Forensic chemistry and

toxicology  
 What is Forensic Chemistry?
 Forensic chemistry refers to the branch of chemistry that deals with the
application of chemical theories and principles in the solution of legal problems in
relation to the administration of justice. This field of study applies science and
technology to investigate and establish facts in criminal or civil courts of law. In
simple terms, forensic chemistry is the application of chemistry to law
 Goals of Forensic Science - to determine the cause,
location, and time of death.
 WHAT ARE THE SCIENCES THAT BELONGS TO
CRIMINALISTICS?
 Forensic Photography
 Question Documents Examination
 Forensic Ballistics
 Polygraphy
 Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology
 Legal Medicine
Locard's Exchange Principle

 Locard succeeded in setting up the first police laboratory in Lyon, France in 1910.
He is best known for the Locard's exchange principle, which has been adopted as
one of the tenets of forensic science. The principle holds that every contact leaves
a trace," or that every contact between two objects results in an exchange of traces
between them in other words, it is impossible for a criminal to perform an act of
violent crime without having some trace of his or her presence As an example,
Locard highlighted the power of the microscope to characterize the debris
deposited on the clothing of a person moving through different environments.
This principle is further explained below
Importance of Forensic Chemistry

 Forensic science deals with the application of science to legal

matters and crime solving. Chemistry plays an essential role in the
interdisciplinary field of forensic science, especially in the crime
laboratory wherein the same principles and laws of chemistry are
used to examinine evidence
The Crime Laboratory

 A crime laboratory (or "crime lab" for short) is a scientific laboratory that uses
forensic science for the purpose of examining evidence from criminal cases. It
refers to a laboratory where highly trained technical personnel render various
related services. The PNP Crime Laboratory consists of uniformed and non-
uniformed personnel with high level of expertise and the ability to provide
scientific investigation services through fieldwork, crime scene operations,
forensic laboratory services, as well as criminalistics training and research Allied
services include autopsy, drug tests, DNA examinations, examination of
questioned documents, fingerprinting services, histopathological examinations,
macro-etching examinations, semen determination, and so on.
The Forensic Chemist

 A forensic chemist is a professional chemist who analyzes evidence from the

crime scene and derives a conclusion based on undertaken on such evidence. It is
the task of the forensic chemist to identify and characterize the evidence as part of
the overall crime solving process. Given that they handle the evidence collected
from crime scene, they are often summoned to explain in a trial court what was
found and how they arrived at their conclusions
Characteristics of a Forensic Chemist

 The practice of forensic chemistry in the Philippines, similar to other chemistry

practices, is covered by Republic Act No 754. Also known as the Chemistry Law.
This was enacted on June 18, 1952 The Chemistry Law clearly states that a
Registered Chemist is any person who is engaged in the professional practice of
chemistry, and is duly registered with the Board of Chemistry and the Professional
Regulation Commission to undertake the professional practice of chemistry.
Four Stages in the Practice of Forensic
Chemistry
  Stage 1: Collection and reception of the specimen - Collection refers to the
proper collection, handling, and packaging of specimen before an analysis can be
started. Reception refers to the process of receiving the specimen by entering the
specimen condition on the log book.

 Stage 2: Actual examination - The conduct of various examination procedures for

different specimens submitted as requested by the requesting party
 Stage 3: Report writing of the result - This step involves the drafting of the
positive or negative result (e.g., presence of a drug) Stage 4: Court appearance
This is the final stage, wherein the chemist must explain to the court the findings
of the examination conducted on the specimen submitted
Golden Rules in the Practice of Forensic
Chemistry
 As with other disciplines, there are several important rules that must be followed,
which include the ones listed below
 1.Go slowly.
 2. Be thorough
 3.Take notes.
 4.Consult others.
 5. Use imagination.
 6. Avoid complicated theories.
SCOPE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY:
 1. It includes the chemical side of criminal investigation
 2. It includes the analysis of any material the quality of which may give rise to
legal
 proceeding.
 3. It is not limited to purely chemical questions involved in legal proceedings.
 4. It has invaded other branches of forensic sciences notably legal medicine,
ballistics,
 questioned documents, dactyloscopy, and photography.
CHAPTER 2 PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

 Learning Objectives
 At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to: 
  Identify the value of "physical evidence" in criminal investigation:
 . Determine the different kinds of physical evidence, and
  Identify the various methods employed in the collection of physical evidence.
What is Physical Evidence?
 Physical evidence refers to any material object introduced
in a trial for the purpose of proving a fact in issue based on
its demonstrable physical characteristics. This includes all
or part of any conceivable object
 DNA any tissue from the victim or suspect, such as hair, fingernails, bones, teeth
 Body fluids- saliva, blood, sweat, semen, and urine of the victim of suspect
  Impressions tool marks, shoe prints, fingerprints, bite . marks, tire tracks, etc
 Weapons characteristics of firearms, ammunitions. and residue, chemical
composition of explosives, etc
 . Questioned documents printing method or paper and ink used in forged
documents, handwriting style, counterfeit bills, ransom notes, etc
  Miscellaneous trace evidence, such as dust and dirt, fibers, soil, glass, paint,
skeletal remains, fracture matches, etc
Value of Physical Evidence

 It has already been mentioned that physical evidence is much more reliable than
testimonial evidence, and the value of the former over the latter is enumerated
below.
 . Human factor Compared with testimonial evidence, which may change, physical
evidence "can't lie, quit, die, forget, or get fired, in addition, the source of
testimonial evidence may also be lost, thus losing the connection between the
original and the court version
 Physical properties Physical evidence cannot change, whereas testimonial
evidence is based solely on interpretation that can change or be erroneous
 Circumstantial Variability
 If any type of physical evidence is found and subsequently associated with a
suspect where he or she had no right to be, then upon proper identification, the
evidence may:

 Establish proof beyond reasonable doubt;

 Establish probable cause, and
 Establish a suspect's presence at the crime scene.
Collection of Physical Evidence

