B I G L E A R N I N G S M A D E E ASY

An initiative of Group

HISTORY
OF
MEDIEVAL INDIA

Civil Services Examination

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History of Medieval India

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Contents
History of Medieval India

Unit – I:  Dawn of Medieval India Causes for Tripartite Struggle..............................15

Consequence of Tripartite Struggle.....................15
Chapter - 1 Dynasties of North India: Important Facts............16

Early Medieval India...............................................2 Chapter - 3

1.1 Feudalism.............................................................. 2
Kingdoms of South India.................................... 17
Feudalism in India................................................. 2
3.1 Introduction..........................................................17
Changes in Land Grants....................................... 2
3.2 Cholas..................................................................17
1.2 India and World Relations..................................... 3 Introduction..........................................................17
Arabs.................................................................... 3 Later Cholas.........................................................17
Africa..................................................................... 5 Important Rulers...................................................17
East Asia............................................................... 5 Polity....................................................................19
South-East Asia..................................................... 6 Administration......................................................19
Early Medieval India: Important Facts................... 7 Provincial Administration......................................19
Village Assemblies...............................................19
Chapter - 2 Military..................................................................19
Revenue...............................................................20
Dynasties of North India........................................8
Religion................................................................20
2.1 Palas..................................................................... 8
Economy..............................................................20
Introduction........................................................... 8
Society.................................................................20
Political Sphere of Influence.................................. 8
Literature..............................................................20
Administration....................................................... 8
Art and Architecture.............................................21
Religion................................................................. 9
Literature..............................................................22
Economy............................................................... 9
Importance of Dynasty.........................................22
Literature............................................................... 9
3.3 Cheras..................................................................22
Art and Architecture.............................................. 9
Introduction..........................................................22
2.2 Pratiharas.............................................................10
Later Chera..........................................................22
Introduction..........................................................10
Polity and Administration......................................22
Political Sphere of Influence.................................10
Religion................................................................22
Administration......................................................11
Economy..............................................................22
Religion................................................................11
Society.................................................................22
Economy..............................................................11
Art and Architecture.............................................23
Art and Architecture.............................................11
3.4 Pandyas...............................................................23
Importance of Dynasty.........................................12
Introduction..........................................................23
2.3 Rashtrakutas........................................................12 Later Pandyas......................................................23
Introduction..........................................................12 Political History.....................................................23
Expansion of Political Influence............................12 Polity....................................................................24
Administration......................................................12 Administration......................................................24
Economy..............................................................13 Religion................................................................24
Literature..............................................................14 Economy..............................................................24
Art and Architecture.............................................14 Literature..............................................................24
Importance of Dynasty.........................................14 Art and Architecture.............................................24
2.4 Tripartite Struggle................................................14 Importance of Dynasty.........................................25
Significance of Kannauj.......................................15 Kingdoms of South India: Important Facts...........25

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 6.3 Economy..............................................................44
Chapter - 4
6.4 Trade and Commerce..........................................44
Rajputs................................................................. 29 6.5 Society.................................................................44
4.1 Introduction..........................................................29 Introduction..........................................................44
4.2 Origin of Rajputs..................................................29 Social Divisions....................................................45
4.3 Rajput States........................................................29 Caste System.......................................................45
Hindushahi Dynasty.............................................29 Condition of Women.............................................45
Chauhan Dynasty.................................................30 6.6 State of Education................................................45
Solanki Dynasty (Chalukya Dynasty of Gujart).....30
6.7 Bhakti Post 12th Century.......................................46
Paramara Dynasty................................................30
Guru Nanak..........................................................46
Chandela Dynasty................................................30
Monotheism..........................................................46
Gahadavala Dynasty............................................31
Vaishnavism.........................................................46
Bundela Dynasty..................................................31
Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra.........................47
Tomara Dynasty...................................................31
4.4 Other Rajput States..............................................31 Major Developments During 8th to 15th
4.5 Limitations of Rajputs...........................................31 Century: Important Facts......................................49
Rajputs: Important Facts......................................32
Chapter - 7
4.6 Importance of Rajputs..........................................32
Delhi Sultanate 12 to 14th Century................... 52
th

Unit – II:  The Era of Sultanate 7.1 Invasions from North-West...................................52

