Projection

projection, the mental process by which people attribute to others what is in their
own minds. For example, individuals who are in a self-critical

state, consciously or unconsciously, may think that other people are critical of them. The
concept was introduced to psychology by the Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund
Freud (1856–1939), who borrowed the word projection from neurology, where it
referred to the inherent capacity of neurons to transmit stimuli from one level of
the nervous system to another (e.g., the retina “projects” to the occipital cortex, where
raw sensory input is rendered into visual images). In contemporary psychological
science the term continues to have the meaning of seeing the self in the other. This
presumably universal tendency of the human social animal has both positive and
negative effects. Depending on what qualities are projected and whether or not they are
denied in the self, projection can be the basis of both warm empathy and cold hatred.
In projection, what is internal is seen as external. People cannot get inside the minds of
others; to understand someone else’s mental life, one must project one’s own
experience. When someone projects what is consciously true of the self and when the
projection “fits,” the person who is the object of projection may feel deeply understood.
Thus, a sensitive father infers from his daughter’s facial expression that she is feeling
sad; he knows that when he himself is sad, his face is similar. If he names the child’s
assumed emotion, she may feel recognized and comforted. Intuition, leaps of nonverbal
synchronicity (as when two persons in a relationship suddenly find themselves making
similar gestures or thinking of the same image simultaneously), and peak experiences of
mystical union (as when one feels perfectly attuned with an idealized other person, such
as a romantic partner) involve a projection of the self into the other, often with powerful
emotional rewards. Neuroscientific discoveries regarding mirror neurons and right-
brain-to-right-brain communication processes (in which intuitive, emotional,
nonverbal, and analogical thinking is shared between caregivers and children via
intonation, facial affect, and body language) are establishing the neurological bases of
such long-noted projective phenomena.
On the other hand, projection frequently functions as a psychological defense against

painful internal states (“I am not the person feeling this; you are!”). When people
project aspects of the self that are denied, unconscious, and hated and when they distort
the object of projection in the process, projection can be felt as invalidating and
destructive. At a social level, racism, sexism, xenophobia, homophobia, and other
malignant “othering” mindsets have been attributed at least partly to projection. There
is research evidence, for example, that men with notably homophobic attitudes have
higher-than-average same-sex arousal, of which they are unaware. Projection of
disowned states of mind is also a central dynamic in paranoia as traditionally
conceptualized. Paranoid states such as fears of persecution, irrational hatred of an
individual or group, consuming jealousy in the absence of evidence of betrayal, and
the conviction that a desired person desires oneself (i.e., erotomania, the psychology
behind stalking) result from the projection of unconscious negative states of mind (e.g.,
hostility, envy, hatred, contempt, vanity, sadism, lust, greed, weakness, etc.). In other
words, paranoia involves both the disowning of a personal tendency and the conviction
that this tendency is “coming at” oneself from external sources.
The Austrian-born British psychoanalyst Melanie Klein (1882–1960) wrote about a
primal form of projection, “projective identification,” that she assumed to derive from
the earliest mental life of children, before they feel psychologically separate from
caregivers. Via this process, which has become an important concept in contemporary
psychoanalytic thinking, a person tries to expel a state of mind by projecting it but
remains identified with what is projected, is convinced of the accuracy of the attribution,
and induces in the object of projection the feelings or impulses that have been projected.
For example, a man in a rage projects his anger onto his wife, whom he now sees as the
angry one. He insists it is her hostility that stimulated his rage, and almost immediately
his wife becomes angry. Projective identification exerts emotional pressure that evokes
in the other whatever has been projected. Another example: A woman
in psychotherapy experiences her therapist’s ending a session on time as a sadistic
attack. She loudly berates him for abusing her, accusing him of enjoying hurting her. In
response to this denunciation and its misrepresentation of his motives, the normally
compassionate therapist notices that he is having sadistic thoughts. The projection has
become a self-fulfilling fantasy. Because projective identification is a particularly
challenging defense to deal with in psychotherapy, it has spawned an extensive
psychoanalytic literature.
Contrary to widespread professional opinion, however, projective identification is not

simply a defense used by people with disorders of development and personality (see
also mental disorders: Personality disorders). It operates in everyday life in numerous
subtle ways, many of which are not pathological. For example, when what is projected
and identified with involves loving, joyful affects, a group can experience a rush of good
feeling. People in love can sometimes read one another’s minds in ways that cannot be
accounted for logically. Because such emotional contagion occurs ubiquitously, many
contemporary psychoanalysts have reframed as “intersubjective” what was once seen as
the patient’s one-way projection onto the therapist. That is, both parties in a therapeutic
relationship (or any relationship) inevitably share a mutually determined emotional
atmosphere.
Klein’s writing led to a general professional acknowledgment that projection has more
primitive and more mature forms. In its earliest expressions, self and other are not
well differentiated. In mature projection, the other is understood to have a separate
subjective life, with motives that may differ from one’s own. Before age three, children
tend to assume that the emotional effect of an action was its intention. When caregivers
set unwelcome limits, very young children react with normal, temporary hatred and
accuse the parents of hating them. A slightly older child understands that when his
mother’s limit-setting angers him, her act does not necessarily mean she is angry with
him. Philosophers use the term “theory of mind” to denote this capacity to see others as
having independent subjectivities. Contemporary psychoanalytic theorists and
researchers refer to it as “mentalization.” Although a benign use of projection is the
basis for understanding others’ psychologies, in mentalization there is little distortion of
the other person’s mind because there is no automatic equation of it with the mind of
the observer.
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Empirical studies of defense mechanisms have supported clinical observations about
projection, including the idea that it is one of many universal psychological defenses
that evolve and mature in normal development. Understanding projection has been
critically important to psychiatry, clinical psychology, counseling, and the mental
health professions generally. It has also been cited as an explanatory principle
in political science, sociology, anthropology, and other social sciences.

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projection, the mental process by which people attribute to others what is in their

own minds. For example, individuals who are in a self-critical

On the other hand, projection frequently functions as a psychological defense against

Contrary to widespread professional opinion, however, projective identification is not

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