FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM  Extracellular matrix of bone contains

collagen (flexibility) and minerals

1. SUPPORT
(strength), including Calcium and
 Rigid, strong bone bears weight Phosphate
 Cartilage provides firm yet flexible  Most of the mineral in bone is in the
support within certain structures form of Calcium phosphate crystals
 Ligaments attach to bones and hold called hydroxyapatite
them together
4 CATEGORIES OF BONES BASED ON SHAPE
2. PROTECTION
Bone Description
 Bone is hard and protects the organs it 1. Long bones - Longer than are wide
surrounds Ex. Bones of the upper and lower limbs
3. MOVEMENT 2. Short bones - Wide as are long
 Contraction of the skeletal muscles Ex. Bones of the wrist and ankle
moves the bones 3. Flat bones - Relatively thin flattened shape
 Joints and ligaments allow movement Ex. Skull bones, ribs, scapulae and sternum
between bones
4. Irregular bones - Have shapes that do not fit
4. STORAGE readily into the other three categories Ex.
 Some minerals in the blood, principally Vertebrae and facial bones
calcium and phosphorus, are stored in Structure of a Long Bone
bone
 Adipose tissue is also stored within  A long bone consists of: (1) Diaphysis –
bone cavities central shaft, (2) Epiphysis – 2 ends
 Growing long bone has an epiphyseal
5. BLOOD CELL PRODUCTION plate (cartilage), or growth plate,
 Many bones contain cavities filled with between each epiphysis and the
red bone marrow, which produces diaphysis
blood cells and platelets  epiphyseal line (bone) when bone
growth stops
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX  Bones contain cavities which are filled
 Matrix always contains collagen, ground with soft tissue called marrow
substance, and other organic molecules,  Yellow marrow consists mostly of
as well as water and minerals adipose tissue
 Collagen is a tough, rope–like protein;  Red marrow consists of blood forming
Proteoglycans are large molecules cells and is the only site of blood
consisting of polysaccharides attached formation in adults
to core proteins  Periosteum is a dense connective tissue
 Collagen makes cartilage tough, which covers the most outer surface of
whereas the water filled proteoglycans the bone
make it smooth and resilient (cartilage
is an excellent shock absorber)

KIERULF, V. H.
  Endosteum is a thin connective tissue  Nutrients leave the blood vessels of the
membrane which lines the surface of central canals and diffuse to the
the medullary cavity osteocytes through the canaliculi
 Waste products diffuse in the opposite
Histology of Bone
direction
 The periosteum and endosteum
SPONGY BONE
contains osteoblasts (bone forming
cells), which function in the formation  Located mainly in the epiphyses of long
of bone, as well as in the repair and bones
remodeling of bone  Forms the interior of all other bones
 If the osteoblast becomes surrounded  Consists of delicate interconnecting
by matrix, they are referred to as rods or plates of bones called
osteocytes (bone cells) trabeculae – add strength to a bone
 Osteoclasts (bone eating cells) are also without the added weight that would
present and contribute to bone repair be present if the bone were solid
and remodeling by removing existing mineralized matrix
bone  Nutrients exit vessels in the marrow
 Lamellae - thin sheets of extracellular and pass by diffusion through canaliculi
matrix where bone formation occurs to the osteocytes of the trabeculae
 Lacunae - spaces within the lamellae
Bone Ossification
 Cell processes extend from the
osteocytes across the extracellular  Ossification is the formation of bone by
matrix of the lamellae within tiny canals osteoblasts
called canaliculi  After an osteoblast becomes completely
Bone tissue found throughout the skeleton is surrounded by bone matrix, it becomes
divided into two major types, based on a mature bone cell, or osteocyte
histological structure: Types of bone ossification:
1.Compact bone, mostly solid matrix and cells 1. Intramembranous ossification
2.Spongy bone or cancellous bone, consists of a  Bone formation that occurs within
lacy network of bone with many small, marrow connective tissue membranes
filled spaces
 Occurs primarily in the bones of the
COMPACT BONE skull

