9.

FLUID MECHANICS

1. INTRODUCTION
Fluid is a collective term for liquid and gas. A fluid cannot sustain shear stress when at rest. We will study the
dynamics of non-viscous, incompressible fluid. We will be learning about pressure variation, Archemides principle,
equation of continity, Bernoulli’s Theorem and its applications and surface tension, Stoke’s Law and Terminal
velocity of a spherical body.

2. DEFINITION OF A FLUID
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the application of a shear (tangential) stress no matter how
small the shear stress may be.

F F

(a) Solid (b) Fluid

Figure 9.1: Behavior of a solid and a fluid, under the action of a constant shear force.

3. FLUID STATICS
It refers to the state when there is no relative velocity between fluid elements. In this section we will learn some of
the properties of fluid statics.

3.1 Density
The density ρ of a substance is defined as the mass per unit volume of a sample of the substance. If a small mass
∆m
element ∆m occupies a volume ∆V, the density is given by ρ =
∆V
In general, the density of an object depends on position, so that ρ =f(x, y, z)
9 . 2 | Fluid Mechanics

If the object is homogeneous, its physical parameters do not change with position throughout its volume. Thus for
M
a homogeneous object of mass M and volume V, the density is defined as ρ =
V
Thus SI units of density are kg m–3.

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

Note: As pressure is increased, volume decreases and hence density will increase.
As the temperature of a liquid is increased, mass remains the same while the volume is increased.
Vaibhav Krishnan (JEE 2009, AIR 22)

3.2 Specific Gravity

The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of its density to that of water at 4ºC, which is 1000 kg/m3. Specific
gravity is a dimensionless quantity numerically equal to the density quoted in g/cm3. For example, the specific
Density of substance
gravity of mercury is 13.6, and the specific gravity of water at 100ºC is 0.999. RD=
Density of water at 4º C

Illustration 1: Find the density and specific gravity of gasoline if 51 g occupies 75 cm3?  (JEE MAIN)

Sol: Density is mass per unit volume, and specific gravity is the ratio of density of substance and density of water.
mass 0.051kg
Density = = = 680 kg/m3
volume 75 × 10−6 m3

density of gasoline 680kg / m3 mass of 75 cm3gasoline

Sp. gr = = =0.68 or Sp. gravity =
density of water 1000kg / m3 mass of 75 cm3 water
51g
= =0.68
75g

Illustration 2: The mass of a liter of milk is 1.032 kg. The butterfat that it contains has a density of 865 kg/m3 when
pure, and it constitutes 4 percent of the milk by volume. What is the density of the fat-free skimmed milk?
 (JEE MAIN)
Sol: Find the mass of butterfat present in the milk. Subtract this from total mass to get mass of fat-free milk. The
density of fat-free milk is equal to its mass divided by its volume.
Volume of fat in 1000 cm3 of milk = 4% × 1000 cm3 = 40 cm3
Mass of 40 cm3 fat = Vρ = (40 × 10–6 m3)(865 kg/m3) = 0.0346 kg
mass (1.032 − 0.0346)kg
Density of skimmed milk = =
volume (1000 − 40) × 10−6 m3

3.3 Pressure
The pressure exerted by a fluid is defined as the force per unit area at a point within the F
fluid. Consider an element of area ∆A as shown in the figure and an external force ∆F
is acting normal to the surface. The average pressure in the fluid at the position of the
∆F
element is given by Pav = [A normal force ∆F acts on a small cylindrical element of A
∆A
cross-section area ∆A.] Figure 9.2
 P hysics | 9.3

As ∆A → 0, the element reduces to a point, and thus, pressure at a point is defined as

∆F dF
p = lim =
∆A →0 ∆A dA
F
When the force is constant over the surface A, the above equation reduces to p =
A
The SI unit of pressure is Nm-2 and is also called Pascal (Pa). The other common pressure units are atmosphere and
bar.
1 atm = 1.01325 × 105 Pa; 1 bar = 1.00000 × 105 Pa; 1 atm = 1.01325 bar

3.3.1 Pressure Is Isotropic

Imagine a static fluid and consider a small cubic element of the fluid deep within
the fluid as shown in the figure. Since this fluid element is in equilibrium therefore,
forces acting on each lateral face of this element must also be equal in magnitude.
Because the areas of each face are equal, therefore, the pressure on each face is equal
in magnitude. Therefore the pressure on each of the lateral faces must also be the
same. In the limit as the cube element to a point, the forces on top and bottom
surfaces also become equal. Thus, the pressure exerted by a fluid at a point is the same
in all directions – pressure is isotropic.
Note: Since the fluid cannot support a shear stress, the force exerted by a fluid pressure
Figure 9.3: A small cubical
must also be perpendicular to the surface of the container that holds it.
element is in equilibrium
inside a fluid
3.3.2 Atmospheric Pressure (P0)
It is pressure of the earth’s atmosphere. This changes with weather and elevation. Normal atmospheric pressure at
sea level (an average value) is 1.013 × 105 Pa. Thus,
1 atm = 1.013 × 105 Pa=1.013 Bar

3.3.3 Absolute Pressure and Gauge Pressure

The excess pressure above atmospheric pressure is usually called gauge pressure and the total pressure is called
absolute pressure. Thus, Gauge pressure = absolute pressure – atmospheric pressure. Aboslute pressure is always
greater than or equal to zero. While gauge pressure can be negative also.

Illustration 3: Atmospheric pressure is about 1.01 × 105 Pa. How large a force does the atmosphere exert on a 2
cm2 area on the top of your head? (JEE MAIN)

Sol: Force = Pressure × Area

Because p = F/A, where F is perpendicular to A, we have F = pA. Assuming that 2 cm2 of your head is flat (nearly
correct) and that the force due to the atmosphere is perpendicular to the surface (as it is), we have F = pA = (1.01
× 105 N/m2) (2 × 10–4 m2) ≈ 20N

3.3.4 Variation of Pressure with Depth

Weight of a fluid element of mass Dm, DW = (Dm)g . The force acting on the lower face of the element is pA
and that on the upper face is (p + Dp)A. The figure (b) shows the free body diagram of the element. Applying the
condition of equilibrium, we get, pA – (p + Dp) A – (Dm)g = 0
if ρ is the density of the fluid at the position of the element, then Dm = ρA(Dy)
9 . 4 | Fluid Mechanics

and pA – (p + Dp) A – rgA(Dy) = 0 (p+ p)A

∆p
or = - rg m ( m)g
∆y y
pA
∆p
In the limit ∆y approaches to zero, becomes y
∆y
dp
= −ρg . The above equation indicates that the
dy
(a) (b)
slope of p versus y is negative. That is, the pressure p
Figure 9.4
decreases with height y from the bottom of the fluid. In
dp
other words, the pressure p increases with depth h, i.e., = ρg
dh

3.4 The Incompressible Fluid Model

For an incompressible fluid, the density ρ of the fluid remains constant
throughout its volume. It is a good assumption for liquids. To find pressure at
the point A in a fluid column as shown in the figure, is obtained by integrating
p
the following equation: h
A
p h
dp = rgdh or ∫ dp = ρg∫ dh or p – p0 = rgh or p = p0 + rgh  …(xvi) y
p0 0

where ρ is the density of the fluid, and p0 is the atmospheric pressure at the
free surface of the liquid. Figure 9.5: A point A is located in
Note: Further, the pressure is the same at any two points at the same level in a fluid at a height from the bottom
the fluid. The shape of the container does not matter. and at a deth h from the free
surface
P0 P0

h
A B

PA= PB= P0+pgh

Illustration 4: Find the absolute pressure and gauge pressure at point A, B and C as shown in the Fig. 9.6 (1 atm =
105 Pa) (JEE MAIN)

Sol: Gauge Pressure = rgh, Absolute Pressure is sum of gauge pressure

and atmospheric pressure. 1m Kerosene
A
Patm = 10 Pa.
5
2m
Absolute Pressure A -> PA + Patm= r1ghA = (800)(10)1 = 8 kPa
3
p1=800 kg/m
p′A =pA + patm =108 kPa Water
1.5m
Gauge Pressure = 8 kPa. 2m
B 3
p2=1000 kg/m
B -> pB = ρ1g(2) + ρ2g(1.5)
C Mercury 0.5m
′ pB + patm = 131 kPa = (800)(10)(2) + (103)(10)(1.5) = 131 kPa
p=
B
p3=13.6x10 3 kg/m3
Gauge Pressure = 31 kPa.
Figure 9.6
 P hysics | 9.5

C->
= pc p1g(2) + ρ2g(2) + ρ3g(0.5)
ρC′ = pC + patm = 204kPa
= (800)(10)(2) + (10)3(10)(2) + 1(13.6 × 103)(10)(0.5) = 204 kPa
Gauge Pressure = 104 kPa.

Illustration 5: A glass full of water of a height of 10 cm has a bottom of area 10 cm2, top of area 30 cm2 and volume
1 litre. (JEE ADVANCED)
(a) Find the force exerted by the water on the bottom.
(b) Find the resultant force exerted by the side of the glass on the water.
(c) If the glass is covered by a jar and the air inside the jar is completely pumped out, what will be the answer to
parts (a) and (b).
(d) If a glass of different shape is used provided the height, the bottom area and the volume are unchanged, will
the answers to parts (a) and (b) change.
Take g = 10m/s2, density of water = 103 kg/m3 and atmospheric pressure = 1.01 × 105 N/m2.

