EFFECT OF END DISTANCE ON THE BEARING STRENGTH PARALLEL TO

THE GRAIN OF KAWAYAN TINIK (Bambusa blumeana Schult.f.)

THERIZA CAMILLE YABUT GELUZ

SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND AGRO-INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES LOS BAÑOS
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

MAY 2019

This thesis manuscript can be accessed:

By the general public YES

Only after consultation with the author/ thesis adviser -
Only by those bounded by confidentiality agreement -

Signature of Student: ___________________

Signature of Adviser: ___________________
 The thesis report attached hereto, entitled “EFFECT OF END DISTANCE ON

THE BEARING STRENGTH PARALLEL TO THE GRAIN OF KAWAYAN

TINIK (Bambusa blumeana Schult.f.)” prepared and submitted by THERIZA

CAMILLE YABUT GELUZ in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING, is hereby accepted.

_________________________________ _________________________________
RICHELLE G. ZAFRA TIMOTHY M. BERTIZ
Member Member
Guidance Committee Guidance Committee
_______________ _______________
Date Signed Date Signed

_________________________________
ARIEL MIGUEL M. ARAGONCILLO
Adviser and Chair
Guidance Committee
_______________
Date Signed

_________________________________
RICHELLE G. ZAFRA
Chair
Department of Civil Engineering
_______________
Date Signed

_________________________________
ARNOLD R. ELEPAÑO
Dean
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology
_______________
Date Signed
 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

The author, Theriza Camille Y. Geluz, is the

youngest child of Imaculada Concepcion Geluz and

Teddy Geluz. She was born on January 12, 1998 in

Calamba City, Laguna but later resided in Cainta, Rizal.

She attended pre-school at Merry Bells Pre-school and

finish her primary education at St. Scholastica’s

Academy-Marikina. She continued her secondary

education at the same school and graduated in 2014.

As an aspiring artist, her initial plan was to pursue Fine Arts Major in Advertising

Arts. However, her desire to continue her father’s dream of becoming an engineer shifted

her goals to another track. She was given the chance to pursue the degree of Bachelor of

Science in Civil Engineering in the University of the Philippines Los Baños. and

throughout the years, learned to cope with challenges that tested her faith and patience.

Theriza is an active member of the University of the Philippines Los Baños

Astronomical Society (UPLB AstroSoc) and the Philippines Institute of Civil Engineers –

Student Chapter. She served as the Chief Liaisons Officer of UPLB AstroSoc in the

Academic Year 2018-2019 where she gained skills in management and marketing.

Through the help of her family, friends, and the faculty and personnel of the

department, she surpassed major hurdles of her college life.

THERIZA CAMILLE YABUT GELUZ

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, to the higher power that is above us all, to the Lord our God, thank you.

My faith might have been shaken for the past few years but, my Savior, You never failed

me. Our dear Lady of Manaoag, thank you for always guiding me towards the right path.

You have been giving me all the blessing that I know, in my heart, I don’t deserve it, but I

still thank Thee.

To my thesis adviser, Engr. Ariel M. Aragoncillo, thank you. Thank you for

pushing me to do better, for believing in me, and for keeping us sane just when everything

seems to fall apart. You never abandoned us, and I thank you for that sir.

To Mang Rodel, Ate Heidi, and Kuya Alex, thank you for all your help during our

data gathering. You have endured so much, and I hope that someday I can repay all the

good things that you done for me and for the rest of the students.

To my thesis group, James and Andrian, thank you. I could not have handled it all

on my own. Again, thank you and you know the rest.

To my CnY dormitory family: Cla, Ella, Dani, Hannah, Ate Selin, Ate Sarah, Ate

Aileen, Ate Carms, Maru-chan, Juls, and Tom the dog, thank you always having my back.

You will always be my home away from home.

To my best friends since grade school: Baba, Jamie, and Marga, thank you for

keeping in touch even if I am miles away from my first home. Thank you for sending weird

articles and links that make me laugh.

To my CE friends, and those who consider me as a true friend, thank you for being

my family and my support for the past few months. The last two years has been the best

iv
years of my college life and it is because of you. I wish you all the best and, please, keep

safe. Cheers to a brighter future that is ahead of us.

To my family, Kuya Pau, Mama Connie, and Papa Teddy, I love you all and thank

you. Thank you for all your support and sacrifices. This marks the first step in becoming

an engineer, and I hope I have made you proud and happy. Dear parents, your happiness is

the only gift that I’d like to receive on my graduation and for the rest of my life. I live to

serve the Lord and to take care of the family that He has given me. I love you all.

To my dog, Poco, even if you can’t read this, thank you my child. Who’s a good

dog? You are.

To my main man, James, thank you for everything. Thank you for believing in me

when no one else did. Thank you for the laughs and the cheesy pick-up lines which I

thought I’d never enjoy, but I did anyways. I hope that we’ll grow together and never apart.

Know that wherever life takes us, my heart will always be yours.

Lastly, to my Nanay Berta and my cousin Daniel, thank you everything. Nay, here’s

me fulfilling my promise. Niel, I can finally say that I made it. I hope I’m making you

proud up there. I miss you both and I love you. See you soon.

Thank you all and I promise to do better out there in the real world.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

TITLE PAGE i

APPROVAL PAGE ii

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS vi

LIST OF TABLES viii

LIST OF FIGURES ix

LIST OF APPENDICES xi

LIST OF APPENDIX TABLES xii

LIST OF APPENDIX FIGURES xiii

ABSTRACT xiv

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of the Study 1

1.2 Significance of the Study 4

1.3 Objectives of the Study 5

1.4 Scope and Limitations of the Study 5

1.5 Time and Place of the Study 6

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 7

2.1 Bamboo Plant 7

2.2 Advantages of Using Bamboo 9

2.3 Mechanical Properties of Bamboo 10

vi
 PAGE

2.4 Bearing Stress 10

2.5 Pin Shear Test 12

2.6 Past Related Studies 14

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 19

3.1 Sample Selection 19

3.2 Determination of Initial Moisture Content 19

3.3 Conditioning of Samples 20

3.4 Testing of the Specimen 22

3.5 Statistical Analysis 24

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 25

4.1 Observed Physical Properties of Kawayan Tinik 25

4.2 Observations from the Pin Shear Test 27

4.3 Statistical Analysis 35

5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 38

6. RECOMMENDATIONS 40

7. REFERENCES 42

APPENDICES 45

APPENDIX TABLES 49

APPENDIX FIGURES 62

vii
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

4-1 Data for obtaining moisture content of Trial 2 internode 26

samples.

4-2 Summary of the average bearing stress of internode specimens. 31

4-3 Summary of the average bearing stress of node specimens at 33

failure.

4-4 Summary of Two-Way ANOVA statistical analysis. 36

4-5 Summary of the One-Way ANOVA test on internode and node 36

trials.

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE

2-1 Structure of a bamboo culm. 7

2-2 The structure of a 6x6-millimeter bamboo specimen. 8

2-3 Failure modes shear, compression, and cleavage, caused by 11

axial force on steel bolt on bamboo.

2-4 Failure modes defined by standard definitions. 12

2-5 Short term bolt test with varying height of H = 40mm, 60mm, 13
and 80mm.

2-6 Set-up of equipment for full hole test. 13

2-7 Test configurations of EN383 standards(a) as the longitudinal 14

compression and (b) as the radial compression configuration

2-8 The different end distances of the samples for each specimen. 16

3-1 Sample selection in a full bamboo culm. 19

3-2 Samples from specimens for determination of actual moisture 20

content

3-3 Cutting of the top-part of bamboo culms into 168mm samples 21

using a radial arm saw

3-4 Fabricated u-shaped attachment for the universal testing 22

machine for pin shear test.

3-5 Drilling of hole using a 14 mm wood drill attachment and a 23

drill press.

4-1 Comparison of the approximate moisture content of each culm. 25

ix
FIGURE PAGE

4-2 Shear failure in specimen 3DI1. 28

4-3 Bearing and splitting failure in specimen 5DI1(left) and 29

6DI3(right).

4-4 Force vs Displacement graph of 5DI3 from Trapezium X. 30

4-5 Average bearing stress per end length of internode samples. 31

4-6 Bearing failure in specimen 5DN2 32

4-7 Average bearing stress per end length of node samples. 33

4-8 Graphical analysis of the relationship of bearing stress of node 34

and internode samples

x
 LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX PAGE
TABLE

A Sample Computation for the Initial Moisture Content 46

Determination

B Sample Computation for the Actual Moisture Content 47

Determination

C Sample Computation of Actual Bearing Stress 48

xi
 LIST OF APPENDIX TABLES

APPENDIX PAGE
TABLE

A Initial Moisture Content Determination 50

B Measurement of Dimensions of Specimens for Pin Shear Test 51

C Actual Moisture Content of Specimens 55

D Computation of Actual Bearing Stress 57

E Two-way Analysis of Variance with Replication 59

F One-way Analysis of Variance 61

xii
 LIST OF APPENDIX FIGURES

APPENDIX PAGE
FIGURE

A Force vs. Displacement Graphs of Specimen 63

B Scientific Name Verification 84

xiii
 ABSTRACT

GELUZ, THERIZA CAMILLE YABUT. College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial

Technology, University of the Philippines Los Baños. May 2019. Effect of End Distance
on the Bearing Strength of Kawayan Tinik (Bambusa blumeana Schult.f.)