 Forms most of the diaphysis of a long 2. Endochondral ossification

bone and the thinner surfaces of all  Bone formation inside cartilages
other bones
 Has a predictable pattern of repeating BONE GROWTH
units called osteons
 Deposition of new bone lamellae onto
 Each osteon consists of concentric rings
existing bone or other connective
of lamellae surrounding a central canal
tissue, bone increases in width or
called a Haversian canal
diameter - appositional growth

KIERULF, V. H.
BONE REMODELING  Calcium moves into bone as osteoblasts
build new bone and out of bone as
 Removal of existing bone by osteoclasts osteoclasts break down bone
and the deposition of new bone by
 When osteoblast and osteoclast activity
osteoblasts (occurs in all bones)
is balanced, the movements of calcium
 Because bone is the major storage site into and out of a bone are equal
for calcium in the body, bone
remodeling is important to maintain Calcium homeostasis is maintained by three
blood calcium levels within normal hormones:
limits
1.Parathyroid hormone – from the parathyroid
BONE REPAIR hormone

FRACTURES 2.Vitamin D – from the skin and diet

 Open (Compound) bone protrudes 3.Calcitonin – from the thyroid gland

through the skin  PTH and vitamin D are secreted when
 Closed (Simple) skin is not perforated blood calcium levels are too low
 Complete fracture totally separates the  Calcitonin is secreted when blood
two bone fragments calcium levels are too high
 Incomplete fracture is not totally
separated PTH works through three simultaneous
mechanisms to increase blood calcium levels:
Greenstick incomplete fracture that occurs
on the convex side of the curve of a bone 1.PTH indirectly stimulates osteoclasts to break
down bone, which releases stored calcium into
 Comminuted bone breaks into 2 the blood
fragments
2.PTH stimulates the kidney to take up calcium
Impacted one of the fragments of one part from the urine and return it to the blood
of the bone is driven into the spongy bone
of another fragment 3.PTH stimulates the formation of active
vitamin D, which, in turn, promotes increased
 Linear fracture is parallel to the long calcium absorption from the small intestine
axis
 Transverse fracture is at right angles to  In summary, PTH, vitamin D, and
the long axis calcitonin work together to keep blood
 Oblique (Spiral) fracture at angle other calcium levels within the homeostatic
than a right angle to the long axis range

BONE AND CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS OF BONE

ANATOMY
 Bone is the major site for calcium in the
body  There are a total of 206 bones in the
 Movement of calcium into and out of average adult human skeleton
bone helps determine blood calcium  Although the actual number varies from
levels - critical for normal muscle and person to person and decreases with
nervous tissue function age as some bones fuse

KIERULF, V. H.
  Anatomists use several common terms  Thirteen of the facial bones are rather
to describe features of bones solidly connected to form the bulk of
the face, except the mandible that
Anatomical Terms for Features of Bones forms a freely movable joint with the
Term Description rest of the skull
 There are also 3 auditory ossicles in
Major Features each middle ear
Body, shaft - Main portion LATERAL VIEW
Head - Enlarged (often rounded) end
 Parietal bones and temporal bones
Neck - Constricted area between head from a large portion of the side of the
and body head – joined together by the
squamous suture
Condyle - Smooth, rounded articular surface  Suture is a joint uniting bones
Facet - Small, flattened articular surface  Anteriorly, the parietal bone is joined to
the frontal bone by the coronal suture
Crest - Prominent ridge and posteriorly it is joined to the
Process - Prominent projection occipital bone by the lambdoid suture
 External auditory meatus is a large
Tubercle, or tuberosity - Knob or enlargement opening in the temporal bone
Trochanter - Large tuberosity (proximal femur  The mastoid process of the temporal
only) bone can be seen and felt as a
prominent lump just posterior to the
Epicondyle - Enlargement near or above a ear
condyle  Sphenoid bone (a single bone that
Openings or Depressions extends completely across the skull and
resembles a butterfly) can be seen
Foramen - Hole immediately anterior to the temporal
bone
Canal, meatus - Tunnel
 Anterior to the sphenoid bone is the
Fissure - Cleft zygomatic bone (cheekbone)
 Zygomatic arch, consists of joined
Sinus - Cavity
processes of the temporal and
Fossa - Depression zygomatic bones
 Maxilla forms the upper jaw and
AXIAL SKELETON (SKULL) contains the superior set of teeth
22 bones forming the:  Mandible forms the lower jaw and
contains the inferior set of teeth
1.Braincase – consists of 8 bones that surround
and protect the brain FRONTAL VIEW
2.Bones of the face – 14 facial bones forming  Major structures seen from the frontal
the facial structure view are the frontal bone, the