 The scene of the crime operation (SOCO) team must have several main goals in
mind during the process of collecting evidence from a crime scene. reconstruct the
crime, identify the person who committed the crime, preserve the evidence for
analysis, and collect such evidence in a way that will make them stand up in court.
Trace Evidence

 trace evidence constitute the most common type of physical evidence, which an
investigator and/or crime scene specialist is likely to encounter Trace evidence
refers to microscopic materials found at a crime scene, such as hair, blood, glass
particles, foot/tire impression, fiber, or paint, to name a few.
Guiding Principles in the Collection of
Physical Evidence
 1. Sufficiency of sample - sufficient weight, volume, or pieces of sample for
analysis should be submitted so that a series of lab tests can be performed
 2. Standard for comparison - a standard should be submitted so that comparative
analysis can be performed and facilitate the evaluation of unfair trade completion
 3. Maintenance of individuality - different specimens should be packed
individually prevent tocontamination
 4. Labeling and sealing individually packed specimens should be labeled and
sealed properly to avoid confusion in the preparation of requests and
documentations.
CHAIN OF CUSTODY

 Learning Objectives

 At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to . 

 Define the concept of "chain of custody"
 Discuss the importance of proper tagging and labeling of evidence; and
 Identify the role of the evidence custodian
 Chain of Custody

 The chain of custody refers to a written record of all the individuals who
maintained unbroken control over certain items of evidence. collected from a
crime scene. This establishes the proof that the items of evidence collected at the
crime scene are the name items being presented in a court of law, hence validating
their origin.
 Although some specimens submitted to the crime lab do not require a chain of
custody form, it is essential that during court presentation, the prosecutor can
clearly establish the chain the evidence has undergone through the testimony of
the witnesses, thereby maintaining the integrity of the evidence.
 Drug-related cases are the ones that strictly require a chain of custody form.
Through a written document, the prosecutor establishes all individuals who
handled the drug specimen submitted and the specific times and dates at which
they had the evidence in their possession. The evidence is officially turned over to
the court once the testimony of the forensic examiner has been heard and admitted
to the court.
 The so-called "chain of custody aims to establish several things: 
 The date and time at which the evidence was handled;
 Those who had contact with the evidence; 
 What changes, if any, were made in the evidence; and
 The circumstances under which the evidence was handled.
Proper Tagging, Labeling, and Marking
of Evidence
 Certainly, it is very important to properly tag and label items of evidence. A crime
scene investigator or evidence recovery technician must be able to tag and
label/mark items of evidence so that these can be easily identified at a later date.
The tagging, labeling, and marking of the evidence ensures the proper
identification of the evidence and ensures the credibility of the evidence collected.
The Evidence Custodian

 An evidence custodian is the person responsible for preserving the chain of

custody of each item of evidence submitted by the examiner, he or she ensures the
security and integrity of such evidence. The evidence custodian is also responsible
for receiving inventories, logs, stores, packages, and issues and providing
assistance in the release of that adjudicated piece of evidence. Furthermore, the
custodian must keep the evidence safe by placing it inside the evidence room.
The Evidence Room

 An evidence room or property room refers to a secure facility or room, in which

evidence related to criminal cases or investigations are stored. The evidence
custodian always has direct supervision of this room. The evidence room is often
located inside the forensic laboratory itself, and is used to store old evidence. It is
also used to store physical evidence apart from transcripts, recordings, and other
supporting information. Sometimes, case files are also stored in the evidence
room, depending on the organizational structure of the department. The contents
of the evidence room are stored and organized through a database that has
references for all items stored in the room, along with notations indicating their
specific locations.
DANGEROUS DRUGS

 Learning Objectives
 At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to: 
 Identify the main classifications of dangerous drugs:
 Determine the types of dangerous drugs, including stimulants, depressants,
hallucinogens, narcotics, designer drugs, and inhalants;
 Identify the commonly abused drugs in the Philippines; and
  Identify the major laws against abused drugs in the Philippines,
Drugs

 A drug is any synthetic or natural substance that is used to produce psychological

or physiological effects in humans; it can also play a central role in the daily lives
of many people regardless of whether it is used legitimately or illegitimately. The
legality and social acceptance of a particular drug often relies on the purpose and
duration of its use, its side effects, and the person using it. As we will see later in
this chapter, the use of illegal drugs for pleasure can be quite dangerous.
 A drug that is intended to affect the body's normal functions. can be distinguished
from a medicine, which cures illnesses and/or relieves signs or symptoms of
diseases when taken into the human body in specific doses.

Dangerous drugs include those listed under Republic Act No. 9165 or the
Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002, which is based on the United
Nations' 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs (as amended in 1972 and the
1971 Single Convention on Psychotropic Substances).
Classifications of Dangerous Drugs

 Drugs are typically classified as stimulants, depressants,

hallucinogens, narcotics, designer drugs or inhalants.
classification is discussed in detail in the following
sections. 
Stimulants

 Drugs that increase the rate of the body's systems, resulting in increased alertness
and physical disposition are called stimulants. These include prescription drugs
(e.g., amplietamines, methylphenidate, diet aids) and illicitly produced drugs (e.g.,
methamphetamine, cocaine, and methcathinone) Stimulants typically come in the
form of powder, pills or capsules, rocks, or injectable fluids.
 Stimulants create a sense of exhilaration that may boost one's self-esteem; they
can also improve mental and physical performance, reduce appetite, increase
activity, extend wakefulness for longer periods, and the sensation of being "high,
hence the name. When used in chronic and high doses, these can lead to paranoia,
hostility, agitation, aggression, panic, hallucinations, and even homicidal or
suicidal tendencies.
Examples of Stimulants

 Amphetamine
 This is a stimulant prescribed by physicians to reduce appetite, relieve minor
cases of mental depression, or to ease discomforts brought on by fatigue and
sleepiness. This is often used to promote wakefulness and/or increase energy. It is
known through the following street names: "lid poppers," "eye openers," "pep
pills," "uppers," and "hearts."
Caffeine

