SKELETAL SYSTEM

FUNCTIONS CLASSIFICATIONS OF THE BONE

1. Support - The skeleton serves as the LONG BONES
structural framework for the body by  Typically
supporting soft tissues and providing longer than
attachment points for the tendons of they are wide
most skeletal muscles.  Shaft with
2. Protection -. The skeleton protects heads situated
the most important internal organs at both ends
from injury.  Contain mostly
3. Movement - Most skeletal muscles compact bone
attach to bones; when they contract,  Long bones,
they pull on bones to produce especially the
movement. femur and tibia,
4. Storage - Bones store minerals, such are subjected
as calcium and phosphorus, for use by to most of the
the body load during
5. Triglyceride storage – Yellow bone daily activities
marrow consists mainly of adipose and they are crucial for skeletal
cells, which store triglycerides. The mobility.
stored triglycerides are a potential SHORT BONES
chemical energy reserve.  Generally
6. Blood cell production - A connective cube-shaped
tissue called red bone marrow or they are as
produces red blood cells, white blood wide as they
cells, and platelets, a process called are long
hematopoiesis.  Contain
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX mostly spongy
 Collagen – tough ropelike protein bone
 Proteoglycans – large molecules  Includes
consisting of polysaccharides bones of the
attached to core proteins wrist and
 Tendons & Ligaments – large ankle
amounts of collagen fiber Cartilage –  Sesamoid bones are a type of short
contains collagen & proteoglycans bone which form within tendons
 Bone – made up of collagen and (patella)
minerals (Calcium & Phosphate)  Primary function is to provide support
 Hydroxyapatite – calcium phosphate and stability with little to no
crystals movement.
FLAT BONES
 Thin, flattened, and usually
curved or are expanded into
broad.
  Two thin growing bone; causes lengthwise
layers of growth of a long bone.
compact bone  Medullary Cavity – large cavity in
surround a layer the diaphysis; contains the marrow
of spongy bone  Marrow – soft tissue within the
 principal cavity.
function is either  Yellow Marrow – consists of adipose
extensive tissue (fat)
protection or the 
provision of  Red Marrow – consists of bone
broad surfaces for muscular forming cells; site of blood formation
attachment.
IRREGULAR BONES
Irregular shape
 Do not fit
into other bone
classification
categories

SESAMOID BONES
 shaped like a sesame seed
 develop in certain tendons or
a small nodular bone most
often present embedded in
tendons where there is
considerable friction, tension,
and physical stress, such as
the palms and soles.
STRUCTURE OF A LONG BONE
 Diaphysis(shaft) – makes up most of
bone’s length, composed of compact
bone.
 Epiphysis(ends) – composed mostly
of spongy bone enclosed by thin layer
of compact bone.
 Articular cartilage – covers the end
of epiphysis.
 Periosteum – outside covering of the
diaphysis; Perforating (Sharpey’s)
fibers secure periosteum to
underlying bone
 Endosteum – inner surface of
diaphysis
 Epiphyseal line – bone growth stops;
seen in adult bones
 Epiphysial plate – flat plate of
hyaline cartilage seen in young,
 STRUCTURE OF BONE radiate from the central canal to
BONE MARKINGS lacunae
 Sites of attachments for muscles,  form a transport system connecting
tendons, and ligaments all bone cells to a nutrient supply.
 Passages for nerves and blood vessels LAMELLAE
Categories of bone markings  Concentric circles of lacunae situated
 Projections or processes—grow out from around the central (haversian) canal
the bone surface PERFORATING (VOLKMANN’S) CANAL
 Terms often begin with ―”T”  Canal perpendicular to the central
 Depressions or cavities—indentations canal
 Terms often begin with ―”F”  Carries blood vessels and nerves