KIERULF, V. H.
 zygomatic bones, the maxillae, and the  Sinuses are named for the bones where
mandible they are located: frontal, maxillary,
 The teeth are very prominent ethmoidal, and sphenoidal
 The orbits (cone-shaped fossae) and the  Mastoid air cells, additional sinuses in
nasal cavity are the most prominent the skull, located inside the mastoid
openings processes of the temporal bone
 Each orbit has several openings through
INTERIOR OF THE CRANIAL CAVITY
which structures communicate with
other cavities  Cranial cavity is viewed from above, it
 Superior and inferior orbital fissures – can be divided roughly into three
provide openings through which nerves cranial fossae: (1) anterior, (2) middle,
and blood vessels communicate with and (3) posterior
the orbit or pass to the face  Bones forming the floor of the cranial
 The optic nerve, for the sense of vision, cavity (anterior to posterior): frontal,
passes from the eye through the optic ethmoid, sphenoid, temporal, and
foramen and enters the cranial cavity occipital
 The nasolacrimal canal passes from the  Several foramina can be seen in the
orbit into the nasal cavity – contains a floor of the middle fossa – allows
duct that carries tears from the eyes to nerves and blood vessels to pass
the nasal cavity through the skull
 The nasal cavity is divided into right  Foramen rotundum and foramen ovale
and left halves by a nasal septum – transmit important nerves to the face
 The bony part of the nasal septum  Foramen spinosum – a major artery to
consists primarily of the vomer the meninges passes here
(inferiorly) and the perpendicular plate  The internal carotid artery passes
of the ethmoid bone (superiorly) through the carotid canal
 The bridge of the nose is formed by the  Internal jugular vein passes through the
nasal bones jugular foramen
 Each of the lateral walls of the nasal  Foramen magnum – through which the
cavity has three bony shelves, called spinal cord joins the brain is located in
the nasal conchae the posterior fossa
 The nasal conchae increase the surface  Central region of the sphenoid bone is
area in the nasal cavity – facilitates modified into a structure resembling a
moistening and warming of the air saddle, the sella turcica
inhaled through the nose  The sella turcica contains the pituitary
 Bones associated with the nasal cavity gland
have large cavities within them, called
paranasal sinuses, which open into the BASE OF SKULL VIEWED FROM BELOW
nasal cavity
 Many of the same foramina that are
 The sinuses decrease the weight of the
visible in the interior of the skull can
skull and act as resonating chambers
also be seen in the base of the skull
during voice production
 Occipital condyles, the smooth point of
articulation between the skull and

KIERULF, V. H.
 vertebral column, are located beside 1. 7 cervical vertebrae (C1 – C7)
the foramen magnum
2. 12 thoracic vertebrae (T1 – T12)
 Two long, styloid processes project
from the inferior surface of the 3. 5 lumbar vertebrae (L1 – L5)
temporal bone – muscles involved in
4. 1 sacral bone
moving the tongue, the hyoid bone, and
the pharynx originate from this process 5. 1 coccyx bone
 Mandibular fossa – mandible originates
with the temporal bone, is anterior to The sacral and coccyx bones fuse from 5 and 3-4
the mastoid process individual bones, respectively
 Hard palate forms the floor of the nasal The adult vertebral column has four major
cavity and the roof of the mouth curvatures:
 The anterior 2/3 of the hard palate is
formed by the maxillae, the posterior 1. Cervical region – curves anteriorly
1/3 by the palatine bones 2. Thoracic region – curves posteriorly
 The connective tissue and muscles that
make up the soft palate extend 3. Lumbar region – curves anteriorly
posteriorly from the hard, or bony 4. Sacral and coccygeal regions – curve
palate posteriorly
 The hard and soft palates separate the
nasal cavity and nasopharynx from the  Abnormal vertebral curvatures are not
mouth enabling us to chew and breathe uncommon
at the same time  Kyphosis, is an abnormal posterior
curvature of the spine, mostly in the
HYOID BONE upper thoracic region, resulting in
 An unpaired, U-shaped bone hunchback condition
 It is not part of the skull and has no  Lordosis, is an abnormal anterior
direct bony attachment curvature of the spine, mainly in the
 Muscles and ligaments attach it to the lumbar region, resulting in a swayback
skull condition
 Provides attachment for some tongue  Scoliosis, is an abnormal lateral
muscles curvature of the spine
 It is an attachment point for important The vertebral column performs the following
neck muscles that elevate the larynx five major functions:
(voice box) during speech or swallowing
1. Supports the weight of the head and
AXIAL SKELETON (VERTEBRAL COLUMN) trunk