 Caffeine is a slightly bitter alkaloid or methylxanthine. It is a widely used drug

that is often found in cocoa, soft drinks, and over the counter medications
Cocaine

 Cocaine is extracted from coca bush leaves Natives of the Andes mountain used to
chew its leaves to combat fatigue and to be recharged while working at high
altitudes. In pure form, cocaine has a white color, and is made of shiny, colorless
crystals. that look like crystalline snow. In powder form, it is odorless and bitter It
is known through the following street names: "coke," "crack," "gold dust,"
"heaven's dust," "stardust," "white girl," and "speedball" (when mixed with
heroin).
 Cocaine extends the activity of dopamine by blocking its reabsorption Dopamine
is a neurotransmitter, which transmits "pleasure signals" in the brain. Cocaine use
also causes peripheral blood vessels to constrict, while increasing heart rate and
blood pressure, thus leading to heart failure. It can also cause the explosion of
blood vessels in the brain, leading to brain damage and death
 It is quite dangerous for people to mix cocaine and alcohol because they are
compounding the dangerous effects of each drug. As the human liver combines
cocaine and alcohol, it produces a third substance called cocaethylene, which
intensifies cocaine's effects. including increased risk of sudden death.
Methamphetamine Hydrochloride

 Locally known as shabu, this is a white, odorless crystal or crystalline powder

with bitter numbing taste. It is known through several street names, such as "poor
man's cocaine," "S," "shabs," "ubas," "siopao," "sha," "ice," "bato," and so on. It is
often taken by direct ingestion, inhalation (chasing the dragon), sniffing
(snorting), injection, or smoking with a small pipe from a heated aluminum foil
containing the drug Meth and heroin users who "chase the dragon
paraphernalia:

 Tooter-it aids in smoking gases converted from burning methamphetamine 

 Lighter the source of heat that converts the crystals into gases, it is also a rolled
aluminum foil or a sheet of metal with hollow opening on both sides
 . Foil- it is used to convert crystal into gases and is suitable for smoking; the shiny
side of the foil is the one that touches the flame
Effects on the Body

 Stimulants change the heart's muscle fibers, which

tend to lose their cross-striations, leading to
decreased cardiac contractility. Stimulants mimic
the hormones responsible for the release of energy
in the body. Other effects on the body include the
following:
 Extended wakefulness and increased mental alertness
 . Heightened mental activity, relieved fatigue, and offset drowsiness
 . Memory loss
 . Loss of sexual desire
 Lack of interest towards work
 Fear, anxiety, and irritability
 . Lack of appetite and decreased body weight
 . Mental retardation in the unborn babies of pregnant users
 F Irritation of the nose and frequent nose bleeding for chronic snorters
Depressants

 Depressants are the kinds of drugs that induce sleep, prevent seizures, as well as
relieve anxiety and muscle spasms. Using depressants can rapidly lead to
dependence and tolerance. This means that the users' need increases consistently
so that they can function normally, thus increasing the likelihood of coma or death
Legally manufactured and marketed depressants, such as sedative-hypnotic
medications for the short-term treatment of insomnia, may be used illegally
Alcohol

 Alcohol is also known by the following trade names:

whisky. beer, brandy, gin and wine. This is a commonly
used legal drug that affects the mind and body in
unpredictable ways, resulting in the high incidence of
assaults, homicides, and highway deaths.
Barbiturates

 The word barbiturate is a combination of the words

"Barbara" and "urea." German chemist Adolf von Baeyer
discovered it on Saint Barbara's Day, while urea was used
by von Baeyer in 1863 when the molecule was first
synthesized.
 Made from barbituric acid or "barbs," barbiturates is used in a wide spectrum of
central nervous system illnesses, such as depression, mild sedation, and coma.
Barbiturates are legally restricted and must be prescribed. These are prescribed to
induce sleep or provide a calming effect, when taken in small doses. They are also
used as sedatives, hypnotics, anesthetics, and anticonvulsants. These are generally
abused to decrease inhibition, alleviate anxiety, and treat unwanted effects of
illicit drugs. These can easily lead to an overdose and even death. Barbiturates are
also known as "yellow jackets," "blue devils," "rainbow," "Amy's," and "reds"
(based on the color of the capsule or tablet).
Tranquilizers (Benzodiazepines)

 Tranquilizers produce sedation, induce sleep, relieve anxiety and muscle spasms,
as well as prevent seizures. These are legally available through prescription, and
the most common examples include Valium, Xanax, Halcion, Ativan, Klonopin,
and the date rape drug called Rohypnol. Often, abusers maintain their drug supply
by getting prescriptions from several doctors, forging prescriptions, or buying
them illicitly. Tolerance can lead to physical dependence, and when the drug
intake is stopped, it causes typical symptoms of withdrawal ranging from
nightmares to convulsions Tranquilizers can lead to coma or even death when
combined with substantial amounts of alcohol.
Examples of Tranquilizers

 a. RohyRohypnol -is a central nervous system (CNS) depressant that produces

hypnotic, sedative, anti anxiety, and muscle relaxant effects Commonly known as
the "date rape" drug, it is prescribed to treat insomnia. It is an oblong, olive green
tablet with a speckled blue core, it can be swallowed whole, crushed, or snorted.
When dissolved in light-colored drinks, it will give the liquid a blue tint. Some
adolescents abuse Rohypnol to produce a euphoric effect, which minimizes
inhibitions and impairs judgment. It is also abused in combination with alcohol to
produce an exaggerated intoxication. Cocaine addicts may use benzodiazepines,
such as Rohypnol, to relieve the side effects that are often associated with cocaine
binges, such as irritability and agitation.

pnol
 GHB

 Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) is a generic drug sodium oxybate that is

usually available as an odorless, colorless liquid with a slightly taste. Sometimes,
the substance is available as a powder, or in a capsule form. In its liquid form,
GHB is sold in small (30 ml) bottles enough to contain three doses. It is difficult
to give a clear "safe" dose given that the liquid's concentration often varies.
 They are also illegally sold as bodybuilding supplements, as well as used as
chemical components for products that promote fat loss. reversal of baldness,
improved eyesight. GHB is also used to combat aging, depression, drug addiction,
and insomnia.