HISTOLOGY OF BONE

TYPES OF BONE TISSUES

A. COMPACT BONE
 Forms most of the diaphysis of long
bones
 Central Canal / Haversian Canal –
OSTEOBLASTS concentric rings that contains blood
 bone-forming cells vessels; ‘bull’s eye’; opening the
 repair and remodeling of bone center of an osteon.
OSTEOCYTES  Osteon / Haversian System – central
 Mature bone cells situated in bone canal + lamellae + osteocytes. A unit
matrix of bone containing central canal and
 bone cells located between the matrix rings.
lamellae (thins sheets of EM) B. SPONGY BONE
LACUNAE  Located mainly in the epiphyses of
 spaces within the lamellae long bones
 cavities in bone matrix that house  Forms the interior of all other bones
osteocytes  Consists of trabeculae
CANALICULI (interconnecting rods, plates of bone)
 tiny canals within the lamellae without central canals
 Secondary ossification center – form in the
epiphyses

HOW DO BONES DEVELOP?

 As an infant, most of your skeleton is
cartilage.
 Cartilage is a strong flexible tissue. Bone Growth
 Over time the cartilage is replaced by  Deposition of new bone lamellae
solid bone, usually complete by the onto existing bone
time you stop growing.  Bone elongation occurs at the
 Not all cartilage is replaced in adults. epiphyseal plate; leads to increase in
Many joints contain cartilage, height (endochondral ossification)
protecting the ends of bones (ears and  Chondrocytes proliferate, enlarge,
the end of the nose is also cartilage). die, and are replaced by bone
BONE FORMATION Bone growth is controlled by hormones, such
Ossification - The process of bone formation as growth hormone and sex hormones
by osteoblasts Appositional growth – increase in bone
Types of Ossification width or diameter; bone grows in width
a. Intramembranous ossification(flat bone) Interstitial growth – bones expand.
– osteoblasts begin to produce bone in
connective tissue ; making of bone between
connective tissue membranes.
 Ossification centers –where
intramembranous ossification begins
b.Endochondral ossification – bone
formation occurs inside the cartilage; bones
at the base of the skull and remaining
skeletal system are formed; process of
making within
cartilage.
 Chondrocytes – cartilage cells;
increase in no., enlarge, and die

BONE REMODELING
Primary ossification center – where bone  Removal of existing bone by
first begins to appear (diaphysis) osteoclasts
Osteoclasts – cells that remove calcified  Deposition of new bone by
cartilage matrix osteoblasts
  Responsible for change in bone
shape, bone adjustment, repair, and
calcium ion regulation
BONE REPAIR
 Clot is formed in the damaged area §
Blood vessels and cells invade the
clot and form a callus (network of
fibers and islets of cartilage)
 Osteoblasts enter the callus and from
a spongy bone
 Bone is slowly remodeled to
compact bone BONE AND CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS
BONE FRACTURES  Osteoclasts remove calcium = blood
Types of bone fractures calcium levels increases
 Closed (simple) fracture is a break  Osteoblasts deposit calcium = blood
that does not penetrate the skin calcium levels decrease
 Open (compound) fracture is a Hormones that maintain Calcium Homeostasis
broken bone that penetrates through 1. Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
the skin  Parathyroid gland;
Bone fractures are treated by reduction and  Increase bone breakdown & increase
immobilization blood calcium levels;
 Closed reduction: bones are  Stimulates the kidneys to from active
manually coaxed into position by vitamin D
physician’s hands 2. Calcitonin
 Open reduction: bones are secured  Thyroid gland
with pins or wires during surgery  Decrease bone breakdown and
Healing time is 6–8 weeks decrease blood calcium levels
Repair of bone fractures involves four major
events
 Hematoma (blood-filled swelling, or
bruise) is formed
 Fibrocartilage callus forms
 Cartilage matrix, bony matrix,
collagen fibers splint the broken
bone
 Bony callus replaces the
fibrocartilage callus
 Osteoblasts and osteoclasts migrate
in
 Bone remodeling occurs in response GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS OF
to mechanical stresses BONE ANATOMY
 Foramen – hole in a bone
 Canal / Meatus – elongated hole in a
tunnel like body; canal-like
passageway
 Fossa – depression in a bone
 Tubercle / Tuberosity – lump on a
bone
 Process – projection from a bone
 Condyle – end of a bine that forms a
joint with another bone
 Facet – small flattened articular  middle ear
surface  Styloid process – a sharp,
 Crest – prominent ridge needlelike structure located
 Trochanter – tuberosity found only inferior to the EAM
on proximal femur  Zygomatic process – a bridge of
 Fissure – cleft bone that joins with the
 Sinus – cavity cheekbone anteriorly
 Suture – a joint uniting the bones of  Mastoid Process – a rough
the skull projection posterior and inferior
AXIAL SKELETON to the EAM
 Composed of the skull, vertebral 6. Occipital Bone – inferior and posterior
column, and thoracic cage bone of the cranium; lambdoid suture
 Form the longitudinal axis of the  Foramen magnum – where the
body spinal cord joins the brain
 Occipital condyles –rests on the
first vertebra of the vertebral
column
 Foramen ovale – allows the fiber
of cranial nerve 5 to pass
7. Sphenoid Bone – butterfly-shaped
bone that spans the width of the skull
 Sella Turtica – saddle-shaped
structure at the central region;
contains the pituitary gland
8. Ethmoid Bone – irregularly shaped
bone that lies anterior to the sphenoid
bone