Sol: Pressure at the bottom depends on the height of water in the container. Force = Pressure × Area. The force
on water surface due to atmospheric pressure plus the weight of water are balanced by the force on water by the
container bottom and its walls.
(a) Force exerted by the water on the bottom F1 = (P0 + rgh)A1  … (i)
Here, P0 = atmospheric pressure = 1.01 × 105 N/m2; ρ = density of water = 103 kg/m3
g = 10 m/s2, h = 10 cm = 0.1 m and A1 = area of base 10 cm2 = 10–3 m2 . Substituting in Eq. (i), we get F1=
(1.01 × 10 + 10 × 10 × 0.1) ×10 or F1 = 102 N (downwards)
5 3 –3

(b) Force exerted by atmosphere on water F2 = (P0)A2

Here, A2 = area of top = 30 cm2 = 3 × 10–3 m2 ; F2 = (1.01 × 105)(3 × 10–3) = 303 N (downwards)
Force exerted by bottom on the water F3 = – F1 or F3= 102 N (upwards)
Weight of water W = (volume)(density)(g) = (10–3)(103)(10) = 10 N (downwards)
Let F be the force exerted by side walls on the water (upwards). Then, from equilibrium of water
Net upward force = net downward force or F + F3 = F2 + W
F – F2 + W – F3 = 303 + 10 – 102 or F = 211 N (upwards)
(c) If the air inside of the Jar is completely pumped out,
F1 = (rgh)A1 (as P0 = 0) = (103)(10)(0.1)(10–3) = 1 N (downwards). In this case F2 = 0 and F3 = 1 N (upwards)
∴ F = F2 + W – F3 = 0 + 10 – 1 = 9 N (upwards)
(d) No, the answer will remain the same. Because the answers depend upon P0, ρ, g, h , A1 and A2.

Illustration 6: Two vessels have the same base area but different shapes. The first vessel takes twice the volume
of water that the second vessel requires to fill up to a particular common height. Is the force exerted by water on
the base of the vessel the same in the two cases? If so, why do the vessels filled with water to the same height give
different reading on a weighing scale? (JEE MAIN)

Sol: Force on the base of the vessel depends on the pressure on it, and pressure depends on the height of the
liquid in the vessel. On the other hand the normal reaction from the surface on which the vessel is kept, depends
on both the pressure at the base as well as the weight of the liquid in the vessel.
9 . 6 | Fluid Mechanics

Pressure (and therefore force) on the two equal base areas are identical. But force is exerted by water on the sides
of the vessels also, which has non-zero vertical component when the sides of the vessel are not perfectly normal to
the base. This net vertical component of force by water on the side of the vessel is greater for the first vessel than
the second. Hence, the vessels weigh different when the force on the base is the same in the two cases.

3.4.1 Pascal’s Laws F2

According to the equation p = p0 + rgh . Pressure at any depth h in a

F1

fluid may be increased by increasing the pressure p0 at the surface.
Pascal recognized a consequence of this fact that we now call Pascal’s
Law. A pressure applied to a confined fluid at rest is transmitted equally A1 A2
undiminished to every part of the fluid and the walls of the container.
This principle is used in a hydraulic jack or lift, as shown in the figure.
The pressure due to a small force F1 applied to a piston of area A1 is
transmitted to the large piston of area A2. The pressure at the two pistons
is the same because they are at the same level.
A hydraulic jack
Figure 9.7
F1 F2 A 
p =
= Or F2 =  2  F1 . Consequently, the force on the larger piston is large.
A1 A2  A1 
Thus, a small force F1 acting on a small area A1 results in a larger force F2 acting on a larger area A2.

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

Since energy is always conserved, F1x1 = F2x2 where x1 and x2 are the distances moved by the pistons.
Nitin Chandrol (JEE 2012, AIR 134)

Illustration 7: Find the pressure in the air column

at which the piston remains in equilibrium. Assume
Air
the pistons to be massless and frictionless. Piston
 (JEE MAIN)
5m 1.73m
Kerosene
Sol: Apply Pascal’s law at two points at equal 60° S=0.8
height from a common datum. Datum
A B
Water
Let pa be the air pressure above the piston.
Applying Pascal’s law at point A and B. Figure 9.8

3
Patm + r wg(5) =pa + rkg(1.73) ; Pa = 138 kPa
2

Illustration 8: A weighted piston confines a fluid of density ρ in a closed

container, as shown in the figure. The combined weight of piston and h
container is W = 200 N, and the cross-sectional area of the piston is B
A = 8 cm2. Find the total pressure at point B if the fluid is mercury and
h = 25 cm (pm = 13600 kgm-3). What would be an ordinary pressure gauge
reading at B? (JEE ADVANCED)

Sol: Pressure difference between two points at different heights is equal to

ρgh, where h is difference in heights of two points. Apply Pascal’s law at two
points at different heights from a common datum. Figure 9.9
 P hysics | 9.7

Pascal’s principle tells us about the pressure applied to the fluid by the piston and atmosphere. This added pressure
is applied at all points within the fluid. Therefore the total pressure at B is composed of three parts: Pressure of
atmosphere = 1.0 × 105 Pa
W 200N
Pressure due to piston and weight = = = 2.5 × 105 Pa
A −4 2
8 × 10 m
Pressure due to height h of fluid = hrg = 0.33 × 105 Pa
In this case, the pressure of the fluid itself is relatively small. We have
Total pressure at B = 3.8 × 105 Pa = 383 kPa. The gauge pressure does not include atmospheric pressure. Therefore,
Gauge pressure at B = 280 kPa

Illustration 9: For the system shown in the figure, the cylinder on the left, at L,
has a mass of 600 kg and a cross-sectional area of 800 cm2. The piston on the F
right at S, has cross-sectional area 25 cm2 and negligible weight. If the apparatus
is filled with oil (ρ=0.78 g/cm3), find the force F required to hold the system in S
equilibrium as shown in figure. (JEE ADVANCED)
600 kg 8m
Sol: Apply Pascal’s law at two points at different heights from a common datum. L
H1 H2
The pressures at point H1 and H2 are equal because they are at the same level in
the single connected fluid. Therefore, Pressure at H1 = pressure at H2 = (pressure
due to F plus pressure due to liquid column above H2)

(600)(9.8)N F Figure 9.10

= + (8m)(780 kg/m–3)(9.8)
2
0.08m 25 × 10−4 m2
After solving, we get, F = 31 N

Illustration 10: As shown in the figure, as column of water 40 cm high supports 31 cm of an unknown fluid. What
is the density of the unknown fluid? (JEE MAIN)

Sol: Find the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom most point A due
to both the water column and the unknown fluid column.
The pressure at point A due to the two fluids must be equal (or
the one with the higher pressure would push lower pressure fluid
away). Therefore, pressure due to water = pressure due to known 40 cm
h 40
fluid; h1r1g = h2r2g, from which r2 = 1 p1 = (1000 kg/m2) = 1290 31 cm
h 31
kg/m3 2

For gases, the constant density assumed in the compressible

model is often not adequate. However, an alternative simplifying A
assumption can be made that the density is proportional to the Figure 9.11
pressure, i.e., ρ = kp. Let r0 be the density of air at the earth’s surface
ρ0
where the pressure is atmospheric po, then r0 = kp0 ; After eliminating k, we get ρ = p
p0
ρ 
Putting the value of ρ in equation dp = –rgdy or dp = −  00 p  gdy
p 
 
p
dp ρ h
On rearranging, we get ∫ p
= − 0 g∫ dy where p is the pressure at a height y = h above the earth’s surface.
p0 0
p0
9 . 8 | Fluid Mechanics

−p0
ρ gh
p p
After integrating, we get ln = – 0 gh or p = p0 0
p0 p0

Note: Instead of a linear decrease in pressure with increasing height as in the case of an incompressible fluid, in
this case pressure decreases exponentially.

4. PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES

4.1 Manometer P0
A manometer is a tube open at both ends and bent into the
shape of a “U” and is partially filled with mercury. When one
end of the tube is subjected to an unknown pressure p, the
mercury level drops on that side of the tube and rises on the h
other so that the difference in mercury level is h as shown in P =?
the figure. P0 h0
When we move down in a fluid, pressure increases with B
A
depth and when we move up the pressure decreases with
height. When we move horizontally in a fluid, pressure
remains constant. Therefore, p + r0gh0 – rmgh = p0 where p0 is
atmospheric pressure, and rm is the density of the fluid inside
the vessel. Figure 9.12: An U-shaped manometer tube
connected to a vessel

Po=
4.2 The Mercury Barometer
O

Pm
It is a straight glass tube (closed at one end) completely filled with mercury
and inserted into a dish which is also filled with mercury as shown in the Po Po
h
figure. Atmospheric pressure supports the column of mercury in the tube to A B
a height h. The pressure between the closed end of the tube and the column
of mercury is zero, p = 0. Therefore, pressure at points A and B are equal and
thus p0 = 0 + rmgh. Hence, p0 = (13.6 × 103)(9.8)(0.76) = 1.01 × 105 Nm-2 for Pa. A mercury barometer
Figure 9.13

Illustration 11: What must be the length of a barometer tube used to measure atmospheric pressure if we are to
use water instead of mercury? (JEE MAIN)
Sol: The length of the barometer tube will be inversely proportional to the density of fluid used in it.
We know that p0 = rmghm = r wghw where r w and hw are the density and height of the water column supporting the
atmospheric pressure p0.
ρm ρm
\ hw = hw ; Since = 13.6 ; hw = 0.76 m = (13.6)(0.76) = 10.33 m.
ρw ρw