Major Adviser: Engr. Ariel Miguel M. Aragoncillo

Bamboo is a renewable alternative resource that has remarkable mechanical

properties. Lack of standardization on the use of this material, however, remains to be the

drawback for its wide use in the construction industry. Therefore, to promote innovations

with this material, development of standards for bamboo connections is necessary. This

study focuses on the effect of end distance on the bearing strength parallel to the grain of

Kawayan Tinik by using the Pin Shear Test. The effect of presence of the node to the

bearing strength was also investigated and was later correlated to the end distance. Forty

specimens from the top-part of eight culms were cut to 14 times the diameter or 168 mm

and twenty samples were dedicated for each group of specimens-node and internode. The

chosen lengths were 3D, 4D, 5D, 6D, and 7D, where “D” is the diameter of the bolt and

the numbers preceding it are the multipliers for the increasing length. A controlled moisture

content of approximately 12 % was attained by oven drying method, and Pin Shear Test

was performed by using a U -shaped attachment, 12 mm diameter steel dowel, and the

Universal Testing Machine. Internode specimens had an average bearing stress ranging

from 42.52 MPa to 47.89 MPa, while node specimens had values ranging from 43.42 MPa

to 52.50 MPa. Results were analyzed using One-Way and Two-Way ANOVA, and it

xiv
showed that end distance and presence of the node do not have any significant effect on

the bearing strength of Kawayan Tinik.

xv
 1

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Bamboo is recognized as one of the most utilized resources in the world. Since it is

a fast-growing plant, bamboo is often seen as the main component of products and

resources in communities. The diversity and adaptability features of bamboo have caused

it to grow in varied locations. It is abundant in areas near the tropical belt, having its largest

population located in Asia (Lobovikov et al., 2007). With over a thousand species

discovered, different studies about the application of bamboo in engineering, science, art,

economics and other disciplines arise.

As a natural resource with a relatively fast growth rate, bamboo has been utilized

by manufacturers and people in unrestricted ways. In the Philippines, the use of bamboo is

very common especially in places where construction materials are limited. Bamboo is

used in manufacturing furniture, tiles, and fabric. It is also the main component in building

traditional houses. According to Bajera (2010), among the 1,000 species discovered in the

country, Giant Bamboo (Dendrocalamus asper), Bolo (Gigantochloa levis (Blanco)

Merr.), Kawayan Tinik (Bambusa blumeana Schultes), and Bambusa sp. are the most

suitable for industrial use. However, the lack of research and development on the

mechanical properties of these species have raised question on stability of the material. The

proper installation, indeed, increases the stability of the material, but guides on an efficient

mechanism for bamboo is yet to be established. To resolve this dilemma, the Department

of Science and Technology’s Forest Products Research and Development Institute (DOST-

1
 2

FPRDI) started developing standards in manufacturing bamboo products since 2015

(Araral, 2015). It aims to improve the quality of engineered bamboo for the ongoing e-

bamboo project of the government.

The economic growth of Asia-Pacific countries has been greatly affected by

bamboo sales. Due to the flexibility and wide range of uses of bamboo, countries with a

large area of bamboo plantation have engaged into worldwide trades with over 2.5 billion

people taking part in the market (Bystriakova et al., 2003). Handcrafted materials of

custom-based industries have helped in promoting patronage in local good, and as well as

providing livelihood for local communities. Advanced industries, on the other hand, boost

the gross national income by exporting authentic products at a fast rate. Although seen as

“poor man’s resource”, the flexibility of bamboo as a resource defies the mainstream

designs of this era.

In the construction industry, the commonly used materials are steel, cement and

wood due to their high strength, durability and other known characteristics. However,

increased number of land developments have raised the demand of these materials.

Availability and costs have been greatly affected, taking a toll on bids of construction firms.

Consequently, the need to establish an alternative building material has been raised. Ways

to effectively incorporate and utilize different natural resources as construction materials

have been established, and advancements in technology have made it possible to test

prospect resources. Bamboo is one of the natural resources that exhibits comparable

characteristics as to that of steel in relation to engineering (Awaludin, 2014). As a highly

renewable resource, the use of bamboo to the society, especially as an alternative in

construction, is widely recognized. It was found that durability is one of the weak points
 3

of bamboo, and preservation of the material remains to be the recognizable solution.

Providing protection against direct sunlight helps in preserving durability characteristics of

bamboo. Non-uniformity in the cross-section and low splitting strength factors in bamboo

can also be eliminated by transforming bamboo into glued-laminated products.

Sustainability of construction materials is one of the key factors in choosing and

designing a structure. Studies in standardization of design is essential as to establish a safe,

sustainable, and economical building design. Unlike steel and timber, standards in bamboo

lack information for some aspects. Studies about joining bamboos or bamboo

connection are limited. According to Sonar and Siddhaye (2008), a few publications have

been dedicated on bamboo joints. Most research have focused on construction of temporary

structures which lack emphasis on structural safety measures of joint design. Hence,

intensive studies on bamboo connections would trigger developments on traditional

bamboo structure, making it a competitive building method in the construction industry.

To analyze the factors involved in designing bamboo connections, various tests on

tension, compression, torsion and other forces can be performed. Janssen (1981) and

Harries et al. (2012) have established methods and models to understand the failure modes

in testing the mechanical properties of bamboo. In this study, Pin Shear Test was used in

investigating the effect of end distance to the bearing strength of Kawayan Tinik.

Observations can help in the development of standards for bamboo connections to promote

a safe and efficient way to maximizing the strength of this species.

 4

1.2 Significance of the Study

Traditionally built bamboo or kawayan structures are common in the Philippines.

From provincial bamboo houses to bamboo incorporated in modern structures, utilization

of this natural resource as a construction material has been rampant. However, old

techniques in constructing bamboo have hindered the competitiveness of the material. Lack

of knowledge in the different types of connections is addressed by conducting collective

studies on standardizing joint design for different types of connections. Improvements on

the mechanical properties of bamboo allow a more efficient use of this relatively cheap

material.

Kawayan Tinik or Bambusa blumeana is one of the most common species in the

Philippines. Innovations involving this material permit economic growth and conservation

of biodiversity. In order to successfully promote this species to both small scale and large-

scale projects, investigation on its mechanical properties is necessary. This study will help

in setting standards for maximizing the strength of Kawayan Tinik by identifying the

minimum end distance for bolted bamboo structures. The determination of the critical

distance, or the distance at which shear and bearing failure simultaneously occurs, will help

in the design of different connections. The study will also help communities build better

structures by spreading awareness on the possible failure modes of a specific connection.

 5

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of the study is to determine and analyze the effect of end

distance to the bearing strength of a single bolted bamboo connection. Specifically, the

study aims to:

1. Determine the bearing strength parallel to the grain of a single bolted bamboo culm

with end distances of 3D, 4D, 5D, 6D, and 7D;

2. Determine the bearing strength parallel to the grain of a single bolted bamboo culm

for node and internode specimens;

3. Determine the failure modes for the different end distances of the investigated

bamboo species; and

4. Analyze the effect of end distance and the presence of nodes on the bearing strength

through statistical analysis.

1.4 Scope and Limitations of the Study

The study was limited to testing the bamboo species, Kawayan Tinik or Bambusa

blumeana Schult.f. The parameters tested in the experiment were a.) distance of the center

of the bolt hole to the edge of the culm and b.) effect of the presence of node as the base of

the bamboo to the bearing capacity of Kawayan Tinik was also investigated.

A moisture content of 12% was used in approximating the final weight of the

specimens. The range of the actual moisture content was limited to 11% to 13%, and

samples having an actual moisture greater than the desired range were discarded to
 6

minimize effects due to moisture content. The bamboo standards, ISO 22157-1 and IS

6874:2008, were used as basis in determining the moisture content of the samples.

The age of the bamboo culms used was limited to the range of three to four years

old and were gathered at the same location. The samples used for testing belonged to the

top-part of the culms and were subjected to pin shear test following the testing standards

ASTM D5764-97a for the measurements. The measurements indicated in the testing

standard were followed, and a 12 mm diameter steel dowel was used due to the availability

of the material. A fabricated metal attachment was connected to the Universal Testing

Machine to allow a uniform distribution of the load on the two holes.

1.5 Time and Place of the Study

The study was conducted from October 2018 to March 2019, following standard

procedures performed at the Innovative Materials and Testing Laboratory, Department of

Civil Engineering, College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology, University of

the Philippines Los Baños, Laguna (UPLB). Kawayan Tinik was harvested in the bamboo

plantation located at Baranggay Tuntungin-Putho, Los Baños, Laguna.

 7

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Bamboo Plant

The structure of a bamboo differs from most woods due to the presence of nodes

and hollow part or the cavity. Figure 2-1 shows a cross-section of a typical bamboo with

the parts labelled as seen below.

Figure 2-1. Structure of a bamboo culm.

Source: Kaminski, Lawrance, & Trujillo, 2016

According to Janssen (2000), the microstructure of a bamboo sample shows a

denser layer near the outer part of the culm section. This layer protects the bamboo since

it is mostly composed of silica. Furthermore, decreasing dark spots as seen on Figure 2-2

are in fact cellulose fibers which are reinforcement that supports the structure. Fibers

7
 8

become more concentrated upon approaching the outer diameter since bamboos are

naturally subjected to lateral loads and movement. In general, a typical bamboo culm is

made up of 40% fibers, 10% vessels, and 50 % parenchyma (matrix where fibers in bamboo

are found) (Janssen, 2000).

Figure 2-2. The Structure of a 6 x 6-millimeter

bamboo specimen
Source: Janssen, 2000

On the other hand, observations made macroscopically have established

inconsistencies on the diameter, thickness and internodal region lengths (node to node

length). This variation also accounts for the relatively higher loads applied on the extreme

fiber of the bamboo (Sen & Reddy, 2011). Although successful germination of bamboo

was observed to be common in mild temperature areas, it still adapts well even on different

climates and soil conditions. It can withstand typhoons and other natural calamities, and

recover from damages (Lobovikov et al., 2005). It is a strong material with a fast growth

rate compared to common woods. Farrelly (2003) have stated that bamboo, as a fast-
 9

growing plant, was observed to grow up to about 1.2 meters per day. Hence, it is a popular

material in most industries and often treated as an alternative to timber.