Skull
Braincase
 8 bones
 Covers and protects the fragile
brain tissue
1. Frontal Bone – forehead, bony
projections under the eyebrow, part of the
eye’s orbit Facial bones
2 - 3. Parietal Bone (paired) – the  14 bones; 13 solidly connected, 1
superior and lateral walls of the cranium; movable (mandible)
coronal suture  Holds the facial muscles in place
4 - 5. Temporal Bone (paired) – lies
 Joined together by sutures
inferior to the parietal bone; squamous
(interlocking, immovable)
suture
1-2. Maxillae – main bones of the face;
 External Auditory Meatus (EAM)
carries the upper teeth
–a
3-4. Palatine Bones – lies posterior to the
 canal that leads to the eardrum palatine processes of the maxilla
and the 5-6. Zygomatic Bones – cheekbones
7-8. Lacrimal Bones – bones forming VERTEBRAL COLUMN
part of the medial wall of each orbit  Central axis of the
9-10. Nasal Bones – bones forming the skeleton
bridge of the bone  26 individual bones;
11-12. Inferior Nasal Conchae – thin  7 cervical vertebrae
curved bones projecting from the lateral  12 thoracic vertebrae
wall of the nasal cavity  5 lumbar vertebrae
13. Vomer Bone – single bone in the  1 sacral bone
 1 coccyx bone
median of the nasal cavity
14. Mandible – lower jaw; only freely Functions
movable joint of the face 1. Supports the
weight of the head
and the trunk.
2. Protects the spinal
cord.
3. Allows the spinal
nerves to exit the spinal cord.
4. Site for muscle attachment.
5. Permits movement of the head and
trunk.
Kyphosis – posterior curvature;
Hunchback
Lordosis – anterior curvature; swayback
FETAL SKULL condition
Fontanels - are fibrous membranes Scoliosis – lateral curvature
connecting the cranial bones General Plan of the Vertebral Column
 Known as ―soft spots‖ Body – weight-bearing portion
 Allow skull compression during  Intervertebral disks body - separates
birth the vertebral bodies
 Allow the brain to grow during  Vertebral arch – surrounds the
later pregnancy and infancy vertebral foramen
 Usually ossify by 2 years of age o 2 Pedicles – extends from the body to
the transverse process
o 2 Laminae – extends from the
transverse to the spinous process
o Provides attachment sites for the
muscles
o that move the vertebral column;
 Transverse process – extends
laterally bet. the lamina and
pedicle
 Spinous process – projects
dorsally where the two laminae
HYOID BONE meet
U-shaped bone; provides attachment to
tongue muscles; elevates the larynx
during speech and swallowing.
 SUFERIOR PROCESS
AND ANFERIORANTICULAR  Alae - articulate laterally with the
hipbones, forming the sacroiliac joint
 Median Sacral Crest - fused spinous
processes of the sacral vertebrae, flanked
laterally by the posterior sacral
foramina
 Sacral Canal - vertebral canal oSacral
hiatus: large inferior opening where
sacral canal terminates
COCCYX (4)
 Formed by the fusion of 3-5 tiny,
irregular vertebrae