Arab Invasion.......................................................52
Chapter - 5 7.2 Mamluk Sultans (1206-90 AD)..............................52
Advent of Turks in India...................................... 35 Introduction..........................................................52
5.1 Introduction..........................................................35 Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206-10 AD).........................52
Aram Shah (1210-1211 AD).................................53
5.2 Ghaznavids..........................................................35
Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (1211-36 AD)..................53
5.3 Mahmud of Ghazni...............................................36
Razia Sultan (1236-40 AD)...................................53
Indian Invasions...................................................36
Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (1246-66 AD) ...................54
Ghazni's Battles...................................................36
Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266-87 AD)....................54
Somnath Temple Raids........................................37
Administration......................................................55
Significance of Muhmud Ghazni's Invasion..........37
Art and Architecture.............................................55
Al Biruni................................................................37
Importance of Dynasty.........................................55
Firdausi................................................................38
Evaluation of Mahmud of Ghazni..........................38 7.3 Khaljis (1290-1320 AD)........................................55
Introduction..........................................................55
5.4 Changes in 12th Century......................................38
Jalal-ud-din Khalji (1290-96 AD)..........................56
5.5 Muhammad Ghori................................................38
Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316 AD)...........................56
Punjab and Sind Conquests.................................39
First Battle of Tarain.............................................39 7.4 Tughlaqs (1320-1412 AD)....................................58
Second Battle of Tarain........................................39 Introduction..........................................................58
Evaluation of Muhammad Ghori...........................39 Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq (1320-25 AD)..................58
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (1325-51 AD)................58
The Advent of Turks in India: Important Facts......40
Feroz Shah Tughlaq (1351-88 AD).......................59
5.6 Ghaznavid Dynasty: Role in Formation of
Tughlaq Administration........................................60
Delhi Sultanate.....................................................40
Tughlaq Art and Architecture...............................60
Chapter - 6 Importance of Dynasty.........................................61
7.5 Sayyid Dynasty (1414-51 AD)..............................61
Major Developments During Introduction..........................................................61
8th to 15th Century................................................ 41 Khizr Khan (1414-21 AD).....................................61
6.1 Introduction..........................................................41 7.6 Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526 AD)..............................62
6.2 Religion................................................................41 Introduction..........................................................62
Introduction..........................................................41 Bahlul Lodi (1451-89 AD).....................................62
Decline of Buddhism............................................41 Sikandar Lodi (1489-1517 AD).............................62
Importance of Temples........................................41 Ibrahim Lodi (1517-26 AD)...................................62
Religious Movements...........................................42 Adminstration.......................................................62

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 Literature..............................................................63 Challenges Faced by Babur in India....................86
Art and Architecture.............................................63 Significance of Babur's Advent............................86
7.7 Delhi Sultanate: Challenges.................................63 9.3 Humayun..............................................................87
Inner Conflict among Nobility...............................63 Introduction..........................................................87
Attack by the Mongols and Others.......................64 Retreat and Rise of the Afghans..........................87
Resistance by Indian Chiefs.................................64 Humayun’s Later Life...........................................88
Emergence of Provincial Kingdoms.....................64 9.4 Sur Dynasty..........................................................89
Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 AD): Important Introduction..........................................................89
Facts....................................................................64 Sher Shah Suri.....................................................89
Polity....................................................................89
Chapter - 8 Encounters: Humayun and Sher Shah.................89
Regional Dynasties.............................................. 68 Administration......................................................89
8.1 Introduction..........................................................68 Religion................................................................90
8.2 Kashmir................................................................69 Economy..............................................................90
Art and Architecture.............................................90
8.3 Jaunpur................................................................69
Importance of Dynasty.........................................90
8.4 Bengal..................................................................70
Reasons for Decline.............................................90
8.5 Malwa...................................................................70
Struggle for North India (1525-55 AD):
8.6 Mewar..................................................................71
Important Facts....................................................91
8.7 Gujarat.................................................................71
8.8 Vijayanagara Empire............................................72
Chapter - 10
Introduction..........................................................72
Foundation...........................................................72 Consolidation of Mughal Empire....................... 93
Important Rulers...................................................73 10.1 Introduction..........................................................93
Polity and Administration......................................74 10.2 Akbar...................................................................93
Economic.............................................................74 Introduction..........................................................93
Society.................................................................74 Contests...............................................................93
Religion................................................................74 Expansion of Empire (1560-76 AD)......................95
Art and Architecture.............................................74 Administration......................................................96
Literature..............................................................75 Political Administration.........................................98
Reasons for Decline.............................................75 Relations with Rajputs..........................................99
Conclusion...........................................................75 Religion..............................................................100
8.9 Bahmani Kingdom (1347 – 1527 AD)...................75 Evaluation...........................................................100
Introduction..........................................................75 10.3 Jahangir.............................................................100
Mahmud Gawan (1463-1482)...............................76 Introduction........................................................100
Polity and Administration......................................76 Initial Challenges................................................101
Art and Architecture.............................................76 Conquests and Campaigns...............................101
Conclusion...........................................................77 Nur Jahan...........................................................102
8.10 Advent of Portuguese...........................................77 Religion..............................................................102
Introduction..........................................................77 Relation with Europeans.....................................102
Vasco Da Gama...................................................77 Evaluation of Jahangir’s Reign...........................102
Supremacy in Indian Ocean.................................77 10.4 Shah Jahan........................................................103
Impact on Trade, Society & Politics.....................78 Introduction........................................................103
Regional Dynasties: Important Facts....................78 Conquests..........................................................103
Religious Policy..................................................104
Unit – III:  The Era of Mughals Relation with European Traders.........................104
War of Succession.............................................104
Chapter - 9 Evaluation of Shah Jahan’s Reign......................105
Struggle for North India (1525-55 AD)............... 83 10.5 Aurangzeb.........................................................105
9.1 Mughals...............................................................83 Introduction........................................................105
9.2 Babur...................................................................83 Northern Phase (1658-81 AD)............................105
Conquest of India.................................................83 Popular Revolts..................................................105
Battles..................................................................84 Rajput Policy......................................................106

