to exposure to poison and produces immediate or instant death.
The other one is chronic poisoning, which refers to the gradual
exposure to the poisons and does not immediately result to death.
Classifications of Poisons
Poisons can be classified based on several factors, as discussed below.
1. Based on Origin
a. Vegetable- poisons that comes from plants
(e.g., Poison Ivy)
b. Animal- poisons transferred through bites and
stings of terrestrial or marine animals
(e.g., snake bites, sting from Jellyfish and bees)
c. Mineral- are strong acids and bases
(e.g., HCL and NaOH)
d. Microbial – are poisons produced by microscopic

organism (e.g., bacteria in spoiled food and fungi found
in expired bread)
e. Synthetic – are poisons chemically produced in the
laboratory that have useful importance to its purpose
but become poisonous when taken into the body
(e.g., pesticides and overdose of drugs)
2. Based on Chemical Properties

a. Metallic – are poisons that can be detected through
isolation and extraction using solvent extraction and
flame test like test for arsenic exhibits blue color on
flame test
b. Non-volatile Poisons – are poisons that can be analyzed
through extraction using solvents and confirmatory
test with the use of Fourier Transformed Infrared
Spectrophotometer (FT-IR)
c. Volatile Poisons – are poisons that can be isolated
through distillation; its distillate can be analyzed using
GC-MS
d. Anions – are poisons that can be detected through
qualitative methods of examination for the presence of
anions (e.g., sulfates, sulphides, chlorine, and alkalis)
e. Miscellaneous – other poisons (e.g., pesticides,
herbicides, and fertilizers)
3. Based on Physical Form

a. Solid form may result to an overdose of sleeping pills
and ingestion of dangerous drugs
b. Liquid form are poisons introduced to the body (e.g.,
pesticides and cyanide present in silver cleaning agents)
c. Gas forms include ammonia and bromine
d. Vapor
e. Aerosols
4. Based on Physiological Effects

a. Irritants- are poisons that result in nausea, vomiting, and
diarrhea when they come in contact with the senses (e.g.,
chlorine, bromine)
b. Corrosive- are strong acids and bases that can destroy the
tissues that they come in contact to (e.g., HCL, NaOH)
c. Neurotics –poisons can be
• Spine neurotics like picrotoxin and cerebrospinal
• Cerebral neurotics like alcohol, opium, and tobacco
• Cerebrospinal Neurotics further classified as
- Deliriants such as cocaine
- Depressants such as barbiturates
d. Aesthetics/Exhaustives, such as aconite and KCN.
5. Based on Effects on the body

a. Local destruction on the skin such as phenols and HCL
b. Blood Poisons such as HCN
c. Nervous poisons
d. Cardiac poisons
Methods of Examining Poisons

1. Identification- this refers to screening and confirmatory
tests that are used to identify the presence of the poisons.
Screening test methods are done qualitatively by flame test,
precipitation, as well as the identification of organic and
inorganic cations and anions, metals, carbonlys, alcohols
and aromatic hydrocarbons. Confimatory test is done with
the aid of the machines in the laboratory like the GC-MS
and Fourier Transformed Infrared Spectrometer (FT-IR).
2. Isolation- this refers to the process of reducing the desired
substance in its pure form through distillation, solvent
extraction, and chromatography.
Entrance and Elimination of Poisons in the Body

Poisons can enter the body through the skin, mouth, nose, rectum,
eyes and vagina either hypodermically (inside the dermis, a layer in the
skin) or intravenously (insertion of needles thru the veins). Poisons can
be eliminated in the body by means of emesis (i.e., removing the poison
from the body), respiration, feces, urine, milk, sweat, saliva and tears.
Meanwhile, antidotes are substances that neutralizes a poison.
Kinds of Antidotes
1. Mechanical Antidote-removes the poisons inside the body
without changing it. Examples are stomach tubes and
ligatures.
2. Chemical Antidote – makes the poison harmless.
3. Physiological Antidote- an agent that counter the reactions
made by the poisons.
Summary
Toxicology is the science of detecting and identifying the presence
of drugs and poisons in body fluids, tissues, and organs. Toxicology
is important to determine the cause of death in an alleged poisoning
case. Alcohol is one of the most common substances being detected for
drunk driving. Its history accounts to the discoveries made by Mathieu
Orfila and James Marsh as well as the initiatives of Dr. Alexander
Gettler. Meanwhile, poisons are substances that when introduced
to the body, may cause changes that will result to injury and death.
Meanwhile, poisons may be classified based on Origin, Chemical
Properties, Physical Form, Physiological Effects, and Effects on the
body.
Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:
Review Questions:
1. What is the role of toxicology in criminal investigation?
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2. What are the main methods of collecting samples for
toxicology examination?
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3. What are the commonly used types of poison and their

classifications?
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4. What are the main methods of examining poisons?
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Chapter 9
Blood, Semen, and DNA Analysis
Learning Objectives
• Define “serology” and present its importance in
criminal investigation;
• Describe the different methods employed in
conducting blood examination;
• Present DNA analysis and its role in forensic
investigation;
• Describe the process of the forensic
characterization of semen; and
• Enumerate the different methods of DNA profiling.
What Is Blood?
Blood circulates throughout the body and is made up of four
elements, namely, the red blood cells or erythrocytes, the white blood
cells or leucocytes, blood platelets, and plasma. Human blood consists
of 65% plasma, of which 90% is water and 10% are proteins (albumen,
globulin and fibrinogen). Blood clots found at the crime scene usually
exhibits a straw-yellow colored liquid called serum. The difference
between serum and plasma is that the latter contains no fibrinogen,
which changes to an insoluble form called fibrin. Blood examination
in forensics can include blood typing and testing for the presence of
blood stain in serology, bloodstain pattern analysis, and testing for the
presence of deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) in paternity tests.
What is Serology?
Serology is a branch of science
that deals with the determination of
the type and characteristics of blood,
blood testing, and the examination
of bloodstain, semen, saliva, and
other body fluids that may or may
not be involved with DNA typing. The
preparation of testimony through the
results obtained via serology and its
presentation in a trial by oral and
written testimony delivered by an
expert witness is the main job function
of a forensic serologist.
Importance of Serology in
Crime Investigation
Blood can be used as circumstantial
or corroborative evidence in identifying
the perpetrator of a crime. It can also
be used to prove disputed parentage as
in a paternity test, determine the cause
of death, or the length of time at which
the victim survived an attack.
With the use of visualizing agents,
such as luminol and hydrogen peroxide,
blood stain patterns can also help
determine the direction of the escape of
the victim or the assailant, the origin of
the flow of blood, and the approximate
time at which a crime was committed.
Picture of whole blood and

the separation of its serum
Examination of Blood
1. Screening test
Color reaction indicating

Name of Test
presence of blood
Benzidine test Intense blue
Phenolphthalein test
Deep permanganate color
(Kastle-Meyer Test)
Guaiacum test (Van Deen’s
Blue
or Schonbem’s test)
Leucomalachite Green test Bluish-green
2. Confirmatory Tests
a. Microscopic test – this is used to distinguish between
mammalian, avian, piscine, and reptilian blood.
Species Appearance of Blood Corpuscles

Circular, biconcave disc
Mammals
without a nucleus
Fishes, reptiles and Oval and nucleated, the
amphibious animals nucleus is also oval
b. Microchemical test – this is a method of analytical chemistry

that is used to study small samples of substances.
Name of Test Appearance of Crystals

Dark brown rhombic crystal of
Teichmann test or
hemin or hematin chloride, which
Hemin Crystal test
is arranged singly or in clusters
Large rhombic crystals with a
Takayama
salmon-pink color arranged in
(Haemochromogen test)
clusters or sheaves
Acetone-Hemin or Small and dark dichroic acicular

Wazenhaar test crystals made of acetone
c. Test to determine if blood is of human origin – this is done

to detect precipitin, which reacts to human blood to form a
precipitate; human blood contains precipitin
d. Parentage test – this has several types as listed below.
Blood Grouping test - the blood of every human being belongs

to one of four blood groups, which are known as groups O, A, B and
AB. This blood group cannot be altered by the lapse of time or by the
presence of a disease. Blood groups are hereditary and science has
proven that the ABO system is one of the best ways in determining
true parentage.
Application of the ABO system

Parents Possible Children Impossible Children
O&O O only A, B, AB
O&A O, A B & AB
O&B O, B A & AB
A&A O, A B & AB
B&B O, B A & AB
A&B O, A, B & AB NONE
O & AB A, B O & AB
A & AB A, B & AB O
B & AB A, B, & AB O
AB & AB A, B & AB O
The most recent test for parentage is through DNA testing, which
relies on the DNA strands present in both parents, to determine the
veracity of paternity beyond 99%.
Bloodstain Pattern Analysis

Bloodstain pattern analysis (BSPA) refers to the examination of
the shapes and the distribution patterns and locations of bloodstains,
which can provide an interpretation of the physical events that gave
rise to their origin. Here, the distribution and appearance of bloodstains
and spatters are used to interpret and reconstruct the events that have
occurred to produce the bleeding. Several factors should be considered
and observed during the analysis. These factors are listed below.
a. Direction of travel: The direction of travel can be

determined by the bloodstain’s shape —the pointed end
always faces its direction of travel.
b. Surface texture: The harder and less porous the surface,
the fewer blood spatter produced
c. Origin of blood spatter: Origin in a 2D configuration
can be determined by establishing lines through the
long axis of individual bloodstains; the intersection of
the lines represents the point from which the blood
originated.
d. Impact angle: A drop of blood striking a surface at a
right angle produces a nearly circular stain — as the
angle decreases, the stain becomes more elongated.
Uses of BSPA
1. Show assumptions concerning events and their sequence –
Here, the position of the victim (which may indicate blood
smears or blood trails) may show evidence of the struggle
between the suspect and the victim.
2. Confirm or refute statements made by principals in the case
– Here, stain patterns on a suspects/victim’s clothing can
help verify consistency with the accounts given by either
the witnesses or the suspect.
Characteristics of a Blood Spatter

• Low velocity (5 f/s, 1.5 m/s)
e.g., free-falling drops, cast off from weapon
• Medium velocity (25–00 f/s, 7.5–30 m/s)

e.g., baseball bat blows
• High velocity (>100 f/s, 30 m/s)

e.g., gunshot, machinery
Three Categories of Bloodstain

1. Passive Bloodstains – these are drops created or formed by the
force of gravity acting alone.
• Drip – caused by dripping blood
• Drop – created by force of gravity
• Pool – this refers to a change in the shape and direction
of a bloodstain due to the influence of gravity or
movement of the object
Target surface texture

• Bloodstains can be found on various surfaces, such as
clothing, carpet, tile, wood, wallpaper, and so on.
• The type of surface upon which blood strikes can
affect the amount of resulting spatter, including the
appearance and size of the blood drops.
Spreads out smoothly

• Blood droplets that strike a hard smooth surface, such
as a piece of glass, can have little or no distortion
around the edge.
• Surface texture of the spreading edge is broken by
irregular surface.
• Surfaces, such as wood or concrete, are distorted;
spines and secondary spatter may be present.
• Blood droplets that strike linoleum flooring take on a
slightly different appearance; distortion (scalloping)
around the edge of the blood droplets may be found.
2. Transfer
• A transfer bloodstain is created when a wet and bloody
surface comes in contact with a secondary surface.
• A recognizable image of all or part of the original surface
may be observed in the pattern, as in the case of a
bloody hand or footwear.
Transfer bloodstains can be further subdivided into the following:

• Smudge
• Contact bleeding
• Wipe
• Swipe or Smear
3. Projected
Type You Can Give Blood To You Can Receive Blood From
A+ A+, AB+ A+, A-, O+, O-
O+ O+, A+, B+, AB+ O+, O-
B+ B+, AB+ B+, B-, O+, O-
AB+ AB+ Everyone
A- A+, A-, AB+, AB- A-, O-
O- Everyone O-
B- B+, B-, AB+, AB- N-, O-
AB- AB+, AB- AB-, A-, B-, O-
What is Semen?
Semen refers to the body fluid produced by the male sex organ,
usually amounting to 2.5 to 6.0 ml seminal fluid per ejaculation. Each
ml contains 100 million or more spermatozoa.
The fresh ejaculate semen has a gelatinous, sticky consistency,
and tends to become more fluid when exposed. It has two parts—the
seminal fluid (consisting of cellular elements including spermatozoa)
and epithelial cells and crystals composed of choline and lecithin.
Physical and Chemical Properties of Semen
Average volume
Property Per 100 mL
(3.4 mL)
Calcium (mg) 27.6 0.938
Chloride (mg) 142 4.83
Citrate (mg) 528 18.0
Fructose (mg) 27.6 9.25
Glucose (mg) 102 3.47
Lactic acid (g) 62 2.11
Magnesium (mg) 11 0.374
Potassium (mg) 109 3.71
Protein (g) 5.04 0.171
Sodium (mg) 300 10.2
Urea (g) 45 1.53
Zinc (mg) 16.5 0.561
Buffering capacity (β) 25
Osmolarity (mOsm) 354
pH 7.7
Viscosity (cP) 3–7
Volume (mL) 3.4
Values for average volume have been calculated and rounded to

three significant figures.
Forensic Characterization of Semen

A large number of criminal cases handled by a forensic lab often
involves sexual offenses, making it necessary to examine exhibits for
the presence of seminal stains.
The forensic examination of semen follows a two-step process:
1. Location of the semen; and
2. Conduct of tests to prove the identity of the one
who produced it.
Semen Location and Identification

There are two methods to locate semen. First is the acid phosphate
color test and the second is manually examining the semen left on
a fabric, which usually appears stiff and crusty. However, the latter
method is not reliable, although it can be done with the use of ultra
violet (UV) fluorescent light. Under UV light, semen creates blue
lamination, making it easier for investigators to detect its presence.
Collection of Rape Case Evidence

In collecting semen evidence for cases involving rape, the following
precautions must be considered:
1. A rape victim must be subjected to a medical
examination. During such examination, possible forms
of evidence that may be collected include the following:
pubic hairs, blood, vaginal swabs, any piece of clothing,
urine, and fingernail scrapings.
2. Outer/undergarments must be placed in separate paper
bags with the proper evidence tag; the victim must be
made to stand on a piece of paper as possible forms of
trace evidence are collected.
3. A suspect must also undergo medical examination,
during which clothing, hairs, penile swab, and blood
samples are collected for comparison.
4. Objects found at the scene of the crime should be
submitted to the laboratory with proper documentation.
Additionally, non-motile sperm can still be collected from a living
female for up to three to six days.
Forensic Examination of Semen and Seminal Stain
1. Wet Specimen
Here, a drop of the fluid is placed on a glass slide to which a
few drops of distilled water are added. This is then examined under a
high-powered microscope to determine the presence of sperm cells or
spermatozoa. A spermatozoon has a head and thin flagellate tail.
Spermatozoa under a
high-powered microscope
2. Dry Specimen
a. Physical examination
Dry semen has a stiff starchy feeling when deposited
on a piece of clothing. It may have a slight deepening of color
(grayish white sometimes yellowish) and disappearance of
odor. It also exhibits bright bluish fluorescence under UV
light.
b. Chemical examination
• Florence test – named after Dr. Florence of Lyons, uses
potassium triiodide that results in the formation of
crystals to indicate the presence of choline.
• Barberio’s test- using picric acid as crystallizing agent,
this results in the formation of spermine picrate crystals,
which appear as slender yellow-tainted rhomboid
needles with obtuse angles that may sometimes appear
as ovoid crystals.
• Acid phosphatase (Dr. Sidney Kaye) – this test identifies

the presence of acid phosphatase, which produces an
orange-red pigment
Note that the Florence and Barberio tests are
based on the formation of characteristic crystals
that are observed under a microscope, while the acid
phosphatase indicates the presence of acid phosphate
enzyme, which indicates human origin.
c. Microscopic examination- this test identifies sperm cells or
spermatozoa, which indicate that the semen is of human
origin; spermatozoa die as the semen dries. In this test, the
rapid stirring of a fabric-stain-water mixture will transfer
a small amount of sperm into the water. A drop is then
taken, dried, stained, and visualized under a high-powered
microscope.
Microscopic Problems
Some problems may arise in the examination of sperm using a
microscope due to several factors, which are listed below.
1. Some sexual crimes may involve males who have an
abnormally low sperm count—this condition is called
oligospermia.
2. Sperm are very brittle when dried and tend to easily
disintegrate. They are also difficult to remove from cloth
material.
3. Some males may suffer from aspermia, a condition where
there is no sperm in their seminal fluid, which is due to a
vasectomy.
4. DNA typing is a method employed by forensic scientists to
identify individuals by their respective DNA profiles. DNA
profiles are encrypted sets of numbers reflecting a person’s
DNA makeup. These can also be used as the person’s
identifier. It can be used in, for parental testing and criminal
investigation.
d. Biogical examination (Farnum 1901) – this test is used to
differentiate human from animal seminal fluid. It is also
used to detect spermato precipitins.
What is DNA?
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a molecule that contains all
the genetic information used in the development and functioning of all
known viruses and living organisms. DNA is a nucleic acid comprising
of macromolecules essential for all known forms of life.
Human DNA molecules are double-stranded helices that consist of
two long biopolymers called nucleotides (guanine, adenine, thymine, and
cytosine). DNA is organized into long structures called chromosomes.
During cell division, these chromosomes are duplicated, providing
each cell its own unique set of chromosomes.
Properties
Chemical structure of a DNA A section of DNA; the bases lie

strand; hydrogen bonds are horizontally between the two
shown as dotted lines. spiraling strands.
DNA in Forensics
DNA found in semen, skin, blood, saliva or hair found at a crime
scene is used to identify an individual, such as a perpetrator or the
victim. This process is formally called DNA profiling, but may also be
called “genetic fingerprinting.” DNA profiling was first developed in
1984 by a British geneticist, Sir Alec Jeffreys, and first used in forensic
science to convict Colin Pitchfork in the 1988 Enderby murders case.
The ability to obtain genetic match from minute samples has led to a
re-examination of a number of cases.
To begin DNA profiling, the court issues orders for the extraction
of biological evidence for the determination of a possible DNA
match. Pending cases can now be re-examined especially if it was
not scientifically possible to conduct DNA profiling at the time of
the original examination. Combined with the removal of the double
jeopardy law in some places, this can allow cases to be reopened where
previous trials have failed to produce sufficient evidence to convict a
suspect. Individuals charged with serious crimes may thus be required
to provide a sample of DNA for matching purposes. The most obvious
defense against DNA matches obtained forensically is to claim that
cross-contamination of evidence has taken place. Thus, meticulous
and strict handling procedures with new cases of heinous crimes must
be undertaken.
DNA profiling can also be used to identify victims of mass casualty
incidents. This procedure is called Disaster Victim Identification (DVI),
and is done by the SOCO personnel to help identify the victims via their
relatives through personal belongings, and to identify bodies or body
parts in serious accidents and dental records. Today, DNA profiling
is used to identify individual victims in mass war graves by finding
matches with living family members.
Methods of DNA Profiling

1. Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) Analysis
- One of the first methods used in finding out genetics used
for DNA profiling.
2. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Analysis - It identifies
specific DNA sequences of interest, wherein the DNA sample
is denatured into separate individual strands. This method
then replicates DNA into a million fold in two hours or less.
3. Short Tandem Repeats (STR) Analysis - It uses highly

polymorphic regions with short repeated sequences. It
helps identify unrelated individuals. Matches (or variations)
in several control-samples indicate relationships, such that
the full DNA profiles should differ (except for twins), to
prove that a person was not actually matched to their own
DNA in another sample.
4. Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AmpFLP) Analysis
- This technique is faster than RFLP analysis and uses
PCR to amplify DNA samples. It relies on variable number
tandem repeat (VNTR) polymorphisms to distinguish DNA
samples from one another. It is relatively cheaper and easier
to set-up and operate and has thus remained popular in
developing countries.
DNA analysis is widely applied in determining genetic family
relationships, such as paternity, maternity, siblingship, and other
kinships. A father’s sperm cell consists of the XY chromosomes and
the mother’s egg cell consists of the XX chromosomes, each containing
half the amount of DNA found in other body cells. During conception,
these meet and fuse to form a fertilized egg, called a zygote. The zygote
contains a complete set of DNA molecules, a unique combination of
DNA from both parents. This zygote divides and multiplies into an
embryo and later, a human being.
*Source: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/imagepages/19095.htm
Accessed: September 5, 2017
At each stage of development, all the cells forming the body contain
the same DNA—half from the mother and half from the father. This
allows the relationship testing to use all types of samples, including
loose cells from the cheeks, blood, buccal swabs, or other types of
biological samples.
Each person’s DNA contains two copies of these markers—one
copy inherited from the father and one from the mother. Within a
population, the markers of each person’s DNA location could differ in
length and sequence, depending on the markers inherited from both
parents. The combination of marker sizes found in each person makes
up his/her unique genetic profile. When determining the relationship
between two individuals, their genetic profiles are compared to see
whether they share the same inheritance patterns at a statistically
conclusive rate. For example, DNA paternity between parents and
child is identified on those special markers presented below.
DNA Marker Mother Child Alleged father

D21S11 28, 30 28, 31 29, 31
D7S820 9, 10 10, 11 11, 12
TH01 14, 15 14, 16 15, 16
D13S317 7, 8 7, 9 8, 9
D19S433 14, 16.2 14, 15 15, 17
In a paternity test, the partial results indicate that the child and
the alleged father’s DNA match among these five markers. The complete
test results show this correlation on 16 markers between the child
and the tested man to draw a conclusion of whether or not the man
is the biological father. Scientifically, each marker is assigned with a
paternity index (PI), which is a statistical measure of how a match at a
particular marker significantly indicates paternity.
Here, the PI of each marker is multiplied with each other to
generate the combined paternity index (CPI), which indicates the overall
probability of an individual being the biological father of a tested child
relative to any random man from the entire population from the same
race. The CPI is then converted into a probability of paternity, which
shows the degree of relatedness between the alleged father and child.
The DNA test report in other family relationship tests, such as
grandparentage and siblingship tests, is similar to a paternity test
report. However, instead of the CPI, a different value, such as a
Siblingship Index (SI), is reported. This report shows the genetic profiles
of each tested individual. If there are markers shared among the tested
individuals, the probability of biological relationship is calculated, in
order to determine the likelihood that the tested individuals share the
same markers because of a possible blood relationship.
Summary
In this chapter, we learned that blood consists of four elements
(the red blood cells, white blood cells, blood platelets and plasma). We
also learned that serology, the branch of science that deals with the
determination of the type and characteristics of blood, blood testing,
bloodstain examination, semen, saliva, and other body fluids, can be
used in DNA typing and profiling.
Blood examination involves screening test and confirmatory test.
Meanwhile, BSPA refers to the examination of the shapes, locations, and
distribution patterns of bloodstains, which provides an interpretation
of the physical events that may indicate clues regarding their origin.
We also learned that the three categories of bloodstain include the
following: passive, transfer, and projected.
Semen is a body fluid produced by the male sex organ. We
also learned that DNA is a molecule that contains all the genetic
information used in the development and functioning of all known
living organisms and viruses. DNA is a nucleic acid which consist of
macromolecules essential for all known forms of life. We also learned
in this chapter the various methods of DNA profiling, which include
RFLP, PCR, STR, and AmpFLP analyses.
Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:
Review Questions:
1. What is the role of serology in criminal investigation?
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2. What are the different methods employed in
conducting blood examination?
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3. What is DNA analysis?

What is its role in forensic investigation?
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4. What are the different methods of DNA profiling?
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UNIT 3
PHYSICAL IDENTIFICATION CASES
Chapter 10
Glass Fracture, Macro Etching,
and Bullet Trajectory
Learning Objectives
• Describe the visual distinction of glass and
enumerate its properties;
• Enumerate the types of glass fracture;
• Show the value of glass as evidence;
• Describe the process of collecting and handling
glass and glass fragments;
• Define “macro-etching”;
• Present how the examination of bullet holes aid an
investigation; and
• Define a bullet trajectory and determine the tools
in trajectory determination.
What is Glass?
Glass consists of a mixture of silica (natural sand) and two or
more alkaline bases, such as lime, soda, or potash. Glass may also
contain other elements and metals, which are added for color, heat
resistance, hardness, and other desired properties.
Glass and glass fragments often take an important role in
criminal investigations of such offenses as burglary, housebreaking,
fleeing the scene of vehicle accidents, and others. The ultimate value
of such materials, either as evidence or as investigative leads that
may be obtained from them, depends on the investigators’ knowledge
and training in the nature of glass; proper procedures of collection,
preservation, and examination; and what the laboratory technician
can learn from the glass or glass fragments.
Glass fractures and glass fragments can provide information
through which several types of determinations may be possible, such
as those listed below.
1. Investigators can determine whether a fragment of glass
originated from a particular glass object that has been
broken (e.g., a fragment of headlight lens found at the
scene of a vehicle accident did or did not originate from
a broken headlight of a suspect vehicle).
2. Investigators can determine whether a glass fragment
originated from a particular kind of glass object, such
as a spectacle lens, headlight lens, or a window pane.
3. Investigators can determine the origin and direction of a
fracture, specifically, they can determine what caused it
and the direction from which the causative force came.
4. Investigators can determine the order in which the
fractures occurred, such as in the event of multiple
fractures, including bullet holes.
5. Investigators can determine the angle from which a
bullet struck a glass object.
6. Finally, investigators can determine whether a particular
glass object, such as a jar or a bottle, contained an
inflammable or explosive substance.
Visual Distinction of Glass

When one looks at a piece of glass, there are several distinctions
that can be readily observed with the naked eye. These include the
following:
1. Surface Texture
2. Color
3. Curvature (if any)
4. Thickness
Glass is very unique. Given that there can be thousands of

different formulas in making glass—from the simple pane glass to the
wide variety of colored glass—each has its own physical properties that
make it unique. For example, metals can be added to make various
colors as follows:
1. Iron = Greenish
2. Copper = Bluish
3. Manganese = Brownish
4. Gold = Ruby red
The Strength of the Glass and the Glass Fracture

The strength of glass depends on its surface. As soon as the
surface is penetrated, such as by using a diamond tip pencil, glass
could break along that scratch line. Once the surface is damaged, the
remaining material is easily cracked or fragmented.
In addition, a focused impact upon glass will produce a predictable
pattern of fragmentation. Given that glass breaks under tension and
not compression, it will bend until the tensile strength is exceeded,
after which it would break. In the event of a fracture, a radial fracture
would comprise the primary fracture, whereas spiral or concentric
fractures comprise the secondary fractures.
Properties of Glass
The value of glass—either as evidence or in the development of
investigative leads—depends on its physical properties, which make it
possible to determine the manner by which a piece of glass was broken
or to determine whether glass fragments did or did not originate from
the same source.
Differences in amounts of mineral composition of ingredients
used in one batch of molten glass from those used in another batch
could also produce variations that can be identified under laboratory
procedures. Glass possess properties that help a laboratory examiner
analyze its composition. First, glass seldom breaks squarely across but
leaves convex/concave edges, or stress lines, on the fractured edges;
second, glass produce both radial (primary) and concentric (secondary)
fractures when broken; and third, glass bends and stretches before
breaking.
Theories Related to Glass Fracture

There are several theories that can help examiners analyze a glass
fracture.
1. Glass first bends on the direction where force is
applied, which causes the opposite side to stretch.
2. Glass is flexible—it bends when force is
applied to it.
3. Glass can withstand more bending rather than
stretching, which causes the opposite side to start
breaking once the stretch limit is exceeded.
4. Most of the glass is projected forward, in the direction
of the blow; however, if some of the fragments are
projected backwards—towards the person breaking
the window—by up to a distance of 3 meters (i.e.,
the “backscatter”), anyone standing close enough
when the window breaks will be covered in tiny
fragments of glass which will stick to their clothing
and their hair.
Types of Glass Fracture

As mentioned earlier, there are two types of glass fracture.
• A radial or primary fracture resembles the spoke of a wheel,
in which the radiating rod originates at a common point.
• In a concentric or secondary fracture, the radiating rods are
connected with one another, creating a cob-web appearance.
RADIAL AND CONCENTRIC GLASS FRACTURES

Radial
Radial
tric
Poin Concen
t of Im
pac
t Concentric
ric
c ent
Con
Radial
Ridge Lines
Factors to Be Determined in Glass Fracture

1. Point of Impact: Here, the front of the glass can be determined
through the accumulation of dust and dirt on the glass.
2. Age of the Fracture
• Fresh fracture – exhibits a regular pattern of radial
and concentric fractures
• Old Fracture – shows short extension lines at the end
of the radial fractures
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY 130
3. Direction of Impact or Force (Position of the Firer):

a. Angle from the right (right to left) – heavy chippings
on the left side of the glass
b. Angle from the left (left to right) – heavy chippings
on the right side of the glass
c. Perpendicular shot – even distribution of chippings
on the exit side of the glass
4. Cause of Fracture
• Due to natural means – shows plain wavy lines
• Due to mechanical means – shows a regular pattern of
radial/ concentric fracture
Fractures made with a Blunt

Object or Instrument
A thorough examination of
glass fractures caused by the impact
of a blunt instrument or object
could reveal a pattern of radial and
concentric fractures. The impact
side can be determined by careful
examination of the stress lines on BLUNT OBJECT FRACTURE
the edges of both the concentric
and radial fractures. A partial reconstruction of the object should be
made as an initial step, so that radial and concentric fractures can be
positively determined.
On radial fracture lines, the stress lines on the rear side (i.e., the
side opposite to the side of impact) are well developed and distinct,
whereas those on the front, or impact side, are not that well developed
and distinct as they tend to run together and lose their individuality.
In this case, the 3R rule applies. Meanwhile, on concentric fracture
lines, the opposite condition can be found, with the well-developed
and individually distinct portions of the fracture lines appearing on the
front or on the impact side.
Fractures caused by Heat

Fractures caused by prolonged
or intense exposure to heat can
be distinguished from those
caused by impact. This is because
fractures caused by heat do not
show a regular pattern of radial
and concentric lines. Specifically,
heat fractures have aFRACTURE
BLUNT OBJECT distinct wave HEAT FRACTURE
shape.
Heat fractures also show few curve patterns (stress lines) along
the edges. Expansion of the glass (stretching action) first occurs on the
side exposed to the heat, and glass splinters would usually fall toward
that side. Reconstruction of a glass object fractured by heat could
reveal the wave-shaped fracture pattern. However, if the stress lines
are smooth, and no point of impact or penetration can be found, these
factors, together with other considerations such as the circumstances
under which the fragments were found and their location, may indicate
that fracture was due to excessive heat.
Fracture Impacts
1. On low velocity impact
a. These are characterized by an increased number of well
developed radial fractures that are usually accompanied
by concentric fractures surrounding the point of impact
b. Lower velocity penetrations
(golf balls, rock, hammer, etc.)
2. High velocity impact

a. Often characteristic of high velocity breaking forces,
such as a rock from a slingshot or a bullet from a firearm
b. Typically produces an individual hole with limited radial
fractures
c. Has a morphological resemblance to a “cone” with
greater amount of glass absent on the opposite side of
the impact
d. Short and dense radial fractures
Factors that Contribute to the Resulting

Characteristics of the Fracture
a. Distance between the window and the “shooter,” which is
related to the projectile’s initial and terminal velocity
b. Size and hardness of the projectile
c. Shape and density of the projectile
d. Thickness and the type of glass, which affect the type of
fracture or perforation sustained by the window
Value of Glass as Evidence

Glass and glass fragments could have relatively high value as
evidence owing to the distinct variations in their physical properties
and methods by which they have been manufactured. The evidence
value of glass is also enhanced by the fact that large fragments may be
physically matched. However, a laboratory may provide limited results
in that it can only conclude that a particular piece of glass evidence
consists of tiny granules with the same composition as the original
glass. In this sense, a certain conclusion cannot be reached unless a
fragment can be perfectly fit into an original glass piece.
In the case of two or more focused impacts upon a glass surface,
the fragmentation pattern can help determine which impact was made
first. Moreover, succeeding impact radial fractures stop at the juncture
of the fractures produced by the first impact. Finally, given that
fracture patterns are unique, examining them can result in valuable
information regarding the direction of breaking force. A physical match
between two pieces of glass could result in an opinion that they came
from a common source to the exclusion of all others.
Collecting and Handling Glass and Glass Fragments

As with other types of evidence, glass and glass fragments must
be photographed and their locations noted on the crime scene sketch
must be properly identified before they are handled or moved to a
different location. The specific date must be recorded concerning the
glass and any obvious, suspected, or hypothetical relation it may have
to the crime being investigated.
Collection
In collecting glass and glass fragments as part of a body of evidence
related to an incident being investigated, there are several measures
that must be followed. These are listed below.
1. Carefully avoid smudging any fingerprints or
disturbing substances, such as bloodstains, dust,
dirt, or other foreign matter that may be on the
glass.
2. Glass should be picked up on its edges to avoid
touching the plane surface as much as possible.
3. All available fragments should be collected to
provide a complete reassembly as much as possible.
Even particles that are too small to permit matching
or reconstruction should be collected and preserved
because they can be analyzed in a laboratory for
their physical properties.
4. Rubber-tipped tweezers or similar devices should
be used for handling small fragments so as not to
scratch the glass. Metal tweezers with adhesive tape
placed over the inner surface of the points could
also make a good field expedient.
5. Rubber or fabric gloves should be worn when
handling and collecting the evidence.
6. If removal of the article is not possible, the pieces
remaining in the frame should be carefully marked
(inside and outside surfaces must be designated) and
removed to avoid further damage or disturbance of
any deposited substance on the glass surface. If the
frame is not removed, any material sample should
be collected from it.
7. In cases where the glass has been broken out of
a door, a window or any similar frame, and pieces
still remain, the frame should be removed and kept
intact. This could also make it easier to reassemble
the broken pieces later. In this case, it may be
necessary to provide interim protection for the
premises.
Markings
Sufficiently sized glass fragments are marked with a grease
pencil, a diamond point or carborundum pencil, or a piece of properly
marked adhesive tape. Markings are placed in an area that could
delineate a valuable piece of evidence. Such markings should include
the investigator’s name and the date and time at which the evidence
has been collected.
Markings are placed on the side which had been up (or inside the
building or room if taken from a window or door) when the glass or
glass fragments have been found. Markings also include a sequence
number which, together with the collector’s photographs, notes and
sketches, can help identify the location. Meanwhile, fragments that are
too small to be marked are placed in suitable containers and both the
container and lid are marked.
Preservation
In order to properly preserve glass or glass fragments, especially
if they are to be used as evidence, these should be:
1. wrapped in soft paper, cotton or similar material;
2. placed in a suitable container;
3. properly fastened so that it will not shift; and
4. properly marked as “fragile.”
Laboratory Examination
It is often advantageous to delay the submission of some items
(e.g., pieces of broken headlights found at the scene of a fleeing-
the-scene vehicle accident) to the laboratory because the temporary
retention of such pieces could allow visual matching of remaining
pieces found on a suspected vehicle. These can be later confirmed by
laboratory analysis.
Laboratory examination of fractured glass found at the scene of
the crime may indicate the following:
• the type of glass,
• the manufacturer of the glass,
• the point of origin of the glass fragments,
• the direction of the blow,