5. PRESSURE DIFFERENCE IN ACCELERATING FLUIDS

Consider a beaker filled with some liquid of density p accelerating upwards with an acceleration ay along positive
y-direction. Let us draw the free body diagram of a small element of fluid of area A and length dy as shown in figure.
Equation of motion for this fluid element is, PA – W – (P + dP)A = (mass)(ay) or –W – (dP) A =(Aρ dy)(ay)
dP
or (Arg dy) – (dP)A = (Aρ dy)(ay) or = −ρ(g + ay )
dy
 P hysics | 9.9

P + dP (P + dP)A

A dy A ay

P
x PA

Figure 9.14

Similarly, if the beaker moves along positive x-direction with acceleration ax, the equation of motion for the fluid
element shown in the figure is, PA – (P + dP) A
= (mass)(ax) y

dP
or (dP)A = (Aρ dx)ax Or = −ρax
dx
But suppose the beaker is accelerated and it (P + dP)A
has components of acceleration ax and ay in x ax PA
P + dP
and y directions respectively, then the pressure P A
decreases along both x and y directions. The A
above equation ax
dx
in that case reduces to, x

dP dP Figure 9.15
= −ρax and = −ρ(g + ay )  ….. (i)
dx dy
For surface of a Liquid Accelerated in Horizontal Direction.
Consider a liquid placed in a beaker which is accelerating horizontally with an y
acceleration ‘a’. Let A and B be two points in the liquid at a separation x in the
same horizontal line. As we have seen in this case.
dP
= −ρa or dP = -ra dx. Integrating this with proper limits, we get
dx h1 a
PA – PB = pax ….. (ii)
h2
A B
Further, PA = P0 + rgh1 And PB = P0 + rgh2
h1 − h2
Substituting in Eq. (ii), we get pg(h1 – h2) = pax \ x
x
x
a a Figure 9.16
= = tan θ \ tan θ =
g g

Note: When ay is not equal to zero then the angle of inclination is given by

 
 
dy  (dp)  ax
tan=
θ = =
dx   dp   g + ay
   
  dy  
9 . 1 0 | Fluid Mechanics

Illustration 12: A liquid of density ρ is in a bucket that spins with angular velocity ω as shown is
the figure. Show that the pressure at a radial distance r from the axis is
ρω2r 2
P
= P0 + where P0 is the atmospheric pressure. (JEE ADVANCED)
2

Sol: The net force on the liquid surface in equilibrium is always perpendicular to it as the liquid
surface cannot sustain shear stress.
Consider a fluid particle P of mass m at coordinates (x, y). From a non-inertial rotating frame of
reference, two forces are acting on it.
Figure 9.17
(i) Pseudo force (mxω2 ) y
(ii) Weight (mg) in the direction shown in figure.
Net force on it should be perpendicular to the free
P mx²
surface (in equilibrium). Hence,
P
mxω2 xω2 dy xω2 x
tan θ
= = or = mg F net
mg g dx g

y x
xω2 x2 ω2
∫ dy
∴= ∫ g ⋅ dx ∴ y =
2g P(x,y)
0 0
Figure 9.18

This is the equation of the free surface of the liquid, which is a parabola.
P y
r 2 ω2 ρω2r 2
As x = r, y = ∴ P(r)= P0 + ρgy or P(r)
= P0 +
2g 2 x=r P(r)
Figure 9.19
Hence proved.

a Front
Rear
Illustration 13: An open rectangular tank 5 m × 4 m × 3 m high containing
water up to a height of 2 m is accelerated horizontally along the longer side. 3m
Water 2m
(a) Determine the maximum acceleration that can be given without spilling
the water.
(b) Calculate the percentage of water split over, if this acceleration is 5m
increased by 20%. Figure 9.20
(c) If initially, the tank is closed at the top and is accelerated horizontally
by 9 m/s2, find the gauge pressure at the bottom of the front and rear 0
walls of the tank. (Take g = 10 m/s2) (JEE MAIN)
3m a0
Sol: As the water column is accelerated towards right in horizontal direction, 2m
the free surface will not be horizontal but will be inclined at an angle with y0
the θ horizontal, such that the left edge of the surface is at a higher level
than the right edge. This is because the pressure at the left of water column 5m
will be more than the pressure at the right of it. Figure 9.21
(a) Volume of water inside the tank remains constant

 3 + y0  3 −1
  5 × 4 = 5 × 2 × 4 or y0 = 1m \tan q0 = 5 = 0.4 3m
 2 
a v
Since, tan q0 = 0 , therefore a0 = 0.4 g = 4 m/s2
g
5m
(b) When acceleration is increased by 20% Figure 9.22
 P hysi cs | 9.11

a x
a = 1.2 a0 = 0.48 g ∴ tan θ = = 0.48
g Air
Now, y = 3 – 5 tan θ = 3 – 5 (0.48) = 0.6 m y

(3 + 0.6) 3m
4 × 2×5 − ×5× 4
Fraction of water split over = 2 = 0.1 Water W
2×5× 4

Percentage of water split over = 10%

5m
a'
(c) a’ = 0.9 g; tan θ’ = = 0.9 Figure 9.23
g
1
Volume of air remains constant -> 4 × yx = (5)(1) × 4 ⇒ Pressure does not change in the air.
2
1 2
Since y = x tan θ’∴ x tan θ ' =5 or x = 3.33 m; y = 3.0m
2
Gauge pressure at the bottom of the
(i) Front wall pf = zero
(ii) Rear wall pr = (5 tan θ’)rwg = 5(0.9)(103)(10) = 4.5 × 104 Pa 60 rpm

Illustration 14: A vertical U-tube with the two limbs 0.75 m apart with water and rotated
about a vertical axis 0.5 m from the left limb, as shown in the figure. Determine the difference
in elevation of the water levels in the two limbs, when the speed of rotation is 60 rpm.
 (JEE MAIN)
0.5m
Sol: Each element of water in the tube is accelerated towards the axis. Along the horizontal 0.75m

part of the tube, the pressure will increase gradually as one moves radially away Figure 9.24
from the axis. The extra pressure provides the required centripetal acceleation.
Consider a small element of length dr at a distance r from the axis of rotation.
Considering the equilibrium of this element.
(p + dp) – p = rw2 r dr or dp = rw2 r dr
On integrating between 1 and 2
r1
2 ρω2 2 2
p1 – p2 = ρω ∫ r dr = (r − r )
r2
2 1 2

ω2 2 2 (2π)2
or h1 – h2 = [r1 − r2 ] = [(0.5)2 – (0.25)2] = 0.37 m.
2g 2(10)
Figure 9.25

6. BUOYANCY
If a body is partially or wholly immersed in a fluid, it experiences an upward force due to the fluid surrounding it.
The phenomenon of force exerted by fluid on the body is called buoyancy and the force is called buoyant force. A
body experiences buoyant force whether it floats or sinks, under its own weight or due to other forces applied on it.
Note: The buoyant force is due to the fact that the hydrostatic pressure at different depths is not the same.
Buoyant force is independent of:
(a) Total volume and shape of the body.
(b) Density of the body.
9 . 1 2 | Fluid Mechanics

6.1 Archimedes Principle

A body immersed in a fluid experiences an upward buoyant force equivalent to the weight of the fluid displaced by
it. The proof of this principle is very simple. Imagine a body of arbitrary shape completely immersed in a liquid of
density ρ. A body is being acted upon by the forces from all directions. Let us consider a vertical element of height
h and cross-sectional area dA.The force acting on the upper surface of the element is F1 (downward) and that on
the lower surface is F2 (upward). Since F2> F1, therefore, the net upward force acting on the element is dF = F2 – F1.
It can be easily seen that
F1 = (rgh1)dA and F2= (rgh2)dA. So dF = rg(h) dA
Also, h2 – h1 = h and h(dA) = dV \ The net upward force is F = ∫ ρgdV =
ρVg
Hence, for the entire body, the buoyant force is the weight of the volume of the fluid displaced.
Note: Buoyant force acts on the centre of gravity of the displacement liquid. This point is called centre of Buoyancy.

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

The fluid exerts force on the immersed part of the body from all directions.
The net force experienced by every vertical element of the body is in the upward direction.
A uniform body floats in a liquid if density of the body is less than or equal to the density of the liquid
and sinks if density of the uniform body is greater than that of the liquid.
B Rajiv Reddy (JEE 2012, AIR 11)

6.1.1 Detailed Explanation

An object floats on water if it can displace a volume of water whose weight is greater than that of the object. If the
density of the material is less than that of the liquid, it will float even if the material is a uniform solid, such as a
block of wood floats on water surface. If the density of the material is greater than that of water, such as iron, the
object can be made to float provided it is not a uniform solid. An iron built ship is an example to this case
Apparent weight of a body immersed in a liquid = w – w0, where ‘w’ is the true weight of the body and w0 is the
apparent loss in weight of the body, when immersed in the liquid.

6.1.2 Buoyant Force in Accelerating Fluids


Suppose a body is dipped inside a liquid of density ρL placed in an elevator moving with acceleration a . The
buoyant force F in this case becomes, F = VρL geff ;
 
Here, geff = | g − a |

Illustration 15: An iceberg with a density of 920 kgm-3 floats on an ocean V

of density 1025 kgm-3. What fraction of the iceberg is visible?(JEE MAIN) Above water
Sol: The buoyant force on the iceberg will be equal to its weight. The w(V0-V)
buoyant force is equal to the weight of water displaced by the iceberg, i.e.
the weight of volume of water equal to the volume of iceberg immersed. wV0
Let V be the volume of the iceberg above the water surface, then the
volume under inside is V0 – V. Under floating conditions, the weight (ρIV0g) V0-V
of the iceberg is balanced by the buoyant force rw(V0 – V)g. Under water
Thus, ρIV0g = rw(V0 – V)g Figure 9.26
or rwV = (rw – ρI)V0
 P hysi cs | 9.13

V ρ w − ρI
or =
V0 ρw
V 1025 − 920
Since, r w = 1025 kg m-3 and ri = 920 kg m3, therefore, = = 0.10
V0 1025
Hence 10% of the total volume is visible.