Human tailbone

paired projections lateral to the vertebral foramen,

allows vertebra to form joints with adjacent vertebra
CERVICAL VERTEBRAE (C1-C7)
Form the neck region of the spine
ATLAS
 1st vertebra, has no body, transverse
processes contain large depressions that
receive occipital condyles of the skull,
allows you to nod
AXIS
 2nd vertebra, acts as a pivot for rotation of
atlas and skull, allows you to rotate from
side to side
DENS
 Acts as the pivot point
 Typical cervical vertebrae are C3-C7 o
They are the smallest, lightest vertebra,
and spinous processes are short and
divided into 2 branches
 The transverse processes of the cervical
vertebrae contain foramina through which 
the vertebral arteries pass on their way to the
brain
THORACIC VERTEBRAE (T1-T12)
 Larger than cervical vertebrae
 Only vertebrae to articulate with the ribs
o body is somewhat heart shaped ohas THORACIC CAGE
two costal facets on each side which Sternum
receive the heads of ribs  Typical flat bone
 transverse processes - articulate with  consists of 3 bones
nearby knoblike tubercles of the ribs  Manubrium
 spinous process - is long and hooks  Body
sharply downward  Xiphoid Process
LUMBAR VERTEBRAE (L1-L5) Jugular Notch - concave upper border of the
 Have massive block like bodies manubrium
 Spinous processes are short Sternal Angle - where the manubrium and body
 Most of the stress of the vertebral column meet at a slight angle to each other so that
occurs in the lumbar region transverse ridge is formed at the level of the
 Sturdiest of the vertebrae second ribs, reference point for counting ribs
SACRUM (5) Xiphisternal joint - where sternal body and
Formed by the fusion of 5 vertebrae xiphoid process fuse
Ribs
  Articulates with the vertebral column  Glenoid activity is shallow, and the
posteriorly and then curves downwards shoulder joint is poorly reinforced by
and toward the anterior body surface ligaments
 True Ribs: first 7 pairs
 Attached by costal cartilage oFalse Ribs:
next 5 pairs
 Not attached to the sternum directly
 Last 2 pairs lack sternal attachment also
called: Floating Ribs