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 Unit
I
Dawn of Medieval India
1. Early Medieval India.......................................................................2
2. Dynasties of North India.................................................................8
3. Kingdoms of South India............................................................... 17
4. Rajputs.........................................................................................29
 1
Early Medieval India

1.1 Feudalism Along with the transfer of revenue rights, the system also
resulted in the transfer of the administrative rights to the
Feudalism was a combination of legal and military systems in Brahmins in particular. This resulted in mushrooming of
medieval Europe that largely flourished between the 9th and Brahmin feudatories. Also, ceding of the revenue and
15th centuries A.D. It was a system in which King granted administrative powers resulted in disintegration of state and
land to nobles who further granted them to their vassals (a weakening of King’s power. The features of Indian feudalism
holder of land on conditions of homage and allegiance), in can be summarized as:
return for military and other services on demand.
• Political Decentralization: The decentralization
A similar system evolved in the early medieval period in achieved in the form of Land grants gradually turned
Indian sub-continent, where the weaker kings engaged into a distinctly branched political organization made
in compensating through land grants rather than paying up of semi-autonomous rulers such as Samantas,
in currency. But, the nature of Indian feudalism was quite Mahasamantas, etc.
different from the European feudalism structure and
• Emergence of New Class: Feudalism resulted in
historians view it as an altogether distinct system.
emergence of landholding intermediaries which
Feudalism in India became a dominant social group. This was absent in
Feudalism began in India with the advent of early medieval the early historical period and was linked to the practice
period, when the villages became economically self- of land grants, which began with the Satavahanas.
sufficient due to decline in urban centers and commercial • Changes in Agrarian structure: With the growth of
activities during the end of the Gupta period. During the feudalism, from the sixth Century AD onwards the
1st Century AD the kings began to donate land free of cost peasants stuck to the land granted to the beneficiaries.
to the Brahmins (called as Brahmadeya), scholars and This led to immobility of the population and therefore
other religious institutions, thus conferring the ownership isolation from the rest of the world. Its profound
of the land and hence the right to collect revenues thereof. implication was development of localized customs,
The practice of making land grants to the Brahmanas was languages and rituals.
a custom, sanctified by the injunctions laid down in the
Dharmashastras, Epics and Puranas. The Anusasana
Changes in Land Grants
Parva of the Mahabharata devotes a whole chapter to the From the period of later Mauryas, land grants included
praise of making gifts of land (Bhumidana Prasamsa). This the transfer of all sources of revenue, and the surrender
in turn enabled them to make a direct link and control over of police and administrative functions. The grants of the
the peasantry. second century AD mentions that the transfer of the king’s
control only over salt, which implies that he retained certain
other sources of revenue. But in some other grants, it was
recorded that the donor (King) gave up his control over
almost all sources of revenue, including pastures, mines
including hidden treasures and deposits.
Then, the donor not only abandoned his revenues but
With the growth of feudalism, community right on land also the right to govern the inhabitants of the villages that
diminished. The pasture-lands, marshes and forests were were granted. This practice became more prevalent in
given as gifts by monarch. Thus, a middle order land owner the Gupta period. There are many instances of grants of
class emerged and the peasant lost his land rights. They apparently settled villages made to the Brahmanas during
were forced to pay heavy taxes and do forced labour. Their the Gupta era. In such grants, the residents, including the
status was reduced to slaves. There was the possibility of cultivators and artisans, were expressly asked by their
further transfer of land and in reality that happened too. respective rulers not only to pay the customary taxes to the
B I G L E A R N I N G S M A D E E ASY
History of Medieval India 3
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donees, but also to obey their commands. All this provides Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa and western Indian
clear evidence of the surrender of the administrative power Ocean islands. The Arabs had close cultural and commercial
of the state. relations with the Indians right from the pre-Islamic period.
One of the important aspects of the Kings sovereignty was The links were established through trade and commerce
that he used to retain the right of punishing the culprits. across the Arabian Sea.
In the Post-Gupta times, the king surrendered over to the The spices and other exotic tropical products formed the
Brahmanas not only this right, but also his right to punish mainstay of the trade and commerce between Indian and
all offences against family, property, person, etc. Arab world. The imports from Arab world constituted coffee,
horses and other Mediterranean products. Therefore,
1.2 India and World Relations to secure trade, the Arab traders built their permanent
Arabs settlements on the western coast of India. These settlements
Arabs are one of the primary population groups of the world. played an important role in exchanging of Indo-Arab cultural
Their primary inhabitation is in the Arab states in Western relations.