GHB abuse became popular among teens and young adults at dance clubs and
"raves" in the 1990s, eventually gaining notoriety as a date rape drug. GHB is
taken alone or in combination with other drugs, such as alcohol (primarily),
depressants, stimulants, hallucinogens, and marijuana.
 GHB and its analogues are abused due to their euphoric and calming effects.
Others abuse them to either build muscles or lose weight. They are also misused
for their ability to increase levels of suggestibility and passivity, as well as libido.
When added into a drink, the victim may have no memory of events while under
the influence of the substance, making them vulnerable to sexual assault and other
criminal acts.
 The average dose ranges from 1 to 5 grams (depending on the purity of the
compound) and can be added to a beverage (1-2 teaspoons). However, the
concentrations of these "home-brews" have varied so much that users are often
unaware of the actual dose they are drinking.
Hallucinogens

 Hallucinogens are drugs that produce delusions and

hallucinations as well as severe changes in mood and
behavior. In fact, users speak of "hearing" colors and
"seeing" sounds. This major classification includes
Marijuana, Cannabis, or Indian Hemp.
Marijuana, Cannabis, or Indian Hemp

 Hallucinogens encompass every class, genus or specie of the plant Cannabis

Sativa L, including Cannabis Americana, hashish, bhang guaza, churrus, and
ganjab Cannabis Sativa is an annual plant grown in many temperate parts of the
world; it consists of crushed cannabis leaves and its flowers. About 40% to 50%
of the plants are male; these male plants produce pollens that pollenate the flowers
of the female plants that, in turn, produce seeds.
 The dried flowering or fruiting top of the Cannabis Sativa L, also called Indian
hemp, has green serrated (saw-edge) edges. Smoke from marijuana is harsh, and
smells like dried grasses or burnt rope. Marijuana's three strengths are low grade
10% to 1% tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content), medium grade (1 1% to 2.8%
THC content), and high grade (2.9% to 4.8% THC content).
 During its flower development stage, the tips of the branches where the bud
develops start to grow into little buds or little balls, although there are no white
hairs coming out of the plant at this stage. If the female plant is not pollenized
(i.e., when no male plants nearby produce pollen), the flower/buds continue to
develop and produce THC. Female plants that are not pollenized are referred to as
sensemilla (i.e., without seeds). Females have no balls and have small white hairs.
 Hashish (concentrated cannabis) refers to the concentrated resin that has been
extracted from marijuana. It is eight to ten times stronger than commercial-grade
marijuana. Its street names include "Flower," "Mary Jane," "Brownies,"
"Pampapogi," "Damo," "Pot," "Tea," "Joint," and "Dope."
Marijuana Paraphernalia

 Cigarette rolling paper (Zig zag) - This is a brand of rolling paper known for its
package, which features the silhouette of a bearded smoker.

Water pipe In this method, cannabis smoke is passed through water before
inhaling. This has the effect of cooling the smoke and filtering it by removing the
heavy tar elements, thus producing less harsh smoke without tobacco
contaminating the high. Smoking in this way makes the user stoned much quicker
than when smoking joints; in particular, inexperienced smokers may get too high
quickly.
 Marijuana vaporizers - These work by heating the cannabis to a temperature at
which the active ingredients evaporate into a thin mist. Here, the cannabis is
heated to 356 to 392 degrees Fahrenheit, which is below the point of combustion
where smoke is produced. The amount of carcinogens or toxins decreases without
combustion; then, the vapor is captured in a glass and inhaled through a tube.
Modes of Absorption of Marijuana

 The most common method of absorption is smoking.

Either in a loosely rolled cigarette called a joint, or
through a pipe or water pipe.
 However, it can also be baked as brownies or brewed as a
tea.
Effects of Marijuana
 Being "zonked," which is slang for being very stoned, spaced out, wasted, ripped,
destroyed, wrecked, or intoxicated.
 THC destroys the nerve cells of the hippocampus, which is the part of the brain
that is responsible for learning, memory, and the integration of sensory
experiences with emotions and motivation. In fact, marijuana abuse is often
associated with attention and memory problems.
 It causes changes in the brain, priming the user to be easily addicted to other
drugs. 
 The daily use of about three marijuana sticks produces about the same degree of
lung damage and potential cancer risk as smoking cigarettes. For this reason,
marijuana users are as prone to cancer as tobacco users.
 Users are also more likely to acquire chest cold or even bronchitis.
MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxy-N-
methylamphetamine)
 This substance is more commonly known as "Ecstacy," "Adam," "Eve,"
"superman," "Martian," "X," "E," "XTC," "hug," "beans," and so on. This semi-
synthetic and psychoactive compound shares the stimulant and hallucinogenic
attributes of amphetamine and LSD. Ecstasy may contain cough suppressants,
amphetamines, tranquilizers, and  caffeine, and is considered neurotoxic at levels
exceeding 193.25 8/ mol Ecstasy is both a stimulant and a hallucinogen, and is
sold mostly in form, although it can also come in powder form. Ecstasy pills are
made in illegal labs.
Effects of Ecstasy Use

 Entactogenesis ("touching within"). This refers to a generalized feeling that all is

well and good with the world. People on MDMA often excessively describe being
"at peace or experiencing a generalized "happy" feeling. Ecstasy users also see
mundane everyday things as beautiful or interesting.
Why is Ecstasy Used?