Illustration 16: When a 2.5 kg crown is immersed in water, it has an apparent weight of 22 N. What is the density
of the crown? (JEE MAIN)
Sol: Apply Archemides principle.
Let W = actual weight of the crown and W’ = apparent weight of the crown
ρ = density of crown, r0 = density of water. The buoyant force is given by FE = W – W’ or
W
r0Vg = W – W’. Since W = rVg, therefore, V = . Eliminating V from the above equation, we get
ρg
ρ0 W (10)3 (25)
ρ= . Here W = 25 N; W’ = 22 N; r0 = 103 kg m-3 ; ρ = = 9.3 × 103 kg m-3.
W − W' 25 − 22

Illustration 17: The tension in a string holding a solid block below the surface of a liquid (of
density greater than that of solid) as shown in figure is T0 when the system is at rest. What
will be the tension in the string if the system has an upward acceleration a? (JEE MAIN)
Sol: The weight and tension force on the block are balanced by the buoyant force on it.
When the system is accelerated upwards, the effective value of g is increased.
Let m be the mass of block.
Initially for the equilibrium of block, F = T0 + mg ….(i)
Figure 9.27
Here, F is the up thrust on the block.

When the lift is accelerated upwards, geff becomes g + a instead of g.

g+a
Hence F' = F   ...(ii)
 g 
From Newton’s second law, F’ – T – mg = ma  ...(iii)
 a
Solving equations (i), (ii) and (iii), we get
= T T0  1 + 
 g
Figure 9.28

Illustration 18: An ice cube of side 1 cm is floating at the interface of kerosene

and water in beaker of base area 10 cm2. The level of kerosene is just covering Kerosine
the top surface of the ice cube. S=0.8
(a) Find the depth of submergence in the kerosene and that in the water.
(b) Find the change in the total level of the liquid when the whole ice melts into
water. (JEE ADVANCED)
Figure 9.29
Sol: Apply Archemedes principle. Sum of the buoyant forces by kerosene and
water will be equal to the weight of the ice cube.
(a) Condition of floating 0.8 rwghk + rwghw = 0.9 rwgh
or 0.8 hk + hw = (0.9)h  … (i)
Where hk and hw are the submerged depths of the ice in the kerosene and water, respectively.
9 . 1 4 | Fluid Mechanics

Also hk + hw = h ... (ii)

Here it is given that h = 1 cm
Solving equations (i) and (ii), we get
hk = 0.5 cm, hw = 0.5 cm
m heat
→ 0.9 cm3
(b) 1 cm3 
Ice (water)
0.5 0.9 − 0.5 0.4
Fall in the level of kerosene Dhk = ; Rise in the level of water Dhw = =
A A A
0.1 0.1
Net fall in the overall level Dh = = = 0.01 cm = 0.1 mm.
A 10

6.2 Stability of a Floating Body

The stability of a floating body depends on the effective point of application of the buoyant force. The weight of
the body acts at its centre of gravity. The buoyant force acts at the centre of gravity of the displaced liquid. This is
called the centre of buoyancy. Under equilibrium condition, the centre of gravity G and the centre of buoyancy B
lie along the vertical axis of the body as shown in the figure(s).

Fa
M
Fb
W
W
W

(a) (b)

Figure 9.30

(a) The buoyant force acts at the centre of gravity of the displaced fluid.
(b) When the boat tilts, the line of action of the buoyant force intersects the axis of the boat at the metacentre M. In
a stable boat, M is above the centre of gravity of the boat. When the body tilts to one side, the centre of buoyancy
shifts relative to the centre of gravity as shown in the figure (b). The two forces act along different vertical lines.
As a result, the buoyant force exerts a torque about the centre of gravity. The line of action of the buoyant force
crosses the axis of the body at the point M, called metacentre. If G is below M, the torque will tend to restore the
body to its equilibrium position. If G is above M, the torque will tend to rotate the body away from its equilibrium
position and the body will be unstable.

Illustration 19: A wooden plank of length 1 m and uniform cross section is hinged at
one end to the bottom of a tank as shown in the figure. The tank is filled with water
up to a height of 0.5 m. The specific gravity of the plank is 0.5. Find the angle θ that mg
the plank makes with the vertical in the equilibrium position. (Exclude the case θ = 0)
 (JEE ADVANCED) Figure 9.31

Sol: The net torque about the hinge due the weight of the plank and due to the buoyant force acting on the plank
should be zero.
The forces acting on the plank are shown in the figure. The height of water level is 0.5m. The length of the plank
is 1.0 = 2  . We have OB =  . The buoyant force F acts through the mid-point of the dipped part OC of the plank.
OC 
We have OA = = ; Let the mass per unit length of the plank be ρ.
2 2cos θ
 P hysi cs | 9.15

  
Its weight mg = 2  rg; The mass of the part OC of the plank =  ρ .
 cos θ 
1 1 2ρ 2ρg
The mass of water displaced = ρ= ; The buoyant force F is, therefore, F = .
0.5 cos θ cos θ cos θ

Now, for equilibrium, the torque of mg about O should balance the torque of F about O.

 2ρ     1 1
So, mg (OB) sin θ = F(OA) sin θ or (2  ρ)  =    or cos θ = or cos θ =
2
, or θ = 45º
 cos θ  2cos θ  2 2

6.3 Forces on Fluid Boundaries

Whenever a fluid comes in contact with solid boundaries, it exerts a force
on it. Consider a rectangular vessel of base size l × b filled with water to a
height H as shown in figure The force acting at the base of the container is
given by Fb = p × (area of the base)
Pressure is same everywhere at the base and is equal to rgH. Therefore, Fb
Fb = rgH(lb) = ρ glb H Since, lbH = V (volume of the liquid) .Thus,
Fb = rgV = weight of the liquid inside the vessel.
A fluid contained in a vessel exerts forces on the boundaries. Unlike the base, l
the pressure on the vertical wall of the vessel is not uniform but increases Figure 9.32
linearly with depth from the free surface. Therefore, we have to perform the
integration to calculate the total force on the wall. Consider a small rectangular element of width b and thickness dh
at depth h from the free surface. The liquid pressure at this position is given by p = rgh. The force at the element is
dF = p(dbh) = rgbh dh;
H
1 F 1
The total force is F = rgb ∫ h dh= ρgbH2 . The total force acting per unit width of the critical walls is = ρgH2
O
2 b 2
H
1
F ∫0
The point of application (the centre of force) of the total force from the free surface is given by hc = h dF

H
Where ∫ h dF is the moment of force about the free surface.
0
H H H
1
Here ∫ h dF = ρgb ∫ h2dh =
∫ h(ρ gbh dh) = ρgH3 ;
0 0 0
3
1 2
Since F = rgbH2 , therefore, hc = H
2 3

Illustration 20: Find the force acting per unit width on a plane wall
inclined at an angle θ with the horizontal as shown in the figure.
 (JEE MAIN) h=y sin
dF y
Sol: The pressure at each point on the wall will be different, H
depending on the height. Find pressure on a small element, and use dy
the method of integration.
Consider a small element of thickness dy at a distance y measured Figure 9.33
along the wall from the free surface. There pressure at the position
of the element is p = rgh = rgy sin θ. The force given by dF = p(b dy) = rgb(y dy) sin q

H/sin θ H/sin θ
F  y2 
The total force per unit width b is given by =ρgsin θ . ∫ y dy =
ρg sin θ  
b 0  2  0
9 . 1 6 | Fluid Mechanics

F 1 H2
Or = ρg
b 2 sin θ
1
Note: That the above formula reduces to rgH2 for a vertical wall (θ = 90º)
2

6.4 Oscillations of a Fluid Column

The initial level of liquid in both the columns is the same. The area of cross-section of
the tube is uniform. If the liquid is depressed by x in one limb, it will rise by x along x
the length of the tube is the other limb. Here, the restoring force is provided by the x
hydrostatic pressure difference.
∴ F = − ( ∆P ) A = − (h1 + h2 ) ρgA = − ρgA ( sin θ1 + sin θ2 ) x
1 2

suppose, m is the mass of the liquid in the tube. Then, ma = −ρgA ( sin θ1 + sin θ2 ) x Figure 9.34

Since, F or a is proportional to –x, the motion of the liquid column is simple harmonic
in nature, time period of which is given by,

x m
Τ = 2π or Τ = 2π
a ρgA ( sin θ1 + sin θ2 )

6.5 Oscillations of a Floating Cylinder

Consider a wooden cylinder of mass m and cross-sectional area A floating in a
liquid of density ρ . At equilibrium, the cylinder is floating with a depth h submerged
[See Fig. 8.35]. If the cylinder is pushed downwards by a small distance y and then
released, it will move up and down with SHM. It is desired to find the time period
h h+y
and the frequency of oscillations.
According to the principle of flotation, the weight of the liquid displaced by
the immersed part of the body is equal to the weight of the body. Therefore, at
equilibrium,
Figure 9.35
Weight of cylinder = Weight of liquid displaced by the immersed part of cylinder
or mg= ( ρ Ah) g ∴ Mass of cylinder, m= ρ Ah
When the cylinder is pushed down to an additional distance y, the restoring force F (upward) equal to the weight
of additional liquid displaced acts on the cylinder.
∴ Restoring force, F= - (weight of additional liquid displaced) or F =− ( ρ A y ) g
The negative sign indicates that the restoring force acts opposite to the direction of the displacement.