Trades Routes in Indian Ocean

Arab Contact with India Condition of Sind

As aforementioned, in the earlier period, Arabs acted Long before the Arab invasions, the
as a conduit for shipment of the Indian goods to the territory of Sind was contented by
European world. But with the rise of Islam in the Arab both Hindus and Buddhists in
world, they started to spread their influence in the struggle for power and influence. Till
neighborhood. After conquering Syria, Palestine, Egypt 622 AD, Sindh was under a Buddhist
and Persia, they set their eyes on India which, at that Rai dynasty. A Brahmin minister of
Rai usurped the throne and declared
time, was wealthy and prosperous.
himself the king. He ruled from the
The socio-cultural condition was also ripe for Arab invasion
capital city of Brahmanabad. His
of India in 8th century. After the demise of Harshavardhana Dahir Raja reign was marked by civil unrest
in north India, the political environment was highly unstable.
which worsened during rule of his son Dahir. It was Dahir
Islam had already established foot-prints in India, through who faced Arab invasion in 712 AD.
trade relations in the southern part of the country.
4 Early Medieval India
B I G L E A R N I N G S M A D E E ASY

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Arab Conquest of Sind He attacked Debal, an ancient port city (near modern
In 8th century, the Arab world was Karachi) and defeated the nephew of Raja Dahir, who
ruled by the Islamic caliphate of was in-charge of the port city. The city was plundered of
Syria. Muhammad Bin Qasim, its wealth and all the people who refused to accept Islam
a general of the Caliphate, was were brutally killed. After Debal, Qasim crossed the river
sent by the Caliph-Al-Walid I to Indus and fought battle with Raja Dahir. Dahir admirably
conquer India. The chief aim of the fought but was defeated and killed in the Battle of Aror
fanatic Muslim rulers in Arab was to (712). Enormous wealth was looted from Brahmanabad,
strengthen Islam and punish those Muhammad Bin Qasim and this brought an end to the Hindu Kingdom of Sind.
who refused to accept Islam.