 Vertebral column or backbone, is the 2. Protects the spinal cord

central axis of the skeleton, extending
3. Allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal
from the base of the skull to slightly
cord
past the end of the pelvis
 In adults, consists of 26 individual 4. Provides a site for muscle attachment
bones, grouped into 5 regions:

KIERULF, V. H.
5. Permits movement of the head and 1. Atlas
trunk
 first cervical vertebra and holds up the
General Plan of the Vertebrae head
 movement between the atlas and the
 Each vertebra consists of a body, an
occipital bone is responsible for a “yes”
arch, and various processes
motion of the head; allows a slight
 Intervertebral disks, fibrocartilage that tilting of the head from side to side
separates the vertebral bodies
 The vertebral arch surrounds a large 2. Axis
opening called the vertebral foramen
 Second cervical vertebra; considerable
 The foramens form the vertebral canal
amount of rotation occurs
– spinal cord is located and protects the
e.g. shaking the head “no”
cord from injury
 Rotation occurs around a process called
 Each vertebral arch consists of two
the dens
pedicles and two laminae
 Thoracic vertebrae possess long, thin
 Transverse process, extends laterally
spinous processes that are directed
from each side of the arch, between the
inferiorly and have extra articular facets
pedicle and the lamina, and a single
on their lateral surfaces that articulate
spinous process projects dorsally from
with the ribs
where the two laminae meet
 Lumbar vertebrae have large, thick
 Spinous processes can be seen and felt
bodies and heavy, rectangular
as a series of lumps down the midline of
transverse and spinous processes –
the back
carry a large amount of weight –
 The processes provide attachment sites
ruptured intervertebral disks are
for muscles that move the vertebral
common
column
 The five sacral vertebrae are fused into
 Spinal nerves exit the spinal cord
a single bone called the sacrum
through the intervertebral foramina –
 Spinous processes of the first four sacral
formed by notches in the pedicles of
vertebrae form the median sacral crest
the adjacent vertebrae
 The spinous process of the fifth does
 Each vertebrae has a superior and an
not form, leaving a sacral hiatus at the
inferior articular process where the
inferior end of the sacrum – site of
vertebrae articulate with each other
“caudal” anesthetic injections given just
 The articular process has a smooth
before childbirth
“little facet” called an articular facet
 Anterior edge of the body of the first
Regional Differences in Vertebrae sacral vertebra bulges to form the sacral
promontory – a landmark that can be
Cervical vertebrae have very small bodies, felt during vaginal examination
except for the atlas, which has no body –  Coccyx or tailbone, consists of four
dislocations and fractures are more common more-or-less fused vertebrae
 the coccygeal vertebrae do not have
the typical structure of most other
vertebrae

KIERULF, V. H.
  Consist of extremely reduced vertebral  A slight elevation, called the sternal
bodies, without the foramina or angle, can be felt at the junction of the
processes, usually fused into a single manubrium and the body of the
bone sternum – important landmark in
 The coccyx is easily broken when a locating the second rib
person falls by sitting down hard on a  Xiphoid process is an important
solid surface or in women during landmark during CPR – very important
childbirth to place the hands over the body of the
sternum
AXIAL SKELETON (RIB CAGE)
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
 Protects the vital organs within the
thorax and prevents the collapse of the Consists of the bones of:
thorax during respiration
1. Upper limbs
 Consists of the thoracic vertebrae, the
ribs with their associated cartilages, and 2. Lower limbs
the sternum
3. Girdles – which attach the limbs to the axial
RIBS AND COSTAL CARTILAGES skeleton