F − (ρ A y ) g g
Acceleration a of the cylinder is given by a = = = −  y ...(i) … (i)
m ρ Ah h 
Since g/h is constant, a α − y Thus the acceleration a of the body (wooden cylinder) is directly proportional to
the displacement y and its direction is opposite to the displacement. Therefore, motion of the cylinder is simple
harmonic.

h
∴ Time period T = 2π … (ii)
g

1 1 g
∴ Frequency =
f =  … (iii)
T 2π h
These very interesting results show that time period and frequency have the same form as that of simple pendulum.
The submerged depth at equilibrium takes the place of the length of the pendulum.
 P hysi cs | 9.17

7. FLUID DYNAMICS
In the order to describe the motion of a fluid, in principle, one might apply Newton’s laws to a particle (a small
volume element of fluid) and follow its progress in time. This is a difficult approach. Instead, we consider the
properties of the fluid, such as velocity, pressure, at fixed points in space. In order to simplify the discussion we
take several assumptions:
(i) The fluid is non viscous (ii) The flow is steady
(iii) The flow is non rotational (iv) The fluid is incompressible.

7.1 Equation of Continuity

B
It states that for streamlined motion of the liquid, the volume of liquid
flowing per unit time is constant through different cross-sections of A
the container of the liquid. Thus, if v1 and v2 are velocities of fluid at
respective points A and B of areas of cross-sections a1 and a2 and r1
and r2 be the densities respectively. Then the equation of continuity is a1
given by r1a1v1 = r2a2v2  ... (i) v1 
a2
v2 
If the same liquid is flowing, then ρ1 =ρ2 ; then the equation (i) can
be written Figure 9.36
As a1v1 = a2v2  ...(ii)
⇒ av = constant ⇒ v ∝ 1/a

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

Equation of continunity repersents the law of conservation of mass of moving fluids.

a1v1r1 = a2v2r2 (General equation of continuity)
This equation is applicable to actual liquids or to other fluids which are not incompressible.
Yashwanth Sandupatla (JEE 2012, AIR 821)

Illustration 21: Water is flowing through a horizontal tube of non-uniform cross-section. At a place, the radius of
the tube is 1.0 cm and the velocity of water is 2 m/s. What will be the velocity of water, where the radius of the pipe
is 2.0 cm? (JEE MAIN)
Sol: Apply the equation of continuity. Where area of cross-section is larger, the velocity of water is lesser and vice-
versa.
2
A   πr 2  r 
Using equation of continuity, A1v1 = A2v2 ; v 2 =  1  v1=
or v 2 = 1 
v1  1  v1
 A2   πr 2   r2 
 2 
 1.0 × 10−2 
Substituting the value, we get v 2 =   or v2 = 0.5 m/s
 2.0 × 10−2 
 

Illustration 22: Figure shows a liquid

being pushed out of a tube by pressing
a piston. The area of cross-section of the
piston is 1.0 cm2 and that of the tube
at the outlet is 20 mm2. If the piston is
pushed at a speed of 2 cm-s-1, what is the Figure 9.37
speed of the outgoing liquid?
9 . 1 8 | Fluid Mechanics

Sol: Apply the equation of continuity. Where area of cross-section is larger, the velocity of liquid is lesser and vice-versa.
From the equation of continuity A1v1 = A2v2
or (1.0 cm2) (2 cm s-1) = (20 mm2) v2
1.0 cm2
or v2 = × 2 cm s−1
20 mm2
100 mm2
= × 2 cm s−1 =
10 cm s−1
20 mm2

SHM of fluids in tubes:

Tubes form angles θ1 and θ2 with the horizontal.
x
m
T = 2π x
ρgA ( sin θ1 + sin θ2 )
1 2
m is total mass of fluid in tubes, A is area of cross – section ρ is density of fluid.
Figure 9.38

8. BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
When a non-viscous and an incompressible fluid flows in a streamlined motion from one place to another in a
container, then the total energy of the fluid per unit volume is constant at every point of its path. Total energy =
pressure energy + Kinetic energy + Potential energy
1
= PV + Mv2 + Mgh
2
Where P is pressure, V is volume, M is mass and h is height from a
reference level.
1
∴ The total energy per unit volume = P + rv2 + rgh
2
Where ρ is density. Thus if a liquid of density ρ, pressure P1 at a height
h1 which flows with velocity v1 to another point in streamline motion Figure 9.39
where the liquid has pressure P2, at height h2 which flows with velocity
v 2,
1 1
then P1 + ρv12 + ρgh1= P2 + ρv 22 + ρgh2
2 2

8.1 Derivations

8.1.1 Pressure Energy

If P is the pressure on the area A of a fluid, and the liquid moves through a distance due to this pressure, then
Pressure energy of liquid = work done = force × displacement = PAl
The volume of the liquid is Al.
PAl
∴ Pressure energy per unit volume of liquid = =P
Al

8.1.2 Kinetic Energy

1
If a liquid of mass m and volume V is flowing with velocity v, then the kinetic energy is mv2.
2
 P hysi cs | 9.19

1m 2 1 2
∴ Kinetic energy per unit volume of liquid. =  v = ρv . Here, ρ is the density of liquid.
2 V  2

8.1.3 Potential energy

If a liquid of mass m is at a height h from the reference line (h = 0), then its potential energy is mgh. ∴ Potential
m
energy per unit volume of the liquid =   gh = rgh
v
1
Thus, the Bernoulli’s equation P + rv2 + rgh = constant
2
This can also be written as: Sum of total energy per unit volume (pressure + kinetic + potential) is constant for an
ideal fluid.

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

P v2
is called the ‘pressure head’, the velocity head and h the gravitational head.
ρg 2g
GV Abhinav JEE 2012, AIR 329

Intresting takeaway is the SI unit of each of these is meter (m).

Illustration 23: Calculate the rate of flow of glycerin of density 1.25×103 kg/m3 through the conical section of a
pipe, if the radii of its ends are 0.1 m and 0.04 m and the pressure drop across its length is 10 N/m2.  (JEE MAIN)

Sol: Apply the equation of continuity. Where area of cross-section is larger, the velocity
of fluid is lesser and vice-versa.
From continuity equation, A1v1 = A2v2
2
v1 A2 πr22  r2   0.04  4
or = = =  =   =   ... (i)
v 2 A1 πr 2  r1   0.1  25
1 Figure 9.40
1 1
From Bernoulli’s equation , P1 + ρv12 = P2 + ρv 22
2 2
2 × 10
or v 22 − v12 = = 1.6 × 10−2 m2 / s2  ... (ii)
3
1.25 × 10
Solving equations (i) and (ii), we get v2 = 0.128 m/s
\ Rate of volume flow through the tube
Q = A2v2 = (pr22) v2= π (0.04)2(0.128) = 6.43 × 10–4 m3/s

Illustration 24: Figure shows a liquid of density 1200 kg m–3 flowing steadily in
a tube of varying cross section. The cross section at a point A is 1.0 cm2 and that
at B is 20 mm2, the points A and B are in the same horizontal plane. The speed
of the liquid at A is 10 cm s-1. Calculate the difference in pressure at A and B. 
 (JEE ADVANCED) Figure 9.41

Sol: Apply the equation of continuity. Where area of cross-section is larger, the velocity of fluid is lesser and vice-
versa.
9 . 2 0 | Fluid Mechanics

From equation of continuity. The speed v2 at B is given by, A1v1 = A2v2

1.0cm2
or (1.0 cm2) (10 cm s-1) = (20 mm2)v2 or v2 = ×10cm s−1 =50 cm s−1
20mm2
1 1
By Bernoulli equation, P1 + ρgh1 + ρv12= P2 + ρgh2 + ρv 22
2 2
1 2 1 2 1
Here h1 = h2. Thus P1 – P2 = ρv − ρv = × (1200 kg m−2 )(2500 cm2 s−2 − 100 cm2 s−2 )
2 2 2 1 2
= 600 kg m-3 × 2400 cm2 s-2 = 144 Pa

8.2 Application Based on Bernoulli’s Equation

8.2.1 Venturimeter
Figure shows a venturimeter used to measure
flow speed in a pipe of non-uniform cross-
section. We apply Bernoulli’s equation to the h
wide (point 1) and narrow (point 2) parts of
the pipe, with h1 = h2
1 1
P1 + ρv12 = P2 + ρv 22 p1
2 2
p2
A1 v1
From the continuity equation v 2 = v1 v2
A2
A2

Substituting and rearranging, H A1

Venturimeter
1  A2 
we get P1 − P2 = ρv12  1 − 1  …(i) Figure 9.42
2  A2 
 2 
The pressure difference is also equal to rgh, where h is the difference in liquid level in the two tubes.