UPPER LIMBS
Arm
 Humerus: Long bone that forms the arm
o Anatomical neck: Immediately inferior
to the head, a slight constriction
 Intertubercular sulcus: Separates
greater & lesser tubules
APPENDICULAR SKELETON  Greater & lesser tubercles: Sites of
Clavicle muscle attachment
 Collarbone  Surgical neck: Distal to the tubercles
 Slender, doubly curved bone  Deltoid tuberosity: Where the large
 Attaches to the manubrium of the sternum fleshy deltoid muscle of the shoulder
medially where it helps to form the attaches
shoulder joint  Radial groove: marks the course of the
 Acts as a brace to hold the arm away from radial nerve
the top of thorax and prevent shoulder  Trochlea: distal end of the humerus
dislocation  Capitulum: lateral ball-like, articulates
 if broken, whole shoulder caves medially with bones of the forearm
Scapulae  Coronoid fossa: depression, anterior to
 Shoulder blades trochlea
 Loosely held by trunk muscles  Olecranon fossa: depression, posterior to
 Acromion - enlarged end of the spine of trochles
the scapula  Medial and lateral epicondyles: allows
 Coracoid process - points over top of the corresponding processes of the ulna
shoulder and anchors some muscles of the to move freely when the elbow is bent
arm and extended
 Acromioclavicular joint - where Forearm
acromion connects with the clavicle  Radius: lateral bone, thumb side of the
laterally. forearm
 Suprascapular notch - serves as a nerve  Radioulnar joints: where radius and
pathway, medial to the coracoid process ulna articulate
 Glenoid activity - shallow, and the  Interosseous membrane: radius & ulna
shoulder joint is poorly reinforced by are connected along their entire length
ligaments  Radial tuberosity: where tendon of
 3 borders & angles - superior, medial, biceps attached
lateral o Each shoulder girdle attaches to  Ulna: medial bone of the forearm
axial skeleton at the sternoclavicular joint  Coronoid process & Olecranon: grip
 Loose attachment of the scapula allows it the trochlea of the humerus in a pliers-
to slide back and forth against thorax like joint
 Trochlear notch - separates coronoid
 process & olecranon.  Sacroiliac joint: where coxal bones
connect posteriorly with the sacrum
 Alae: when you put hands on “hips”
 Iliac crest: upper edge of an ala,
important landmark for intramuscular
injections
 Anterior superior iliac spine: iliac crest
ends anteriorly
 Posterior superior iliac spine: iliac
crest ends posteriorly
Pubis
 Obturator foramen: opening that
allows blood vessels and nerves to pass
into the anterior part of the thigh
 Pubic symphysis: cartilaginous joint
formed by the anterior fusion of each hip
bone
Acetabulum
 where the ilium, ischium, and pubis fuse,
receives the head of the thigh bone
Hand
 Carpal bones - arranged in 2 irregular
rows of four bones each, forms the carpus
 Carpus - the wrist
 Metacarpals - numbers 1-5, heads are
called knuckles
 Phalanges - finger bones, 33332

False Pelvis
 superior to true pelvis, area medial to the
flaring portions of the ilia
True Pelvis
 surrounded by the bone and lies anterior
PELVIC GIRDLE
to the flaring parts of the ilia, important
Pelvic Girdle
since they must be large enough to allow
 Pelvic Girdle - 2 coxal bones/ossa coxae baby’s head to pass during birth
and sacrum Outlet
 Bony Pelvis - pelvic girdle + coccyx  inferior opening of the pelvis measured
 Attached to the axial skeleton through the between the ischial spines
sacral attachment to the most lumbar Inlet
vertebrae  Superior opening between the right and
 Bearing weight is the most important the left sides of the pelvic brim,
function of the girdle measured by obstetrician.
 Total weight of the upper body rests on LOWER LIMBS
the pelvis Thigh
 Each coxal bone is formed by 3 bones  Only bone in the thigh
 Heaviest, strongest bone in the body
Ilium  Sites for muscle attachments
 bone that forms most of the hip bone  Greater & lesser trochanters
  Interochanteric line: separates anteriorly
the greater and lesser trochanters
 Interochanteric crest: separates
posteriorly
 Gluteal tuberosity
 Head of the femur articulates with the
acetabulum of the hip bone in a deep,
secure socket
 Femur slants medially as it runs
downwards to join the leg bones, brings
the knees in line with the body’s center of
gravity
 Anterior border: sharp ridge on anterior
 Lateral & medial condyles: articulate
surface, unprotected by muscles
the tibia below
 Fibula: lies alongside tibia and forms
 Intercondylar fossa: separates the
joints with it both proximally and distally
condyles
 Lateral malleolus: forms outer part of the
 Patellar surface: anterior on the distal ankle
femur, forms a joint with the patella. Foot
 Supports our body weight and serves as a
lever that allows us to project our bodies
forward when we walk and run
 Tarsus: forms posterior half of the foot
 Tarsal bones:
 Calcaneus: heel bone
 Talus: lies between tibia and calcaneus
 Metatarsals: 5, form the sole
 Phalanges: 14, form the toes, 33332