 12 pairs of ribs can be divided into true PECTORAL GIRDLE

ribs and false ribs
 “shoulder girdle”
 True ribs (ribs 1 – 7), attach directly to
 Consists of 4 bones: 2 scapulae and 2
the sternum by means of costal
clavicles – attach the upper limb to the
cartilages
body
 False ribs (ribs 8 – 12), do not attach
 Scapula (shoulder blade) is a flat,
directly to the sternum
triangular bone with three large fossae
 Ribs 8 – 10 attach to the sternum by a
where muscles extending to the arms
common cartilage
are attached
 Ribs 11 and 12 do not attach at all to
 A fourth fossa, the glenoid cavity, is
the sternum and called floating ribs
where the head of the humerus
STERNUM connects to the scapula
 A ridge, called the spine, runs across
Divided into three parts, which resembles a the posterior surface of the scapula
sword:  A projection, called the acromion
1. Manubrium (handle) process, extends from the scapular
spine to form the point of the shoulder
2. Body (blade)  The clavicle (collarbone), articulates
3. Xiphoid process (tip) with the scapula at the acromion
process
 At the superior end of the sternum, a  The proximal end of the clavicle is
depression called the jugular notch is attached to the sternum, providing the
located between the ends of the only bony attachment of the scapula to
clavicles where they articulate with the the remainder of the skeleton
sternum

KIERULF, V. H.
  The clavicle is the first bone to begin  Epicondyles on the distal end of the
ossification in the fetus – may be humerus, just lateral to the condyles,
fractured during delivery and on provide attachment sites for forearm
children due to an impact of a fall on an muscles
outstretched hand
Forearm
 Collarbone is thicker in adults and is
less vulnerable to fracture – even  Has 2 bones: (1) ulna on the medial
though it is the first bone to begin (little finger) side of the forearm, (2)
ossification, it is the last to complete radius on the lateral (thumb side)
ossification  Proximal end of the ulna forms a
 Coracoid process curves below the trochlear notch – fits tightly over the
clavicle and provides for the end of the humerus – forming most of
attachment of arm and chest muscles the elbow joint
 Olecranon, ulnar extension proximal to
UPPER LIMB
the trochlear notch – felt as the point of
 Consists of the bones of the: (1) arm, (2) the elbow
forearm, (3) wrist, and (4) hand  Coronoid process, distal to the trochlear
notch – helps complete the “grip” of the
ARM
ulna on the distal end of the humerus
 Region between the shoulder and the  Distal end of the ulna forms a head,
elbow; it contains the humerus which articulates with the bones of the
 The proximal end of the humerus has a wrist, and a styloid process is located on
smooth, rounded head, which attaches its medial side
the humerus to the scapula at the  Ulnar head – prominent lump on the
glenoid cavity posterior ulnar side of the wrist
 Around the edge of the humeral head is  Proximal end of the radius – has a head
the anatomical neck – not easily by which the radius articulates with
accessible both the humerus and the ulna
 A more accessible site for surgical  Radius does not attach as firmly to the
removal is at the surgical neck, located humerus as the ulna does
at the proximal end of the humeral  Radial head rotates against the
shaft humerus and ulna
 Lateral to the head are two tubercles, a  Distal to the radial head is a radial
greater tubercle and a lesser tubercle – tuberosity, where one of the arm
serves as attachment of muscles of the muscles, the biceps brachii attaches
scapula and hold the humerus to it  Distal end of the radius – articulates
 Approximately, 1/3 of the way down with the wrist bones
the shaft of the humerus, on the lateral  Styloid process is located on the lateral
surface, is the deltoid tuberosity – side of the distal end of the radius
deltoid muscles attach  Radial and ulnar styloid processes –
 Distal end of the humerus is modified provide attachment sites for ligaments
into specialized condyles that connect it of the wrist
to the forearm bones