2gh
Substituting in equation (i), we get v1 =
2
 A1 
  − 1
 A2 

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

Because A1 is greater than A2, v2 is greater than v1 and hence the pressure P2 is less than P1.

dV 2gh
The discharge or volume flow rate can be obtained as, = A=
1 v1 A1
dt  A1 
2

 A  − 1
 2
Anurag Saraf (JEE 2011, AIR 226)
 P hysi cs | 9.21

9. TORRICELLI’S THEOREM
It states that the velocity of efflux of a liquid through an orifice is
equal to that velocity which a body would attain in falling from a
height from the free surface of a liquid to the orifice. If h is the height
of the orifice below the free surface of a liquid and g is acceleration
due to gravity, the velocity of efflux of liquid = v= 2gh . Total energy
per unit volume of the liquid at the surface = KE + PE + Pressure
energy = 0 + rgh + P0 ...(i)

and total energy per unit volume at the orifice = KE + PE + Pressure

1 Figure 9.43
energy = ρv 2 + 0 + P0
2
Since total energy of the liquid must remain constant in steady flow, in accordance with Bernoulli’s equation,
1 2
we have rgh + P0 = ρv + P0 or v= 2gh
2
Range = velocity × time ; R = Vx × time = 2gh × 1

1 2 2(H − h)
Now, H–h= gt ⇒ t = . From equation (i),
2 g

2(H − h)
R= 2gh × = 2h × 2(H − h) × h(H − h)2
g

\ =R 2 h(H − h)

dR H − 2h H
Range is max. if = 0 ⇒2× 0 ⇒ H – 2h = 0 ⇒ h =
=
dh 2 h(H − h) 2

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

R h = RH – h

Rh = 2 h(H − h)

RH–h = 2 h(H − h)
i.e. Range would be the same when the hole is at a
height h
or at a height H – h from the ground or from the top
of the beaker.
H Figure 9.44
R is maximum at h = and Rmax =H.
2
Vijay Senapathi (JEE 2011, AIR 71)
 9 . 2 2 | Fluid Mechanics

9.1 An Expression for the Force Experienced by the Vessel

The force experienced by the vessel from which liquid is coming out.
dp d d
F= (Rate of change of momentum) = (mv) = (ρAvtv)
dt dt dt

F = ρAv 2 Where ρ = It is the density of the liquid.

A = It is the area of hole through which liquid is coming out.

9.2 Time taken to Empty a Tank

Consider a tank filled with a liquid of density ρ up to a height H. A small hole of area of cross section a is made at
the bottom of the tank. The area of cross-section of the tank is A.
Let at some instant of time the level of liquid in the tank be y. Velocity of efflux at this instant of time would be,
v = 2gy .

 dV 
At this instant volume of liquid coming out of the hole per second is  1  .
 dt 
 dV 
Volume of liquid coming down in the tank per second is  2  .
 dt 
t 0
dV1 dV2  dy   dy  A −1/2
dt
=
dt
; \ av
 dt 
= A  −  Or
= A  −  ∴ a 2gy
 dt 
∫ dt = − ∫y
a 2g H
dy
0

2A A 2H
∴t = [ y ]H0 =
a 2g a g

Illustration 25: A tank is filled with a liquid up to a height H. A small hole is made at the bottom of this tank. Let t1
be the time taken to empty first half of the tank and t2 the time taken to empty rest half of the tank.
t1
Then find . (JEE MAIN)
t2

Sol: This problem needs to be solved by method of integration.

Substituting the proper limit in equation (i), derived in the theory, we have
t1
A H/2 −1/2 2A 2A  H
∫ dt = −
a
∫
2g H
y dy Or t1 =
a 2g
y ]H
[= H/2
Or  H−
a 2g 

2 
0

A H
Or t1
= ( 2 − 1)  …(ii)
a g

t2 A 0 A H
Similarly ∫0 dt = − ∫ y
−1/2
dy Or t2 =  ... (iii)
a 2g H/2 a g

t1 t1
From equations (ii) and (iii), we get = 2 − 1 Or = 0.414
t2 t2
 P hysi cs | 9.23

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

From here we see that t1< t2. This is because inititally the pressure is high and the liquid comes out with
greater speed.
Ankit Rathore (JEE Advanced 2013, AIR 158)

10. VISCOSITY
When a liquid moves slowly and steadily on a horizontal surface, its layer in contact with the fixed surface is
stationary and the velocity of the layers increase with the distance from the fixed surface.
Consider two layers CD and MN of a liquid at distances x and x + dx from the fixed surface AB having velocities v
 dv 
and v + dv respectively as shown in the figure. Here   denotes the rate of change of velocity with distance and
 dx 
is known as velocity gradient. The tendency of the upper layer is to accelerate the motion and the lower layer tries
to retard the motion of upper layer. The two layers together tend to destroy their relative motion as if there is some
backward dragging force acting tangentially on the layers. To maintain the motion, an external force is applied to
overcome this backward drag.
Hence the property of a liquid virtue of which it opposes the relative motion between its different layers is
known as viscosity.
dv
The viscous force is given by F = −ηA
dx
Where η is a constant, called the coefficient of viscosity.
The SI unit of η is N-s/m2. It is also called decapoise or Pascal second. Thus,
1 decapoise = N-s/m2 = 1 Pa-s = 10 poise.
Dimensions of h are [ML-1T-1]
Figure 9.45

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

The negative sign in the above equation shows that the direction of viscous force F is opposite to the
direction of relative velocity of the layer.
Viscous force depends upon the velocity gradient whereas the mechanical frictional force is independent
of the velocity gradient.
Vaibhav Gupta (JEE 2009, AIR 54)

10.1 Effect of Temperature

In case of liquids, coefficient of viscosity decreases with increase of temperature as the cohesive forces decrease
with increase of temperature.

Illustration 26: A plate of area 2 m2 is made to move horizontally with a speed of 2 m/s by applying a horizontal
tangential force over the free surface of a liquid. The depth of the liquid is 1 m and the liquid in contact with the
bed is stationary. Coefficient of viscosity of liquid is 0.01 poise. Find the tangential force needed to move the plate.
 (JEE MAIN)
9 . 2 4 | Fluid Mechanics

Sol: Apply the Newton’s formula for the frictional force between two layers v=2 m/s
of a liquid. F
∆v 2−0 m/s
Velocity gradient = = =2 1m
∆y 1−0 m
From Newton’s law of viscous force,
∆v
|F| = ηA = (0.01 × 10-1)(2)(2) = 4 × 10-3 N. Figure 9.46
∆y
So, to keep the plate moving, a force of 4 × 10-3 N must be applied.

10.2 Stokes’ Law and Terminal Velocity

Stokes established that the resistive force or F, due
to the viscous drag, for a spherical body of radius r,
moving with velocity V, in a medium of coefficient of
viscosity η is given by
F = 6 pη rV

Mg

Figure 9.47

10.3.1 An Experiment for Terminal Velocity

Consider an established spherical body of radius r and density ρ falling freely from rest under gravity through a
fluid of density σ and coefficient of viscosity η. When the body acquires the terminal velocity V
W = Ft+ 6πηrV ;

4 2 r 2 (ρ − σ)g
6πηrV= πpr3 (ρ − σ)g ⇒ V =
3 9 η

Note: From the above expression we can see that terminal velocity of a spherical body is directly proportional to
the densities of the body and the fluid (ρ – σ). If the density of the fluid is greater than that of the body (.i.e. σ>ρ),
the terminal velocity is negative. This means that the body instead of falling, moves upward. This is why air bubbles
rise up in water.

Illustration 28: Two spherical raindrops of equal size are falling vertically through air with a terminal velocity of
1 m/s. What would be the terminal speed if these two drops were to coalesce to form a large spherical drop?

 (JEE MAIN)
Sol: Use the formula for terminal velocity for spherical body.
vT ∝ r2. Let r be the radius of small rain drops and R the radius of large drop.

4 4 
Equating the volume, we have πR 2 = 2  πr 3 
3  3 
2
R vT 'R 
\ R = (2) . r
1/3
or = (2)1/3 \ =   = (2)2/3
r vT  r 

\ vT’ = (2)2/3 vT = (2)2/3 (1.0) m/s = 1.587 m/s.

 P hysi cs | 9.25

Illustration 29: An air bubble of diameter 2 mm rises steadily through a solution of density 1750 kg m-3 at the rate
of 0.35 cm s-1. Calculate the coefficient of viscosity of the solution. The density of air is negligible. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: As the air bubble rises with constant velocity, the net force on it is zero.
4 3
The force of buoyancy B is equal to the weight of the displaced liquid. Thus B = pr sg.
3
This force is upward. The viscous force acting downward is F = 6 π hrv.
The weight of the air bubble may be neglected as the density of air is small. For uniform velocity

4 3 2r 2 σg 2 × (1 × 10−3 m)2 × (1750 kg m−3 )(9.8 ms−2 )

F = B or, 6 phrv = pr σg or, η = = ≈ 11 poise .
3 9v 9 × (0.35 × 10−2 ms−1 )
This appears to be a highly viscous liquid.

10.3 Stream Line Flow

When liquid flows in such a way that the velocity at a particular point is
the same in magnitude as well as in direction. As shown in figure every
molecule should have the same velocity at A, if it crossed from that point.
Notice that the velocity at the point B will be different from that of A.
But every molecule which reaches at the point B, gets the velocity of the
point B.
Figure 9.48

10.4 Turbulent Flow

When the motion of a particle at any point varies rapidly in magnitude and direction, the flow is said to be
turbulent or beyond critical velocity. If the paths and velocities of particles change continuously and haphazardly,
then the flow is called turbulent flow.

10.5 Critical Velocity and Reynolds Number

When a fluid flows in a tube with small velocity, the flow is steady. As the velocity is gradually increased, at one
stage the flow becomes turbulent. The largest velocity which allows a steady flow is called the critical velocity.
Whether the flow will be steady or turbulent mainly depends on the density, velocity and the coefficient of viscosity
ρvD
of the fluid as well as the diameter of the tube through which the fluid is flowing. The quantity N = is called
η
the Reynolds number and plays a key role in determining the nature of flow. It is found that if the Reynolds number
is less than 2000, the flow is steady. If it is greater than 3000, the flow is turbulent. If it is between 2000 and 3000,
the flow is unstable.