Arab Conquest of Sind

Significance of Conquest • Sind province was earlier more of a desert with minimal
• After the conquest of Sind, Islam was established in trade and commerce. Arab occupation resulted in
Sind and the Multan region. Though, the influences introduction of camels and horses, which began to
be used for trade. The investment by Arabs brought
of Arabs couldn’t reach farther east and north due
development and prosperity to the region.
to strong Rajput rulers, this was the first instance of
• The decimal system which is the basis of modern
Islamic aggression in India.
mathematics, and which developed in India in the 5th
• It also led to interaction between two distinct cultures Century, travelled to the Arab world during this period
and evolution of Indo-Islamic culture. Thus, Sind was and later came to be known as Arabic numerals.
the birth-place of Sufism which in turn was related to
• Many Indian works dealing with astronomy and
the emergence of the bhakti cult in the middle ages. mathematics were also translated to Arabic. The
• The significance of the Arab conquest of Sind also lies famous work on astronomy, Surya-Siddhanta was
in the tolerance shown to Hinduism by Islam. The Arab one of these. Work of Charaka and Sushruta dealing
governors chose to leave Hindu religious practices with medicines were also translated. A number of
untouched. The persecution of Hindu by Islamic Sanskrit literary works such as Kalila wa-Dimna
invaders started much later after invasion of Mahmud or Panchatantra were translated into Arabic and
of Ghazni. formed the basis for Aesop’s Fables in the West.
Dynasties of 2
North India
2.1 Palas king of Kannauj. His territories included the vast region
from Kamboj in the north to the Vindhyas in the south. The
Introduction king of Sumatra also sent an ambassador to his court.
After the death of the Gauda King Shashanka, Bengal The death of Devapala, marked the beginning of the end
passed through a period of chaos and confusion for almost of the Pala dynasty. Though his successor Mahipala tried
a century. The internal disorder made Bengal vulnerable to to maintain the control over the dominions, the successor
the external invasion. To end the prevailing environment of kings were weak and gradually succumbed to pressure
anarchy, leading members of Gauda met at an assembly from neighbouring kingdoms.
and elected Gopala as their king. Thus, Gopala (also
Known as Gopala-I) became the founder of the famous
Pala dynasty of Bengal around 750 AD.

Political Sphere of Influence

Devapala Map
Dharmapala Map

Dharmapala succeeded Gopala-I Administration

and was known as the ablest of the The Pala rule was monarchical in nature with the king
Pala rulers. He had a great military being the centre of all the power. Pala kings generally
brain and conquered many States. adopted imperial titles like Maharajadhiraja, Parameshwara
He even dethroned the reigning and Paramvattaraka. The Pala kings also appointed Prime
prince of Kannauj and set up Ministers for better administration of the kingdom.
his own nominee. His long and Administratively, the Pala Empire was divided into several
glorious reign lasted for almost 30 Bhuktis (Provinces). Bhuktis were further divided into
years. Vishayas (Divisions) and Mandalas (Districts). The Smaller
Devapala was also a vigorous units were known as Khandala, Bhaga, Avritti, Chaturaka, and
Dharmapala
ruler like his father. He fought Pattaka. Thus, it is evident that administration covered
successfully against the Huns and the Gurjara-Pratihara widespread area from the grass root level to the imperial court.
B I G L E A R N I N G S M A D E E ASY
History of Medieval India 9
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Religion inscription' of Devapala as well as "Bhagalpur inscription"

of Narayanapala.
Apart from agriculture, mineral resources were also
important constituents of the economy during the Pala
period. Though the use of iron ore was still not very
extensive, yet the process of smelting ore was well known
to the people of Bengal. Copper deposits and pearls were
also found in the various parts of the Pala Empire.
Odantapuri Agro-based industries thrived during the Palas reign in
The Pala kings were the patrons of Mahayana branch of Bengal. Textile industry was flourishing during the Pala
Buddhism. Gopala-I was a devout Buddhist, and built the period and cotton textiles were the principal industry
famous monastery at Odantapuri. His son, Dharmapala, in Bengal. Silk industry was also very popular in Bengal
made the renowned Buddhist philosopher Haribhadra as during this period and it catered not only to the domestic
his spiritual guide. market, but foreign market as well.