KIERULF, V. H.
Wrist  Thumb has 2 phalanges, proximal and
distal
 Relatively short region between the
forearm and the hand PELVIC GIRDLE
 Composed of 8 carpal bones – arranged
 Place where the lower limbs attach to
in 2 rows of 4 bones each – forms a
the body
slight curvature that is concave
 Ring bone formed by the right and left
anteriorly and convex posteriorly
coxal bones (hip bones), anteriorly and
 Proximal row (lateral to medial): (1)
the sacrum posteriorly
Scaphoid, (2) Lunate, (3) Triquetrum, (4)
 Pelvis includes: pelvic girdle and the
Pisiform
coccyx
 Distal row (medial to lateral): (5)
 Each coxal bone is formed by 3 bones
Hamate, (6) Capitate, (7) Trapezoid, (8)
fused to one another to form a single
Trapezium
bone: (1) ilium – most superior, (2)
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome ischium – inferior and posterior, (3)
pubis – inferior and anterior
 Occurs when there is fluid accumulation
 An iliac crest can be seen along the
and connective tissue inflammation in
superior margin of each ilium
the carpal tunnel associated with
 Anterior superior iliac spine, an
overuse or trauma – applying pressure
important hip landmark, is located at
to a major nerve in the said area
the anterior end of the iliac crest
 Characterized by tingling, burning, and
 Coxal bones join each other anteriorly
numbness in the hand
at the pubic symphysis and join the
 Treatments vary
sacrum posteriorly at the sacroiliac
 Mild cases can be treated non-surgically joints
but if symptom is more than 6 months,
 Acetabulum is the socket of the hip
surgery is warranted
joint
 Surgery involves cutting the carpal
 Obturator foramen is the large hole in
ligament to enlarge the carpal tunnel
each coxal bone that is closed off by
and ease pressure on the nerve
muscles and other structures
Hand  Pelvic inlet – formed by the pelvic brim
and sacral promontory
 5 metacarpal bones – attached to the  Pelvic outlet – bound by the ischial
carpal bones and form the bony spines, pubic symphysis and coccyx
framework of the hand
 Metacarpal bones are aligned with the LOWER LIMB
5 digits (thumb to the little finger)
 Consists of the bones of the: (1) thigh,
 Ends or heads of the metacarpal bones
(2) leg, (3) ankle and (4) foot
form the knuckles
 Each finger consists of small bones Thigh
called phalanges
 Region between the hip and the knee
 Phalanges of each finger are called
 Contains a single bone called the femur
proximal, middle, and distal

KIERULF, V. H.
  Head of the femur articulates with the  Talus articulates with the tibia and
acetabulum fibula to form the ankle joint, and the
 Distal end of the femur, the condyles calcaneus forms the heel
articulate with the tibia
Foot
 “broken hip” – break of the femoral
neck – difficult to repair  Metatarsal bones and phalanges of the
 Major complication of a broken hip is foot are arranged and numbered in the
when the blood vessels between the same manner very similar to the carpal
femoral head and acetabulum are bones and phalanges of the hand
damaged – femoral head may  Metatarsals are somewhat longer than
degenerate from lack of nourishment the metacarpals but the phalanges of
 Patella (kneecap), located within the the foot are considerably shorter than
major tendon of the anterior thigh the hand
muscles and enables the tendon to  Have 3 primary arches: 2 longitudinal
bend over the knee arches (heel to the ball of the foot) and
a transverse arch (across the foot)
Leg
 Arches functions like springs – allowing
 Region between the knee and the ankle the foot to give and spring back
 Contains 2 bones: (1) tibia and (2) fibula JOINTS
 Tibia is larger and is the major weight-
bearing joint of the leg  “ articulation”
 Distal to the condyles of the tibia, on its  Place where two bones come together
anterior surface, is the tibial tuberosity,  Usually considered movable, but is not
where muscles of the anterior thigh always the case
attach  Many joints exhibit limited movement,
 Fibula does not articulate with the and others are completely, or almost
femur, but its head is attached to the completely, immovable
proximal end of the tibia  One method of classifying joints is a
 Distal ends of the tibia and fibula form a functional classification.
partial socket that articulates with a
Based on the degree of motion, a joint may be:
bone of the ankle (the talus)
 Prominence can be seen on each side of 1. SYNARTHROSIS – non-movable joint
the ankle: medial malleolus of the tibia
2. AMPIARTHROSIS – slightly movable joint
and the lateral malleolus of the fibula
3. DIARTHROSIS – freely movable joint
Ankle