• the bullet’s direction and angle of impact; and
• the sequence of holes.
1. Fluorescence Examination
A fluorescence examination is conducted based on the fact that
mineral constituents imbue a distinctive type and degree of fluorescence
to the glass that originate from one molten batch. While the results
of UV comparisons of two or more pieces may not be positive in
establishing similarity, they may be positively dissimilar, hence could
play a useful role in the elimination process.
Given that fluorescence examination requires that the glass
must be absolutely clean to preclude fluorescent reaction from
contaminants, there is a need to wash the glass in acetone or a similar
solvent, and then in water. For this reason, caution should be taken
that this examination is not performed until after other examinations
for surface debris, fingerprints, and so on, have been completed.
2. Spectrographic Analysis
The constituents of glass, especially the minor or trace constituents
(e.g., contaminants and minor elements added for specific purposes),
could easily undergo spectrographic analysis, which identifies and
measures the quantities of these constituents. The presence (or absence)
and the quantities of these minor constituents play a more crucial
role in spectrographic analysis than the basic constituents commonly
found in comparatively greater quantities. Thus, the spectrograph is
very useful in demonstrating major differences between two samples;
it can also indicate their non-identity.
3. Refractive Index
Refraction refers to the change of direction of a ray of light passing
through a medium with a non-uniform density (e.g., through a piece
of glass that has been ground to specific requirements). The refractive
index can be measured microscopically or with a refractometer, which
requires that the two sides of the sample be parallel. Another method,
known as flotation, can be used when the specimen does not have
parallel sides.
4. Density Analysis
Density analysis is based on the relative densities of two or
more pieces of glass. Comparison of the densities of a known and an
unknown piece of glass may help determine whether they are similar
or dissimilar.
What is Macro-Etching?
Macro-etching refers to the
application of a chemical solution on
a metal surface and observing any
reaction that may take place.
Definition of Terms
• Concavity – refers to a depression or excavation below
the general level.
• Alteration – refers to changes or modification made in anything.
• Molecule – smallest particle of a compound
• Atom – smallest particle of an element
• Grind – to polish or smoothen by friction
• Obliteration – to conceal an object’s identity
• Serial number – series of numbers punched or pressed into
an item to distinguish it from another of the same type. It is
sometimes preceded with letters and symbols.
• Engraved number – a number that is impressed on a metal
surface using an electrical or mechanical gadget.
• Embossed number – a number that is raised in relief from
the surface or produced as a raised design, pattern, or
lettering on a plain surface, e.g. metal.
Purposes of Macro-Etching
Macro-etching has several uses as stated below.
1. It is used to determine whether the serial numbers of motor
vehicles or firearms are tampered.
2. It is used to restore the original serial number of an article
in question.
a. The criminal offender may destroy this
identification by defacing this serial number
through filing, chiseling, grinding, and filling in.
b. Articles of economic value are identified by the
specific details about the manufacturer (e.g.,
protection number or serial number).
Importance of Number Restoration

In a criminal investigation, number restoration plays an important
role because of the following reasons:
1. It could prove that the property found in the possession of
the suspect is actually owned by the victim;
2. It could establish an investigative lead from the article/
property that may have been taken from the scene of the
crime; and
3. It could resolve conflicting claims of properties recovered by
investigators.
Theories in Number Restoration

There are several theories with regards to number restoration. For
example, when a letter or number is stamped into a cold metal surface,
a molecular disturbance occurs directly beneath it. When a visible
portion of the letter or number is erased, the molecular disturbance
remains unchanged. Another theory is that when a letter or number is
punched into a metal, a deformation occurs on the metal surface as it is
being compressed. The deformation caused by the steel dye penetrates
up to a depth of 3/64 of an inch—the extent to which investigators can
restore the original serial number when properly etched and treated.
Preliminary Examination on Macro-Etching Process

This phase of the investigation involves the following steps:
1. searching for the normal location of the serial number;
2. removing oil and grease using alcohol and/or gasoline;
3. polishing the area using sand paper; and
4. taking a photograph of the possible evidence.
Spot Detection of Tampered/Obliterated Serial Numbers

Tampered or obliterated serial numbers can be detected by spot
checking any of the following:
1. Absence of one or more letters before, in between, or after a
set of sequential numbers
2. Several scratches and filing marks on the metal surface
where serial number should be located
3. Model of the vehicle and the chassis number not tallying
with that of the rating plate (alteration of the production
number)
4. Any difference in the style of numbers and letters
5. Fragmentary marks that could not be properly identified,
partly superimposed by the letters and numbers
6. Misalignments of numbers and letters
7. Any sign of welding surrounding the serial number
8. Presence of any differences in the spacing of individual
numbers and letters
9. Sizes and style of numbers and letters that are sharper and
coarser than the others
10. Irregularities in the depth of individual letters and numbers
11. Absence of a rating plate
Chemicals Used in Number Restoration

There are many kinds of chemical used in number restoration.
These may include the following:
1. Paint remover (stripsol)
2. For hard metal (iron, steel, etc.)
• Nitric acid (50 ml acid in 50 ml water)
• Cupric chloride solution (50 gm cupric chloride
powder + 600 ml water + 600 ml hydrochloric acid)
3. For soft metal (aluminum, lead) - hydrogen peroxide in
acetic acid
What is Bullet Trajectory?

A bullet’s trajectory refers to the path of flight it follows from firing
up to reaching its target. In cases of shootings where the victim is the
target, the forensic specialist works out the trajectory of the bullet as
part of the crime scene reconstruction. The science of investigating
projectile motion is known as ballistics, which involves equations that
can be used to determine a trajectory.
The main task of the ballistics specialist is to determine the range
of a bullet’s trajectory. When a bullet leaves a gun, it carries various
gases with it that often form a tattoo-like pattern on the skin of the
victim. The spread and extent of this pattern reveal the range between
the perpetrator and the victim. The investigator must reproduce the
pattern by firing the weapon, if it is still available, or a similar one
at blank targets in a laboratory condition. Knowing the range can
help establish where a perpetrator was standing, which may either
corroborate or contradict witness statements. Identifying the range can
also determine whether a fatal shooting was a homicide or a suicide.
Bullet Hole Characteristics

When the body offers no evidence of the bullet’s entrance and
exit paths, firearm examiners are summoned to examine the victim’s
clothing. When a bullet strikes an object, such as a piece of clothing,
a bullet entrance/exit hole is created. This is why it is important to
discuss the characteristics of bullet holes in aid of investigation.
1. Bullet Entrance Holes

Bullet entrance holes often have very even margins.
Moreover, due to the elasticity of the fabric, almost all non-
contact bullet entrance holes have a smaller diameter than
the bullet. The combination of a firm material and a large
caliber bullet with large hollow point cavities may cause bullet
entrance holes that are closer to the actual bullet’s diameter.
However, in most cases, the diameter of the bullet entrance
hole could only provide a small clue in determining the caliber
of the bullet.
By comparison, contact or near contact entrance holes
caused by a bullet that has struck an intermediate object
often have very uneven margins. Contact entrance holes may
show extreme damage to the material, such that the higher the
velocity of the cartridge the greater the damage to the garment
in a contact gunshot.
When a bullet strikes an intermediate target (e.g., the
victim’s arm) before entering the victim’s shirt, it may cause
the bullet to fragment, expand, or even tumble. The resulting
secondary bullet entrance hole has a very irregular shape that
makes it difficult to visibly distinguish it from an exit hole.
Fortunately, subsequent testing for gunshot residues can help
make this type of determination. Meanwhile, bullets that strike
a target at an extreme leave an elongated hole that have fairly
even margins. Often, a grazing bullet could cause several holes
in a wrinkled or folded garment.
Another common characteristic of bullet entrance holes
is the presence of bullet wipe residue. Bullet wipe residue
is a darkened ring around the immediate margin of a bullet

hole; thus, it is not always visible on darker colored materials.
The bullet wipe residue is caused by lead being wiped from
the surface of the bullet as it passes through the material.
Lead bullets normally leave the heaviest deposits of bullet
wipe residue, but jacketed bullets can also do the same. Lead
fouling in the barrel and lead primer residues can be seen on
the surface of a jacketed bullet.
2. Bullet Exit Holes

Round-nosed or full-metal-jacketed bullets may leave
holes that are similar to bullet entrance holes. However, very
light to no bullet wipe residue can be found in these. Bullet exit
holes caused by expanded or fragmented bullets have irregular
margins and larger holes than the original diameter of the
bullet. Fragmented bullets grab the material of an object as it
passes through, thus causing the material to be frayed outward.
Once the bullet holes are examined and fully documented, the
investigator can then look for evidence that may allow for a
distance determination to be made.
Tools Necessary for Trajectory Determination

There are several tools necessary for trajectory determination.
These include, but are not limited to, the following:
• Marking pens
• Adhesive tape (any kind)
• String (various types can be used)
• Measuring tapes (25 ft and roller tape)
• Inclinometer (determines angles and slopes)
• Laser pointer
• Clear plastic protractor
• Compass
• Adhesive markers (numerical and alphabetical)
• Bubble or torpedo level
Bullet trajectory can be determined in several ways,

as described below.
1. Vehicles
a. Here, fiberglass rods or wooden dowels (steel and
aluminum may be too heavy for shattered glass) are
inserted into the bullet holes to establish the paths.
String can also be attached to continue the path,
which can later be verified with the use of a laser
light beam.
b. If a vehicle with bullet holes in the windows is
involved, the investigators swab the interior
surrounding the holes for possible gunpowder
residue testing.
c. Here, the investigators note the location of spiral
fractures to determine the first impact.
d. Investigators examine the impact site and crater
of the glass to visually inspect whether the bullet
originated from the inside to outbound or from the
outside to inbound.
e. If the hole in the glass is less than 2 inches in
diameter, investigators pass a string through a
drinking straw, and then attach the string to a
small spring to be inserted through the bullet hole.
A common toothpick is then inserted through the
opposite end of the spring, allowing the string to be
pulled tight with light tension. The string is then
attached to the pole at the appropriate level based
on the trajectory and laser light indications.
f. When the vehicle string placement is complete
and the locations, measurements, and horizontal
and vertical angles are measured, the completed
product is photographed and charted by diagram.
It is important to photograph the vehicle from
the horizontal plane as well as to photograph the
stringed angles from the vertical plane via use
of a ladder. The combination of the two views
complements the diagram and allows both views to
confirm each other.
2. Buildings
If the scene is a building structure, investigators take similar steps
to reconstruct the event. Slightly different tools may be necessary,
such as tapes, hammer, extra poles, nails, and so on, which are used
to accomplish the testing process. The previously described steps are
repeated when examining buildings.
Summary
In this chapter, we learned that glass is a mixture of silica and two
or more alkaline bases, such as lime, soda, or potash. Glass contains
other elements and metals, which are added to enhance color, heat
resistance, degree of hardness, and other specific properties. We also
learned about the types of glass fractures, namely, radial or primary
fracture and concentric or secondary fracture. Several factors to de
determined in examining glass fracture include Point of Impact;
Direction of Impact or Force (perpendicular shot, angle from the
right, angle from the left); Laser pointer; Age of the Fracture (fresh or
old fracture); and Cause of Fracture (natural or mechanical means).
Meanwhile, we also learned that macro-etching is an application
of chemical solution on the metal surface where the serial number
is normally located, after which any reaction that may take place is
observed. We also summed up the purposes and processes of macro-
etching. Finally, we learned about bullet trajectory, the tools necessary
for trajectory determination, bullet entrance and exit holes and
methods to identify them, all of which help investigators determine
clues that can aid the investigation being conducted.
Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:
Review Questions:
1. How important is glass as a piece of evidence?
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2. What is “macro-etching?”
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3. How can bullet holes aid an investigation?

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4. What is a bullet trajectory and what are the tools necessary
for trajectory determination?
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Chapter 11
Soil Analysis, Toolmarks,
Casting, and Molding
Learning Objectives
• Describe the process of soil sample collection;
• Enumerate the steps in soil sample analysis;
• Define “toolmarks” and describe their characteristics;
• Describe the process of preserving and
packaging tools;
• Define “casting and molding” and describe
these processes;
• Enumerate the types of tire impression/tire track
examinations; and
• Identify the steps in the examination of shoe prints
and tire impressions.
What is Soil?
Soil consists of plants, minerals, animal matter, and tiny
particulates of synthetic products such as cement, paint, glass, asphalt,
and so on. Soil contents are not uniform and they differ from one place
to another. Soil can play an important role in criminal investigation.
For example, soil on a suspect’s shoe or splattered inside a car
fender can provide forensic scientists with sufficient information
about the suspects and crime victims. Specifically, soil recovered from
clothes, shoes, and automobiles can be analyzed in order to determine
if a suspect was or was not in a particular location. Soil sample analysis
is executed by carefully comparing the particle size and shape, color,
mineralogical composition, and biological components of a soil sample
obtained from a suspect to those from a known location.
The sizes and shapes of particles can be compared using

reflected light microscopes. This can also be done with the use of
such techniques as x-ray diffraction (XRD), in which a pulverized soil
sample is subjected to x-rays that produce patterns that indicate the
crystal structure of minerals in the soil. Soils adjacent to water could
also contain distinctive shell fragments. The presence of soil unique
to a particular area can show that a suspect must have traveled to
that area, just as the absence of soil can be used to disprove an alibi.
In some cases, layers of soil or mud are used to establish presence at
specific locations.
Petrography refers to the branch of geology dealing with the
systematic classification and identification of rock forming minerals,
rocks, and soils. Meanwhile, petrographic analysis refers to the use of a
polarizing microscope to determine the optical properties of crystalline
mineral substances. Other means of identification are spectrographic
analysis, X-ray diffraction, thermal analysis and micro-chemical
techniques.
Collection of Soil Samples

Soil sample collection depends on the circumstances of the crime,
that is, indoor scenes can differ from outdoor scenes in terms of the
type of evidence recovered and the way in which these samples are
collected.
Indoor Scenes
• Footprints in soil or in dust - samples made by footwear
should be photographed to scale prior to recovery. The
particle samples are often collected using a vacuum method.
Here, the samples are vacuumed with a portable vacuum
cleaner equipped with a special attachment, which has a
metal screen with a filter paper.
• The area is vacuumed and the filter is removed and labeled
with the name of the technician who operated the vacuum
as well as the date, location, and time of collection.
• Reference samples from the surrounding area (e.g., points
of entry and exit and alibi locations) are normally taken.
Outdoor Scenes
Sampling methods are adjusted when the crime scene is outdoors.
In case it involves the recovery of remains, soil samples are taken at
regular intervals up to 100 yards from the gravesite or point of recovery.
A grid search may also be set up and samples can be taken from each
square of the grid and then labeled. Most modern tests just require
about a tablespoon of soil sample.
Usually only the surface soil is sampled. However, in the case of a
buried body, soil samples are taken at regular intervals as the remains
are exposed. Once the remains are removed from the gravesite, the
bottom of the grave should also be sampled. At this point, a new shovel,
spoon or other scoop must be used for each grid and sample to avoid
cross contamination that can render the samples useless. Several
guidelines should be followed. These include the items listed below.
• Samples should be placed in plastic vials for transport.
They should be allowed to air dry prior to transport.
• If insect evidence is present, vials should be labeled in pencil
(not a pen). This is because the specimens are preserved in
alcohol, which can leak onto the label and “erase” the ink
from pens. Without the label specifying the time and place
of collection, the collected sample is forensically worthless.
Soil Samples from Vehicles

Vehicles involved in accidents could leave lumps of soil from under
the wheel wells and fenders. These should be collected and wrapped in
protective material to minimize bumping during transport. At the lab,
a soil analyst can read these layers and know where this vehicle has
been. The analyst may also be able to match the layers in a lump of
soil to a specific vehicle.
Soil Samples from Clothing and Footwear

These should be collected intact and no attempt should be made
to remove soil from clothing, footwear or tires. If such items can be
removed intact, they should be placed in a paper bag or in a druggist’s
fold and then placed in a paper bag. The paper bag must be protected
so that evidence is maintained. However, wet samples should be placed
in an appropriate container because wet samples placed in a paper bag
could quickly rot and become useless.
Lumps of soil stained with semen blood, or other biological

samples should be collected intact and transported to the lab as dry
samples. Any samples containing biological materials, such as flesh,
semen, blood or, hair must be clearly labeled so that the analyst at the
lab can take precautions to preserve this material. Note that biological
specimens in soil must never be heat dried.
Laboratory Tests for Soil Sample

There are several laboratory tests that can be done to examine a
soil sample.
1. Mineral content
• Determining the ratio of mineral and organic content
2. Electron microscopic examination
3. Density gradient tube method
4. Using heat to test the point at which the sample undergoes
an exothermic reaction or an endothermic reaction.
• exothermic reaction - the sample essentially burns
and releases heat
• endothermic reaction - the sample absorbs the heat
5. Nuclear resonance and mass spectometry
Steps in Analyzing Soil Samples

There are a few steps involved in analyzing soil samples.
1. Visually and microscopically inspecting the soil to make
determinations related to consistency, acidity, mineral
content and color.
2. Looking for foreign objects, such as plant materials (e.g.
like leaves) or animal materials (e.g., hair, nails, teeth). For
instance, finding evidence of beachfront sandy soil on the
carpets of a suspect’s car can contradict his statement that
he had never been to the beach on the day the crime in
question was committed. On a similar note, finding horse
manure in a soil sample could suggest that the soil came
from a horse farm and not from the suspect’s backyard.
Further forensic chemical analysis can determine whether two

samples share the same chemical properties. Using XRD, the criminalist
can examine and compare the minerals present in soil samples.
Meanwhile, gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy (GC/
MS) can be used to identify various individual components in a soil
sample. Another laboratory technique, Differential Thermal Analysis,
helps determine the contents of a soil sample based on the fact that
soils release and absorb heat at varying rates. In this analysis, a soil
sample is heated, and the investigator records the point at which the
soil breaks down, melts, or boils. These results are then compared
with the same thermal properties of other soils to determine whether
they are considered a match.
Toolmarks
When tools such as pliers,
screwdrivers, hammers and wire
cutters are manufactured, the
manufacturing process leaves certain
imperfections embedded on the tools’
surfaces. These patterns are unique
for each tool. This means that when
criminals use a specific tool at a crime
scene, the toolmarks left behind can be
analyzed by forensic scientists.
What are Toolmarks?