He established the famous Though economy had flourished during the Pala phase,
Vikramashila monastery (located there was a general decline in trade and commerce. The
near Bhagalpur, Bihar) and the decline in the standards of trade is evident from the coins
Somapura Mahavihara in of the Pala period. The scarcity of gold and the silver coins
led to dependence on copper coins. This resulted in drastic
Bangladesh. After his death,
decline of the foreign trade. Consequently, the economic
Devapala restored and enlarged
system became entirely dependent on agriculture and
the architecture at Somapura
the flourishing agrarian economy gave rise to feudalistic
Mahavihara, which featured
society. Thus, it could be said that the agricultural economy
several themes from the epics
and feudalism developed simultaneously during the Pala’s
Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Haribhadra reign.
Mahipala I carried on the restoration
work and ordered construction and repairs of several Literature
sacred structures at Bodh Gaya, Sarnath and Nalanda. Pala Kings patronized several Sanskrit and Buddhist
scholars, some of whom were also appointed as
their officials. The Gauda riti style of composition was
developed during the reign of Palas. During their
rule, many Buddhist Tantric works were authored and
translated. They have a distinct influence even today in the
Tibet region. Jimutavahana, Sandhyakar Nandi, Madhava-
kara, Suresvara and Chakrapani Datta are some of the
significant scholars from the Pala period. The first signs
Somapura Mahavira of the proto-Bengali language can also be seen in the
Charyapadas composed during the Pala rule.
Apart from Buddhism, the later Palas also supported the
Shaiva ascetics. Narayana Pala himself established a Art and Architecture
temple of Shiva and patronized the Brahmins. Besides
the images of the Buddhist deities, the images of Vishnu,
Shiva and Sarasvati were also constructed during the later
rule of Pala dynasty.

Economy
The reign of Palas was marked by general economic and
material prosperity. Agriculture was the main occupation
during the Pala period. The Pala kings granted land
to the farmers for cultivation and the chief source of
Vikramshila University
income of people was derived from agricultural products
of the land granted to them. During this period, paddy The sculptural art of Pala period is recognized as a distinct
cultivation had become the chief source of economy in phase in Indian art, and is famous for displaying the artistic
Bengal. This was mentioned in the 'Monghyr (Munger) genius of the Bengal sculptors. It was largely influenced
10 Dynasties of North India
B I G L E A R N I N G S M A D E E ASY

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and inspired by the Gupta art. As discussed earlier, the Introduction

Buddhist Palas built a number of monasteries and other The dynasty, also known as Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty
sacred structures. The Somapura Mahavihara in present- ruled over much of northern India from the mid-to the
day Bangladesh has been given the status of a World century. It is believed that they ruled first from Ujjain and
Heritage Site. The gigantic structures of other Viharas, later established capital at Kannauj.
including Vikramashila, Odantapuri, and Jagaddala are The founder of this Dynasty was Harichandra in 6th
other masterpieces of the Palas. century. Nagabhata-I (730-756 AD) was the first important
ruler of this dynasty whose reign from Mandore (Jodhpur)
to Malwa, Gwalior and Bharuch. His capital was Avanti in
Malwa.
The dynasty, also known as Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty
ruled over much of northern India from the mid of 8th
Century AD. It is believed that they ruled first from Ujjain
and later established capital at Kannauj.
The founder of this Dynasty was Harichandra in 6th Century
AD. Nagabhata-I (730-756 AD) was the first important ruler
of this dynasty whose empire extended from Mandore
(Jodhpur) to Malwa and Gwalior to Bharuch. His capital
was Avanti in Malwa.

Siddheshwara Mahadeva Temple Political Sphere of Influence

The temples constructed during the Pala period depicted The Gurjara-Pratiharas were
a distinctive vanga style. The Siddheshwara Mahadeva instrumental in containing the
temple at Barakar in Burdwan district is one such fine march of Arab armies moving east
example of early Pala style. Terracota sculpture was very of the Indus river, after the
popular for decorative purposes. In painting, murals were conquest of Sind by Mohammad
highly popular for wall paintings. Miniature paintings also Qasim. Nagabhata-I defeated the
showed considerable development during this period. Arab armies under Junaid and
Tamin, who during the Caliphate
2.2 Pratiharas campaigns in India tried to extend
their influence. Nagabhata-I was
Nagabhata-I
succeeded by Vatsaraja who
captured Kannauj and thus came in direct conflict with the
Palas of Bengal. Although he defeated Dharmapala, in 786
AD, the Rastrakuta King Dhruva defeated him.