Consists of 7 tarsal bones Distal row: (1)  Functional classification is somewhat

medial cuneiform, (2) intermediate cuneiform, restricted and not used
(3) lateral cuneiform, (4) cuboid  A structural classification whereby
joints are classified according to the
 Proximal row: (5) navicular, (6) talus, (7) type of connective tissue that binds the
calcaneus bones together and whether there is a
fluid-filled joint capsule

KIERULF, V. H.
3 major structural classes of joints: layer of articular cartilage – provides a
smooth surface where the bones meet
1. Fibrous
 Joint cavity is filled with fluid and
2. Cartilaginous enclosed by a joint capsule – which
helps hold the bones together and
3. Synovial
allows for movement
Fibrous Joints  Synovial membrane lines the joint
cavity everywhere except over the
 2 bones united by fibrous tissue articular cartilage
 Exhibits little or no movement  The membrane produces synovial fluid
Joints in this group are further subdivided on – complex mixture of polysaccharides,
the basis of structure: proteins, lipids, and cells – forms a thin,
lubricating film covering the surfaces of
1. Sutures – fibrous joints between the the joint
bones of the skull; in newborns it is wide and  In certain synovial joints, the synovial
called fontanels membrane may extend as a pocket, or a
2. Syndesmoses – fibrous joints in which sac, called a bursa
bones are separated by some distance and held  Bursae are located between structures
together by ligaments; e.g. distal parts of the that rub together, such as where a
radius and ulna tendon crosses a bone; they reduce
friction, which could damage the
3. Gomphoses – consist of pegs fitted into structures involved
sockets and held in place by ligaments; e.g. joint  Inflammation of a bursa, often resulting
between a tooth and its socket from abrasion, is called bursitis
Cartilaginous Joints Types of Synovial Joints
 Unite 2 bones by means of cartilage Synovial joints are classified according to the
 Only slight movement can occur at shape of the adjoining articular surfaces
these joints
 e.g. cartilage in the epiphyseal plates of 1. Plane joints (Gliding joints)
growing long bones, ribs and sternum  Two opposed flat surfaces that glide
 Cartilage of some cartilaginous joints, over each other
where much strain is placed on the
joint, may be reinforced by collagen 2. Saddle joints
fibers – fibrocartilage seen in the  Two saddle-shaped articulating surfaces
intervertebral disks oriented at right angles to each other
Synovial Joints  Movement occurs in two planes
 e.g. joint bet. metacarpal bone & carpal
 Freely movable joints that contain fluid bone (trapezium) of the thumb
in a cavity surrounding the ends of
articulating bones 3. Hinge joints
 e.g. bones of the appendicular skeleton  Permit movement in one plane only
 Articular surfaces of bones within
synovial joints are covered with a thin

KIERULF, V. H.
  Consist of a convex cylinder of one bone FLEXION (BEND)
applied to a corresponding concavity of
 Occurs when bones of a particular joint
the other bone
are moved closer together
 e.g. elbow and knee joints
 Flat condylar surface of the knee joint is EXTENSION (STRAIGHTEN)
modified into a concave surface by
 Occurs when the bones of a particular
shock-absorbing fibrocartilage pads
joint are moved far apart
called menisci