 For Socialization - Especially in places, such as rave parties, bars, etc., Ecstacy
may be used to minimize awkward situations among strangers.
 For Self-Psychotherapy - The hit of ecstasy is worth three months of conventional
psychotherapy. It helps a user release his or her repressed memories and deal with
emotional problems.
 For Sensory enhancement - Ecstacy makes sensual activity unusually enjoyable.
For example, touching can become intensely pleasurable, and as earlier, Ecstasy
enhances prioperception, making normal movements more pleasant.
 Mescaline

Mescaline is a chemical that is extracted from the peyote cactus. Peyote buttons
have an average size of one to two inches, have a brown in color, and look like the
underside of a dried The buttons are typically ground into a dark brown powder
and placed in clean gelatin capsules. Peyote has an intensely bitter taste.
Components of Mescaline

 Phenethylamine -In the Phenethylamine group of alkaloids, nitrogen is not in the

ring, but is in the amine (NH2-) group, which is part of the
ethylamine(C2H4NH2-) group. This chain bonds to one of the carbon atoms in
the ring, thus forming Phenethylamine. This major side group has a carbon
labeled as "1"
 Phencyclidine 
 This is a dissociative anesthetic that was originally experimented on humans
before it hit the racks as an anesthetic in veterinary medicine In its purest form, it
is a crystal white powder that comes in the form of powder, capsules or pills It can
be sniffed, swallowed or even injected and is sometimes rolled in joints and
smoked. Street names for PCP are "peace pill" and "angel's dust"
 Ketamine
 Ketamine is a tranquilizer that is most commonly used on animals comes either in
a white/off-white powder form or in a clear liquid form, which can be injected,
consumed in drinks, or added to substances that can be smoked. Meanwhile, the
form can be dissolved and then injected. In fact, in some areas, Ketamine is often
injected intramuscularly. Its street names include "jet," "super acid," "Special K,"
"green," "K." and "cat," to name a few.
 LSD
 LSD is a semi-synthetic alkaloid extracted from fungus, which specifically grows
on grains like wheat. and rye. LSD is a strong hallucinogen with a high potential
for abuse. Although it is accepted in the US as a controlled substance for medical
treatment. In its original form, LSD is tasteless, odorless, and colorless. Abused
orally, LSD is typically added to absorbent paper, such as blotter paper, and then
divided into small squares, each representing one
 Psilocybin

Psilocybin is obtained from certain types of fresh or dried mushrooms. These
mushrooms are commonly found in Mexico, Central America, and the United
States. Psilocybin mushrooms are ingested orally, added to other foods to hide
their bitter flavour, or they can be brewed as a tea. The psychological
consequences of psilocybin use include hallucinations and the inability to discern
fantasy from reality. Panic reactions and psychosis may also occur, particularly if
a user ingests a large dose. The common street. names for psilocybin include
"magic mushrooms," "mushrooms," and "shrooms."
Narcotics

 The term "narcotic" comes from the Greek word for "stupor." The term was
originally used to refer to a variety of substances that relieved pain and dulled the
senses. Although some people still refer to all drugs as "narcotics," the term
"narcotic" today refers to opium, opium derivatives, and their semi-synthetic
substitutes. A more current term for these drugs is "opioid," and some examples
include heroin and some pharmaceutical drugs such as fentanyl, OxyContin®,
codeine, Vicodin®, methadone, and morphine.
Examples of Narcotics

 Opium

Opium is made of the coagulated juice of the opium poppy (Papaver Somniferum
L.), and may also include crude preparations containing morphine or any alkaloid
of opium as an ingredient. This is prohibited even for decorative, floral, or
culinary (bread seasoning) purposes.
 Heroin or diacetylmorphine (INN) is a semi-synthetic opioid, which is the 3,6-
diacetyl derivative of morphine (hence diacetylmorphine), commonly synthesized
by acetylation. It often has a crystalline white form (i.e., the hydrochloride salt,
diacetylmorphine hydrochloride). Heroin is known by several street names,
including Blanco," "sugar," "brown," "kengkoy," "kabayo," "gamut," "pulbos,"
"matsakao," "sapsap," and "tinik." A variant of heroin, known as speedball,
contains a mixture of cocaine and heroin or morphine.
Codeine

 Codeine is a component of opium and a derivative of morphine, and is known to

be as much as 10 times less effective as morphine and is the physicians' choice for
an ideal antitussive It goes by its street name "schoolboy."
Morphine

 Known by its street names "M," "dreamer," "emma", "emsel", "pulbos", this is the
principal active component of opium plant, Papaver Somniferum. The term
"morphine" comes from the name of the Greek god of dreams "Morpeus."
Morphene can come in different forms, such as a white crystalline powder, light
porous cubes, or small white tablets.
 FORENSIC DRUG ANALYSIS

 Forensic drug analysis mainly refers to the process of identifying and quantifying specimens
of illegal drugs. These forensic drug tests are carried out via screening and confirmation for
the purpose of analysis. The results can be used as evidence in a court of law.

 Drug Chemist

 A drug chemist is a specialist who conducts chemical analyses of evidence confiscated during
criminal investigations, which involve dangerous drugs and clandestine labs.
 Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Drug Specimen
  In the analysis of drug specimens, it is important to know the qualitative and
quantitative characteristics of said specimens. The results of a well executed drug
analysis can be used as the basis upon which a prosecutor can file a case against a
suspect. In drug parse knowing the quantity is knowing its degree of purity, while
knowing the quality simply means knowing the existence or the presence d
dangerous drugs on the specimen. Both qualitative and quantitative analyses use
the analytical method of identifying volatile substances and dangerous drugs.
Steps in Conducting Qualitative
Analysis
 Physical Test

This kind of test is performed by describing the physical properties of a specimen
by ocular Inspection, weighing, or hrough a microscopic exam.
 Chemical (Color) Test

 In the chemical test, a specific reagent or series of reagents is used for a

presumptive test Color reaction is expected to occur in order to determine the
presence of a dangerous. drug. Different reagents. are used for different dangerous
drugs and examples include Si mons test, Marquis test. and so on.
 CHAPTER 6 EXPLOSIVES

 At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to

 : Define "explosives and explain their history,
 Determine the types of explosives and their characteristics;
  Identify the effects of explosion; 
 Define "explosives analysis", and 
 Identify the common methods of analyzing explosives and explosive contents
Low Explosives