11. SURFACE TENSION

The properties of a surface are quite often marked different from the properties of
the bulk material. A molecule well inside a body is surrounded by similar particles
from all sides. But a molecule on the surface has particles of one type on one side
and of a different type on the other side. Figure shows an example: A molecule of
water well inside the bulk experiences force from water molecules from all sides,
but a molecule at the surface interacts with air molecules from above and water
molecules from below. This asymmetric force distribution is responsible for surface
tension.
A surface layer is approximately 10-15 molecular diameters. The force between two
molecules decreases as the separation between them increases. The force becomes Figure 9.49
9 . 2 6 | Fluid Mechanics

negligible if the separation exceeds 10-15 molecular diameters. Thus, if we go 10-15

molecular diameters deep, a molecule finds equal forces from all directions.
Imagine a line AB drawn on the surface of a liquid (figure). The line divides the surface
in two parts, surface on one side and the surface on the other side of the line. Let us
call them surface to the left of the line and surface to the right of the line. It is found
that the two parts of the surface pull each other with a force proportional to the
length of the line AB. These forces of pull are perpendicular to the line separating the
two parts and are tangential to the surface. In this respect the surface of the liquid
behave like a stretched rubber sheet. The rubber sheet which is stretched from all
sides is in the state of tension. Any part of the sheet pulls the adjacent part towards
itself.
Figure 9.50
Let F be the common magnitude of the forces exerted on each other by the two parts
of the surface across a line of length  . We define the surface tension T of the liquid as T = F/ 
The SI unit of surface tension is N/m.
Note: The surface tension of a particular liquid usually decreases as temperature increases. To wash clothing
thoroughly, water must be forced through the tiny spaces between the fibers. This requires increasing the surface
area of the water, which is difficult to do because of surface tension. Hence, hot water and soapy water is better
for washing.

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

Surface tension acts over the free surface of a liquid only and not within the interior of the liquid.
Due to surface tension the insects can walk on liquid surface.
Vaibhav Krishnan (JEE 2009, AIR 22)

Illustration 30: Calculate the force required to take away a flat circular plate of radius 4 cm from the surface of
water, surface tension of water being 75 dyne cm-1.  (JEE MAIN)

Sol: Force = Surface tension×length of the surface

Length of the surface = circumference of the circular plate = 2pr = (8π) cm
Required force = T × L = 72 × 8π = 1810 dyne.

12. SURFACE ENERGY

When the surface area of a liquid is increased, the molecules from the interior rise to
the surface. This requires work against force of attraction of the molecules just below
the surface. This work is stored in the form of potential energy. Thus, the molecules in
the surface have some additional energy due to their position. This additional energy
per unit area of the surface is called ‘surface energy’. The surface energy is related to the
surface tension as discussed below:
Let a liquid film be formed on a wire frame and a straight wire of length  can slide on
this wire frame as shown in figure. The film has two surfaces and both the surfaces are in Figure 9.51
contact with the sliding wire and hence, exert forces of surface tension on it. If T be the
surface tension of the solution, each surface will pull the wire parallel to itself with a force T  . Thus, net force on
the wire due to both the surfaces is 2T  . One has to apply an external force F equal and opposite to it to keep the
wire in equilibrium. Thus, F = 2T 
 P hysi cs | 9.27

Now, suppose the wire is moved through a small distance dx, the work done by the force is,
dW = F dx = (2T  )dx
But (2  )(dx) is the total increase in the area of both the surfaces of the film. Let it be dA. Then,
dW
dW = T da or T =
dA
Thus, the surface tension T can also be defined as the work done in increasing the surface area by unity. Further,
since there is no change in kinetic energy, the work done by the external force is stored as the potential energy of
the new surface.
dU
∴T= (as dW = dU)
dA
Thus, the surface tension of a liquid is equal to the surface energy per unit surface area.

Illustration 31: How much work will be done in increasing the diameter of a soap bubble from 2 cm to 5 cm?
Surface tension of soap solution is 3.0 × 10-2 N/m. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: Work done will be equal to the increase in the surface porential energy, which is surface tension multiplied by
increase in area of surface of liquid.
Soap bubble has two surfaces. Hence, W = T ∆A
Here, ∆A = 2[4p{(2.5×10–2)2 – (1.0×10–2)2}] = 1.32 × 10-2 m2
W = (3.0×10–2)(1.32×10–2)J = 3.96×10–4J

Illustration 32: Calculate the energy released when 1000 small water drops each of same radius 10–7m coalesce to
form one large drop. The surface tension of water is 7.0×10-2 N/m.  (JEE MAIN)

Sol: Energy released will be equal to the loss in surface potential energy.
Let r be the radius of smaller drops and R of bigger one.
4 3 4 
Equating the initial and final volumes, we have πR = (1000)  πr 3 
3 3 
R = 10r = (10)(10–7) m = 10-6 m. Further, the water drops have only one free surface. Therefore,
∆A = 4pR2 – (1000)(4pr2) = 4p[(10–6)2 – (103)(10–7)2] = –36π(10–12)m2
Here, negative sign implies that surface area is decreasing. Hence, energy is released in the process.
U = T[∆A] = (7×10–2)(36p×10–12)J = 7.9×10–12J

13. EXCESS PRESSURE

The pressure inside a liquid drop or a soap bubble must be in excess of the pressure outside the bubble drop
because without such pressure difference, a drop or a bubble cannot be in stable equilibrium. Due to the surface
tension, the drop or bubble has got the tendency to contract and disappear altogether. To balance this, there must
be excess of pressure inside the bubble.
9 . 2 8 | Fluid Mechanics

13.1 Excess Pressure Inside a Drop

Figure 9.52

To obtain a relation between the excess of pressure and the surface tension, consider a water drop of radius r and
surface tension T. Divide the drop into two halves by a horizontal passing through its centre as shown in figure and
consider the equilibrium of one-half, say, the upper half. The force acting on it are:
(a) Force due to surface tension distributed along the circumference of the section.
(b) Outward thrust on elementary areas of it due to excess pressure.
Obviously, both the types of forces are distributed. The first type of distributed forces combine into a force of
magnitude 2pr×T. To find the resultant of the other type of distributed forces, consider an elementary area DS of
the surface. The outward thrust on DS = pDS where p is the excess of the pressure inside the bubble. If this thrust
makes an angle θ with the vertical, then it is equivalent to DSp cos θ along the vertical and DSp sin θ along the
horizontal. The resolved component DSp sin θ is infective as it is perpendicular to the resultant force due to surface
tension. The resolved component DSp cos θ is equal to balancing the force due to surface tension
The resultant outward thrust = ΣDSp cos θ = pΣDS cos θ = pΣDS cos q = pΣDS’
where DS’ = DS cos θ = area of the projection of DS on the horizontal dividing plane
= p × pr2 (  DS’ = pr2)
2T
For equilibrium of the bubble we have pr2 p = 2pr T or p =
r

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

If we have an air bubble inside a liquid, a single surface is formed.

There is air on the concave side and liquid on the convex side.
The pressure in the concave side (that is in the air) is greater than P2
P1
2T
the pressure in the convex side (that is in the liquid) by an amount .
R
2T
∴ P2 − P1 = Figure 9.53
R

Nivvedan (JEE 2009, AIR 113)

13.2 Excess Pressure Inside Soap Bubble

A soap bubble consists of two spherical surface films with a thin layer of liquid between them. P'− P1 =
2S / R where
R is the radius of the bubble.
 P hysi cs | 9.29

As the thickness of the bubble is small on a macroscopic scale, the difference in the radii P1
of the two surfaces will be negligible.
P’
Similarly, looking at the inner surface, the air is on the concave side of the surface, hence
P2 − P' = 2S / R . Adding the two equations, P2 − P1 = 4S / R P2

Illustration 33: What should be the pressure inside a small air bubble of 0.1 mm radius
situated just below the water surface? Surface tension of water = 7.2×10 –2 N/m and
atmospheric pressure = 1.013 ×105 N/m2. 
 (JEE MAIN) Figure 9.54

Sol: Pressure inside the air bubble is larger than that outside it by amount 2T/R, where T is surface tension and R
is its radius.
Surface tension of water T = 7.2×10–2 N/m; Radius of air bubble R = 0.1 mm = 10–4 m
2T
The excess pressure inside the air bubble is given by, P2 – P1 =
R
2T
∴ Pressure inside the air bubble, P2 = P1 + ; Substituting the values, we have,
R
(2 × 7.2 × 10−2 )
P2 = (1.013×105) + = 1.027 × 105 N/m2
10−4
Illustration 34: A 0.02 cm liquid column balances the excess pressure inside a soap bubble of radius 7.5 mm.
Determine the density of the liquid. Surface tension of soap solution = 0.03 Nm–1. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: Pressure inside the soap bubble is larger than that outside it by amount 4T/R, where T is surface tension and
R is its radius. Gauge pressure of liquid column is ρgh where symbols have the usual meaning.
4 × 0.03Nm−1
The excess pressure inside a soap bubble is DP = 4S/R = = 16 Nm–2
7.5 × 10−3 m
The pressure due to 0.02 cm of the liquid column is P = hrg = (0.02 × 10–2 m) ρ (9.8 ms–2)
Thus, 16 N m–2 = (0.02 × 10–2 m) ρ (9.8 ms–2); ρ = 9.2 × 103 kg m–3.