2.2 Advantages of Using Bamboo

Bamboo is also considered as an eco-friendly material. The energy required in the

production of bamboo is 0.1% of the energy production demand of steel (Masdar et al.,

2014). In fact, the use of bamboo as construction material minimizes the rate of

consumption of energy from natural resources. Shifting to bamboo also helps in the

preservation of the forests and biodiversity (Bawer, 2015). The growth period of timber

typically reaches up to more than 20 years, and since timber is commonly used as a

structural element, large demands of this natural resource create adverse effects on forests.

As compared to the growing period of timber, bamboo can generally be harvested after

three years, which makes it an ideal alternative to timber (Tesoro & Epsiloy, 1988). Given

its favorable performance in construction, trading of bamboo has been competitive

especially in countries where this natural resource is abundant.

The economic growth of Asia-Pacific countries has been greatly affected by

bamboo sales. Due to the flexibility and wide range of uses of bamboo, countries with a

large area of bamboo plantation have engaged into worldwide trades with over 2.5 billion

people taking part in the market (Bystriakova et al., 2003).

Kawayan Tinik is one of the popularly used bamboo species in the Philippines

(Roxas, 2012). It is utilized not only as a common construction material, but it is also used

in manufacturing furniture. The shoot, locally known as Labong, is consumed by growers

especially in provinces where Kawayan Tinik is prominent.

 10

2.3 Mechanical Properties of Bamboo

Studies about the mechanical properties of bamboo have led to development and

treatment of unfavorable factors of the material. These properties are defined by the

spreading of fibers within the cross-section of the culm (Richard, 2013). Moreover, the

density of the specimen greatly depends on various factors namely the harvesting site,

species, and the part of the culm. The average density of bamboos ranges from 700 kg/m 3

to 800 kg/m . The modulus of elasticity, flexural strength, shear strength and tensile
3

strength are the properties tested to measure the effectiveness of bamboo as a structural

member.

2.4 Bearing Stress

Bearing stress is one of the three types of simple stress. It is defined as the stress

due to pressure upon contact (Singer & Pytel, 1980). According to Singer and Pytel (1980),

excessive stress due to bearing causes yielding or failure of the material, either the

connected material or the connection used. On bearing stress related to bamboo, several

researchers including Janssen (1981), Correal and Echeverry (2015), and Yu et al. (2017),

have investigated different mechanical properties affecting the bearing strength of their

chosen species of bamboo. Failure modes observed in dealing with bamboo were

categorized into three types: shear, bearing and splitting failure. In tests conducted by

Janssen (1981), failure modes were categorized into shear, compression and cleavage.

Figure 2-3 is an illustration of the transmission of stress by the steel bolt to the bolt hole of
 11

the bamboo. The arrows represent the distribution of stress that causes the corresponding

failure mode of the samples.

Figure 2-3. Failure modes shear, compression and cleavage, caused by axial
force on steel bolt on bamboo.
Source: Janssen, 1981

Other modes of failure observed and defined from experimental analyses are

illustrated in Figure 2-4. These failure modes are the typically observed failure of bamboo

namely splitting. Mode 1 failure, according to Richard (2013), is a type of failure under

flexure which causes splitting failure. Moreover, this mode often occurs at sections where

moment due to load is at high levels. Splitting (Mode I) observed on dried bamboo culms,

on the other hand, is related to the stresses acting perpendicular and parallel to the grain of

the material. The weak tensile strength of the fibers is not supported by the lignin matrix,

leaving the material more susceptible to splitting for direction perpendicular to the grain

(Richard, 2013).
 12

Figure 2-4. Failure modes defined by

standard definitions.
Source: Smith, Landis, and Gong., 2003

2.5 Pin Shear Test

Pin shear test, introduced by Janssen (1981), is a testing method used to identify

the bearing strength of bamboo pins. This test is conducted to measure the bearing strength

of bamboo connections and as well as the strength of the pin used in the connection. There

is no standard testing for the bearing strength in the ISO standard, making pin shear test

one of the possible methods in studying the bearing strength of bamboo connections. Figure

2-5 shows an example experimental set-up of pin shear test. In this test, a bamboo culm

specimen is subjected to an axial load until failure. A frame distributes the load to both

ends of the connected bolt, having a distance H from the bottom edge of the sample. For

the experiment conducted by Janssen (1981), the only variables are end distances to bolt

and the short- and long-term loading.

 13

Figure 2-5. Short term bolt test with varying height of H= 40 mm, 60 mm, and 80 mm
Source: Janssen, 1981

Standard testing of bearing strength is not mentioned in International

Standardization for Organization (ISO), therefore the alternative standard to be used is

ASTM D 5764-97a which is “Standard Test Method for Evaluating Dowel-Bearing

Strength of Wood and Wood-Base Products”. In this standard, full-hole and half-hole set-

ups can be done. The range of dimensions are also provided having a minimum length of

two times the dowel diameter or 38 millimeters, whichever is smaller, and a maximum of

four times the dowel diameter or 50 millimeters.

Figure 2-6. Set-up of equipment for full hole test

Source: Franke & Magnière, 2014
 14

A similar set-up can be adapted as seen from Santos et al. (2010). It can be observed

that the method used in Figure 2-6 and Figure 2-7 are more complex and detailed version

of Janssen’s pin shear test. In this study, the methodology of Santos et al. (2010) was used.

Figure 2-7. Test Configurations of EN383 Standards

(A) as the longitudinal compression and
(B) as the radial compression configuration.
Source: Santos, De Jesus, Morais, & Lousada, 2010

2.6 Past Related Studies

Bamboo is proven to be an exceptional substitute for conventional construction

materials for both large- and small-scale projects. It is a perfect alternative since it has a

low self-weight with a high strength characteristic (Masdar et al., 2014). This natural

product is also considered as one of the cheapest raw materials in the market. The selection

of products that can be produced from this material varies from structural elements for

architectural projects to products designed for art related industries (Tesoro & Epsiloy,

1988). Although seen as “poor man’s material”, bamboo utilization accounts for the

increasing demand for sustainable construction materials (Davies, 2008). The effects of the
 15

end distance, the bolt, and the reinforcement fibers are analyzed for standardization of test

methods and design parameters, to reveal the full potential of bamboo.

According to Harries et al. (2012), for bamboo to be recognized and to be widely

accepted as a construction material, standardization of methods in testing should be

implemented. A standardized testing method allows analysis of properties of the test

species and will allow adjustment and setting resistance factors, and application of the

standard test to the different species of bamboo. A series of test were developed by Harries,

Sharma, and Richard (2012). This included tests for compression, tension, bearing, and

other desired properties of the material. For the bearing capacity of a material, a bearing

test or pin shear test can be performed. In determining the ultimate bearing force that the

material can withstand, the standard procedure must be followed, which is obtaining the

force at an instant when the bolt is pushed to half the measurement of the bolt diameter. If

embedment of the bolt exceeds half the bolt diameter, splitting failure occurs (Sonar &

Siddhaye, 2009). Tests performed by Franke and Magniére (2014) involved two types of

set-up for samples subjected to axial load parallel to the grain. HH0-ASTM method or Half

Hole set-up using ASTM D5764-97a standard provides both the stiffness and the load 30%

more than the lowest load, while FH0-EN383 or Full Hole set-up using EN 383:2007

provides the lowest recorded load. Different methods of testing had an effect on the

bearing strength of the material even if the method of evaluation is unchanged (Franke &

Magniére, 2014). Since implementing a standard requires further investigation of the

properties of different species, bamboo, as construction material, is open for further

evaluation and innovations.

 16

The distance at which the bolt is fixed affects the bearing capacity of the bamboo.

However, Janssen (1981) revealed in his experiments that since the result is actually a

hybrid of the components shear, compression and cleavage, the inverse relationship

between the shear stress and the end distance to the bolt is hard to justify. Furthermore,

shear stress is unaffected by thickness of the bamboo. Jansen had studied the properties of

bamboo and even considered Bambusa blumeana Schult.f. or Kawayan Tinik in one of his

experiments. His publications served as references and bases of later researchers

worldwide. Masdar et al. (2014) affirmed that the modes of failure on a sample vary with

the measured lengths of the centroid of the bolt to the end of the culm. In their experiment,

all samples were subjected to axial load that is parallel to the grain. Two distances are

observed to have an effect on the culm, depending on the direction of the applied load with

respect to the orientation of the grain or strands of the bamboo. Three different lengths

were tested namely 3D, 5D and 6D.

Figure 2-8. The different end distances

for each specimen.
Source: Masdar, Suhendro, Siswosukarto & Sulistyo, 2014
 17

For bolts imbedded at a distance three times the diameter of the bolt (3D), shear

failure is observed. On the other hand, both shear and bearing failure occurs for bolts at a

distance 5D, and bearing failure is observed at immediate failure for bolts at 6D (Masdar

et al., 2014). This observation is parallel to the results of experiments by Yu et al. (2017)

and Janssen (1981). For the experiment done by Yu et al., the effect of end distance and

edge distance for samples subjected to loads parallel and perpendicular to the grain are both

investigated. Varying the horizontal distance of the bolt from the side of the panel yields

no significant change to the bearing capacity of the specimen under axial load parallel to

the grain. Similarly, the vertical distance of the bolt from the top of the panel does not

affect the bearing capacity of the specimen under axial load perpendicular to the grain (Yu

et al., 2017). End distances of 2D, 3D, 4D, 5D, 6D and 7D were tested for both parallel and

perpendicular to the grain. Samples, for panels under axial loaded parallel to the grain, with

vertical distances up to 4D from the top were observed to have similar failure modes, and

samples having a vertical distance greater than or equal to 5D are also observed to have

similar failure modes (Yu et al., 2017). On the other hand, research on the measurement of

the dowel-bearing strength of Guadua angustifolia Kunth bamboo was done by Correal

and Echeverry (2015). A sample under axial load parallel to the grain is elastic-plastic in

nature. The specimen subjected to this loading behaves linearly elastic with the

displacement form values of 2 mm up to 2.5 mm. After 2.5 mm, the specimen reaches its

yield point and a constant load is applied while the displacement continuously elevates

(Correal & Echeverry, 2015). These results confirm that tests on the end distance reveals

the nature of bamboo, specifically the specie Guadua angustifolia for their experiment.
 18

The property and characteristics of the bolt used in the connection affect the bearing

capacity and mode of failure of the specimen. In a study conducted by Sonar and Siddhaye

(2009), the varying parameters include the bolt diameter and the size of the bolt hole. These

parameters are correlated to other varying factors such as the end distance. Shearing failure

is observed when the end distance is smaller than the diameter of the bolt hole. Therefore,

in designing bamboo connections, an adequate end distance is applied such that shearing

failure is prevented while considering the bearing strength of the sample (Sonar &

Siddhaye, 2009). Moreover, Sonar and Siddhaye (2009) observed that the relationship of

the bolt diameter to the diameter of the bamboo is observed to have significant applications.