Somnath Temple
Vatsaraja was succeeded by Nagabhata-II. Under the rule
Gurjara Pratihara Empire India of Nagabhata II, the Gurjara-Pratiharas became the most
Kingdoms of 3
South India
3.1 Introduction more expansion of the agrarian economy. We also notice
the march of triumphant Brahmanism with the beginning
The history of medieval south India has its separate space
of the construction of stone temples for Shiva and Vishnu
in the study of political, social, and economic realms of the
in Tamil Nadu under Pallavas and in Karnataka under
society. The history of medieval India in north is marred by
Chalukyas of Badami.
extreme turmoil due to rising and falling empires. But the
history of medieval south is relatively stable. In this section, Later Cholas
we are going to study three most important Kingdoms of After the end of the Sangam era, the Cholas became
south, i.e., the Cholas, the Cheras and the Pandyas. feudatories in Uraiyur. They again came into prominence
The Tamil country was ruled by three dynasties namely in the 9th Century AD when they established an empire in
the Chera, Chola and Pandyas during the Sangam Age. South India. Tanjore became the capital of Chola Kingdom.
The political history of these dynasties can be traced from Cholas extended their dominance in Sri Lanka and Malay
the literary references like Sangam literature, the records Peninsula. These Cholas colonized the South East Asian
of Greek authors like Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny and Countries and had the most powerful army and navy of the
Ptolemy, Ashokan inscriptions which mention the Chera, world at that time.
Chola and Pandya rulers on the south of the Mauryan
empire, Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga.

Hathigumpha Inscription

Chola Empire Map

3.2 Cholas
Important Rulers
Introduction
Vijayalaya Chola (848 – 871 AD)
After the end of the Gupta dynasty a little after the fifth
Century AD, a process of political fragmentation started Vijayalaya Chola was the founder of the Imperial Chola
in the whole subcontinent. Feudatories and subjugated empire. He ruled over the region to the north of the
powers took the opportunity to become independent river Kaveri. Vijayalaya took advantage of fight between
which led to emergence of small kingdoms. Rise of small the Pandyas and Pallavas and rose into prominence by
Kingdoms increased rivalry and competition to gain capturing Thanjavur and the surrounding regions from the
political supremacy. Elango Muttaraiyars, who was the final ruler of mutharaiyar
dynasty. After capturing Tanjavur, Vijayalaya built a temple
By 9th Century AD the Pallavas of Kanchi, Chalukyas of
of Goddess Nishumbhasudini (Durga). He also undertook
Badami and the Pandyas of Madurai emerged to be the
the renovation of the city of Thanjavur.
three major states. This phase after the Guptas saw far
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Shortly after Vijayalaya’s capture of Tondaimandalam regions of Tamil Nadu, the Gangavadi,
Thanjavur, the Pandyan king Nolambapadi and northern part of Ceylon. Rajaraja’s last
Varagunavarman II and Pallava King military achievement was a naval expedition against the
Nandivarman III joined hands to Maldives Islands.
reduce the growing prowess of Chola
Rajaraja Chola I died in 1014 AD and was succeeded by
power under Vijayalaya. Vijayalaya
Chola, a veteran of many battles, was his son Rajendra Chola, who was declared as the crown
Vijayalaya Chola
getting old and thus handed the prince in 1012 AD. The powerful standing army and a
control of the army to the crown prince Aditya I. Soon, great navy organized under Rajaraja Chola-I achieved
Aditya I succeeded his father as the emperor after his even greater heights under Rajendra Chola.
death in 871 AD. Narttamalai, Pudukkottai has a solesvara
temple attributed to vijayalaya.
Rajendra Chola-I (1014 – 44 AD)
Rajendra Chola is considered as
Rajaraja Chola I (985 – 1014 AD) one of the greatest rulers and
Rajaraja Chola I, born as military generals of South India. He
Arulmozhi Varman, was one succeeded his father Rajaraja
of the greatest emperors of Chola I in 1014 AD. Rajendra had
the Chola Empire who ruled demonstrated his military
between 985 and 1014 AD. In leadership skills during his father’s
his reign, the Cholas reign. After becoming the ruler, he
expanded beyond South continued his father’s policy of
India stretching from Kalinga aggressive conquests and
in the north to Sri Lanka in the expansion. Apart from reaching
south. Rajaraja I possessed a Rajendra Chola-I
northwards to river Ganga and
strong army and a moving overseas to Maldives and Sri Lanka, he also
considerable navy. He fought invaded the Southeast Asian territories of Srivijaya in
many battles with the Malaysia, Indonesia and southern Thailand making the
Chalukyas in the north and Chola empire one of the most powerful empires of India.
the Pandyas in the south. He
His important conquests are as under:
Rajaraja Chola I followed the Shaivism school
of Hinduism but was tolerant towards other faiths. In 1010, • When Mahinda V, the King of Sri Lanka attempted to
Raja Raja built the Brihadesvara temple in Thanjavur recover the northern part of Sri Lanka from the Cholas,
dedicated to Lord Shiva. He also helped in the construction Rajendra defeated him and seized even the southern
of a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam. Sri Lanka, thus taking control of the whole of Sri Lanka.
• He reasserted the Chola authority over the Chera and
Pandya countries.
• He defeated Jayasimha II, the Western Chalukya
king and consequently, river Tungabadhra was
recognized as the boundary between the Cholas and
the Chalukyas.
• His most significant military expedition was of North
India. The Chola army crossed the Ganges by
defeating a number of rulers on its way. Rajendra
defeated Mahipala I of Bengal. To commemorate this
successful north-Indian campaign, Rajendra founded
Brihadesvara Temple the city of Gangaikondacholapuram and constructed
Rajaraja I was involved in many successful military the famous Rameshwaram temple in the city. He also
conquests during his reign. The extent of the Chola Empire excavated a large irrigation tank called Cholagangam
under Rajaraja I included the Pandya, Chera and the on the western side of the city.
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History of Medieval India 19
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under Periyanattar and nadu under Nattar. The town was