14. CAPILLARY ACTION

When a glass tube of very fine bore called a capillary tube is dipped in a liquid
(like water), the liquid immediately rises into it due to the surface tension. The
phenomenon of rise of a liquid in a narrow tube is known as capillarity.
Suppose that a capillary tube of radius r is dipped vertically in a liquid. The liquid
surface meets the wall of the tube at some inclination θ called the angle of contact.
Due to surface tension, a force, ∆  T acts on an element ∆  of the circle of contact
along which the liquid surface meets the solid surface and it is tangential to the
liquid surface at inclination θ to the wall of the tube. (The liquid on the wall of
the tube exerts this force. The tube also exerts the same force on the liquid in
the opposite direction.) Resolving this latter force along and perpendicular to the
wall of the tube, we have ∆  Tcosθ along the tube vertically upwards and ∆  Tsinθ Figure 9.55
perpendicular to the wall. The latter component is ineffective. It simply comes the
liquid against the wall of the tube. The vertical component ∆  Tcos θ pulls the liquid up the tube.
The total vertical upward force = Σ∆  T cos θ = T cos qΣD  = T cosθ.2pr (  ΣD  = 2pr). Because of this upward
pull liquid rises up in the capillary tube till it is balanced by the downward gravitational pull. If h is the height of the
liquid column in the tube up to the bottom, the gravitational pull, i.e. weight of the liquid inside the tube is (pr2 h
+ V)rg, where V is the volume of the liquid in meniscus. For equilibrium of the liquid column in the tube 2prT cos
θ = (pr2h + V)rg
9 . 3 0 | Fluid Mechanics

2T cos θ
If value of the liquid in meniscus is negligible then, 2prT cos θ = (pr2h )rg; h =
rρg
The small volume of the liquid above the horizontal plane through the lowest point of the meniscus can be
calculated if θ is given or known. For pure water and glass θ = 0º and hence the meniscus is hemispherical.
\ V = volume of the cylinder of height r – volume of hemisphere.
1 4π 3 2 1
πr3 −
= r = πr3 − πr3 = πr3
2 3 3 3
3
 πr 
\ For water and glass 2πrT = πr 2h +  ρg
 3

 r 2T r
2T = r  h +  ρg ⇒ = h −
 3  rρg 3
For a given liquid and solid at a given place as ρ, T, θ and g are constant, \ hr = constant
i.e. lesser t the radius of capillary greater will be the rise and vice-versa.

Illustration 36: A capillary tube of radius 0.20 mm is dipped vertically in water. Find the height of the water
column raised in the tube. Surface tension of water = 0.075 N m –1 and density of water = 1000 kg m–3. Take
g = 10 m s–2. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: Use the formula for height of the liquid in the capillary.
2S cos θ 2 × 0.075 N m−1 × 1
We have, h= = = 0.075 m = 7.5 cm.
rρg (0.20 × 10−3 m) × (1000 kg m−3 )(10 m s−2 )

PROBLEM SOLVING TACTICS

(a) Suppose two liquids of densities r1 and r2 having masses m1 and m2 are mixed together.

(m1 + m2 )
Then the density of the mixture will be =
 m1 m2 
 + 
 ρ1 ρ2 

If two liquids of densities r1 and r2 having volume V1 and V2 are mixed, then the density of the mixture will be

ρ1 V1 + ρ2 V2
.
V1 + V2

(b) When solving questions on Bernoulli’s always assume a reference level and calculate the heights from the
reference level.
 P hysi cs | 9.31

FORMULAE SHEET
Fluid Statics:
mass
 1. Density = , S.I. units: kg/m3
volume
Ratio of its density
2. Specific gravity / Relative density / Specific density = ,
Ratio of density of water at 4º C
S.I. units: No units

3. If two liquids of volume V1 and V2 and densities d1 and d2 respectively are mixed then the density d of the
V d + V2d2 d + d2
mixture is d = 1 1 ; If V1 = V2 then d = 1
V1 + V2 2

4. If two liquids of densities d1 and d2 and masses m1 and m2 respectively are mixed together,
m1 + m2 2d1d2
then the density d of the mixture is d = ; if m1 = m2 then d =
m1 m2 d1 + d2
+
d1 d2
Normal component of force f
5. Pressure = = , S.I. units: N/m2, Pa
Area on which force acts A

6. Pressure P acting at the bottom of an open fluid column of height h and density d is

= 1.013 × 105 Pa = 1.013 × 105 Pa = 1.013 × 106 dynes/cm2= 76 cm of Hg = 760 torr = 1.013 bars.

Pa P = Pa + hdg dp
=sg
dh
(As h increases
Pv h Absolute Atmospheric
P increases)
pressure pressure

Figure 9.56

P – Pa = hdg
gauge pressure = absolute – atmospheric pressure.

7.

Figure 9.57

Area of smaller piston, a; area of larger piston, A, f is applied on the smaller piston
F f
Force F developed on the larger piston =
A a
9 . 3 2 | Fluid Mechanics

fA
\ F=
a
8. Beaker is accelerated in horizontal direction

Figure 9.58

9. Beaker is accelerated and it has components of acceleration ax, and ay in x and y directions respectively.

ay

y ay

Figure 9.59

dP
P increases with depth → = p(g + ay)
dy
P is the density of the fluid.
dP
ρ is the density of the fluid. = −pax
dx
 
10. Buoyant force F = V1ρ1 (g − a)

V1 = immersed volume of liquid

r1 = density of liquid
g = acceleration due to gravity
a = acceleration of body dipped inside liquid.

11. Body floats when Buoyant force balances the weight of the body.

Viρ2g = Vb ρb g
 Buoyant   Weight 
 force   of body 
   

Figure 9.60

Vb, rb = volume and density of body.

Vi = Volume of the immersed part of body.
 P hysi cs | 9.33

r2 = density of liquid.
Vi ρb
Fraction of volume immersed =
ρ2 Vb
Vi ρ
% of volume immersed × 100 = b ×100.
Vb ρ2

12. Apparent weight of a body inside a fluid is Wapp = Wact – Upthrust

   Wapp = Vbg (rb – r2)
Vb, db = volume and density of body.
Vi = Volume of the immersed part of body.
r2 = density of liquid.
13. General equation of continuity
ρ2 A2 V2 Generally r1 = r2 i.e., density is uniform.
ρ1 A1 V1 =

A1& A2 are area of cross-section at point P and Q.
V1& V2 are velocities of the fluid at point P and Q.
14. Bernoulli’s Equation Figure 9.61
1 1
P1 + ρgh1 + ρV12= P2 + ρgh2 + ρV22
2 2

i.e.,

at that point from the reference level

dV
15. Volumetric flow Q = Aν = A – Area of cross section; ν – Velocity; V– Volume
dt
m3
S.I. unit =
S

16. Torricelli Theorem:

V = 2gh
height
velocity of
efflux

Figure 9.62
9 . 3 4 | Fluid Mechanics

Range
= R 2 h(H − h)

H
Range is maximum at h = and Rmax = H
2
Ab – Area of orifice
A – Area of cross-section of the container.
A 2
Time taken to fall from H1 to H2 = t ×
A0 g
dv
17. Viscous Force F = ηA
dy
↓
coefficient of viscosity
L – Length of pipe
P1 and P2 are pressure at two ends of pipe.
R – Radius of pipe.
When liquid is flowing through a tube, velocity of flow of a liquid at distance from the axis.

=V
4
P
η L
( )
r 2 − x2 . Velocity distribution curve is a parabola.

18. Stoke’s Law: Formula for the viscous force on a sphere

F = 6phrv (η – coefficient of viscosity)

(r – radius of sphere)
(v – velocity of sphere)
2 2 (ρ − σ)g
VT = r (ρ – density of sphere)
9 η
(∝ – density of fluid)
19. Surface Tension

Figure 9.63

20. Surface Energy: dW = TdA

dV Surface energy
Surface Tension=
T =
dA Area

21. Pressure inside the soap bubble is P, then

4T
P – P0 =
R
 P hysi cs | 9.35

22. Air Bubble Inside a Liquid

Figure 9.64

R – radius of bubble
T – surface tension force

23. Capillary Rise

2T cos θ
h= r = is the radius of capillary tube
rρg

θ = angle of contact

Solved Examples

JEE Main/Boards
Example 1: For the arrangement shown in the figure. Sol: Level of liquid will rise or fall depending on the
What is the density of oil? density of the solid.
Let M = Mass of the floating solid.
C r1 = density of liquid formed by the melting of the solid.
d=12.3 mm
d=12.3mm
Oil r2= density of the liquid in which the solid is floating.
The mass of liquid displaced by the solid is M. Hence,
M
the volume of liquid displaced is . When the solid
 = 135 mm ρ2
M
B melts, the volume occupied by it is . Hence, the level
ρ1
Water of liquid in container will rise or fall according as
M M
− is less than or greater than zero.
ρ2 ρ1
Sol: Pressure will be same at all points at the same
⇒ rises for ρ1 < ρ2
height in the same liquid.
⇒ falls for ρ1 > ρ2
P0 + rw gl = P0 + roil (  + d)g
There will be no change in the level if the level if r1 =
ρw  1000.(135) r2. In case of ice floating in water r1 = r2 and hence, the
⇒ ρoil
= = = 916 kg / m3
 + d (135 + 12.3) level of water remains unchanged when ice melts.

Example 2: A solid floats in a liquid of different material. Example 3: An iron casting containing a number of
Carry out an analysis to see whether the level of liquid cavities weighs 6000 N in air and 4000 N in water. What
in the container will rise or fall when the solid melts.