Leg
 Interosseous membrane: connects the
tibia and fibula
 Tibia: larger & more medial oMedial &
lateral condyles: proximal end
 Intercondylar eminence: separates
condyles
 Patella: sesamoid bone attached to tibial
tuberosity
 Tibial tuberosity: roughened area on the
anterior tibial surface
 Medial malleolus: forms the inner bulge

of the ankle
 ARTICULATIONS surfaces oriented at right angles; joint bet. the
Where 2 bones come together(joints) metacarpal bone and the carpal bone of the
 Synarthroses: thumb
o nonmovable joint 3. Hinge Joints – permit movement in one
o Ex. skull plane only; elbow and knee joints
 Amphiarthroses:  Menisci – shock-absorbing fibrocartilage
o slightly movable joint pads
o Ex. Between vertebrae 4. Pivot Joints – restrict movement to rotation
 Diarthroses: around a single axis; rotation that occurs bet. the
o freely movable joint axis and atlas; articulation bet. the ulna and
o Ex. knee, elbow, wrist radius
Fibrous joints 5. Ball and socket Joints – consist of a ball
 2 bones that are united by fibrous tissue (head) and a socket; shoulder and hip joints
 Exhibit little or no movement 6. Ellipsoid/Condyloid Joints – elongated ball
1. Sutures – bet. the bones of the skull; and socket joints; joint bet. the occipital
squamous, lambdoid, coronal condyles (skull) and the atlas (vertebral column);
2. Fontanels – sutures that are quite wide in joints bet. the metacarpals and phalanges
a newborn
3. Syndesmoses – bones are separated by
some distance and held together by
ligaments; FB connecting the radius and
ulna
4. Gomphoses – consists of pegs fitted into
sockets and held in place by ligaments;
joint bet. a tooth and its socket
Cartilaginous Joints
 Unites two bones by means of cartilage
 Slight movement can occur
 Epiphyseal plates of growing long bones
Cartilage bet. the ribs and the sternum
 Fibrocartilage forms joints such as the
intervertebral disks
Synovial Joints
 Freely movable joints
 Contains fluid in a cavity surrounding the
ends of articulating bones
Articulating cartilage – thin layer that covers
the articular surfaces of bones w/in the synovial
joints Joint cavity – filled with fluid
Joint capsule – encloses the cavity that helps
hold the bones together and allows for movement
Synovial membrane – lines the joint cavity
everywhere
Synovial fluid – produced by the SM; covers the
surfaces of the joint
Bursa – a pocket or sac; located bet. Structures
that rub together
Bursitis – inflammation of the bursa; often results
to abrasion
Tendon Sheath – extension of SM along some
tendons
Types of Joint
1. Plane/Gliding Joints – two opposed flat
surfaces that glide over each other
Types of Movement
2. Saddle Joints – two saddle shaped articulating
1. Flexion – movement that takes place in a
frontal/coronal plane
 Plantar flexion – when standing on the
toes
 Dorsiflexion – movement of the foot
toward the shin (walking on heels)
2. Extension – movement that takes place in
a posterior direction
3. Lateral Flexion – movement of the trunk
in the coronal plane
4. Abduction – movement away from the
median plane
5. Adduction – movement toward the
median plane
6. Pronation – rotation of the forearm so
that the palm is down
7. Supination – rotation of the forearm so
that the palm faces up
8. Eversion – opposite movement of the
foot so that the sole faces in a lateral
direction
9. Inversion – movement of the foot so that
the sole faces medially
10. Rotation – movement of a part of the
body around its long axis
11. Circumduction – combination in
sequence of the flexion, extension,
abduction, adduction
12. Protraction – to move forward
13. Retraction – to move backward
14. Hyperextension – abnormal, forced
extension of a joint beyond its normal
range of motion.

ADDITIONAL RESORSES