4. Pivot joints PLANTAR FLEXION

 Movement of the foot toward the

 Restrict movement to rotation around a
plantar surface (sole of the foot), as
single axis
when standing on the toes
 e.g. rotation that occurs between the
axis and atlas when shaking the head DORSIFLEXION
“no”; articulation between the proximal
ends of the ulna and radius  Movement of the foot toward the shin,
as when walking on the heels
5. Ball-and-socket joints
ABDUCTION
 Consist of a ball (head) at the end of
one bone and a socket in an adjacent  Movement away from the medial or
bone into which a portion of the ball fits midsagittal plane; e.g. feet apart
 Allows a wide range of movement in ADDUCTION
almost any direction
 e.g. shoulder and hip joints  Movement toward the median plane;
e.g. feet together
6. Ellipsoid joints (Condyloid joints)
PRONATION
 Elongated ball-and-socket joints
 Shape of the joint limits its range of  Rotation of the forearm so that the
movement nearly to that of a hinge palm is down
joint, but in two planes SUPINATION
 e.g. joint between the occipital condyles
of the skull and the atlas of the  Rotation of the forearm so that the
vertebral column; joints between the palm faces up
metacarpal bones and phalanges
EVERSION
Types of Movement  Turning the foot so that the plantar
 Occurring at a certain joint are related surface (bottom of the foot) faces
to the structure of the joint laterally
 Some joints are limited to only one type INVERSION
of movement, whereas others permit
movement in several directions  Turning the foot so that the plantar
 All movements are described relative to surface faces medially
the anatomical position

KIERULF, V. H.
ROTATION  Depression is movement of a structure
in an inferior direction
 Turning of a structure around its long
 Excursion is movement of a structure to
axis; e.g. shaking the head “no”
one side, as in moving the mandible
CIRCUMDUCTION from side to side
 Opposition is a movement unique to
 Occurs at a freely movable joints, such
the thumb and little finger
as the shoulder
 Reposition returns the digits to the
 Arm moves so that it traces a cone anatomical position
where the shoulder joint is at the cone’s
apex EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
AND JOINTS
HYPEREXTENSION
 Most significant age-related changes in
 An abnormal, forced extension of a joint
the skeletal system affect the joints as
beyond its normal range of motion
well as the quality and quantity of bone
 Normal movement of a structure into matrix
the space posterior to the anatomical  Bone matrix in an older bone is more
position
brittle – decreased collagen production
Abnormal Movements – more mineral and less collagen fibers
 Matrix formation of osteoblasts <
SPRAIN matrix breakdown by osteoclasts
 results when bones of a joint are  Bone mass is at its highest around age
forcefully pulled apart and the 30
ligaments around the joint are pulled or  Men have generally denser bones than
torn women because of the effects of
testosterone and greater body weight
SEPARATION  African-Americans and Latinos have
higher bone masses than Caucasians
 exists when the bones remain apart
and Asians
after injury to a joint
 After age 35, both men and women
DISLOCATION experience a loss of bone of 0.3 – 0.5%
a year
 when the end of one bone is pulled out
 Loss can increase ten-fold in women
of the socket in a ball-and-socket,
after menopause – bone loss rate of 3
ellipsoid, or pivot joint
– 5% a year for approximately 5 – 7 years
Other movement types
 Significant bone loss increases the
 Protraction is a movement in which a
likelihood of bone fracture
structure glides anteriorly
 A number of changes occur within many
 Retraction, the structure glides
joints as a person ages – greatest effect
posteriorly
and major problems for elderly people
 Elevation is movement of a structure in
a superior direction

KIERULF, V. H.
  With use, the cartilage covering GOOD LUCK! PASUBDA AK HA HAHAHA
articular surfaces can wear down –
decreased range of motion
 Most effective preventative measure
against the effects of aging on the
skeletal system:

1. Increasing physical activity

2. Taking dietary calcium and vitamin D

supplements

 Intensive exercise can even reverse loss

of bone matrix

DISEASES AND DISORDERS: Skeletal

System
Decalcification

JOINT DISORDERS

Arthritis - Inflammation of a joint

Causes include infectious agents, metabolic

disorders, trauma, and immune disease

Rheumatoid arthritis - General connective

tissue autoimmune disease

Degenerative joint disease

(Osteoarthritis) Gradual degeneration of a joint

with advancing age Can be delayed with
exercise

Gout - Increased production and accumulation

of uric acid crystals in tissues, including joint
capsules

Bursitis and bunions

Bursitis - Inflammation of a bursa

Bunion - Deformations of the first metatarsal

(great toe)

 Bursitis may accompany this deformity

 Irritated by tight shoes

Joint replacement - Replacement of painful

joints with artificial joints

KIERULF, V. H.