Toolmarks are impressions or marks produced by a tool or
instrument on a receptive surface. When the tool makes contact with
the surface with sufficient impact to create an indentation, the pattern
of the tool is permanently reproduced onto that surface.
In forensic science, toolmarks can make a negative impression
(stamping type) or an abrasion (friction type). Some toolmarks are
a combination of both types. Usually, toolmark impressions are
microscopic and are due to the imperfections found on the cutting
surface of a tool. These marks comprise the “signature” or identifying
characteristics of a specific tool. Laboratory examinations and
comparisons from a “suspect tool” with toolmarks recovered from a
crime scene can help provide conclusive evidence that, in turn, can
link a suspect to a specific crime and hence conclude the criminal
investigation.
The goal of criminal investigation is to establish a link between a

toolmark and the tool that created it at the crime scene. Such links are
crucial in forensic sciences, given that tools are often used in criminal
activities, and can help identify a criminal. For example, when someone
uses a screw driver to force a window open, the marks left by the tool
on the window frame are direct evidence of the presence of that tool
for that particular use at the crime scene. With such information, the
investigator can then match the tool to its owner, hence identifying the
suspect.
Characteristics of Toolmarks
Toolmarks have two kinds of characteristics, namely, class and
individual. The class characteristics include its general shape, the
type of impression, and its general dimensions. Class characteristics
allow the examiner to identify what type of tool created the impression
and how the mark was created. Conversely, they do not permit for
the identification of the exact tool that created the impression. Thus,
if only class characteristics are available on a toolmark, it will not be
possible to distinguish which tool made the impression.
Meanwhile, individual characteristics, also called accidental
characteristics, are the striations exhibited by the tool, which are
unique to a certain tool. They consist of small, commonly microscopic,
ridges, indentations, and irregularities present on the tool itself. For
example, the tip of a screwdriver is never perfectly flat, but has small
ridges along the edge created by the history of the tool (e.g., use and
misuse, cleaning, maintenance, etc.). These characteristics are the
ones that allow for a formal identification. If such characteristics are
present in the toolmark, then investigators can identify the actual
individual tool that created a specific impression.
Class Characteristics of Tools

Individual Characteristics of Tools
Types of Toolmarks
There are two main types of toolmarks, namely, slipped and
molded impressions. The slipped impression occurs as the tool is
dragged across the surface, resulting in toolmarks comprising a series
of striations running parallel to each other, following the direction of
the drag. For example, such impressions are created by cutting a given
material with a knife, by slipping a key across the door of a vehicle, or
by cutting an electrical wire using a pair of pliers.
Meanwhile, the molded impressions result from the contact of
a tool onto a surface with no lateral motion (no drag nor slip). The
resulting toolmarks are a 3D mold of the part of the tool that touched
the surface. Examples of such impressions are the serial number
stamped onto a fire-arm’s barrel or the leverage of a door from its
frame with a pry bar. Some toolmarks are made of a combination of
molded and slipped impressions.
Striations produced by tests made in the crime laboratory by
the questioned tool are then compared with the striations noted
on the evidence toolmark areas. Other tools, such as crowbars and
hammers, and even larger objects like car bumpers or bull bars may
leave identifying marks and impressions that, when compared in the
crime laboratory, will identify or eliminate the tool or object from the
crime scene as the one that made the impression. Using a comparison
microscope, the forensic scientist conducts comparison examinations
to determine whether a particular tool may have caused the markings
on the evidence from the crime scene.
Forming a kerf with the

cutting stroke and passive
strokes demonstrated and
exit chipping of a saw
*Source: Knife and Saw

Toolmark Analysis in
Bone: A Manual Designed
for the Examination of
Criminal Mutilation and
Dismemberment by Steven
A. Symes, Ph.D., Erin N.
Chapman, M.S., Christopher
W. Rainwater, M.S., Luis L.
Cabo, M.S., and Susan M.T.
Myster, Ph.D. (December
2010)
Evidence submitted in toolmark cases may include tools, such as

those listed below.
1. bolt cutters
2. scissors
3. saws, knives
4. knives and box cutters
5. screwdrivers and chisels
6. crowbars tire irons
Places and Surfaces Where Toolmarks Might be

Observed in Criminal Investigations
1. human bone or cartilage
2. door and window frames
3. sections of sheet metal
4. padlocks, doorknobs
5. wire, chains
6. bolts and locks
7. safety-deposit boxes and safes
Toolmark Examination
Toolmark examination is a term
that includes a variety of impressions not
necessarily directly related to tools but are
created via the same fashion. Thus, they
are examined with the same techniques.
One example is the impression left by
a firearm’s barrel onto a bullet or by the
firearm onto the cartridge. These are a
specialized category of toolmarks. Other
examples include the impressions left by
human teeth or even the impressions left by
shoes or tires. Often, the toolmark examiner
examines and renders expert opinions on
such impression’s identifications.
Preservation and Packaging of Tools

Several guidelines should be followed in preserving and
packaging tools.
1. All areas on recovered tools, which contain building
materials, transferred paint, or other contaminants, among
others, should be wrapped in paper and packaged properly
to prevent the prying blades or cutting edges from contacting
any other surface or object.
2. Test marks should never be made prior to laboratory
examination. This can alter the tool and make the
examination worthless. Moreover, traces of transferred

paint or other stains on the tool may be lost or additional
material may be transferred to the tool, thus harming its
integrity as a piece of evidence.
3. The whole object must be submitted to the laboratory. If
this is not possible, the investigator carefully photographs
and sketches the area containing the mark. The photograph
can assist in determining how the mark was made.
4. Casts of tool marks are made by a person who has had
considerable experience in this work. Poor casts are useless
for comparison purposes, and some marks can be damaged
if improper methods are used.
5. The object containing tool marks should be packed properly
so that no alteration or damage will occur during shipment.
Small objects should be wrapped with clean paper and
placed in envelopes or boxes, while important areas on
larger objects can be protected with paper. Meanwhile,
large objects can be packed in cartons or crates.
Casting and Molding

Casting and molding refers to the
method of extracting an impression
using a cast-like plaster of paris
inside a mold to recover the pattern
for laboratory analysis. When an
item like a shoe or a tire comes into
contact with a soft surface, it leaves a
pattern indicating an impression. The
collection and analysis of impression
evidence found at the scene of a crime
can be crucial in an investigation.
The major types of impression
evidence are as follows: tire tracks,
shoeprints, toolmarks, and marks
found on a fired bullet. Impressions
can be found in various surfaces
(e.g., blood, dust, mud, and carpet).
Collecting these impressions is a
specialized forensic task because,
unlike a hair or bullet, an impression
cannot just be packaged and taken
back to the lab. Moreover, impression evidence is fragile. Thus, there

is a need for the forensic scientist to retain as much information as
possible when collecting impression evidence.
Casting is the process used to replicate 3D prints or marks. It is
used to obtain the exact replicate of tire tracks, toolmarks, shoeprints,
and sometimes teeth. Casting is importance in forensic sciences
because it allows a crime scene investigator to collect an identical copy
of a mark or print from a scene, which can then be compared to a tool,
shoe, or tire, thus establishing conclusive link between a suspect and
a crime scene.
Casting can only be accomplished on 3D marks or traces. With
a shoeprint, casting allows the identification of a shoeprint left in
the soil of the area where a crime is committed. In toolmarks, for
example, casting can be used to obtain the perfect copy of the mark
of a screwdriver used to force open a door during a burglary. A vehicle
that was used to flee the scene of a murder could leave tire tracks on
the ground, which can be recorded and saved for later comparison
with another suspicious vehicle. Casting can also be used to record
dental characteristics of a body and compare these characteristics
with known dental records to achieve proper identification.
Procedure of Casting
The steps below outline the proper casting procedure.
1. Take a photograph and measure the impression.
2. Remove loose objects; debris embedded in the surface of
impression should be retained.
3. Preserve the impression by spraying it with a fixative
agent (hairspray) to make the surface repel the liquid
to be poured into.
4. Place a retaining wall on the impression.
5. Mix the plaster of Paris with water with a 7:1 ratio.
6. Pour the plaster of Paris mixture into the impression.
7. Place the reinforcement material.
8. Pour the remaining mixture until it is 1-inch thick.
9. Allow the cast to harden for about 20 to 30 minutes.
10. Mark the output for identification (case number, place

of casting, time and date of casting, name of person who
made the cast, and other identifying
marks; this is done before the cast
completely hardens).
Shoe Prints
Shoes create impressions called shoeprints,
which can be extremely informative to forensic
investigators. The sole of a shoe picks up various
kinds of debris as a person walks that are
then transferred to other surfaces, creating an
impression that could help reveal the pattern on
the sole. Investigators look at the soil, particularly
those around the potential entry and exit points of
a crime scene, as well as carpet, linoleum, paper,
and dust to detect shoeprints. More importantly, if
a shoeprint is found in a pool of blood, it can serve
as an incriminating evidence.
There are three kinds of shoeprints: patent, plastic, and latent.
Patent shoeprints are clearly visible and come from tracking through
a substance such as paint or dirt, leaving some of these behind each
time a step is taken. A plastic shoeprint occurs when a shoe sinks into
a soft substance such as mud. Latent shoeprints are not visible to the
naked eye and often occur on a hard surface such as glass or concrete.
The techniques used for collecting shoeprints include electrostatic
lifting, dusting with special powders, and making plaster casts. A
photographic record is also taken as a backup.
Each individual has their own way of walking, which has an impact
on the way their shoes wear down, and this can also be traced in one’s
shoeprint. In this way, it is possible to determine the perpetrator. As
someone walks, the soles of their shoes also acquire a unique pattern
of damage, which consists of tiny cuts, scratches, and abrasions.
This damage pattern is unique to each person (and the soles of their
shoes), thus making these patterns powerful individualizing evidence
to identify a possible suspect.
To compare a shoeprint found at the scene of a crime with that
from a suspect’s shoe, the investigator must create a print from the
latter. One way of doing this is to coat the shoe sole with a light oil by
pressing it into foam rubber with oil. The shoe is then pressed onto
paper, creating an oily print that can be visualized with magnetic
powder. If a plastic print is needed for comparison, the shoe is pressed

into a similar surface to the one in which the shoeprint has been
found. It is important to try to reproduce the mechanism by which
the original shoeprint was made in investigating a suspect’s shoeprint.
In this way, the argument that both patterns came from the same
source—the suspect’s shoes—becomes more convincing.
Tire Tracks
Tire tracks refer to the impressions left by tires on the surface onto
which a vehicle drove. Not all tires and surfaces will leave tire tracks.
If the surface is soft, the tire leaves an imprint under the weight of the
vehicle. Meanwhile, if the surface is hard, the tire might still leave a
trace, if dirt or dust was present. Similar to shoeprints or fingerprints,
tire tracks are important in forensic investigations, because they allow
the identification of the vehicle that left them. For example, tire tracks
are often found in road accident scenes or in the access and escape
routes of other crime scenes.
Tire Impression
Tires are made of semi-hard rubber characterized by class and
individual characteristics. Individual characteristics include accidental
cuts or holes and regular wear and tear, while class characteristics
include size and general patterns. Such characteristics may be
reproduced in the tracks left by the tire, depending on the surface and
the circumstances under which the tracks have been created. When
examining a crime scene containing tire tracks, forensic science can
play a great role in establishing the identity of a vehicle present at the
scene and matching that with a vehicle of a suspect.
Various methods are used to “lift” tire tracks from surfaces, and
these include making a cast with dental stone, or taking a photograph
of the tracks with a scale device. If possible, the original item containing
the impression should be taken to the laboratory. Meanwhile, dental
stone or die stone is a much better substitute for making a cast of the
tire tracks as it can help create a 3D impression.
Laboratory Examination of Shoe Prints and Tire Impressions

The laboratory examination of tire impression and shoe print
evidence can lead to one of several conclusions, which depend on the
quality and degree of distinct details left behind with the impression.
The examination may yield any of the following:
1. the possibility that contact did occur;
2. the possibility that contact did not occur; or
3. positive proof of contact of the shoe/tire with the surface.
Types of Examinations
There are two kinds of tire track examinations.
1. Comparative examination – this is conducted to determine
whether a known shoe or tire made the impression; and
2. Investigative examination – these are conducted on
impressions to provide information regarding manufacture
or design descriptions that can provide investigative leads.
The characteristics of impression evidence that could facilitate a

comparative examination consist of three elements, namely;
1. Wear patterns – As the shoe or tire is worn or used on a
vehicle, the pattern area will wear down with the erosion
of the tread or sole material. This wear pattern follows
a “normal progression.” However, other factors, such as
the walking pattern or gait of an individual wearing the
shoes, or the front end misalignment of the tires on a
vehicle could have an effect on the overall wear pattern.
The wear pattern alone will not provide the basis for
positive identification.
2. Design characteristics – These cover the basic pattern
of the shoe sole or tire tread design. These patterns
are patented although illegal copies can be reproduced
specific to a manufacturer. Shoes or tires have this
basic pattern design.
3. Accidental characteristics – During the normal use
of the shoe or tire, some damage (e.g., cuts and nicks
are left on the tread surface. These characteristics are
known as “accidental” and occur randomly on all tire

and shoe designs. In forensic examination, the match
of accidental characteristics may allow for the positive
identification of a particular shoe or tire having made a
particular impression.
Summary
In this chapter, we have learned that soil consists of plants,
minerals, animal matter, and tiny particulates of synthetic products
(e.g., glass, paint, asphalt, cement, and so on). Soil samples can be
found indoors, outdoors, inside vehicles, and in victims’ clothing. We
have also learned the different laboratory tests for soil sample analysis,
such as through mineral content analysis, electron microscopic
examination, density gradient tube method, and nuclear resonance
and mass spectometry.
Meanwhile, we have also learned that tools have individual and
class characteristics, which are impressions or marks produced by
a tool or instrument on a receptive surface. The pattern of the tool
is permanently reproduced onto a surface when the tool comes into
contact with the surface with sufficient impact to create an indentation.
Casting and molding extracts an impression through the use of a
cast inside a mold to recover patterns for laboratory analysis. Casting
is the process used to replicate 3D prints or marks, and is widely used
to obtain the exact replicate of tire tracks, toolmarks, shoeprints, and
so on. The types of examinations for shoe prints and tire impressions
include the comparative and investigative examinations. Finally, we
learned about the three elements of impression evidence, which allow
for comparative examination, namely, design characteristics, wear
patterns, and accidental characteristics.
Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:
Review Questions:
1. What are the steps involved in soil sample analysis?
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2. What are “toolmarks” and what are their characteristics?
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3. How is “casting and molding” performed?