Increase in the ultimate failure stress at bearing failure is observed when the ratio between

diameter of the bamboo and the bolt diameter is increased. Consequently, increasing the

bolt diameter reduces the stress at bearing. Determination of parameters associated to

bearing failure is essential in design since the quality connection is dependent on the

bearing capacity. In a different study conducted by Salim et al. (2017), the number of bolts

used in the connection also affects the bearing capacity of the sample. The number of bolts

contributes to an observable increase bearing capacity of the sample. A half-spliced type

of connection with three bolts is observed to have withstand a load of 4.789kN which is

higher as compared to the load withstand using two bolts, 4.04kN (Salim et al., 2017).
 19

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Sample Selection

Specimens that were tested in this study are Kawayan Tinik harvested from the

plantation of Mr. Francisco Lopez located at Baranggay Tuntungin-Putho, Los Baños,

Laguna. The age of the bamboo ranges from three to four years old. The culm was cut a

meter above the ground, and cracks, deformation, or any signs of damage must be

investigated before collection. The bamboo was cut into parts-top, -middle, and -bottom,

but only the top section of the bamboo was used for the method of testing.

Figure 3-1. Sample selection in a full bamboo culm.

3.2 Determination of Initial Moisture Content

In order to determine the moisture content of the specimens, the procedures

indicated in ISO 22157-1 and IS 6874:2008 were followed. The previously prepared small

pieces were first weighed with the use of a balance, then oven dried for the next 24 hours

at 100 ֯C. After recording the 24-hour-oven dried weight, the sample was once again

weighed for an interval of not more than two hours. Once the weight stabilizes, or the

weight does not change for more than 0.01 g, the final weight was recorded as mo or oven

dried mass. The moisture content of the samples was then calculated as
 20

𝑚𝑖 −𝑚𝑜
%mc = × 100% (Equation 3-1)
𝑚𝑜

where:
% mc is the moisture content (%)
mi is the initial mass (g)
mo is the oven dried mass (g)

The obtained moisture content was used to identify the approximate weight where

moisture content is maintained within the range of 11 % to 13 %. The same procedure was

performed for the determination of moisture content for the test specimens.

Figure 3-2. Samples from specimens for determination of actual moisture content.

3.3 Conditioning of Samples

To have a uniform moisture content within the samples, the approximate weight

where the moisture is at 12% was determined. The bamboo specimens were cut accordance
 21

to ASTM D5764-97a which pertains to test on the dowel bearing strength on woods. Since

there are no standards for the identification of the bearing strength in ISO, the standard for

wood was used. The top part of the bamboo was separated from the culm and was cut to

samples having a standard length of 14D, where D is the diameter of the dowel. The dowel

used in the experiment was a Grade 60 (414 MPa) reinforced steel bar with 12 mm

diameter. Computing for the required length of the sample, 168 mm long specimens were

cut with a use of a radial arm saw for high precision. Five different end lengths of 3D, 4D,

5D, 6D, and 7D were tested, and two set of specimens having two different ends (with node

or internode) with four trials per length were prepared. Samples were labeled as multiplier

of diameter followed by “D” pertaining to the diameter of the dowel, then “N” for with

node or “I” for internode, and the numbers ranging from 1-4 for the test sample (4DN1).

Figure 3-3. Cutting of the top-part of bamboo culms into 168 mm samples using a radial
arm saw.
 22

3.4 Testing of the Specimen

In order to test the bearing strength of the Kawayan Tinik, the Universal Testing

Machine (UTM) at the Innovative Materials and Testing Laboratory of the Department of

Civil Engineering was used. A fabricated U-shaped frame, shown on Figure 3-4, was used

to transfer the axial loads to the dowels and to the bolt holes of the sample. It was made of

steel plates with a half diameter of the dowel on opposite sides. Two plates were also placed

below at the bottom in such a way that shearing of the sample was allowed. A digital caliper

was also used to measure the diameter and thickness of the bamboo at the bolt hole.

Figure 3-4. Fabricated U-shaped attachment for the universal testing

machine for pin shear test.

The samples were drilled at the desired length with a 14 mm wood drill attachment

for a mechanical drill. Figure 3-5 shows the process of making bolt holes for the 12 mm

diameter dowel. It was made sure that the samples were allowed to cool down before
 23

subjecting to it to the drill since freshly oven dried specimens tend to split and have cracks

when drilled.

Figure 3-5. Drilling of hole using a 14 mm wood

drill attachment and a drill press.

Application of the axial load was at 1 mm/ minute until failure of the tested member

occurs. The testing of the samples was recorded with a camera, and the graph shown during

testing time was also recorded. These were helpful in confirming the noted force at a

specific failure mode. The recorded force was noted as Fyield and the bearing strength was

computed depending on the failure of the specimen. Computing for the bearing stress of

the bamboo, the formula used was

𝐹𝑦
𝑓𝑏 = (Equation 3-2)
2𝑑𝑡

where:
fb is the bearing stress of the bamboo at bearing failure
Fy is yield load of the bamboo at failure of the specimen
d is the diameter of the dowel
t is the thickness of the bamboo
 24

For specimens under the shear mode of failure, shear stress was computed as

𝐹𝑦
𝑓𝑠 = (Equation 3-3)
2𝐿 (2𝑡𝑎𝑣𝑒 )

where:
fs is the bearing strength of the bamboo at shear failure
Fy is yield load at shear failure
L is the length of shear plane
tave is the average thickness of the bamboo

This formula was later on used for comparing the shear stress of samples under shear

failure to theoretical shear strength given by a previous study of the same species.

3.5 Statistical Analysis

To compare the bearing strength parallel to the grain of specimens with different

end distances, One – Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Two – Way Analysis of

Variance (ANOVA) with a confidence limit of 95% were performed. These analyses reflect

the effect of the independent variables – end lengths, node and internode ends - to the

dependent variable, bearing strength, of the study.

 25

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Observed Physical Properties of Kawayan Tinik

Upon gathering the approximate moisture content of each culm from the chips, the

obtained moisture contents of the eight bamboo culms were between 30 % to 60 %.

Supplemental data are given in Appendix Table A and computations for each moisture

content are also provided (see Appendix A). Figure 4-1 shows the comparison of the culms

with respect to their corresponding moisture content. The moisture content of each bamboo

samples was also observed to reflect on the surface of the culm. A wetter specimen can be

easily distinguished by the color, green to green-brown surface, and the dryness of the inner

diameter’s surface. Samples having nodal ends were observed to lose moisture slower than

internode samples, even during air drying.

70
60
Moisture Content(%)

50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Culm Number

Figure 4-1. Comparison of the approximate moisture

content of each culm.
 26

When the samples were placed in the oven at a temperature of 70˚C, the weight of

each samples dropped by at most ten grams per hour of oven-drying. However, it was

observed that oven-drying of samples that are near the estimated required weight resulted

to cracking along the cross-section. Air-drying the samples, on the other hand, requires a

longer duration to achieve the same decrease in weight. It took four hours to lose

approximately 10 grams per sample. Table 4-1 shows the mass required for 12 % moisture,

the actual oven-dried final mass, and the actual moisture content of the internode samples

of Trial 2 (see Appendix B for the sample computation).

Table 4-1. Data for obtaining moisture content of trial 2 internode samples.

MREQ @
ACTUAL
SAMPLES Mreqd (G) ACTUAL MC Mo (G)
MC (%)
(G)
3DI2 175.3124 176.2879 180.15 12.6232
4DI2 201.2671 201.9681 177.02 12.3901
5DI3 149.8926 150.3665 156.67 12.3541
6DI2 147.9019 147.1800 158.59 11.4533
7DI2 161.0298 162.8402 154.90 13.2592

Comparison between the experimental final weight (Mo), which is recorded in

Appendix Table C, and the estimated weight to 12 % (Mreqd) was made simply by

obtaining the expected mass at the moisture content obtained after testing of the samples.

This newly computed required mass was then analyzed and the percent error relative to the

final experimental mass was determined. It can be observed that the actual moisture content

is close to the desired value, 12 %. However, the experimental final weight is not consistent

with the estimated weight. Moreover, for sample 6DI2, the final weight before testing was
 27

greater than the estimated weight but the actual moisture content is below 12%. Although

for samples 3DI2 and 5DI2 the approximations were relatively close, the actual oven-dried

masses for a moisture within 11%-13 % for the rest of the samples were far from the

predicted weight. The moisture meter also does not give an accurate or estimated value of

MC, leaving limited ways on estimating the moisture content of Kawayan Tinik. Having a

controlled moisture are both guided by the approximation from the bamboo chips and by

physical investigation of each sample.