 Low explosives consist of a combustible substance and an oxidant that burns

(deflagrates) at speed levels that range from a few cm/sec to 400 m/sec Low
explosives combine a combustible substance and an oxidant at sufficient
temperature, thus releasing heat and rapidly expanding gases Low explosives
work the same way as burning wood of coal, and the burning occurs with more or
less speed depending on the amount of oxygen in the surrounding At the higher
levels. deflagrations resemble detonations.
High Explosives

 Compared with low explosives, high explosives detonate instantaneously, burn

more rapidly, and create more pressure. There are many reaction sequences
involved in a detonation process Commonly, it involves the combination of a
metal with chlorine, which releases excess energy Other reactant combinations
could include metal with oxygen, hydrogen with chlorine, carbon with oxygen,
oxygen with carbon monoxide, hydrogen with oxygen, and nitrogen with
hydrogen In any explosive, one or many of these reactions may occur, thus
releasing large energy levels.
 A bomb is defined as a hollow projectile with a generally spherical shape,
containing an explosive material and is made of iron. It is fired by concussion or
by time fuse. Improvised explosive devices (IEDs), also known as roadside
bombs, are homemade bombs constructed and deployed in ways other than those
in conventional military action.
 PARAFFIN TEST AND GUN
POWDER RESIDUE
 Learning Objectives
 At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:

  Define what a paraffin test is;

  Identify the types of gunpowder: 
 Describe the process of testing for gunpowder nitrates,
 Describe the guidelines for estimating target distances; and
 Define "gunshot residue
 What is a Paraffin Test?

 A paraffin test is a method used for detecting gunshot residue. This test
determines whether or not a person has fired a gun, and is an important means by
which to provide conclusive evidence in a clinical trial. A paraffin test is also
called Lunge's test, Diphenylamine test Dermal nitrate test, and the Gonzales test,
named after the scientist who improved the test
Gunpowder

 Types of Gunpowder
 1 Black powder - a mixture of carbon or charcoal (15%), sulfur (10%), and
potassium nitrate (75%)
 2. Smokeless powder is either single base (composed of nitrocellulose) or double
base (composed of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine and other stabilizers)
 The presence of gunpowder residues on the target help reveal information about
gunshot range or distance. If it is present on the hands, it can help determine if the
person has fired a gun.
 TOXICOLOGY

 Toxicology refers to the science of detecting and identifying the presence of drugs
and poisons in tissues, organs, and body fluids. There is a specialized area of
toxicology called, toxinology, which deals specifically with animal, plant and
microbial toxins; however, this is considered a science in its own right
Types of Poisons

 1. Corrosive poisons- they destroy tissues when they come in contact with the
body (e.g., hydrochloric acid or muriatic acid)

2. True poison - natural poisons, such as cyanide present in silver cleaners

 3. Cumulative poisons poisons whose intensity lies on the gradual accumulation

of the poison (e.g., arsenic).
BLOOD, BEMEN, AND DNA
ANALYSIS
What is Serology?

 Serology is a branch of science that deals with the determination of the type and
characteristics of blood. blood testing, and the examination of bloodstain, semen,
saliva, and other body fluids that may or may not be involved with DNA typing
The preparation of testimony through the results obtained via serology and its
presentation in a trial by oral and written testimony delivered by an expert witness
is the main job function of a forensic serologist.
importance of Serology in Crime
Investigation
 Blood can be used as circumstantial corroborative evidence in identifying the
perpetrator of a crime. It can als be used to prove disputed parentage at in a
paternity test, determine the cause of death, or the length of time at which the
victim survived an attack
Name of Test Color reaction indicating
presence of blood
Benzidine test Intense blue

Phenolphthalein test (kastle-meyer Deep permanganate color

test)
Guaiacum test(van deen's or Blue=
schonbrn's test)
Leucomalachite green test Bluish green
  Passive Bloodstains - these are drops created or formed by the force of gravity
acting alone.
 Drip-caused by dripping blood D
 rop - created by force of gravity
 Pool - this refers to a change in the shape and direction of a bloodstain due to the
influence of gravity or movement of the object
Type You can give You can receive
blood to blood from
A+ A+,AB+ A+,A-,O+,O-
O+ O+,A+,B+,Ab+ O+,O-
B+ B+,AB+ B+,B-,O+,O-
AB+ AB+ Everyone
A- A+,A-,AB+,AB A-,O-
O- Everyone O-

B- B+,B-,AB+,AB- N-,O-
AB- AB+,AB- AB-,A-,B-,O-
What is Semen?

 emen refers to the body fluid produced by the male sex organ, usually amounting
to 2.5 to 6.0 ml seminal fluid per ejaculation. Each ml contains 100 million or
more spermatozoa.
 The fresh ejaculate semen has a gelatinous, sticky consistency, and
tends to become more fluid when exposed. It has two parts-the
seminal fluid (consisting of cellular elements including
spermatozoa) and epithelial cells and crystals composed of choline
and lecithin,
 Forensic Characterization of Semen

 A large number of criminal cases handled by a forensic lab often involves sexual
oflenses, making it necessary to examine exhibita for the presence of seminal
stains.
 The forensic examination of semen follows a two-step process;
 1 Location of the semen; and
  2. Conduct of tests to prove the identity of the one who produced it.
 Semen Location and Identification

 There are two methods to locate semen. First is the acid phosphate color test and
the second is manually examining the semen left on a fabric, which usually
appears stiff and crusty. However, the latter method is not reliable, although it can
be done with the use of ultra violet (UV) fluorescent light. Under UV light, semen
creates blue lamination, making it easier for investigators to detect its presence.
Collection of Rape Case Evidence

 1 A rape victim must be subjected to a medical examination. During such examination,

possible forms of evidence that may be collected include the following: pubic hairs,
blood, vaginal swabs, any piece of clothing.. urine, and fingernail scrapings.
 2. Outer/undergarments must be placed in separate paper bags with the proper evidence
tag; the victim must be made to stand on a piece of paper as possible forms of trace
evidence are collected.

3. A suspect must also undergo medical examination, during which clothing, hairs,
penile swab, and blood samples are collected for comparison.
 4. Objects found at the scene of the crime should be  submitted to the laboratory
with proper documentation.