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4. What are “tire impressions” and “tire tracks”?
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Chapter 12
Hair and Fibers
Learning Objectives
• Identify the parts of human hair and the hair shaft;
• Identify the sources of hair evidence;
• Describe the significant role of human
hair as evidence;
• Describe the process of hair analysis at the lab;
• Enumerate the classes of fibers and fabric;
• Define “fiber transfer” and “persistence”; and
• Show the significant role of fiber as evidence.
What is Hair?
Hair refers to slender, threadlike outgrowths of the epidermis,
which forms a distinct type of body covering in mammals. Only
mammals have true hair; in fact, even apparently hairless mammals,
such as the rhinoceros, elephant and armadillo, have hairs around
the snout, at the tip of the tail, and behind each scale, respectively.
When the individual hairs are fine and closely spaced, the coat of hair
is called fur; when they are soft and matted together, they are called
wool. Meanwhile, coarse, stiff hairs are called bristles, and when these
are pointed, they are called quills as in the porcupine and hedgehog.
In the field of forensic science, hair is one of the most common
types of trace evidence found at any the crime scene. Next to teeth
and bones, hair is decay-resistant. Although it cannot fully provide
conclusive evidence, when used with other details, it has been proven
to have an essential role in criminal investigation. This is because hair
transfer may occur during physical contact between the victim and
the suspect. Hair may fall out under conditions that the suspect is not
aware of and unable to guard against it. When properly identified, hair
can be used to identify either the suspect or the victim.
Biology of Hair
• It is composed of keratin, which is also the primary
component of finger and toe nails.
• It is produced from the hair follicle, which is developed
in humans during fetal development; no new follicles are
produced after birth.
• Hair color is mostly the result of pigments or chemical
compounds reflecting certain wavelengths of visible light.
• Hair shape (round or oval) and texture (curly or straight)
are heavily influenced by genes. The physical appearance
of hair can also be influenced by nutritional status and
intentional alteration (heat curling, straightening, perms,
coloring, etc.).
The body area (head, arm, leg, back, and so on) where a hair
strand originated can be determined based on the color, length, size,
shape, and other physical characteristics of a sample. In testing hair
evidence for DNA, the root must be present.
Hair Structure
Three Principal Parts of the Hair
1. Root bulb – the shape of the root bulb determines whether
or not the hair was pulled by force
2. Hair shaft – contains the most information about the hair
3. Tip – would show if the hair was cut, burned, or if it had
split ends
Parts of the Hair Shaft

1. Medulla – the
central canal of
the hair shaft; may
be continuous,
fragmented,
interrupted or
absent
2. Cuticle – the outer
surface of the hair
and when viewed Cuticle of a human hair under a
under a microscope, scanning electron microscope
appears to be
composed of scale-like flakes, each overlapping others
much like the scale of a fish
3. Cortex – contains the hair’s color pigmentation
Continuous Medulla Interrupted Medulla
Fragmented Medulla No Medulla
Pictures of the different characteristics of the medulla under an SEM

Source: http://www.fbi.gov/hq/lab/fsc/backissu/jan2004/research/2004_01_research01b.
htm /Accessed: May 28, 2014
Forensic science investigators have determined the medullary

index of hair, which is the diameter of the medulla relative to the
diameter of the hair, and is expressed as the following fraction:
Diameter of medulla
Medullary Index = ---------------------------
Diameter of hair
Humans have a medullary index of less than 1/3, while that of
animals is 1/2 or more.
Body Area Determination of Human Hairs

The body area from which a hair sample originated can be
determined through general morphology. The size, length, shape,
stiffness, color, curliness, and microscopic appearance all contribute to
the determination of body area. Pigmentation and medullar appearance
also influence body area identification. Hair strands that exhibit
microscopic characteristics shared by different anatomical areas are
called body hairs, which include hairs found on the lower abdomen,
upper legs, and back. There is also a wide range of variations in head
and pubic hairs; thus the majority of work in forensics has focuses on
comparing and differentiating hairs from head and pubic regions.
Sources of Human Hair

1. Head Hairs
Head hairs are often the longest hairs on the human body. They
have a uniform diameter and a cut tip. These are subject to more
alteration than hairs from other body areas through the use of hair
dyes, rinses, permanents, frosts and other chemical applications.
Environmental alterations can also be determined, which result from
wind dryness, excessive exposure to sunlight, and other conditions.
Given that these hairs are affected by chemical and environmental
conditions, it is recommended that head hair samples must be obtained
from the suspect and victims as soon as possible. Head hair samples
obtained years after a crime are generally not suitable for meaningful
comparison purposes. It is also recommended that investigators collect
at least 25 to 100 full length hair strands from different areas of the
scalp with the use of one’s fingers and or tweezers.
2. Pubic Hairs
Pubic hairs are also routinely compared in a forensic laboratory
examination. These are not subject to much change over time as head
hairs, and as such, a sample taken a year after a crime may still be
suitable for meaningful comparison. It is recommended that a known
pubic hair sample be obtained as soon as possible after a crime and
should contain at least 25 full-length hair strands taken from different
areas of the pubic region. In terms of appearance, pubic hairs are
generally coarse and wiry. They exhibit diameter variations (also called
“buckling”) and often have a continuous to discontinuous medulla.
These hairs may have tapered, abraded, or cut tips.
3. Facial Hairs
Facial hairs are more commonly called mustache hairs or beard
hairs. These have a wide medulla and a razor-cut tip, and have a coarse
appearance and can have a triangular cross-section. Heavy shouldering
or troughs in the hair can be observed under magnification.
In an investigation, the presence of facial hairs on the clothing
of a suspect or victim may help establish contact between these
individuals. Although these hairs can be compared microscopically, the
significance of the association may not be as great as those obtained
from head or pubic hair samples.
4. Limb Hairs
Hairs from the legs and arms are called limb hairs. These are shorter
in length, have an arc-like shape, and are often abraded or tapered at
the tips. The medulla in limb hair is traced to discontinuous, and then
pigment is generally granular. Although limb hairs are not routinely
compared in a forensic laboratory, they can differ in appearance
between individuals. However, these differences are not considered
sufficient for meaningful comparison purposes. Nevertheless, the
presence of leg or arm hairs on items of evidence may help corroborate
other investigative information.
5. Fringe Hairs
These originate from the neck, sideburns, upper leg, abdomen,
and back. They are deemed not suitable for significant comparison
purposes and have little evidentiary significance.
6. Other Body Area Hairs

These are auxiliary (underarm), chest, eye and nose hairs that are
not routinely compared in the lab. However, as with limb and fringe
hairs, their presence may still corroborate information obtained during
an investigation.
Racial Determination
A human can be associated with a particular racial group on
the basis of established models for each group. Forensic examiners
differentiate between hairs of people with Caucasoid (European
ancestry), Mongoloid (Asian ancestry) or Negroid (African ancestry)
origin, all of which exhibit microscopic characteristics that are distinct
from the others. However, racial determination from the microscopic
examination of head hairs from infant can be difficult, and hairs
from individuals of mixed racial ancestry may possess microscopic
characteristics attributed to more than one racial group. Nevertheless,
the identification of race is most useful as an investigative tool, and can
also be an associative tool when an individual’s hairs exhibit unusual
racial characteristics.
1. Caucasoid (European)
Hairs of this origin have a fine to medium coarseness. These are
generally straight or wavy in appearance, and possess colors ranging
from blonde to brown black. The hair shafts of Caucasian hairs vary
from round to oval and have fine to medium-sized pigment granules
that are evenly distributed.
2. Mongoloid (Asian)
Hairs of this origin are straight, regularly coarse and circular, with
a wider diameter than the other racial groups. The cuticle is usually
significantly thicker than that of the Negroid and Caucasian hairs, and
the medulla is continuous and wide. The hair cortex of this type of hair
contains pigment granules that are generally larger in size than those
of Caucasian hairs, often appearing to be grouped in patchy areas
within the shaft. Mongoloid hair can have a characteristic reddish
appearance due to its pigment.
3. Negroid (African)
Hairs of this origin are curly or kinky, have a flattened cross section,
and can appear wavy, curly, or coiled. Negroid pigment granules are
larger than those found in Mongoloid and Caucasian hairs and are
grouped in clumps with varying sizes and shapes.
Age and Sex

The age and sex of an individual cannot be conclusively determined
by a microscopic examination. The microscopic appearance of certain
human hairs, such as those of elderly individuals and infants, may
provide a general indication of age (i.e., the hairs of infants are generally
finer and less distinctive in microscopic appearance).
Sex can be determined from forcibly removed hair (with tissue),
although this is not routinely done. Definitive determination of sex can
be accomplished through the staining of sex chromatin in the cells found
in the follicular tissue. In comparison, nuclear DNA and mitochondrial
DNA (mtDNA) tests can provide more specific information regarding
the possible origin of the hair.
Meanwhile, artificial treatment, such as the use of dyes or rinses,
can be identified through microscopical examination. Given that head
hairs grow at the rate of 1 cm per month, the approximate time of this
treatment can be determined by measuring the length of untreated
area of the hair. In this case, the hair examiner can perform a direct,
side-by-side comparison of the color of the questioned and known
artificially treated hairs.
As previously stated, the condition of the root area of a hair
enables the hair examiner to microscopically determine whether the
hair was forcibly removed from the body or was shed naturally. A
forcibly removed hair will be stretched and may have tissue attached
to it, while hairs that fall out naturally have a club-shaped root. The
manner by which a hair was removed can have considerable value,
especially when there is a possibility of violent contact between a victim
and a suspect. Moreover, the identification of cut, burned, or crushed
hairs can also be established through microscopic examination.
Significance of Hair Evidence

1. The significance of hair examination results depends on
several factors, such as the evidence processing techniques
employed, the method of evidence collection used at the
crime scene, the methodology of the hair examination

process, and the experience of the hair examiner. Head
and pubic hairs are routinely held as more significant than
samples from other body areas.
2. Certain case situations influence the significance of
identifying hairs. For example, when a family member is
involved in a crime, the number, location, and condition
(forcibly pulled or burnt, for example) of recovered hairs
can hold important clues. The involvement of other within
a victim’s social circle who may have logical contact with
or access to the victim and/or crime scene, can also be
an additional consideration in hair examinations. In fact,
cases involving strangers have greatest significance when
hair associations are made.
Questions concerning hair examinations and their

significance include the following:
• Does treatment influence the significance?
• Does the significance of a hair association depend on a number
of compared characteristics?
• Are hairs from specific racial groups more significant than
others?
• Does the length of the compared hairs affect the significance of
an association?
• Do gels, hair sprays, or other hair products influence the
significance of a hair match?
• Is a hair match significant when the comparison was made
with a limited number of known hair samples?
Hair identification involves the comparison of hair characteristics
along the entire length of the hair. Longer hairs have more characteristics
to compare, and the greater the variations along the length, the greater
the degree of significance that can be identified.
The value of the evidence in establishing a particular association
can be influenced by the following factors:
• the probability that the association (or elimination) was due to
the examiner’s error,
• the probability that the association (or elimination) was due to

coincidence, and
• the probability that there is an alternative explanation for
the evidence, such as contamination, secondary transfer, or
planting.
Hairs have a number of innate qualities that make

them useful as trace evidence
1. It is personal evidence originating directly from the individual.
2. It is continually falling from the body.
3. It is easily detected, recovered and preserved.
4. It is persistent and not easily destroyed.
5. It is hard to hide or to throw away.
6. It is relatively unchanging over time.
7. It varies from person to person.
8. It contains DNA.
Collection of Hair Evidence

1. Searching for Hair
For a crime scene specialist, it is difficult to initially locate hair
evidence at the crime scene. The search for hair at the crime scene
must be done in a thorough, detailed, and precise manner.
Other areas to search include the following:
a. The victim’s body (especially in sex crimes), underneath
the fingernails, and any upholstered surfaces such
furniture and car seats; and
b. Head gear and clothing with special focus on pockets,
cuffs, and linings.
2. Collecting Hair
a. Hair discovered at the crime scene should be carefully
removed with the use of fingers or a pair of tweezers.
b. The samples must be individually collected, properly

packaged and labeled, and then properly separated
during packing for transmittal.
c. If hair is attached, such as in dry blood, or caught in
metal or a crack of glass, do not attempt to remove
it, and leave hair intact on the object. If the object is
small, it should be marked, wrapped, and sealed in an
envelope. If the object is large, wrap the area containing
the hair in paper to avoid loss of hairs during shipment.
d. If a pill box is used, the entire length of the hair must
be in the box and not crushed when the lid is placed;
e. After collecting all visible items of evidence at the crime
scene, the premises must be swept with a vacuum
sweeper with a filter attachment. The contents of the
vacuum can then be placed in plastic bags and properly
labeled for storage.
f. Hair evidence is particularly susceptible to cross
contamination so contaminating the evidence must be
avoided at all costs.
g. Hair evidence gathered from the suspect and from the
victim must not be combined in one container.
3. Obtaining Hair Standards

a. Standard hair samples must be taken from multiple
areas of the head (top, side, and back), thereby ensuring
representative shade and range of the hair.
b. Hair standards should be taken from the victim and all
possible suspects.
c. When collecting hair standards from the victim or
suspect, the head and pubic areas should first be
combed before samples are collected.
d. If the hair samples must be cut, it should be made as
close to the skin as possible.
e. The recommended method for collecting hair from all
samples is by pulling.
f. If pets or fur are involved in the investigation, hair
standards should also be obtained from them.
g. New comb and/or clean tweezers or scissors should

be used in taking hair standards in order to avoid
contamination.
h. In rape cases, the victim’s pubic region should be combed
prior to collecting standards. Known hair samples
must then be obtained from the victim, suspect, or any
other possible sources for comparison with unknown
specimens.
i. Hair should not be cut. Instead, the recommended
method for collecting head hairs is to have the person
bend over a large sheet of clean paper, rubbing or
massaging their hands through the hair so that loose
hair would fall out. More samples can be gathered by
plucking them from representative areas all over the
head. A total of 50 to 100 hairs are desired. This same
method may be used to collect hairs from other parts of
the body. About 30 to 60 pubic hairs are required in a
single examination.
j. When the person is a suspect, hair should be gathered
from all parts of the body even though there may only
be an interest in hair from the head at that particular
time.
Laboratory Analysis of Hair

Purposes of Examination
The examination of hair is conducted for the following purposes:
1. to determine whether the hair in question originated
from an animal or human being and the comparison of
questioned and known hairs; and
2. to ascertain whether two or more individuals could have
come into contact or whether one or more individuals
could have come into contact with an object.
The examination of this associative evidence is useful in crimes
of violence, such as sexual assault, homicide and aggravated assault,
where physical contact is likely to have occurred. Other crimes, such
as burglary and armed robbery, typically involve the recovery of debris
and articles of clothing that may contain hairs that, in turn, can be
used to identify the suspects.
Hair Microscopy
The examination of human hairs in the forensic laboratory
is typically conducted using a comparison microscope. It is not
considered a conclusive test because it is difficult to establish a
statistical probability for a particular association due to the lack of
reliable quantitative assessments of the microscopic characteristics
present in hair. However, this can still help eliminate a suspect from
the crime scene.
The comparison microscope has two compound light microscopes
connected by an optical bridge, which allows for the simultaneous
viewing of questioned hairs and known hairs. Here, a glass microscope
slide containing a questioned hair or hairs is positioned on the stage
of one microscope, and a glass microscope slide containing known or
reference hairs is positioned on the stage of the other microscope. This
allows the hair examiner to compare the microscopic characteristics of
known and questioned hairs in one field. The range of magnification
used is approximately 40× to 400×.
Methods of Microscopic Analysis of Hairs

1. The parallel mounting technique refers to the method of affixing
the samples to the slide before the cover slip is placed. Here, the
mounting medium should not dissolve the adhesive in the wet
mounting. Typical adhesives used today include gum tragacanth,
gum Arabic, vinyl acetate glue, and cyanoacrylate (i.e., “crazy
glue”). Tacking points are at the border of the end of the cover slip.
2. The dry mount is convenient in terms of preparation. However, the
degree of curl and twist cannot be observed through this method
owing to the constraints in the mounting process. Prior to wet
mounting, it may be useful to study the exterior texture and the
overall color of the hair. Usually, several hairs are placed in parallel
on a slide, so that their color and texture can be compared easily.
Here, samples can be fixed with melted Kronig cement.
3. The wet mount is essential in hair analysis because of the refractive
index of the Canada Balsam, a special resin used to prepare slides,
which is close to that of the keratin in the hair. Wet mount can
show the interior structure of the hair, such as inclusion and
pigment granules. The refractive index of the mounting medium
plays a significant role in viewing internal details, and the reagent
to be used must be chosen carefully.
What is Fiber?
A fiber or filament is the smallest single unit that forms the basis
of a textile yarn. A yarn (thread in layman’s terms) is composed of
numerous fibers that are spun, twisted, or drawn together to prepare
the unit for weaving or knitting. The type and length of fiber used, the
spinning method, and fabric construction all influence the transfer of
fibers and the significance of fiber associations. This is very important
in an investigation where there is a possibility of fiber transfer between
a suspect and a victim during the commission of a crime.
An important element in criminal investigation is to place a
suspect at the scene of a crime. This can be achieved through the
discovery of fibers like those in the suspect’s clothing at the crime
scene or through the location of textile fibers similar to those from the
victim’s clothing of the crime scene on the clothing of the suspect.
Textile fibers can be exchanged between an individual and an
object, between two individuals, and between two objects. A value is
placed on an association when fibers are matched with a specific source
(fabric from the victim, suspect, and/or scene). This value depends on
various factors, including the color or variation of color in the fiber, the
type of fiber found, the number of fibers found, the number of different
fibers at the crime scene or on the victim that match the clothing of the
suspect, and the location of fibers at the crime scene or on the victim.
Whether a fiber is transferred and detected depends on the type of
fabric involved in contact, the nature and duration of contact between
the suspect and the victim, and the persistence of fibers after the
transfer.
Classes of Fibers
Animal Fibers
Angora
Angora fibers come from the Angora goat,
and are commonly known as Mohair and
Angora Rabbit Hair. Angora wool is harvested
due to its distinctive characteristics of being
silky, fine, very soft, and lightweight. It is 7
times warmer than wool, and is therefore ideal
for winter underwear, sweaters, baby clothes,
and mittens.
Camel Family
(Alpaca/Llama/Camel/Vicuña)
Yarns made from fibers obtained from
Camel, Alpaca, Llama, and Vicuña are
lustrous, lightweight, warm, and very soft. A
camel’s undercoat hair is extremely soft and
fine and can be used to make fine wool for
sportswear and sports hosiery, overcoating,
and topcoating. The Alpaca is used for the
manufacture of luxurious apparel, while the
llama’s down hair produces a soft yarn that is
also suitable for the manufacture of apparel.
Vicuña is the world´s most valuable fiber; it
yields the finest animal fiber in the world, thus
making it very rare and very expensive.
Cashmere
Cashmere is obtained from the hair of a Kashmir goat. Also known
as the fiber of kings, cashmere yarn possesses excellent drape, and is
extremely soft and lightweight, yet very warm. Thus, it is popular for
use in luxurious sweaters and other garments.
Mohair
Mohair is made from the hairs of
the Angora goat, and is warm, extremely
lightweight, durable, and lustrous. It a highly
resilient natural textile fiber, and is often
combined with other fibers in the production
of apparel and home fashion items. A kid
mohair possesses the unique feature of natural
wicking properties, which takes perspiration
away from the skin, thus preventing bacterial
build up and odor.
Olefin
Also known as polyolefin or polypropylene,
olefin is probably one of the less known
manufactured fibers in the apparel industry.
Strong, lightweight, and comfortable, it is quick
drying and resistant to stains, soil, chemicals,
mildew, weather, sunlight and abrasion.
Olefin has been used almost exclusively in the
home furnishings area and the high performance active-wear market
(e.g., for items such as backpacking, canoeing, and mountain climbing
apparel). More recently, there is a higher usage of olefin in active wear,
sportswear, socks, thermal underwear, and lining fabrics.
Other Sources of Fibers and Their Characteristics
Animal-based fibers (protein fiber)