The thickness and diameter of the bamboo, as seen on Appendix Table B, were

measured individually for each sample. Four readings were taken, and the average was

computed and compared to specimens belonging to the same culm. It was observed that

the thickness varies along the length of the culm and as well as the diameter. No pattern

was seen for the thickness of the bamboo, and the diameters were relatively close.

However, the diameter of the top-part of the culm were observed to be smaller as compared

to the middle-part and the bottom-part of the culm. The slope of a bamboo also changes

along its length. Some samples, although were sawed to stand upright, were slanting a few

degrees from the vertical axis. This was very evident for a few samples with node ends.

4.2 Observations from the Pin Shear Test

Three failure modes were observed during the Pin Shear Test- shear failure, bearing

failure, and splitting failure. For internode samples, all modes of failure were encountered,

either simultaneously or consecutively. Distances of three- and four-times the bolt diameter

(or 3D and 4D) have exhibited similar mode of failure. A consistent shear failure that is

immediately followed by splitting was observed for all 3D samples, while a combination
 28

of shear and splitting failure was observed for all 4D samples. Figure 4-2 shows the shear

failure during the testing of sample 3DI1.

Sheared
Element

Figure 4-2. Shear failure in specimen 3DI1.

For samples having an end distance of 5D, a simultaneous bearing and splitting

failure was observed, while for 6D and 7D splitting failure was the observed governing

failure. Shear failure was not observed for the last three distances, and a relatively longer

testing time was observed for these samples. Figure 4-3 shows the typical bearing failure

encountered during testing of 5D samples. It can be seen that the length of embedment of

the dowel at this type of failure is longer or deeper as compared to the splitting failure that

is also shown in Figure 4-3.

 29

Figure 4-3. Bearing and splitting failure in specimen 5DI1(left) and 6DI3(right).

For specimens that exhibited bearing or embedment failure, it was observed that,

during testing, the failure occurs near the instance at which the value of the force slowly

starts to remain within almost the same value with a maximum difference of 0.05 kN.

Figure 4-4 represents the usual force vs displacement graph obtained from the material

testing software, Trapezium X, and similar graphs can be found in Appendix Figure A. As

the dowel embeds at a rate of 1mm/minute, a steep slope was initially observed in the

graph. It shows the point located in the curve, where bearing failure occurs, which is

immediately followed a sudden drop which indicates failure due to splitting. This sudden

drop also ends the testing since the UTM considers this as total failure of the material.
 30

Force at
Bearing Failure

Figure 4-4. Force vs displacement graph of 5DI3 from Trapezium X.

End distances which encountered shear failure, 3D or 36 mm from the end, had an

average shear strength of 7.09 MPa and an average maximum force of 7.13 kN. The

obtained result can be compared to the experimental shear strength obtained by Jader

(2017). In the study conducted by the researcher, an average shear strength of 8.002 MPa

was obtained as the result of a series of bowie tests on Kawayan Tinik. This strength can

be used as an approximate of the actual shear strength of the culm of the same species, and

comparison of the two leads to the conclusion that shear failure occurred because the stress

is near the projected shear strength of Bambusa blumeana.

Figure 4-5 and Table 4-2 show the summary of the average bearing strength and

the corresponding modes of failure for all end distances. It can be observed that the bearing

strength increases as the end distance is increased. The maximum average force of 9.37 kN

was also observed in samples with an end distance of 7D. Actual bearing stresses are given

in Appendix Table D (see Appendix C for sample computations).

 31

Table 4-2. Summary of the average bearing stress of internode specimens.

Average Average
Average Bearing
End Distance Failure Mode Thickness Maximum
Stress (MPa)
(mm) Force (kN)
3D Shear 6.98 7.13 42.52
4D Shear + Split 8.00 8.46 44.78
5D Bearing + Split 7.70 8.17 43.91
6D Split 7.11 7.56 44.17
7D Split 8.08 9.37 47.89

49.00
47.89
48.00
47.00
Bearing Stress (MPa)

46.00
44.78
45.00 44.17
43.91
44.00
43.00 42.52
42.00
41.00
40.00
39.00
3D 4D 5D 6D 7D
End Length

Figure 4-5. Average bearing stress per end length of internode samples.

The data obtained from this experiment agrees with previous studies by Masdar et

al. (2014), and Sonar and Siddhaye (2008). The failure of mode for 3D and 5D were the

same to Masdar et al. (2014). The difference in the failure mode for 6D is related to the

method used during testing. Experiments by Janssen (1981) also resulted to shear failure

for 40 mm distance of the same species and testing method.

For test specimens with node, on the other hand, bearing failure governs for all

distances. Splitting may occur but data from this failure mode was neglected since splitting
 32

occurs shortly after bearing failure occurs. Figure 4-6 shows the bearing failure that was

encountered for the node specimen 5DN2. It was also observed that although splitting

occurred shortly after bearing failure, the samples resisted total failure and were still able

to withstand the load past 10 minutes of testing (10 mm displacement).

6mm
embedment
mark

Figure 4-6. Bearing failure in specimen 5DN2.

Experiments on the nodal samples led to the observation that the nearest distance,

or 3D, yielded the observable largest bearing strength as compared to the other four end

distances. Specimens for the 4D set had the next largest bearing strength and 5D set had

the lowest bearing strength. The bearing strength for samples within the 6D and 7D nodal

samples, on the other hand, exceeded the strength of 5D, resulting to the trend shown on

Figure 4-7 and Table 4-3 shows the summary of the average bearing stresses with the

average thickness for each end distance.

 33

Table 4-3. Summary of the average bearing stress of node specimens at failure.
Average Average
Average Bearing
End Distance Failure Mode Thickness Maximum
Stress (MPa)
(mm) Force (kN)
3D Bearing 7.71 9.63 52.50
4D Bearing 7.09 8.16 48.63
5D Bearing 6.98 7.19 43.42
6D Bearing 6.96 7.89 46.93
7D Bearing 7.54 8.05 48.45

60.00
Bearing Stress (MPa)

50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
3D 4D 5D 6D 7D
End Distance

Figure 4-7. Average bearing stress per end length of node samples.

For the table, the average thickness of the samples for each end length had a

maximum value of 7.71 and a minimum of 6.96. These values are relatively close; therefore

a comparison of the average maximum force can be made alongside comparisons made

from the bearing stresses. The largest average force at failure was observed at the end

length 3 times the bolt diameter. Similarly, end length 3D had the highest average bearing

stress. The bamboo’s response in relation to distances 3D and 4D can be correlated to the

fact that the it is significantly closer to the node. The node contributes to the large strength

by being able to resist a larger load for a longer period of time without undergoing splitting,

shear and bearing failure. The samples having 5D end distances had the lowest recorded
 34

bearing strength. Moreover, end distances 6D and 7D having higher strengths than that of

5D leads to the analysis that at bamboo tends to deviate to its nodal properties and lean

toward its internodal properties. Generally, the node does not help in increasing the bearing

strength of the bamboo. Rather, it helps in resisting the tendency of splitting and shearing,

causing a longer duration of test runs and increasing serviceability of the material.

Figure 4-8 shows the comparison of node and internode bearing strengths from 3D

to 7D. It also shows the actual values, in megapascals (MPa), for each end distance. The

increase in the average bearing strength of 3D and 4D is also noted to be 23.46% and

8.61%, respectively. Therefore, the greatest increase in strength is seen on 3D samples.

Values for 5D to 7D samples for node and internode specimens had near values, and

minimal increase was observed. Testing, however, was longer for node samples since

bearing failure was not followed by splitting. A decreasing load was observed rather than

a sudden drop due to total failure.

60.00

50.00
Bearing Stress (MPa)

40.00

30.00

20.00

10.00

0.00
3D 4D 5D 6D 7D
Internode 42.52 44.78 43.91 44.17 47.89
Node 52.50 48.63 43.42 46.93 48.45

End Length
Internode Node

Figure 4-8. Graphical analysis of the relationship of bearing stress of node and internode
specimens.
 35

4.3 Statistical Analysis

Statistical analyses were conducted to determine the significance of the effect of

varying the end length, and as well as the presence of nodes, to the bearing strength of

Kawayan Tinik. One-Way ANOVA was performed for internode and node samples,

separately, which analyzes the changes in the strength in relation to the varying end

distance of the samples. Two – Way ANOVA, on the other hand, was performed to

determine any significant difference in the bearing strength of node and internode samples

when they are compared side by side. This test can provide information on the interaction

not only between node and internode samples, but as well as the node/internode – end

distance relationship.

The 40 samples were checked for outliers using the Interquartile Range Method

(IQR). Tests resulted to having no outliers when based on the normal distribution curve.

The test samples fall within the 30 % of the mean and can still be considered significant

results. Box and Whiskers plots were also used in determining any outliers but yielded

similar results. Visually, there are values that deviate from the other three trials which can

be omitted, nevertheless, included in the analysis.

Null hypotheses for the One-Way ANOVA and Two-Way ANOVA Tests were

established before analysis of data. These hypotheses were used as assumptions and guides

in drawing conclusions on the significance of the results.

The hypotheses for the Two-way ANOVA are:

Ho-1: The presence of the node will not have significant effect on the bearing strength

Ho-2: The varying end distance will not have significant effect on the bearing strength
 36

Ho-3: The presence of node and the varying end distance interaction will not have

significant effect on the bearing strength

Table 4-4. Summary of Two-Way ANOVA statistical analysis

Source of Variation F P-value F crit Remarks

Presence of Node 0.94 0.34 4.17 Not Significant
End Distance 0.21 0.93 2.69 Not Significant
Presence of Node- End
Not Significant
Distance Interaction 0.28 0.89 2.69

The summary of the test is shown in Table 4-4. Two-Way ANOVA test showed

that the node/internode and the end distance does not have statistically significant effects

on the bearing strength of Kawayan Tinik. This conclusion was drawn by looking at the

Fcrit, F and P- value of each variable obtained. The first null hypothesis was not rejected,

drawing the conclusion that there is a no significant interaction between the effect of the

presence of the node and the bearing strength of the specimens, F (1,30) = 0.94, P = 0.34.