 Additionally, non-motile sperm can still be collected from a living female for up
to three to six days.
Forensic Examination of Semen and
Seminal Stain
 1. Wet Specimen

 Here, a drop of the fluid is placed on a glass slide to which a few drops of distilled
water are added. This is then examined under a high-powered microscope to
determine the presence of sperm cells or spermatozoa. A spermatozoon has a head
and thin flagellate tail.
 2. Dry Specimen

 a. Physical examination
 Dry semen has a stiff starchy feeling when deposited on a piece of clothing. It
may have a slight deepening of color (grayish white sometimes yellowish) and
disappearance of odor It also exhibits bright bluish fluorescence under UV light.
. Chemical examination

 Florence test - named after Dr. Florence of Lyons, uses potassium triiodide that
results in the formation of crystals to indicate the presence of choline.
 Barberio's test- using picric acid as crystallizing agent, this results in the
formation of spermine picrate crystals, which appear as slender yellow-tainted
rhomboid needles with obtuse angles that may sometimes appear as ovoid
crystals.
What is DNA?

  (DNA) is a molecule that contains the genetic information used in the

development and functioning of known viruses and living organisms. DNA is a
nucleic acid comprising of macromolecules essential for all known forms of life.
 DNA found in semen skin, blood saliva or hair found at a crime scene is used to
identify an individual, such as a perpetrator or the victim This process is formally
called DNA profiling, but may also be called "genetic fingerprinting DNA
profiling was first developed in 1984 by a British geneticist Sir Alec Jeffreys and
first used in forensic science to convict Colin Pitchfork in the 1988 Enderby
murders case The ability to obtain genetic match from minute samples has led to a
To examination of a number of cases
 Acid phosphatase (Dr. Sidney Kaye)-this test identifies the presence of acid
phosphatase, which produces an orange-red pigment Note that the Florence and
Barberio tests are based on the formation of characteristic crystals that are
observed under a microscope, while the act phosphatase indicates the presence of
aciphosphate enzyme, which indicates human origin
 PHYSICAL IDENTIFICATION
 Learning Objectives
CASES
 At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
 Describe the visual distinction of glass and enumerate its properties;
 Enumerate the types of glass fracture; Show the value of glass as evidence;
 Describe the process of collecting and handling glass and glass fragments;
 Define "macro-etching"; Present how the examination of bullet holes aid an
investigation; and
 Define a bullet trajectory and determine the tools in trajectory determination.
What is Glass?

 Glass consists of a mixture of silica (natural sand)

and two or more alkaline bases, such as lime, soda,
or potash. Glass may also contain other elements
and metals, which are added for color, heat
resistance, hardness, and other desired properties.
Theories Related to Glass Fracture

 1. Glass first bends on the direction where force is applied, which causes the
opposite side to stretch.

 2. Glass is flexible-it bends when force is applied to it.

 3. Glass can withstand more bending rather than stretching, which causes the
opposite side to start breaking once the stretch limit is exceeded.
 4. Most of the glass is projected forward, in the direction of the blow; however, if
some of the fragments are projected backwards-towards the person breaking the
window-by up to a distance of 3 meters (i.e... the "backscatter"), anyone standing
close enough when the window breaks will be covered in tiny fragments of glass
which will stick to their clothing and their hair.
Factors to Be Determined in Glass
Fracture
 1. Point of Impact: Here, the front of the glass can be determined. through the
accumulation of dust and dirt on the glass.

2. Age of the Fracture

 Fresh fracture - exhibits a regular pattern of radial and concentric fractures

 . Old Fracture - shows short extension lines at the end of the radial fractures
What is Bullet Trajectory?

 A bullet's trajectory refers to the path of flight it follows from firing

up to reaching its target. In cases of shootings where the victim is
the target, the forensic specialist works out the trajectory of the
bullet as part of the crime scene reconstruction. The science of
investigating projectile motion is known as ballistics, which
involves equations that can be used to determine a trajectory.
 Direction of Impact or Force (Position of the Firer).

 a. Angle from the right (right to left)- heavy chippings on the left side of the glass

 b. Angle from the left (left to right)- heavy chippings on the right side of the glass
 c. Perpendicular shot - even distribution of chippings on the exit side of the glass
  Cause of Fracture Due to natural means - shows plain wavy lines

 Due to mechanical means - shows a regular pattern of radial/ concentric fracture

Markings

 Sufficiently sized glass fragments are marked with a grease pencil, a diamond
point or carborundum pencil, or a piece of properly marked adhesive tape.
Markings are placed in an area that could delineate a valuable piece of evidence.
Such markings should include the investigator's name and the date and time at
which the evidence has been collected.
 What is Macro-Etching?
 Macro-etching refers to the application of a chemical
solution on a metal surface and observing any reaction that
may take place.
Preliminary Examination on Macro-
Etching Process
 1. searching for the normal location of the serial number, 
 2. removing oil and grease using alcohol and/or gasoline
 3. polishing the area using sand paper, and 
 4. taking a photograph of the possible evidence.
Bullet Hole Characteristics

 When the body offers no evidence of the bullet's entrance and exit paths, firearm
examiners are summoned to examine the victim's clothing. When a bullet strikes
an object, such as a piece of clothing, a bullet entrance/exit hole is created. This is
why it is important to discuss the characteristics of bullet holes in aid of
investigation.
Casting and Molding

 Casting and molding refers to the method of extracting an impression using a cast-
like plaster of paris inside a mold to recover the pattern for laboratory analysis.
When an itern like a shoe or a tire comes into contact with a soft surface, it leaves
a pattern indicating an impression. The collection and analysis of impression
evidence found at the scene of a crime can be crucial in an investigation,
  HAIR AND FIBERS

 in the field of forensic science, hair is one of the most common types of trace
evidence found at any the crime scene. Next to teeth and bones, hair is decay-
resistant. Although it cannot fully provide conclusive evidence, when used with
other details, it has been proven to have an essential role in criminal investigation.
Hair Structure