Fiber Source Attribute
Byssus - -
Chiengora - -
Qiviut Muskoxen Softness, warmth
Yak Yak -
Rabbit Rabbits Softness
Wool Sheep Warmth
Softness, elasticity,
Lambs wool Lambs
warmth
Indian cashmere
Cashmere wool Softness
goat
North African angora Warmth, holds dyes
Mohair wool
goat well, lightweight
Arabian Dromedary
Camel hair and Northeast Asian Warmth, lightweight
Bactrian camels
Alpaca / Vicuña /
South America
Guanaco / Llama Softness, warmth
camelid varieties
wool
Softness, blends well
Angora wool Angora rabbit
with other fibers
Chinese mulberry Smooth fabric finish
Silk
silkworm with high sheen
Plant-based fibers (cellulosic fibers)

Abacá - -
Coir Coconut Strength, durability
Cotton Shrub Lightweight, absorbent
Lightweight, absorbent,
Flax Herbaceous plant
used to make linen
Vegetable plant in linden
Jute Strength, durability
family
Kapok - -
Kenaf - -
Raffia Raffia palm -
Bamboo Grass pulp Lightweight, pliable fiber
Hemp Cannabis Strength, durability
Modal Beech tree Softness, lightweight
Piña Pineapple leaf -
Flowering plant in nettle
Ramie -
family
Sisal - Strength, durability
Soy protein Tofu-manufacturing waste -
Mineral-based fibers
Fire-resistant, light
Asbestos Cloth asbestos
weight
Fire-resistant,
futuristic
Glass, Fibreglass Mixed silicates
appearance in
some products
Gold, silver, and many
Metals Foil, fibers, wire
other minerals
Synthetic fibers
Regenerated cellulose, Lustrous appearance,
Rayon (Viscose)
semisynthetic absorbent
Lustrous appearance,
Acetate Cellulose, semisynthetic
pliable fabric
Wood pulp,
Tencel Lightweight
semisynthetic
Polymer, polyethylene Wrinkle-resistant, easy
Polyester
terephthalate care
Aramid Aromatic polymide Heat- and tear-resistant
Imitates wools and
Acrylic Acrylonitrile cashmeres due to
softness
Wicks away
Ingeo Polylactide persperation
(hydrophilic)
Luminex Fibre optics Light-emitting
Metallic appearance,
Lurex Polyamide, polyester
sheen
Strong, soft, absorbent,
Lyocell Cellulose
biodegradeable
Nylon Polyamide Silk-like appearance
Spandex (Lycra) Polyurethane Stretches easily
Wicks away
persperation
Polyethylene, (hydrophilic),
Olefin
polypropylene lightweight (olefin fibers
have the lowest specific
gravity of all fibers)
Lightweight, wicks
PLA away perspiration
Polymers, lactic acid
fibre,Polylactide (hydrophilic), UV light-
resistant
*Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textile_fibres /Date accessed: Sept. 19, 2017
Fiber Color
Color influences the value given to a particular fiber identification.
Several dyes are used to give a fiber a desired color, and individual fibers
can be colored prior to being spun into yarns. How color is applied
and absorbed along the length of the fiber are important comparison
factors that must be considered. Color-fading and discoloration can
also increase value of a fiber association.
Fiber Number
In actual contact, it is important to determine whether the fibers
on the clothing of a victim match the clothing of a suspect. The greater
the number of fibers, the more likely contact may have occurred
between these individuals.
Fiber Location
The location of fibers also has an effect on the value placed on
a particular fiber association. The location of fibers on specific items
or different areas of the body found at the crime scene influences the
significance of the fiber association.
Fabrics
The manner by which a fabric has been created affects the number
and types of fibers that may be transferred during contact. Tightly
woven or knitted fabrics, for example, shed less often than loosely knit
or woven fabrics, while fabrics composed of filament yarns shed less
than fabrics made of spun yarns. Certain types of fibers also tend to
transfer more easily.
In addition, the age of a fabric can affect the degree of fiber
transfers. Some newer fabrics may shed more readily because of an
abundance of loosely adhering fibers on the surface of the fabric, while
some worn fabrics may have damaged areas that easily shed fibers.
Damage to a fabric caused during physical contact can also greatly
increase the likelihood of fiber transfer.
Fabric Source Determination

When a questioned fiber is compared to fibers from a known
fabric source, a determination is made as to whether the former could
have originated from the latter. It is not possible to say conclusively

that a fiber originated from a particular fabric, although the inability
to positively associate a fiber with a source does not diminish the
significance of a fiber association. The wide variety of fiber types,
colors, and fabric types can make fiber associations very significant
given that the value of a fiber association depends on several factors
including the type of fiber, the number of fibers transferred, the color
of the fiber, the location of the recovered fibers, and so on.
Fiber Transfer and Persistence

Textile fibers are transferred to the surface of a fabric by indirect
transfer (secondary transfer) or direct transfer (primary transfer). The
likelihood of transfer depends on the types of fabric involved as well
as the nature and duration of the contact. Studies have shown that
transferred fibers are lost quickly, depending on the movement of the
clothing after contact and the types of fabrics involved. For instance,
the clothing of a homicide victim would retain transferred fibers for a
longer period of time because the victim is no longer mobile.
Nature of Contact
The type of physical contact between a suspect and a victim
can determine the number of transferred fibers and the value of
their discovery. For example, violent physical contact of an extended
duration can result in numerous fiber transfers.
Multiple Fiber Associations

Multiple fiber types found on varied items of clothing or fabric
from the victim, suspect, and the crime scene can also increase
the likelihood that contact occurred between these individuals and
the scene. Each associated fiber type can then be considered an
independent event, and such multiple associations have the power to
undermine a coincidence defense.
Fiber Evidence: Assigning Significance

A significant event is identified when a fiber found on the victim’s
clothing matches the known fibers of a suspect’s clothing. Matching
dyed synthetic fibers or dyed natural fibers can be very meaningful,
whereas the matching of common fibers such as white cotton or blue
denim cotton is deemed less significant. However, in some situations,

the presence of white cotton or blue denim cotton can still have some
meaning in resolving an issue. In addition, cross transfers and multiple
fiber transfers between the clothing of the victim and the suspect
dramatically increase the likelihood that these two individuals had
physical contact.
When a fiber examiner matches a questioned fiber to a known

item of clothing, there are only two possible explanations:
• The fiber originated from the item of clothing, or
• The fiber did not originate from the item of clothing.
Value of Fiber as Evidence

The value of fibers as evidence in criminal cases has also been
widely recognized due to several reasons discussed below.
1. First, fiber evidence is seldom conclusive by itself, but in
conjunction with other details or evidence.
2. Fiber evidence can help locate a suspect at the scene of the
crime.
3. Fiber evidence can be interchanged between the victim
and the suspect, especially in violent crimes such as rape,
assault, or murder. This interchange can help prove that
the suspect and the victim were in the same location. Such
evidence can weaken the credibility of the rapist’s alibi (i.e.,
when he says that he was never around the victim).
Searching for Fiber Evidence

Several factors must be considered when searching for fiber evidence.
1. The location and collection of fiber evidence at the crime
scene can be a difficult task, due to their minute size and
composition of the sample.
2. The crime scene specialist must search headgear and
clothing, and pay particular attention to pockets, cuffs, and
linings.
3. The general crime scene area should be carefully searched

for all fiber evidence, specifically any location that may have
been the site of struggle or assault.
Collection of Fiber as Evidence

Several factors must be considered when collecting fiber as evidence.
1. In sex offenses, assaults and some other cases, it is possible
to demonstrate contact between two individuals or between
one individual and some other object by comparing fibers.
2. If the fibers are short or very few, the area or the entire item
containing the fibers must be wrapped in paper (if possible)
before sending the exhibit to the laboratory.
3. If threads or large fibers are found, they can be picked up
with the fingers and placed in a paper bindle, and then in
a coin envelope, which can be sealed and marked. Never
place loose fibers directly into a mailing envelope because
evidence could be lost from this type of envelope.
4. Pick up fibers on tape only if the laboratory allows it
and gives proper requirements. When fibers or threads
are recovered, all clothing of persons from which they
might have originated must be sent to the laboratory for
comparison purposes.
Summary
In this chapter, we have learned that hair is a collective term for
slender, threadlike outgrowths of the epidermis of mammals, forming a
characteristic body covering. We also learned about the parts of the hair
(root bulb, hair shaft, tip), the parts of the hair shaft (cuticle, medulla,
cortex), and the sources of human hair (head, pubic region, face,
limbs, fringes, and other body areas). This chapter also highlights the
significance of hair as evidence in criminal investigations. In analyzing
hair samples, we learned about the methods of microscopically
analyzing hair as evidence, including dry mount, the wet mount, and
the parallel mounting techniques.
Meanwhile, we also learned that a fiber or filament is the smallest
single unit forming the basis of the textile yarn. Classes of fibers include
animal, plant, synthetic, and mineral. The manner by which a fabric
is manufactured, its physical properties, and other factors make fiber
evidence an important tool in placing a suspect at the scene of a crime.
Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:
Review Questions:
1. What are the sources of hair evidence?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. How does hair play a significant role as evidence?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. Enumerate the classes of fibers and fabric

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4. How does fiber play a significant role as evidence?
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Chapter 13
Arson Cases
Learning Objectives
• Define “arson”;
• Enumerate the possible sources of
combustible materials;
• Establish the importance of motive in arson cases;
• Define what a “fire triangle” is;
• Enumerate the factors to be considered in
collecting evidence; and
• Enumerate the factors to be considered in conducting
laboratory analysis of evidence.
What is Arson?
Arson, as defined by the law is the intentional act of setting
fires to buildings and properties. It covers all kinds of buildings and
structures, crops and forests, the personal property of another and
even one’s own property if burned with intent to defraud an insurer of
such property. Intention to commit arson implies that the act is done
intentionally.
Corpus delicti of arson are as follows:

1. That there was fire (must be scorching of the property)
2. That the fire was of human origin and occurred by
incendiary means; and
3. That the fire was caused willfully and maliciously
(not by accidental or natural causes).
What is Fire?
It is the product of continuous combustion of energy-containing
compounds combined with oxygen.
Possible sources of combustible materials:

• Solid fuels like matches or wood
• Liquid samples like gasoline and kerosene
• Gas samples like liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and methane
Importance of Motive in Arson Cases

Motive is not an element in the crime of arson, that is, conviction
can still be obtained even though the prosecution is unable to show
any motive that may have influenced the acts of the accused.
Types of Motives
There are several motives that drive arsonists to commit this
crime. Such motives include:
• Tax fraud
• Crime cover-up: burglary, homicide
• Pyromania or the compulsion to set things on fire
• Intimidation
• Sabotage to cripple machinery, slow down work,
destroy products, and disable an industrial plant
• Destroy evidence
• Monetary (defrauding insurance)
• Settle an estate
• Revenge, spite, grudge, or jealousy
• Destroy records
• Hero complex
• Diversionary tactic
• Landlord-tenant feuds
• Suicidal tendencies
• Contents over insured
• Vandalism
• Eliminate a competition or business rival
• Get rid of distressed or outmoded merchandise
Fire Triangle
The triangle of fire includes three components.
1. Heat – Can be due to sparks, flames, chemical reactions,
friction, or compression. The heat must be sufficient in
relation to the fuel.
2. Fuel – liquid, solid or gas. These are mostly compounds of
carbon and hydrogen.
3. Oxygen – supports combustion; the earth’s atmosphere is
21% oxygen of which air is the primary source. In addition,
oxygen is found in abundance in compounds that include
nitrates, chlorates, peroxides, etc.
For fire investigators, the following procedures must be observed

in the crime of arson:
1. Locating the origin of the fire;
2. Isolating and protecting the origin of the fire for
further investigation;
3. Looking for signs of tampering and possible accelerants; and
4. Using trained dogs to sniff out traces of burnt hydrocarbons
that may be present.
Collection of Samples for Arson Cases

In collecting samples for arson cases, several factors must be
considered.
1. Ashes and debris must be placed in air-tight vacuum
sealed containers.
2. Proper documentation must be observed, including the
placement of tags to indicate the ate and time of collection,
place of collection, and the name of the collector.
3. The samples must be submitted to the laboratory as soon
as possible.
Laboratory Analysis of Ashes and Debris

There are two types of tests employed in analyzing ashes and debris
1. Presumptive (screening test) with the use of Sudan powder
2. Confirmatory test using the Gas Chromatography with
Mass Spectrometry
Summary
Arson refers to the intentional act of setting fires to buildings and
property. Possible sources of combustible materials include solid fuels,
liquid samples, and gas samples. There are several motives driving
arsonists to commit a crime (e.g., tax fraud, crime cover-up, burglary,
homicide, pyromania, economic sabotage, destroying records, and
so on); however, an arsonist can still be convicted even without
establishing a motive. We also learned the three components of the
so-called “fire triangle,” namely, heat, fuel, and oxygen. Finally, we
studied the various guidelines in collecting evidence, such as ashes
and debris, and in analyzing them.
Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:
Review Questions:
1. What are the possible sources of combustible materials?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. Why is establishing motive important in arson cases?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. What is a “fire triangle”?

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4. What are factors to be considered in collecting evidence
samples for arson cases?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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Chapter 14
Ink and Paint
Learning Objectives
• Define “ink” and “pigments”;
• Present the importance of ink analysis in forensics;
• Describe the chemical composition of paints;
• Show the value of paint as evidence;
• Enumerate the process of obtaining paint standard;
• Describe the process of forensic examination of
paints; and
• Show the process of motor vehicle identification.
What is Ink?
Ink refers to a mixture of dyes and pigments, either in liquid or
paste form. This is used to color a surface in order to produce
an image, text, or design. Ink is also used for drawing or writing with
a pen, brush, or quill. Thicker inks that come in paste form are used in
letterpress and lithographic printing purposes.
Four Components of Inks Four Classes of Ink

• Vehicles (binders) • Aqueous
• Colorants • Liquid
• Additives • Paste
• Carrier substances • Powder
Pigments
Pigments are solid or opaque particles suspended in ink to
provide color. Qualities such as hue, saturation, and lightness can
vary depending on the source and type of pigment. Pigment inks are
used more often than dyes because they are more color-fast; however,
they are also more expensive, less consistent in terms of color, and
have a limited color range compared with dyes.
Dyes
Dye-based inks are generally much stronger than pigment-based
inks and can produce more vivid colors of a given density per unit of
mass. However, dyes are dissolved in the liquid phase and have the
tendency to soak into paper, making the ink less efficient and allowing
it to “bleed” at the edges.
Dye-based inks are often made with solvents that dry rapidly; these
are also used with quick-drying methods of printing, such as blowing hot
air on the fresh print. Other methods include harder paper sizing and
more specialized paper coatings— the latter is particularly suited to
inks used in non-industrial settings (i.e., must conform to tighter
toxicity and emission controls), such as inkjet printer inks. Another
technique requires coating the paper with a charged coating. Here,
if the dye has the opposite charge, it is attracted to and retained by
this coating as the solvent soaks into the paper. Cellulose, the wood-
derived material of which most types of paper are made of, is naturally
charged, and so a compound that complexes with both the dye and the
paper’s surface facilitates retention at the surface. This compound is
commonly used in inkjet printing inks.
An additional advantage of dye-based ink systems is that
the dye molecules can interact with other ink ingredients, thus
producing more benefits compared with pigmented inks from optical
brighteners and color-enhancing agents that have been designed to
increase the intensity and appearance of dyes.
A more recent development in dye-based inks is the invention of
dyes that react with cellulose to permanently color the paper. Such
inks are not affected by alcohol, water, and other solvents. Thus, they
are recommended for use in preventing frauds that involve removing
signatures, such as check washing. This kind of ink is commonly found
in certain fountain pen inks or gel inks.
Importance of Ink Analysis in Forensics