The same instance was observed for the other two parameters, which means that there was

no statistically significant difference between the end distance (P = 0.93) and the bearing

strength, and as well as interaction of end distance- presence of node (P= 0.89) to the

strength.

Table 4-5. Summary of One-Way ANOVA test on internode and node trials

Source of
F P-value F crit Remark
Variation
Internode – End
0.14 0.96 3.06 Not Significant
Length
Node – End 0.34 0.85 3.06
Not Significant
Length
 37

In order to further investigate the effect of end distance within the two groups-node

and internode samples- One-Way ANOVA was performed. Table 4- 5 represents the

summary of the analyses conducted for internode and node specimens, respectively.

Having a result of F(4,15) =0.14, P=0.96, it can be concluded that, for internode samples,

the end distance has a no significant effect on the bearing strength of Kawayan Tinik. A

similar result was obtained for statistical analysis of node specimens’ data. With values F

(4,15) = 0.34 and P=0.85, it can be concluded that varying the end distance for samples

with node supports yields statistically close strengths. Complete tables of the data for the

statistical analyses are provided in Appendix Tables E and F.

 38

5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Forty samples were obtained from the top part of eight culms to determine the effect

of the end distance to the bearing strength of Kawayan Tinik. Twenty samples had nodal

ends and 4 samples were dedicated for each end length. The same number of samples were

obtained for the internode data set. The end lengths that were tested were 3D, 4D, 5D, 6D,

and 7D where the number before the letter is the multiplier of the diameter of the bolt (12

mm).

In order to bring the samples to the desired moisture content (MC), samples and

procedures in accordance to ISO 22157-1 and IS 6874:2008 were followed. The samples

were brought to the expected weight at 12% moisture in order to obtain the closest value

of MC, and the resulting actual data were within the range of 11% to 13%. The specimens

to be used were then cut to a length of 14 times the bolt diameter or 168 mm and dried by

both oven drying and air drying. Once the actual weight of the sample was close to the

expected weight, the bolt hole was drilled with a 14 mm drill attachment. Necessary

measurements for data analysis were taken before testing, and the actual moisture content

was obtained by oven -drying chips of the samples in the oven at 100˚C.

Investigations on the bearing strength property of Kawayan Tinik, through pin

shear test, provided trends and learnings on the behavior of the species. Three failure modes

were observed – shear, splitting, and bearing failure. All node specimens were observed to

have bearing failure while internode samples have varying combination of failure

depending on the end distance. Distances 3D and 4D showed a combination of shear and

splitting failure, 5D had bearing and splitting failure, and both 6D and 7D constantly
 39

underwent splitting failure. The average bearing strength from internode samples 3DI, 4DI,

5DI, 6D1, and 7DI were 42.52 MPa, 44.78 MPa, 43.91 MPa, 44.17 MPa, and 47.89 MPa

respectively. For node samples, on the other hand, the values of the average bearing

strength for specimens 3DN,4DN, 5DN, 6DN, and 7DN were 52.50 MPa, 48.63 MPa,

43.42 MPa, 46.92 MPa, and 48.45 MPa, respectively.

One-Way ANOVA Analyses results suggested that there was no significant

difference on the bearing strengths of each end distance for internode elements. This

implies that increasing or decreasing the distance of the bolt hole to the end would not yield

a significant increase or decrease in the bearing strength of the species considered in the

study. Similarly, One-Way ANOVA tests on node specimens, and as well as for individual

strengths with respect to the failure mode, suggested that there was no significant

difference on the bearing strength of specimens with end distances 36 mm, 48 mm, 60 mm,

72 mm, and 84 mm. As observed from the resulting data, the strength for each node

elements were relatively close to one another. Variations are attributed to the property of

the bamboo, specifically on the lignin matrix as discussed by Richard (2013) and is related

to distance with respect to the node. Since there were no significant differences between

node and internode specimens, no recommendations can be given on what end, node or

internode, of bamboo are to be used to increase the strength of the structure. Nevertheless,

node ends are often used to avoid failure due to shearing and splitting.
 40

6. RECOMMENDATIONS

The moisture content of bamboo varies along the culm. Therefore, approximation

of the moisture content must be done with at least three trials from the desired section of

the bamboo culm. It is recommended to gather multiple chips to obtain an accurate initial

moisture content or even have a larger size for the chip that is to be oven dried.

Oven-drying the samples at a temperature of 100˚C does decrease the weight at a

faster rate. However, once the samples were taken out of the oven, cracks immediately

propagate. Therefore, a maximum temperature of 70˚C is recommended if oven-drying is

necessary. Another observation is that samples which are near the required weight also

tend to crack when oven dried at the recommended temperature. At this point, air-drying

becomes the ample solution to bring the weight closer to the weight at 12%. Since moisture

can still be absorbed if air-dried at night, it is recommended that the samples are either kept

in a closed plastic box or kept inside the oven at a temperature of at most 37 ˚C overnight.

This brings down the weight by at most 10 grams for a duration of 12 hours if the samples

are near 12%.

The use of moisture meter was previously recommended; however, the available

wood moisture meter was observed to be inaccurate as it only reads less than or equal to

10.9 % and 30% without the necessary adjustments for Bambusa blumeana. Nonetheless,

an accurate moisture meter for bamboo would be of great help in accurately determining

and controlling the moisture of the samples.

In the pin shear test, the attachment used was designed to fit the bamboo with the

largest diameter. Hence, samples having smaller diameter are affected in terms of the
 41

strength. The dowel also tends to bend due to the gap at the ends. Therefore, it is

recommended that the attachment fits the bamboo samples, and the samples have relatively

the same diameters.

Investigation of effect of end distance to the bearing strength using other testing

methods such as the tensile test mechanism used by Masdar et al. (2014) and Sonar and

Siddhaye (2009) are also recommended. Results from these methods can be used in

comparing the strengths of Kawayan Tinik to the species these researchers have studied.

Furthermore, performing dowel bearing tests and bowie tests are also essential in

determining the bearing and shear capacity, respectively, of the test samples. The values

will be useful in the analysis of the behavior of the bamboo at different end distances,

providing possible explanations for the failure modes that were also observed in the study.
 42

7. REFERENCES

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standards

AWALUDIN, A., & ANDRIANI, V. (2014). Bolted bamboo joints reinforced with
fibers. Procedia Engineering, 95, 15-21.

BAJERA, B. G. (2010). Bamboo production and propagation methods. Retrieved from

cropsreview.com: http://www.doc-developpement-durable.org/file/Arbres-Bois-
de-Rapport-Reforestation/FICHES_ARBRES/bambou/bambooproduction-and-
propagationmethods.pdf

BAWER, M. C. (2015). Diversity of bamboo species in Lubuagan, Kalinga, North Luzon,

Philippines. International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research and Innovations,
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BYSTRIAKOVA, N., KAPOS, V., & LYSENKO, I. (2004). Bamboo biodiversity. United
Kingdom: Swaingrove Imaging.

CORREAL, J., & ECHEVERRY, J. (2012). Dowel-bearing strength behaviour of Guadua

angustifolia Kunth bamboo. Journal of Materials Engineering, 24(11), 1378 -
1387.

DAVIES, C. (2008). Bamboo connections. United Kingdom: University of Bath.

FARRELLY, D. (2003). The Book of Bamboo. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.

FRANKE, S., & MAGNIERE, N. (2014). Discussion of testing and evaluation methods
for the embedment behaviour of connections. Paper presented at the International
Network on Timber Engineering Research Conference 2014, Bath, United
Kingdom.
 43

HARRIES, K. A., SHARMA, B., & RICHARD, M. (2012). Structural use of full culm
bamboo: the path to standardization. International Journal of Architecture,
Engineering, and Construction, 1(2), 66-69. doi: 10.7492/IJAEC.2012.008

JADER, S. P. (2017). Effect of age and node on the shear strength parallel to culm of
Kawayan Tinik (Bambusa blumeana Schult.f..). Unpublished undergraduate
thesis – Civil Engineering. University of the Philippines Los Baños.

JANSSEN, J. (1981). Bamboo in building structures. Eindhoven, The Netherlands:

Technical University of Eindhoven.

JANSSEN, J. (2000). Designing and building with bamboo. Eindhoven, The Netherlands:
Technical University of Eindhoven.

KAMINSKI, E., LAWRANCE, A., & TRUJILLO, D. (2016, August). Structural use of
bamboo. The Structural Engineering. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305808084

LOBOVIKOV, M., PAUDEL, S., PIAZZA, M., REN, H., & WU, J. (2007). World bamboo
resources- A thematic study prepared in the framework of the Global Forest
Resource Assessment 2005. Rome: FAO.

MASDAR, A., SUHENDRO, B., SISWOSUKARTO, S., & SULISTYO, D. (2014).

Determinant of critical distance of bolt on bamboo connection. Jurnal Teknologi,
69(6), 111-115. doi:10.11113/jt. v69.3319

RICHARD, M. (2013). Assessing the performance of bamboo structural components.

Unpublished doctoral dissertation - Civil Engineering. University of Pittsburgh,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States.

ROXAS, C. A. (2012). Handbook on erect bamboo species found in the Philippines.

College, Laguna: Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, Department of
Environment and Natural Resources.