known as Nagaram and it was under the administration of
a council called Nagarattar.

Village Assemblies
The system of village autonomy with sabhas and their
committees developed through the ages and reached
its culmination during the Chola rule. Two inscriptions
belonging to the period of Parantaka I found at Uttaramerur
provide details of the formation and functions of village
councils. The local administration was vested in village.
Village administration was quite powerful and had the
Gangaikondacholapuram power to collect revenue. Basically there was two type of
villages. The first type was called ur. This type of village
• Another famous venture of Rajendra was his naval
was consisted of people from different caste. The second
expedition to Kadaram or Srivijaya. It is difficult to pin
type of village was called agrahara. In this type only the
point the real objective of the expedition. The naval
caste Brahmins were settled. Most of the land in agrahara
expedition was a complete success as the Chola forces
was tax free.
occupied a lot of places. But it was only temporary
and no permanent annexation of these places was The affairs of the village were managed by executive
contemplated. He assumed the title Kadaramkondan. committees. In this committee only educated person
owning property were elected by drawing lots or by
Like his father, Rajendra I also followed Shaivism. He built
rotation. These members had to retire every three years.
a temple for Lord Shiva at the new capital Gangaikonda
There were other committees for helping in the assessment
Cholapuram and made liberal endowments to this temple
and collection of land revenue for the maintenance of law
and to the Lord Nataraja temple located in Chidambaram.
and order, justice etc. One of the important committee
Rajendra I was tolerant towards other religions and sects
was the tank committee which looked after the distribution
including the Vaishnava and Buddhist sects.
of water to the fields. The mahasabha could settle new
Polity lands and exercise ownership rights over them. It could
The system of governance under Cholas was monarchical. also raise loans for the village and levy taxes. The self-
Besides Gangaikonda Cholapuram and Thanjavur, government enjoyed by the Chola villages was a well
Madurai and Kanchipuram acted as regional capitals thought out system.
under Rajendra I where occasional courts were held. The
King was supreme with absolute authority and issued oral
Military
commands to officers as and when needed. As there was The Cholas maintained a regular standing army, of which
no formal legislative process, the fairness of the King’s the King was the supreme commander. The military
order depended on his intuition, morality and belief. consisted of elephants, cavalry, infantry and navy. The
Chola army was spread throughout the country and was
Administration stationed in local garrisons or military camps called as
The Chola kingship was hereditary in nature. King was Kodagams. Many war elephants were present in Chola
centre of all the power in which all the decision making army as they played a vital role in wars. The Chola army
power was vested, though he was aided and advised by used weapons such as bows, swords, spears, javelins,
the council of ministers on different matters. Chola Empire and shields which were made up of steel. About seventy
was divided into provincial, district and local administration. regiments were mentioned in the inscriptions of which the
There was elaborate administrative machinery comprising royal troops were called as Kaikkolaperumpadai. The royal
various officials called Perundanam and Sirudanam. troops had personal troops, named Velaikkarar to defend
the King. The Cholas paid special attention to their navy,
Provincial Administration
which played a prominent role in the expansion of Chola
The Chola Empire was divided into mandalams and each
Empire. The naval achievements of the Tamils reached its
mandalam into valanadus and nadus. In each nadu there
peak under the Cholas as they controlled the Malabar and
were a number of autonomous villages. The royal princes
or officers were in charge of mandalams. The valanadu was Coromandal coast.