Ink analysis plays an essential role in the investigation of
questioned documents, including forged checks, wills, or altered
records. The chemical composition can be revealed by laboratory
analysis, and the results can help determine whether there have been
any additions or alterations made to a document.
Analysis of Inks
1. Spectrometry
The main method of non-destructive ink analysis is micro-
spectrophotometry, which involves scanning the ink with ultraviolet
or infrared light to record its spectra (i.e., the wavelengths of light
it absorbs). Some inks emit light upon exposure to UV light, while
others disappear. Each type of ink produces a distinct spectrum when
exposed to UV and visible light. Using this method, the spectrum of
the ink on the document can be compared with the spectra of standard
inks. Other non-destructive or minimally destructive methods, such
as Raman spectroscopy, can also be used to supplement micro-
spectrophotometry. This method can be very informative in scanning
the document with infrared light. This is because ink is invisible at
high frequencies, but pencil marks that may lie underneath will still
show up.
2. Microscopic Analysis
Using this method, the investigator can see slight changes in ink
color that are not visible to the naked eye. Such changes could indicate
alterations, obliteration, and overwriting. The ink itself is analyzed by
non-destructive or destructive testing, depending on whether a sample
must be taken from the document, which could inevitably alter it. In
this case, it would be better to try the non-destructive approach first,
so that the document is left intact.
3. Chromatography
Chromatography means “writing with colors.” The main method of
destructive testing of ink is known as thin layer chromatography (TLC).
Although TLC does not really destroy a document if done with
care, a photographic record of the original document should still
be taken before the procedure is started. Here, a tiny sample of the
inked paper is punched out using a thin and hollow needle such as
a hypodermic syringe. The investigator avoids places where the pen

has changed direction or where ink lines meet to avoid interference
with subsequent handwriting analysis. Then, the sample is placed in a
test tube with a solvent that dissolves the ink, after which a tiny spot
of the sample solution is placed on a strip of paper, alongside spots
from various reference ink samples. The paper is placed in a beaker
containing a small amount of another solvent. This is positioned so
that the paper dips into the solvent but the spots of sample remain
dry. Then, the solvent is drawn up the paper through capillary action
and the sample spots move up with it.
The end result with TLC is a pattern of colored spots, known
as a chromatogram, for each ink. Different inks have different
chromatograms. If the sample ink has the same chromatogram as a
reference ink, it suggests similarity and from it, identification can be
made. The United States Secret Service has a reference ink database
and the U.S. Treasury has a database of ink TLCs that they use for
reference.
Another technique, high performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC), can be used as an alternative to TLC. HPLC involves injecting
the ink sample onto a long, thin metal column that is then washed
over with a mixture of solvents, thus carrying the ink components one
at a time to an electronic detector. Non-destructive and destructive
methods of analysis can identify more than 90% of ballpoint pen inks.
Paint
This is a type of colored liquid applied to a surface in order to
decorate or protect it or to create an image on a surface.
Chemical Composition of Paints

1. Pigments
2. Vehicles
3. Solvents
4. Special Paints
Physical and Chemical Features of Paints

Paint films are characterized by various physical and chemical
features. The physical characteristics include layer sequence and
thickness, color, contaminants, surface and layer features, and
weathering. Chemical components may include polymers, pigments,
and additives. These features can be determined and evaluated
using a wide range of microscopical, macroscopical, chemical, and
instrumental methods. Limited sample sizes and sample preservation
requirements require that these methods be selected and applied in
a reasonable sequence to maximize the discriminating power of the
analytical scheme.
Value of Paint as Evidence

1. When a suspect tries to force entry into a building, he or
she is likely to use some type of instrument. If the object
being forced is painted, chips of that paint may cling to
the instrument or attach onto the suspect’s clothes. In
addition, if the instrument being used is painted, some of
the paint may be transferred to the object being forced open.
Transfers of paint chips, or traces, are equally probable in
automobile collisions.
2. Paint can be very distinctive in its characteristics. In any
form, paint can be useful as clue material in an investigation.
Paint evidence can come in the form of a chip from a dried
paint surface, trace, smear, or intact on some object. As
physical evidence, paint is most frequently involved in
cases of burglaries and hit-and-run accidents.
Obtaining Paint Standard

1. The paint standards should be taken from two sources:
one from within any area damaged in the commission of a
crime, and the other from an adjacent undamaged area. An
important exception is if the damaged area is a toolmark,
that is, no paint sample must be taken from within so that
the mark is not tampered.
2. For a crime laboratory to make a comparison, standards
or samples of paint must be taken. When samples are
collected from any painted surface, the paint should be
chipped rather than scraped off. This prevents the layer
structure from being altered and also prevents the loss of

important potential points of identification.
3. In hit-and-run investigations, the standards from the
undamaged painted area of an automobile must be taken
from the areas immediately adjacent to the point of impact,
but not from an area where the paint is corroded.
4. Each paint sample should be separately packaged and
marked in order to indicate the exact location of its recovery.
Forensic examination of paints

This can be done in several ways.
1. Comparison of paint pigment
a. neutron activation analysis
b. emission spectroscopy (can identify ~15
to 20 elements)
c. X-ray diffraction and X-ray spectroscopy
2. Side by side comparison for surface, texture, color, and

color layer sequence
3. Comparison of binder
a. presence of polymer - pyrolysis gas chromatography
b. binder composition- infrared spectrophotometry
4. Determining the make and model of car
Motor Vehicle Identification

One important aspect of forensic paint analysis is the identification
of the possible year of manufacture, make, and model of a motor
vehicle using paint collected at the scene of a crime or an accident.
The color comparison and chemical analysis of the undercoat and
topcoat systems requires collections of paint standards, knowledge of
paint formulations and processes, and access to databases of color
and composition information.
Summary
In this chapter, we learned about ink, which is a mixture of
pigments and dyes in liquid or paste form and is used to color a surface
to produce an image, text, or design. Ink has four components, namely,
vehicles, additives, and carrier substances. There are also four classes
of ink, including aqueous, liquid, paste, and powder ink. We also
learned that ink can be analyzed through spectrometry, microscopic
analysis, and chromatography.
Meanwhile, we also learned that paint is a liquid applied to surface
in order to decorate or protect it, in order to create a painting. Paint
has four major chemical composition, namely, vehicles, pigments,
solvents, and special paints. The forensic examination of paints can
be done by side by side comparison for color, surface texture and color
layer sequence; comparison of paint pigment; comparison of binders;
and by determining the make and model of a vehicle involved.
Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:
Review Questions:
1. What is the importance of ink analysis in forensics?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. What is the value of paint as evidence.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. Describe the process of the forensic examination of paints.

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_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4. Describe the process of motor vehicle identification.
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Chapter 15
Ultraviolet Examination
Learning Objectives
• Define and describe ultraviolet examination;
• Enumerate the sources of UV radiation;
• Define “fluorescence”; and
• Describe the role of using UV light in forensic
investigation.
What is Ultraviolet (UV) Examination?

UV Examination refers to the process of applying UV light (a
type of radiation with shorter wavelength but higher frequency than
visible light) in the investigated material. The main purpose of UV
examination is to determine the presence of ultraviolet fluorescent
powder on dusted/marked money and/or hands of the suspect/s.
Such information can help solve crimes where offenders are caught
through entrapment such as illegal recruitment, extortion, and drug
buy-bust operation.
UV Powder
UV powder is composed of naphthacene (or tetracene) with
a chemical formula of C18H12 and a molecular weight of 228.28 It
contaminates commercial anthracene to which it imparts a yellow
color. Naphthacene shows slight green fluorescence in daylight.
Fluorescence is the phenomenon by which certain materials
absorb UV energy and re-emit this invisible radiation in the form
of visible colored light. Fluorescence occurs only when the material
is activated by the UV rays. Once the source of the UV radiation is
removed, the fluorescent glow ceases. The best fluorescent responses
occur in darkness or under low-level lighting conditions. The use of

a fluorescent tracer powder that transfers to the fingers and hands
when touched, leaves the subject “glowing” when placed under UV
inspection.
The UV thief detection powder (UV powder) is designed for thief
detection and identification of stolen or altered items. Once it comes
into contact with one’s fingers and hands, the UV powder remains
there, visible only under UV light.
UV Light
UV light refers to an electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength
shorter than that of visible light, but longer than that of x-rays (ranging
from 10 nm to 400 nm); energies range from 3 eV to 124 eV. It is so
named because the spectrum consists of electromagnetic waves with
frequencies higher than those humans can identify as the color violet.
Theory of UV Radiation
Electromagnetic Spectrum
All forms of electromagnetic radiation are classified according to
their wavelength within the electromagnetic spectrum. The wavelength
is inversely proportional to the energy produced by the radiation, that
is, the shorter the wavelength, the higher the corresponding energy.
Visible light radiates at wavelengths ranging from 400 and
700 nanometers; it refers to the only portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum visible to the human eye. In comparison, UV radiation is not
visible to the human eye. It falls beyond the visible violet wavelengths
and radiates at shorter wavelengths (between ~10 nm 400 nm, or
between visible light and x-rays). This portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum can be broken down in the following regions:
1. UVB- middle wave UV between 280 nm and 320nm
2. UVA- commonly known as longwave UV (LW), near-
ultraviolet, blacklight, or Wood’s light, between 320 and
400 nm, also previously known as low frequency (LF)
3. UVC- shortwave (SW), far ultraviolet, or germicidal
UV, between 180 nm and 280 nm, also known as
high frequency (HF)
4. VACCUM UV- between 10 nm and 180 nm
UV wave is not visible to the human eyes. An object is not

illuminated by, but irradiated with such a wave. For this reason, the
term “UV radiation” is more appropriate than “UV light.”
Sources of UV Radiation
• Sun
• UV fluorescent lamp
• UV LEDS
• UV lasers
• Black light
• Gas discharge lamps
Fluorescence
This is an optical phenomenon in which a material emits light in
response to some external stimulus. The fluorescent light emitted has
a specific color or group of colors, which are released when the material
is bombarded with light in some other parts of the color spectrum.
Use of UV Light in Forensic Investigation

The use of UV light can be of great assistance in many forms
of forensic investigation. Listed below are numerous categories that
benefit from the use of UV light.
Category Benefits/Advantages
Lipstick, dust, hair, seeds, and thousands of other items

clinging unseen to one’s person may prove effective
Alibis
alibis if innocently accused, or damaging evidence if
guilty.
Fire creating ingredients such as kerosene fluoresce a

Arson bright blue or green. Gasoline, unfortunately, does not
fluoresce.
An important aid in both personal identification and in

determining cause of death, UV light fluoresces a scar
tissue and aids in determining its cause. That, due to
Autopsies X-ray, almost invariably glows bright pearlish / white;
scars from radium fluoresce a bright pale blue; those
from mechanical, electrical, heat or chemical injuries
show no characteristic appearance under the lamp.
The use of invisible flu pastes or powders at appropriate

points of entry when burglary is anticipated or habitual.
If left undisturbed, the paste or powder will remain
Burglary
active for more than a year. Prowl cars, security units
and schools can quickly spot flu on the clothing or
hands of suspects.
Flu powders or pastes can play an important role in

establishing the sequence of events or other facts
regarding injuries or fatalities. Flu pastes applied to
Blackjack
blackjacks will establish whether the injury was caused
by the officer or one of the participants in a brawl or
riot.
Flu pastes can play a vital part regarding whether or not

wounds received from firearms were caused by officers
or others participating in a riot or other circumstances.
Bullet Caution should be used when applying flu pastes to
bullets and shells, for coarse granules in the paste may
cause damage to the firearm or to the operator when
the gun is used.
Penal institutions scan mail for secret invisible message

Censorship
and reveal it under UV light.
Check alteration in any form is immediately and clearly

Checks
detectable under UV light.
At the U.S. Mint, telephone boxes, parking meters and

Coins other vending machines are frequently marked with
invisible powders for entrapment.
Analysis of documents under UV light will bring out

faded signatures, erasures, changes in original copy
and invisible markings or messages, since the latter
Documents
are generally written with such fluorescent substances
as quinine, lemon juice, egg whites, aspirin, urine,
acetanilide (cold tablets) or specially prepared inks.
Dry Invisible marking, used by some dry cleaners, as well as

Cleaning fading marks can be clearly seen under UV light.
Dynamite Wrappings of dynamite generally fluoresce intensely.
Cerumen usually fluoresces a bright blue to blue / green

to blue / yellow. Most body substances fluorescence
Ear wax
will be affected to some degree by the medical history of
the individual involved.
Since espionage communications usually deals with

the invisible, UV light will immediately expose the flu
Espionage
chemicals used in orders, the passing of information or
other written information.
Dynamite wrappings, candles, matches and other

materials that go into the making of a bomb can often
Explosions
be isolated under UV light for more specific laboratory
analysis.
Stains, secretions, lipstick, inks, flu powders and foreign

Fabrics matter. Even after cleaning or dying, many fabrics can
be linked to the original event.
On multi-colored surfaces, invisible white or invisible

Finger- green dusting powder is recommended. Fingerprint
printing should be lightly dusted using the same technique as
for ordinary fingerprint powder.
Alarm boxes can be dusted with invisible fluorescent

Fire powders or pastes, unburned hydrocarbon oil, paraffin
or almost any other wax.
Obliterated serial numbers easily seen under UV light.

Light applications of powder and paste in the barrel
Firearms
will mark a bullet with invisible ingredient and in turn,
mark the wounded person with flu matter.
Alterations, stains, erasures and other tamperings

Forgeries
become clearly evident under UV light.
Bleached hair will show a characteristic whitish flu.

Hair Rodent hairs have a bluish / white flu. Dyed hair is
usually apparent as most hair dyes are flu.
Many substances can be classified as “invisible inks”

and some are readily available to prisoners who may
well have a practical use for them. Some are: saliva,
Inks
milk, soapsuds, urine, lime wash from walls, aspirin,
lemon juice, quinine, bisulfate, ferrous sulfate, and
potassium ferricyanide.
In penal institutions and jails, secret messages are

Incarcera-
easily detected if UV lights are used to scan mail to and
tion
from outside contacts.
Kerosene Sometimes used in arson. Fluoresces a bright blue.
Invisibly marking aids can be of great service in

apprehending the kidnapper. Ransom money can
Kidnapping be invisibly marked for identification and the area
surrounding the contact point dusted with invisible
fluorescent powders
Laundry marks, originally invisible or simply faded

are immediately revealed under the rays of UV light.
Laundry Collars, cuffs, shirt tails and even the shirt front may
reveal a previously visible laundry mark obliterated by
action of salt water.
While not apparent under white light, lipstick traces on

Lipstick the skin will fluoresce red and orange. (Not all lipsticks
fluoresce.)
Various types of paper appear quite different when

viewed under UV light, although appearing quite similar
in daylight. Some are very dark, while other types exude
Paper
a rather bright flu. This effect can be used to indicate
that certain sheets did or did not come from the same
source.
May be used to mark auto parts, stereo car tapes, tools,

door handles, steering wheels, control buttons, coins,
Pastes
skin and other items for identification and confirmation
(Invisible)
of sequence of events in which marked person played a
part. Items that eventually end up at Pawnshops,
A thread, two feet high and easily broken, can be treated

with invisible flu powder and stretched around the
Peeping
appropriate window. Any suspect in the area can readily
Toms
be checked with a UV light for the line of fluorescence
two feet above ground.
Some of the newest pepper sprays will leave an invisible

Pepper
residue on an assailant that can be illuminated with the
Spray
use of an ultraviolet light.
“Ectoplasm” or spirit faces and other phony props used

Psychics by these practitioners are immediately exposed under
UV light.
Semen stains fluoresce a bright bluish / white under a

UV light and will retain such capability for years. The
Rape
background material of cloth, its natural flu and color
must be taken into account during analysis.
Natural teeth fluoresce pearly white. False teeth

fluoresce a very dull green or not at all. False teeth
Teeth
designed several years ago may appear dull purple or
black under UV light.
Dust edges of a “controlled” group of cards among

which should be those of the suspect. At the end of
Time Cards the shift, place all untreated cards under a UV light for
inspection. The presence of flu powder on any untreated
card will indicate a good suspect.
In narcotics, kidnapping, blackmail, counterfeiting,

Transac- gambling, smuggling and other crimes in which it is
tions essential to prove the actual payment of money, the use
of invisible flu powders are indispensable.
Source: http://www.vinpro.com/Forensic_Info.shtml
Accessed: September 5, 2017
Entrapment Operations
• UV light – a type of radiation with a shorter wavelength but
higher frequency than visible light.
• Marked money bills – evidence used in an entrapment
operation for extortion or bribery cases; these are dusted
with UV powder prior to entrapment.
Summary
In this chapter, we learned of UV examination, which is the
application of UV light in the investigated material. In entrapment
operations, UV powders are used, these are composed of naphthacene,
which shows slight green fluorescence in daylight. UV light is an
electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength shorter than that of visible
light in the range 10 nm to 400 nm, and energies from 3 eV to 124 eV.
We aso learned about the different sources of UV radiation, such as
the sun, black light, UV fluorescent lamp, UV LEDs, UV lasers, and
gas discharge lamps.
In the other sections, we learned about fluorescence, which is an
optical phenomenon wherein a material emits light as a response to
external stimuli. Normally, the fluorescent light has a specific color
or group of colors released when the material is bombarded with light
in some other part of the color spectrum. UV light is commonly used
in forensic investigation, especially in different areas, such as alibis,
arson, autopsies, burglaries, espionage, explosions, fingerprinting,
forgeries, kidnapping, rape, and so on. Finally, we learned that UV
light and UV powder are commonly used in entrapment operations.
Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:
Review Questions:
1. What is “ultraviolet examination”?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. What are the sources of UV radiation?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. What is “fluorescence”?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4. What is the role of UV light in forensic investigation?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
UNIT 4
POLICE OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES
FOR FIELD FORENSIC INVESTIGATION
Chapter 16
Field Forensic Investigation
Learning Objectives
• Learn more about the Scene of the Crime Operation
and the SOCO team composition;
• Enumerate the 11 stages of crime scene search;
• Present the objectives of crime scene search and the
different methods employed;
• Learn about disaster victim identification;
• Describe the standard DVI procedures and
phases of DVI;
• Describe post-blast investigation and clandestine
laboratory investigation; and
• Enumerate suggested DOs in clandestine
laboratory processing.
A forensic chemist’s work is not just limited to the confines of

a laboratory. The forensic chemist is occasionally tasked to perform
duties in the field, that is, outside the laboratory. Hence, he or she
can serve as a team leader in a Scene of the Crime Operation (SOCO)
or Disaster Identification Investigation (DIV) as well as a chemist
in Clan Lab Investigation or Post-Blast Investigation. In this sense,
background knowledge in chemistry is important in performing such
tasks because analysis of what must be collected and the manner
by which pieces of each evidence should be collected, preserved, and
analyzed are important in helping investigators get to the bottom of
each case being handled. In performing duties other than laboratory
works, the chemist must undergo training, and certificates that they
can use in court during hearings of the case can be used to validate
their opinions in court and the value of the training itself.
Scene of the Crime Operation