SALIM, S., NOR, A. H., SANIK, M., OSMAN, M. H., ABDULLAH, M., SARIF, A. B.,
& KUMIL, J. (2017). Bolts connection technique of bamboo in construction
work. IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering,14(04), 54-60.
doi:10.9790/1684-1404015460
 44

SANTOS, C. L., JESUS, A. M., MORAIS, J. J., & LOUSADA, J. L. (2010). A Comparison
Between the EN 383 and ASTM D5764 Test Methods for Dowel-Bearing
Strength Assessment of Wood: Experimental and Numerical Investigations.
Strain, 46(2), 159-174. doi:10.1111/j.1475-1305.2008.00570.x

SEN, T., & REDDY, H. J. (2011). Application of sisal, bamboo, coir and jute natural
composites in structural upgradation. International Journal Innovation,
Management and Technology, 2(3), 186.

SINGER, F. L., & PYTEL, A. (1980). Strength of materials. New York: Harper & Row.

SMITH I., LANDIS, E., AND GONG, M., (2003). Fracture and Fatigue in Wood. John
Wiley and Sons Ltd., West Sussex, UK.

SONAR, I. P., & SIDDHAYE, V. R. (2009). Theoretical and experimental investigation

on single and double bolted bamboo joint under axial tension. Journal of
Structural Engineering, 36(3),164-171.

STANDARDIZATION, I. O. (2004). ISO 22157 Bamboo- Determination of physical and

mechanical properties. Switzerland: International Organization for
Standardization.

STANDARDS, B. O. (2008). IS 6874:2008 Method of tests for bamboo. New Delhi, India:
Bureau of Indian Standards.

TESORO, F. O., & ESPILOY, Z. B. (1988). Bamboo research in the Philippines. In I. V.

Rao, R. Gnanaharan & C. B. Sastry (Eds.), Proceedings of International Bamboo
Workshop (pp. 163-171). India: The Kerala Forest Research Institute.

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parallel bamboo strand panel-to-metal single-bolt connections- part I: Yield
model. Wood and Fiber Science, 49(4), 424-435.
 45

APPENDIX
 46

APPENDIX A
Sample Computation for the Initial Moisture Content Determination

Sample Computations:

𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 − 𝒅𝒓𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔

𝑴𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑴𝑪) = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒅𝒓𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔

𝟐𝟏𝟕. 𝟔𝟓 𝒈 − 𝟏𝟒𝟗. 𝟓𝟑 𝒈
= 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟒𝟗. 𝟓𝟑 𝒈

= 𝟒𝟓. 𝟓𝟔 %
 47

APPENDIX B
Sample Computation of the Actual Moisture Content of Specimens

Sample Computation:

𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 − 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒓𝒚
𝑴𝑪𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒓𝒚

𝟒𝟏. 𝟏𝟐 𝒈 − 𝟑𝟔. 𝟒𝟎 𝒈
= ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟑𝟔. 𝟒𝟎 𝒈

= 𝟏𝟐. 𝟗𝟔 %
 48

APPENDIX C
Sample Computation of Actual Bearing Stress

Sample Computation:

𝑭𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅
𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝒇𝒃 =
𝟐𝒅𝒕

𝟏𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 𝒌𝑵
𝒇𝒃 =
𝟐(𝟏𝟐 𝒎𝒎) 𝒙 𝟖. 𝟓𝟔 𝒎𝒎

= 𝟓𝟐. 𝟓𝟖 𝑴𝑷𝒂
 49

APPENDIX TABLES
 50

APPENDIX TABLE A
Initial Moisture Content Determination

Appendix Table A-1. Determination of moisture content of height sections

INITIAL MASS DRY MASS MOISTURE

CULM
(g) (g) CONTENT (%)
1 198.85 143.05 39.01

2 255.04 189.39 34.66

3 217.5 146.06 48.91

4 217.65 149.53 45.56

5 291.66 184.75 57.87

6 226.29 165.65 36.61

7 251.22 150.85 66.54

8 268.62 167.35 60.51

9 198.85 143.05 39.01

10 255.04 189.39 34.66

11 217.5 146.06 48.91

12 217.65 149.53 45.56

 51

APPENDIX TABLE B
Measurement of Dimensions of Specimens for Pin Shear Test

Appendix Table B-1. Diameter of Internode Specimens

Diameter
TRIAL SAMPLE
1 2 3 4 Average
3DI1 76.96 71.83 73.28 76.46 74.63
4DI1 84.92 92.17 96.58 83.31 84.25
1 5DI1 73.40 70.03 70.32 74.04 71.95
6DI1 67.19 70.45 72.71 70.57 70.23
7DI1 71.41 68.47 69.25 72.56 70.63

3DI2 75.11 75.25 75.09 75.09 75.14

4DI2 76.93 76.82 76.48 76.38 76.65
2 5DI3 71.23 71.14 71.51 71.55 71.36
6DI2 72.51 72.43 71.98 71.94 72.22
7DI2 72.58 72.61 73.09 73.06 72.84

3DI3 68.33 70.53 67.94 70.34 69.29

4DI3 74.40 71.40 71.67 74.24 72.93
3 5DI3 73.57 69.51 70.71 73.55 71.71
6DI3 66.56 66.10 65.57 66.89 66.28
7DI3 84.19 81.39 81.66 85.65 83.22

3DI4 66.15 68.72 68.60 65.70 67.29

4DI4 67.17 65.34 64.63 67.95 66.27
4 5DI4 70.87 67.79 67.09 70.33 69.02
6DI4 69.38 66.73 69.10 66.59 67.95
7DI4 72.83 69.42 72.69 69.97 71.23
 52

Appendix Table B-2. Diameter of Node Specimens

Diameter
TRIAL SAMPLE
1 2 3 4 Average
3DN1 71.41 73.06 71.20 73.18 72.21
4DN1 78.05 76.06 74.11 73.48 75.43
1 5DN1 63.31 66.26 71.50 65.13 66.55
6DN1 73.23 73.15 73.98 74.15 73.63
7DN1 69.36 71.17 71.09 68.30 69.98

3DN2 62.01 62.06 62.21 62.23 72.84

4DN2 73.98 73.92 74.49 74.43 62.13
2 5DN2 69.21 69.34 69.98 70.13 74.21
6DN2 71.27 71.33 71.69 71.68 69.67
7DN2 76.38 76.44 75.69 75.58 71.49

3DN3 69.31 70.21 70.12 70.41 70.01

4DN3 77.78 76.16 77.00 74.91 76.46
3 5DN3 70.43 68.85 70.21 67.92 69.35
6DN3 71.77 70.58 71.58 71.45 71.35
7DN3 63.33 65.59 63.26 64.66 64.21

3DN4 77.96 74.83 75.74 7720 76.43

4DN4 75.53 73.48 72.57 75.27 74.29
4 5DN4 68.48 65.40 66.76 66.49 66.78
6DN4 67.14 70.71 70.53 68.03 69.10
7DN4 67.29 70.30 70.45 67.64 68.95
 53

Appendix Table B-3. Thickness of Internode Samples at Bolt Hole

Diameter
TRIAL SAMPLE
1 2 3 4 Average
3DI1 6.81 7.38 7.32 7.41 7.23
4DI1 8.88 9.09 9.11 9.23 9.07
1 5DI1 7.31 7.07 8.05 7.61 7.51
6DI1 8.31 7.17 7.20 8.24 7.73
7DI1 9.06 9.13 9.02 9.82 9.26

3DI2 5.65 5.01 6.45 6.44 5.89

4DI2 8.42 7.89 7.95 8.25 8.13
2 5DI3 7.88 6.58 7.98 6.67 7.28
6DI2 6.75 6.77 7.19 7.09 6.95
7DI2 6.72 6.77 7.04 7.07 6.90

3DI3 6.95 6.57 6.86 6.76 6.79

4DI3 6.20 6.46 6.61 6.06 6.33
3 5DI3 7.62 8.03 7.23 8.45 7.83
6DI3 5.05 5.59 5.55 5.85 5.51
7DI3 7.19 7.19 6.92 7.21 7.13

3DI4 8.66 8.97 7.14 7.23 8.01

4DI4 8.30 8.32 8.83 8.36 8.45
4 5DI4 7.90 8.16 8.15 8.50 8.18
6DI4 8.18 8.24 8.59 8.05 8.27
7DI4 8.25 9.02 9.28 9.56 9.03
 54

Appendix Table B-4. Thickness of Node Samples at Bolt Hole

Diameter
TRIAL SAMPLE
1 2 3 4 Average
3DN1 9.01 8.48 8.31 9.23 8.76
4DN1 7.41 7.46 7.18 7.39 7.36
1 5DN1 6.17 6.7 5.94 6.38 6.14
6DN1 6.47 6.39 7.25 7.34 6.86
7DN1 8.03 8.33 6.71 6.59 7.42

3DN2 6.11 6.03 6.98 7.04 6.54

4DN2 7.25 7.15 7.94 8.01 7.59
2 5DN2 7.21 7.28 7.62 7.57 7.42
6DN2 7.07 7.01 6.05 6.02 6.54
7DN2 7.25 7.19 7.38 7.27 7.27

3DN3 8.53 7.86 7.83 8.04 8.07

4DN3 8.49 7.72 8.29 7.95 8.11
3 5DN3 6.63 6.64 6.40 7.06 6.68
6DN3 6.85 6.79 6.39 7.09 6.78
7DN3 6.51 7.19 7.25 6.70 6.91

3DN4 7.33 7.34 7.69 7.53 7.46

4DN4 5.07 5.23 5.40 5.46 5.29
4 5DN4 7.84 7.49 7.94 7.41 7.67
6DN4 7.1 7.88 7.89 7.75 7.67
7DN4 8.25 8.75 8.41 8.81 8.56
 55

APPENDIX TABLE C
Actual Moisture Content of Specimens

Appendix Table C-1. Actual Moisture Content of Internode Specimens

MASS(g) ACTUAL
TRIAL SAMPLES INITIAL OVENDRY MOISTURE
MASS MASS CONTENT (%)
3DI1 41.12 36.40 12.97
4DI1 31.81 28.56 11.38
5DI1 14.86 13.36 11.23
1 6DI1 20.81 18.62 11.76
7DI1 24.06 21.58 11.49