1 Root bulb - the shape of the root bulb determines

whether or not the hair was pulled by force
2. Hair shaft - contains the most information about the
hair 
 3. Tip - would show if the hair was cut, burned, or if it had
split ends.
Parts of the Hair Shaft

 1. Medulla - the central canal of the hair shaft; may be continuous, fragmented,
interrupted or absent

 2. Cuticle the outer surface of the hair and when viewed under a microscope, appears
to be decomposed of scale-like flakes, each overlapping others much like the scale of
a fish

 3. Cortex-contains the hair's color pigmentation

Racial Determination

 1. Caucasoid (European)
 Hairs of this origin have a fine to medium coarseness. These are generally straight
or wavy in appearance, and possess colors ranging from blonde to brown black.
The hair shafts of Caucasian hairs vary from round to oval and have fine to
medium-sized pigment granules that are evenly distributed.
  Mongoloid (Asian)
 Hairs of this origin are straight, regularly coarse and circular, with a wider
diameter than the other racial groups. The cuticle is usually significantly thicker
than that of the Negroid and Caucasian hairs, and the medulla is continuous and
wide. 
 3 Negroid (African)
 Hairs of this origin are curly or kinky, have a flattened cross section, and can
appear wavy, curly, or coiled. Negroid pigment granules are larger than those
found in Mongoloid and Caucasian hairs and are grouped in clumps with varying
sizes and shapes
Laboratory Analysis of Hair

Purposes of Examination
 The examination of hair is conducted for the following purposes:
 1. to determine whether the hair in question originated from an animal or human
being and the comparison of questioned and known hairs, and 
 2. to ascertain whether two or more individuals could have come into contact or
whether one or more individuals could have come into contact with an object.
  ARSON CASES
 Fire Triangle
 The triangle of fire includes three components.
 1 Heat - Can be due to sparks, flames, chemical reactions. friction, or
compression The heat must be sufficient in relation to the fuel.
 2. Fuel-liquid, solid or gas. These are mostly compounds of carbon and hydrogen.
  3. Oxygen supports combustion, the earth's atmosphere is 21% oxygen of which
air is the primary source In addition, oxygen is found in abundance in compounds
that include nitrates, chlorates, peroxides, etc
 For fire investigators, the following procedures must be observed in the crime of
arson
 1. Locating the origin of the fire, 
 2. Isolating and protecting the origin of the fire for further investigation;
 3. Looking for signs of tampering and possible accelerants, and
  4. Using trained dogs to sniff out traces of burnt hydrocarbons
 that may be present.
 It is a poisonous gas which smell like a rotten egg?
 a. H2S
 b. CO
 c. CO2
 d. H20

a
 What is known as the reproduction of an impression made on soft surface by
utilizing casting materials 
 a. dry fussion
 b.casting material
 c. Moulage 
 d. camoflage

c
 What kind of solution is used in the restoration of serial numbers 
 a. saturated solution
 b. etching solution
 c. Collodial magnesium
 d. Borax solution 

b
 What is the last stage of in the toxicological examination 
 a. qualification
 b. quantification
 c. Multiplication
 d. division

c
 It is the chemical substance found in all cells whose composition have been
passed on from parents to their children
 A, RNA 
 B. DNA
 C. genotype
 d. phenotype

b
 It is the white colorless crystalline powder with a bitter numbing taste 
 a. chlorine
 b. tawas
 c. shabu
 d. cocaine 

c
 Type of drug that relieves pain and often induce sleep
 a. narcotics
 b. stimulant
 c. depressant
 d. hallucinogen 

a
 A preliminary test for blood in a solution of 1 to 300,000 dilution is
 a. Benzidine 
 b. phenolpthalein
 c. guiacum
 d. Leucomalachine green 

A
 The center core of a stand of the hair , which form the bulk of the fiber
 a. cuticle
 b. medulla
 c. Cortex
 d. shalf

b
 He published the first textbook in legal medicine 
 a. rafael genard y mas
 b. gregorio lantin
 c. Sixto delos angeles
 d. Teodulo natividad

a
 Average time for the stomach to empty its stomach 
 a. 2-3 hours
 b. 3-4 hours
 c. 4-5 hours
 d. 5-6 hours 

b
 Adult has only ____bones
 a. 200
 b. 207
 c. 206
 d. 270

c
 One of the characteristics of the gunshot wounds exits
 a. that the edge is everted 
 b. presence of gun powder nitrates
 c. The  edge is inverted 
 d. smaller opening

A
 DNA is found in all nucleats cell of the body , it is regarded as the fingerprints of
life . What does it stands for
 a. deonatural acide
 b. deoxyribonucleic acid
 c. dynamic natural anti-body
 d. deoxyribonucleic acid 

B
 Their presence in the cadaver would indicate that death has occurred more than 24
hours hence are useful to approximate the time of death 
 a. worms
 b. flies
 c. Bees
 d. butterflies

B
The greater the number of similarities and dissimilarities the greater is the probability
for the conclusion to be correct.
a.  law of multiplicity of evidence
b. odd-even rule
c. inclusion – exclusion
d. none 

A
 What is the test used in determining whether the blood is human origin or not
 a. acid hematin 
 b. albumin test
 c. Precipitin test
 d. Alkaline test

C
 Although you are an expert witness, the court is
 a. Answerable to the public 
 b. Welcoming other witness
 c. not bound to believe your testimony
 d. duty to bound to believe in you 

C
 Three types of poison 
 a. organic , inorganic , biological
 b. Hypnotic, sedatives  laxative
 c. emetics ,biological , inorganic
 d. organic sedative biological

A
 Antidote for arsenic poisoning
 a. thiamine
 b. Pyridoxine 
 c. Succimer
 d. Fabahistine 

C
 A violent volatile poison producing an almond odor in vomits of the victim
 a. plasma 
 b. cyanide
 c. sulfur
 d. Lead 

B
   " DON’T GIVE UP.
YOURE STILL GOT A
COUPLE OF MOTHER
FUCKERS TO PROVE
WRONG"