Crime Scene Investigation (CSI) plays an essential role in the
delivery of forensic technical assistance. This is where an investigator
establishes the case and where potential evidence can be recovered
and have it connected to the perpetrator. The initial actions taken at
the crime scene by the first responders, investigators, and SOCO team
members at the outset of the investigation are important because their
output can determine the outcome of the investigation. Physical forms
of evidence do not lie and can remain forever. These can also stand
as evidence, which a skilled and diligent investigator can locate and
collect. In fact, majority of the evidence on a crime is found at the
crime scene.
In the Philippines, SOCO is performed by the trained personnel
of the PNP Crime Laboratory SOCO Team. This is completed through
scientific methods of investigation for the purpose of preserving the
crime scene, gathering information, and documenting, collecting, and
examining all physical and forensic evidence.
Important Considerations in Case Development:

• Victim/s
• Suspect/s
• Witness/es and Evidence/s
- Five (5) W’s
- ** one (1) H
The Criminal Cases Included for SOCO are as follows:

1. Homicide;
2. Murder;
3. Rape with Homicide;
4. Robbery upon force of things;
5. Arson; and
6. Other heinous and or sensational cases as requested.
SOCO Team Composition

• Team Leader – (1)
• SOCO Specialists – six (6)
1. Medico-Legal Officer
2. Forensic Chemical Officer
3. Fingerprint Examiner
4. Firearm Examiner/Technician
5. Photographer
6. Measurer/Sketcher
• Driver/Evidence Custodian – (1)
Total = 8 personnel
Eleven Stages of Crime Scene Search

1. Approach the Scene
2. Secure and Protect
3. Initiate a Preliminary Survey
4. Evaluate the Physical Evidence
5. Prepare a Narrative Description
6. Photograph the Scene
7. Prepare a Sketch
8. Conduct a Detailed Search
9. Record and Collect the Physical Evidence
10. Conduct a Final Survey
11. Release Crime Scene
One’s alertness in finding pieces of evidence is so important and

pertinent notes should be properly documented, such as possible
entry and exit points of the perpetrator. The general assessment must
be quick, and the following should be observed in preliminary walk as
conducted by the SOCO Team-Leader:
• Taking a cautious walk-through;
• Taking down extensive notes to document important factors;
• Establishing evidence types most likely to be encountered;
• Defining the extent of the search area; and
• Determining the personnel and equipment needed, and
makes specific assignments.
The search for physical evidence is conducted using the accepted
methods of search depending upon the actual location.
Objectives of Crime Scene Search

Crime scene search is conducted to meet the following goals:
1. to systematically look for physical evidence that may prove
useful in establishing that a crime has been committed;
2. to determine what method of operation the perpetrator may
have used.
The Different Methods of Crime Scene Search

The different methods of crime scene search are discussed below.
1. Strip or Line Search- typically used in outdoor scenes to cover large
areas wherein detailed examination is necessary.
2. Grid or Double Strip Search- A combination of the strip search

and is beneficial in large crime scenes, particularly outdoor
scenes.
3. Spiral Search- This is conducted with the searching officer

starting at the focal point of the crime scene or the center of the
area, working his or her way outward by circling in a clockwise or
counter-clockwise direction to the edges of the crime scene. This is
a good pattern for a confined area, such as a small room.
4. Quadrant/Zone/Sector Search- This is used when the crime scene

is particularly large. This type of search requires the crime scene
to be divided into four large quadrants, which can be further
subdivided to four smaller quadrants. Each quadrant or sector
is separately searched as an individual unit, using the previous
methods mentioned.
5. Wheel/Pie Search- This is done based on a circle surrounding the

crime scene. The circle is divided into six quadrants similar to a
pie, hence its name.
Disaster Victim Identification (DVI)

DVI aims to positively identify deceased victims of a multiple fatality
incident. It is part of SOCO investigation, in which the composition
is the same as the composition of the SOCO responding team. DVI
aims to reconstruct the incident and know its cause. Usually, DVI
procedure is applied involving mass casualty, such as aircraft and
crashes, building collapse/fire, and shipping accidents and the acts of
terrorism. The importance of the successful management of an incident
scene depends on the vital evidence being preserved, appropriate
collection of evidence by trained personnel, the identification of human
remains, and monitoring entry of other people into the scene.
When are DVI Procedures Applied?

DVI is conducted for:
• Investigating mass casualty incidents, such as aircraft and
bus crashes, building collapse/fire, shipping accidents,
and acts of terrorism;
• Investigating smaller incidents; and
• Investigating other areas of victim recovery.
Recording the Crime Scene

The DVI practitioner records the crime or incident scene for later
reconstruction of the site in the criminal court. Such information that
must be included are as follows:
• Description of human remains or property and their
location within the grid;
• Name of person/s present or DVI team members
during examination;
• Time, date and place;
• Details of any actions taken at the scene by other
police officers;
• Details of actions taken by others at the scene, such
as alterations and tampering;
• Any information known about the scene or collected
from the victim;
• General observations of the scene; and
• Detailed scene observations, i.e., size of the scene,
point of entry, extent of damage, and so on.
DVI coordination is a complex process due to the number

of stakeholders and the scale of the tasks involved. This is further
complicated by parallel activities, such as:
• Criminal investigation
• Forensic investigation
• Urban search and rescue
• Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear Investigation
• Safety
• Jurisdiction
Standards for Identification

Primary Identifiers include:
• Fingerprints;
• Dental records; and
• DNA.
Secondary Identifiers include:

• Medical records;
• Properties; and
• Photographs.
As previously mentioned, the DVI coordination is a complex task.
The DVI establishes its procedures in search for human remains and
properties and then records and retrieves all human remains and
related properties. The scene is treated as a crime scene.
Involvement and Coordination

Coroner - Airlines
DVI Commanders - Technical investigators
Police Agencies - Foreign Affairs
Medical Experts - Defense
Dental Experts - Victim support groups
Phases of DVI
Phase 1 – Scene
Phase 2 – Post-Mortem
Phase 3 – Ante-Mortem
Phase 4 – Reconciliation
Phase 5 – Debriefing
The Post-Blast Investigation

The post-blast investigation is also treated in a similar manner as
other SOCO responses. Its team composition is the team composition
of the SOCO team itself. Furthermore, in bombing cases/incidents, the
Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) must clear the area before a post
blast investigation can be conducted by the SOCO personnel. The EOD
personnel must submit himself to the SOCO for swabbing, and all
the required personnel must wear the appropriate suit for post-blast
investigation.
The following considerations must be made in preparing a post-
blast investigation report:
• Address and location of the investigative crime scene;
• Description of the scene features and events taking place;
• Location of the seat of the explosion; and
• Extent of the debris field.
The examination of evidence from post-blast explosion, e.g.,
explosive device, can identify the explosive components, including
detonators, tape, switches, batteries, wire clock/timer components,
fuzing systems, and the explosive charges that make up the device.
Moreover, the analysis of residue can determine the type of explosive
or incendiary mixture as well as determine whether the recovered
substance is a known product.
Investigating the post-blast scene can help identify the extent and
the direction of the blast. Fragments can be discovered at the scene
perimeter established with 1 ½ the distance from the blast site. As
searching is conducted at the perimeter toward the blast site, more and
more evidence can be found. Finally, an aerial photo can also be taken
and used in subsequent analysis. To have meaningful information
about the evidence, the recognition of the trace evidence, such as
fibers/fabric, hairs, glass, paint and plastic, should be considered.
The toolmarks found can also be compared to recovered tools. These
tools that are evidently important should be collected and packed
individually and accordingly.
In explosion cases where low explosive was used, the presence
of unconsumed and partially burned powder can be found in the
surrounding areas (e.g., floors and walls). The recovery of trace explosive
ingredient/s is critical; thus, thorough collection of the debris, including
sweepings from the blast seat and adjacent surrounding area, must
be done. In addition, new brushes should be used for each site of
explosion to avoid cross-contamination. Residues from the explosion

must also be protected from moisture because they are water soluble
and evaporate quickly. Airtight containers, such as clean unused metal
cans, glass jars or sealable nylon containers, can be used.
Below is a list of other guidelines to follow in collecting evidence

during post-blast investigation.
• Ziplock bags are not suitable for storing explosive residues.
• Do not fill containers up to the brim.
• Pack the containers properly to prevent breakage.
• Never fill the evidence containers with packing materials.
• Large items must be stabilized using wire or zip ties to
fasten the item in a box.
For immobile items, such as buildings, wall and floor swabbing

can be done, wherein the cotton swab is dipped in alcohol (preferably
methanol, isoprophyl alcohol or acetone) or even simple distilled
water. Substrate control samples from surfaces away from the blast
site should also be collected. All the swabs should be air dried and
then stored in a sealable glass or plastic containers. Markings should
always be done.
Collected evidence should have the appropriate markings and
upon submission, should be able to show the following;
• Victim and suspect information;
• Date and time of offense;
• List of evidence items submitted for examination;
• Means by which evidence was conveyed to laboratory;
• Name and contact information of the investigator
submitting evidence; and
• Warnings about hazardous evidence.
In the Crime Scene

In the crime scene, the investigator:
• Defines the problem (crime) explosion;
• Determines the cause (e.g., Improvised Explosive Device);
• Produces evidence (e.g., witness testimony and physical
evidence, such as the device);
• Determines responsibility or the evidence related to
person(s); and
• Enables the prosecution of offender(s) for the crimes to
present it as evidence to the court or judge
Incident command post is a designated location for the management
of the crime scene. The purpose of the incident command system is to
coordinate and monitor all post-blast investigative operations. It also
houses all materials for SOCO investigation.
Clandestine (Clan) Laboratory Investigation

Clandestine laboratories uses various chemicals, machines, and
equipment depending on the product it produces and the type of the
processing being done. They also come in different sizes and forms.
They range in size from bucket operations in kitchen, bathroom or
even backyards, to a large facilitated building. Others can be found in
a rental apartment, townhouse units, or even ice plants. Some can be
found in far-flung rural areas in the provinces.
Clan Lab Investigation, similar to the previous mentioned field
laboratory work, is also conducted by a SOCO Team. The team
composition is the same as that of SOCO, except that the focus of
the investigation is on the analysis of evidence in the manufacture
of illegal drugs. Chemical industry is a legitimate industry as long as
it has all the legal documents. The role of the law enforcement is to
interfere with the illicit manufacture and diversion of chemicals for the
manufacture of illegal drugs.
A certified chemist and trained clan laboratory personnel is
capable of handling the gathering of evidence. Proper and required
uniform must be worn and protective gear and breathing devices must
be used without exemption. Fingerprinting must be done in all evidence
accordingly, hence, wearing of gloves is important. Lifting of fingerprints
is very productive when found on glasswares. Proper documentation
such as videotaping, photograph, sketching and narration containing
relevant information must be incorporated. Extreme care should also

be exercised when handling chemical evidence. These should be sub-
sampled with a 2-ounce sample placed in bottles. Sampling should be
done with pipettes, and pictures must be taken with the sample inside
the parent container. Proper labeling containing dates, case number
and the marking must also be observed. Any document found in the
laboratory must be preserved in its totality.

Clandestine Operation
A clandestine operation may be in the form of (but not limited to)
the following:
a. Narcotics laboratory;
b. Counterfeiting plant; and
c. Illegal weapons factory.
Conversion Laboratory- This is a laboratory wherein raw materials

or unrefined drug products are changed into refined products. In the
conversion process, the chemical structure is changed.
Synthesis Laboratory- In the synthesis laboratory, raw materials

are combined in required portions and reacted to form a new finished
substance with the use of typical laboratory practices, such as cooling,
heating, stirring, or filtering.
Tableting Laboratory- This is a clandestine laboratory in which

the final product measured in production dosage unit (e.g., a tablet) is
passed through a machine processor.
Typical Equipment Found in a Meth Lab

1. Mixing stage: Reaction vessel, Mixer
2. Cooking stage: Heat source (stove, hot place, etc.),
Reflux set-up
The operators of clandestine labs are considered dangerous

elements by law enforcers. They have invested large sums of money to
protect their business and are ready to kill to keep protecting it. There
are hazards in clandestine labs and they are divided into four: operator
hazards, booby traps, chemical hazards, and physical hazards.
Chemical Hazards and Their Properties

1. Corrosive – Includes strong acids and bases
Precautions:
• Avoid contact with the skin
• Avoid inhalation of vapors
2. Explosive – Includes precursor chemicals that can explode if

mixed with other chemicals, heated, or impacted
Precautions:
• Must be handled with extreme care
• Must be isolated from other chemicals
• Must be handled by personnel with proper training
3. Flammable – Includes highly volatile solvents that can cause

fire in the presence of spark or small ignition
Precautions:
• The area must be ventilated
• Extinguish all flames, including matches
and cigarettes
4. Toxic - Includes solvents and precursor chemicals that can

lead to illness or death when inhaled, swallowed, or absorbed.
Precautions:
• Avoid inhalation of vapors
• Avoid contact with the skin
• If encountered, flush the chemical with
pressurized water
• If inhaled, remove victim from the area to take in
fresh air and keep warm and calm.
Usual Chemicals Found in a Clan Lab

• Acetic Anhydride
• Methylamine
• Ethanoic acid
• Acetone
• Isosafrole
• Formaldehyde
• Benzene
• Iodine
• Benzyl Cyanide
• Ethyl Ether
• Hexane
• Isoprophyl Alcohol
• Hydrogen Peroxide
• Lysergic Acid
• Nitroethane
• Petroleum Ether
• Anthranilic Acid
• Calcium Carbonate
Suggested DOs in Clandestine Lab Processing

1. Ensure that the environment is properly ventilated.
2. Allow the experts to handle and process the crime scene.
3. Wear proper clothing (e.g., disposable suits, gloves, shoes,
breathing device and face shields) before entering a
contaminated area.
4. When the environment is already in control, take samples
as needed.
5. Separate the chemicals according to types and prepare
them for shipment.
6. Wash the hands when they come into contact with the
chemicals.
7. Avoid chemical spill and immediately report it to the Team
Leader and the chemist if it does occur.
8. Use non-explosive flashlights while working.
9. Check for any mechanical, chemical, or explosive hazards.
10. Take note of all waste materials seen, documentation,
labeling and packing must be properly observed.
Summary
In all field forensic investigations the training and procedures of
SOCO personnel are properly observed. The team composition of the
DVI, Post-Blast and Clan Laboratory Investigations are all treated as
SOCO responses. They only differ in terms of the evidence most likely
to be collected in each case. For each response, different crime scene
approaches can be used, and it is the SOCO Team Leader who will
determine this.
In all crime scene investigations, the response and management
of the crime scene(s), the documentation, the command post, and the
investigative process all play equally important roles in the successful
management of all crime scene investigation. Finally, we learned that
investigators must select and submit appropriate items of evidence for
examination and analysis.
Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:
Review Questions:
1. Describe the SOCO team’s composition.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. What are the 11 stages of crime scene search?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. What are the standard DVI procedures and phases of DVI?

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4. What are post-blast investigation and clandestine
laboratory investigation?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology 3

Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology

Philippine Copyright, 2018

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Published and Distributed by:

First of all, I would like to acknowledge my Father, Ludovico

UNIT 1 Forensic Chemistry and the Forensic Chemist

Chapter 2 Physical Evidence......................................................22

Chapter 3 Chain of Custody.......................................................28

Chapter 4 Dangerous Drugs........................................................34

Chapter 7 Paraffin Test and Gun Powder Residue.....................89

UNIT 3 PHYSICAL IDENTIFICATION CASES

Chapter 11 Soil Analysis, Toolmarks, Casting, and Molding.....146

Chapter 12 Hair and Fibers........................................................163

Chapter 13 Arson Cases..............................................................186

Chapter 14 Ink and Paint...........................................................192

Chapter 15 Ultraviolet Examination..........................................201

UNIT 4 POLICE OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES

What is Forensic Chemistry?

History of Forensic Chemistry

Locard’s Exchange Principle

Orfila: Father of Modern Forensic Toxicology

effects of arsenic (Research on Poisoning by Arsenians Acid, 1841).

Sir Francis Galton: Finger Prints

Importance of Forensic Chemistry

Forensic Laboratories in the Philippines

The Crime Laboratory

Physical Nature, Evidence Branch of Examiner (PNP Crime Lab)

The Forensic Chemist

Characteristics of a Forensic Chemist

2. Clearly and concisely answers challenges to his

Functions of a Forensic Chemist

2. Conduct examination of explosives and/or explosive

3. Conduct examination of firearms and paraffin casts to

4. Conduct gunpowder examination of clothing to verify

5. Conduct chemico-toxicological examination of human

6. Conduct examination of fake products in case of unfair

7. Conduct blood alcohol determination

8. Examine urine and other bodily fluids for the presence of

9. Conduct research and training related to the cases being

10. Deliver lectures on forensic chemistry and toxicology to

11. Testify and provide expert opinion in court as well as attend

12. Respond to queries of all investigative units and render

13. Conduct field laboratory work and clandestine laboratory

Four Stages in the Practice of Forensic Chemistry

The Forensic Chemist as an Expert Witness in Court

The forensic chemist, as an expert witness, must have sufficient

Golden Rules in the Practice of Forensic Chemistry

3. What are the main functions of a forensic chemist?

What is Physical Evidence?

There are several types of physical evidence that are likely to

Value of Physical Evidence

• Establish probable cause; and

If the physical evidence is found for a period during which a

Collection of Physical Evidence

Guiding Principles in the Collection of Physical Evidence

3. What are the various methods used in the collection of

The so-called “chain of custody”