3DI2 18.29 16.24 12.62

4DI2 14.06 12.51 12.39
5DI3 11.55 10.28 12.35
2 6DI2 23.16 20.78 11.45
7DI2 13.24 11.69 13.26

3DI3 24.28 21.65 12.15

4DI3 11.92 10.64 12.03
5DI3 18.83 16.69 12.82
3 6DI3 22.04 19.75 11.59
7DI3 20.69 18.45 12.14

3DI4 24.53 21.82 12.42

4DI4 29.07 26.07 11.51
5DI4 12.50 11.14 12.21
4 6DI4 13.48 12.10 11.40
7DI4 17.77 15.81 12.40
 56

Appendix Table C-2. Actual Moisture Content of Node Specimens

MASS(g) ACTUAL
TRIAL SAMPLES INITIAL OVENDRY MOISTURE
MASS MASS CONTENT (%)

3DN1 14.37 12.86 11.74

4DN1 25.74 23.00 11.91
5DN1 13.03 11.66 11.75
1 38.94 12.25
6DN1 43.71
7DN1 13.11 11.72 11.86

3DN2 10.77 9.60 12.19

4DN2 23.23 20.53 13.15
5DN2 21.57 19.17 12.52
2 12.94
6DN2 22.17 19.63
7DN2 25.23 22.32 13.04

3DN3 19.10 16.91 12.95

4DN3 42.77 38.14 12.14
5DN3 12.39 11.01 12.53
3 11.95
6DN3 14.15 12.64
7DN3 29.84 26.57 12.31

3DN4 36.88 32.93 12.00

4DN4 7.68 6.91 11.14
5DN4 13.53 12.00 12.75
4 15.45 12.94
6DN4 17.45
7DN4 19.97 17.74 12.57
 57

APPENDIX TABLE D
Computation of Actual Bearing Stress

Appendix Table D-1. Actual Bearing Stress Values of Internode Specimens

MOISTURE AVERAGE
STRESS
TRIAL SAMPLES CONTENT THICKNESS FORCE (kN)
(MPa)
(%) (mm)

3DI1 12.97 7.23 10.21 58.87

4DI1 11.38 9.07 11.27 51.78
1
5DI1 11.23 7.51 7.79 43.19
6DI1 11.76 7.73 9.69 52.24
7DI1 11.49 9.26 10.39 46.74

3DI2 12.62 5.89 5.21 36.83

4DI2 12.39 8.13 4.85 24.83
2
5DI2 12.35 7.28 5.48 31.39
6DI2 11.45 6.95 6.21 37.23
7DI2 13.26 6.90 6.01 36.29

3DI3 12.15 6.79 6.68 41.00

4DI3 12.03 6.33 9.13 60.11
3
5DI3 12.82 7.83 9.59 50.99
6DI3 11.59 5.51 5.92 44.77
7DI3 12.14 7.13 9.13 53.37

3DI4 12.42 8.01 6.42 33.40

4DI4 11.51 8.45 8.60 42.39
4
5DI4 12.21 8.18 9.83 50.06
6DI4 11.41 8.27 8.42 42.45
7DI4 12.40 9.03 11.95 55.16
 58

Appendix Table D-2. Actual Bearing Stress Values of Node Specimens

MOISTURE AVERAGE
STRESS
TRIAL SAMPLES CONTENT THICKNESS FORCE (kN)
(MPa)
(%) (mm)

3DI1 11.74 8.76 7.83 37.25

4DI1 11.91 7.36 7.71 43.65
1
5DI1 11.75 6.14 8.17 55.44
6DI1 12.25 6.86 10.43 63.35
7DI1 11.86 7.42 7.84 61.17

3DI2 12.19 6.54 7.99 50.94

4DI2 13.15 7.59 6.79 37.27
2
5DI2 12.52 7.42 5.21 29.26
6DI2 12.94 6.54 5.49 35.00
7DI2 13.04 7.27 6.08 34.85

3DI3 12.95 8.07 11.84 61.17

4DI3 12.14 8.11 10.74 55.16
3
5DI3 12.53 6.68 6.78 42.24
6DI3 11.95 6.78 6.33 38.90
7DI3 12.31 6.91 7.50 45.21

3DI4 12.00 7.46 10.86 60.64

4DI4 11.14 5.29 7.42 58.44
4
5DI4 12.75 7.67 8.61 46.75
6DI4 12.95 7.67 9.29 50.45
7DI4 12.57 8.56 10.80 52.58
 59

APPENDIX TABLE E
Two-way Analysis of Variance with Replication

Appendix Table E-1. Variance within Internode Samples

ABOVE 20% to 16% to 12% to BELOW

Total
28% 28% 20% 16% 12%
Count 4 4 4 4 4 20
Sum 170.095 179.110 175.629 176.680 191.558 893.073
Average 42.524 44.777 43.907 44.170 47.890 44.654
Variance 128.391 229.179 81.773 38.874 72.923 90.351

Appendix Table E-2. Variance within Node Samples

ABOVE 20% to 16% to 12% to BELOW

Total
28% 28% 20% 16% 12%
Count 4 4 4 4 4 20
Sum 210.004 194.526 173.698 187.706 193.800 959.734
Average 52.501 48.631 43.425 46.927 48.450 47.987
Variance 125.412 97.598 119.104 162.906 124.795 108.486

Appendix Table E-3. Total Variance

3D 4D 5D 6D 7D
Count 8 8 8 8 8
Sum 380.099 373.635 349.327 364.387 385.359
Average 47.512 46.704 43.666 45.548 48.170
Variance 137.213 144.291 86.157 88.648 84.826
 60

Appendix Table E-4. Results of Two-way ANOVA

SOURCE OF
SS df MS F P-value F crit
VARIATION

Presence of Node 111.093 1 111.093 0.941 0.340 4.171

End lengths 101.049 4 25.262 0.214 0.929 2.690

Presence of Node-
End Length 133.988 4 33.497 0.284 0.886 2.690

Within 3542.867 30 118.096

Total 3888.997 39
 61

APPENDIX TABLE F
One-way Analysis of Variance

Appendix Table F-1. Results of One-way ANOVA for Internode Samples

SOURCE OF
SS df MS F P-value F crit
VARIATION

Between Groups 63.255 4 15.814 0.143 0.963 3.056

Within Groups 1653.422 15 110.228

1716.677 19
Total

Appendix Table F-2. Results of One-way ANOVA for Node Samples

SOURCE OF
SS df MS F P-value F crit
VARIATION

Between Groups 171.782 4 42.945 0.341 0.846 3.056

Within Groups 1889.445 15 125.963

2061.227 19
Total
 62

APPENDIX FIGURES
 63

APPENDIX FIGURE A
Trapezium-Generated Force vs. Displacement Graphs of Specimens

Appendix Figure A-1. Force vs. Displacement of 3DI1

 64

Appendix Figure A-2. Force vs. Displacement of 4DI1

Appendix Figure A-3. Force vs. Displacement of 5DI1

 65

Appendix Figure A-4. Force vs. Displacement of 6DI1

Appendix Figure A-5. Force vs. Displacement of 7DI1

 66

Appendix Figure A-6. Force vs. Displacement of 3DN1

Appendix Figure A-7. Force vs. Displacement of 4DN1

 67

Appendix Figure A-8. Force vs. Displacement of 5DN1

Appendix Figure A-9. Force vs. Displacement of 6DN1

 68

Appendix Figure A-10. Force vs. Displacement of 7DN1

Appendix Figure A-11. Force vs. Displacement of 3DI2

 69

Appendix Figure A-12. Force vs. Displacement of 4DI2

Appendix Figure A-13. Force vs. Displacement of 5DI2

 70

Appendix Figure A-14. Force vs. Displacement of 6DI2

Appendix Figure A-15. Force vs. Displacement of 7DI2

 71

Appendix Figure A-16. Force vs. Displacement of 3DN2

Appendix Figure A-17. Force vs. Displacement of 4DN2

 72

Appendix Figure A-18. Force vs. Displacement of 5DN2

Appendix Figure A-19. Force vs. Displacement of 6DN2

 73

Appendix Figure A-20. Force vs. Displacement of 7DN2

Appendix Figure A-21. Force vs. Displacement of 3DI3

 74

Appendix Figure A-22. Force vs. Displacement of 4DI3

Appendix Figure A-23. Force vs. Displacement of 5DI3

 75

Appendix Figure A-24. Force vs. Displacement of 6DI3

Appendix Figure A-25. Force vs. Displacement of 7DI3

 76

Appendix Figure A-26. Force vs. Displacement of 3DN3

Appendix Figure A-27. Force vs. Displacement of 4DN3

 77

Appendix Figure A-28. Force vs. Displacement of 5DN3

Appendix Figure A-29. Force vs. Displacement of 6DN3

 78

Appendix Figure A-30. Force vs. Displacement of 7DN3

Appendix Figure A-31. Force vs. Displacement of 3DI4

 79

Appendix Figure A-32. Force vs. Displacement of 4DI4

Appendix Figure A-33. Force vs. Displacement of 5DI4

 80

Appendix Figure A-34. Force vs. Displacement of 6DI4

Appendix Figure A-35. Force vs. Displacement of 7DI4

 81

Appendix Figure A-36. Force vs. Displacement of 3DN4

Appendix Figure A-37. Force vs. Displacement of 4DN4

 82

Appendix Figure A-38. Force vs. Displacement of 5DN4

Appendix Figure A-39. Force vs. Displacement of 6DN4

 83

Appendix Figure A-40. Force vs. Displacement of 7DN4

 84

APPENDIX FIGURE B
Scientific Name Verification

Appendix Figure B-1. Scientific Name Verification Certificate.