POLICE PLANNING

LAW ENFORCEMENT OPERATION & PLANNING WITH

CRIME MAPPING
Prof. Mac Gregor Nillo-Estacion Rcrim,
Police Operational Planning
Police administrators sometimes do not appreciate the importance of
planning because of the pattern of career development. It is ironic that the pattern
of career development for typical police managers carries with it seeds that
sometimes blossom into a negative view of planning. However, planning is an
integral element of good management and good decision-making. Management
needs to anticipate and shape events; it is weak if it merely responds to them.
WHAT IS PLAN?
A plan is an organize schedule or sequence by methodical activities intended
to attain a goal and objectives for the accomplishment of mission or assignment. It
is a method or way of doing something in order to attain objectives. Plan provides
answer to 5W’s and 1 H.
What is Planning?
• Hudzik and Cordner defined planning as “thinking about the
future, thinking about what we want the future would be, and
thinking about what we need to do now to achieve it.”
• Planning is a management function concerned with
visualizing future situations, making estimates concerning
them, identifying issues, needs and potential danger points,
analyzing and evaluating the alternative ways and means for
reaching desired goals according to a certain schedule,
estimating the necessary funds, and resources to do the work,
and initiating action in time to prepare what may be needed to
cope with the changing conditions and contingent events.
What is Police Planning?
Police Planning is an attempt by police administrators in trying to
allocate
anticipated resources to meet anticipated service demands. It is the
systematic and orderly determination of facts and events as basis for
policy formulation and
decision affecting law enforcement management.

What is Operational Planning?

Operational Planning is the use of rational design or pattern for all
departmental undertaking rather than relying on change in an operational
environment. It is the preparation and development of procedures and
techniques
in accomplishing of each of the primary tasks and functions of an
organization.
What is Police Operational Planning?
Police Operational Planning is the act of determining policies and
guidelines for police activities and operations and providing controls
and safeguards for such activities and operations in the department. It
may also be the process of formulating coordinated sequence of
methodical activities and allocation of resources to the line units of the
police organization for the attainment of the mandated objectives or
goals.
Objectives are a specific commitment to achieve a measurable result
within a specific period of time. Goals are general statement of intention
and typically with time horizon, or it is an achievable end state that can
be measured and observed. Making choices about goals is one of the
most important aspects of planning. Relate this definitions with their
description as defined in chapter one.
 The process of police operational planning involves strategies or
tactics, procedures, policies or guidelines. A Strategy is a broad design
or method; or a plan to attain a stated goal or objectives. Tactics are
specific design, method or course of action to attain a particular
objective in consonance with strategy.

Procedures are sequences of activities to reach a point or to attain

what is desired. A policy is a product of prudence or wisdom in the
management of human affairs, or policy is a course of action which
could be a program of actions adopted by an individual, group,
organization, or government, or the set of principles on which they are
based. Guidelines are rules of action for the rank and file to show them
how they are expected to obtain the desired effect.
STRATEGIC PLANNING
Strategic planning is a series of preliminary decisions on a
framework, which in turn guides subsequent decisions that generate the
nature and direction of an organization. This is usually long range in
nature.
The reasons for Strategic Planning are:
VISION – A vision of what a police department should be.
LONG-RANGE THINKING – Keeping in mind that strategy is deciding
where we want to be
STRATEGIC FOCUS
CONGRUENCE
A STRATEGIC RESPONSE TO CHANGE
STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK
Strategic Planning process:

TASK 1 – Develop Mission and Objectives

TASK 2 – Diagnose Environmental Threats and Opportunities
TASK 3 – Assess Organizational Strengths and Weaknesses
TASK 4 – Generate Alternative Strategies
TASK 5 – Develop Strategic Plan
TASK 6 - Develop Tactical Plan
TASK 7 – Assess Results of Strategic and Tactical Plan
TASK 8 – Repeat Planning Process
 In the process, the police administrator can use the potent tool of
alternatives. Alternatives (options) are means by which goals and
objectives can be attained. They maybe policies, strategies or specific
actions aimed at eliminating a problem. Alternative do not have to be
substitutes for one another or should perform the same function. For
example, our goal is to “improve officer-survival skills.” The plan is to
train the officers on militaristic and combat shooting.

The alternatives could be:

Alternative 1 – modify police vehicles
Alternative 2 – issuing bulletproof vests
Alternative 3 – utilizing computer assisted dispatch system
Alternative 4 – increasing first-line supervision, etc
FUNDAMENTALS OF POLICE PLANNING
What are the Objectives of Police Planning?
•  To increase the chances of success by focusing on results and not so much
on the objectives.
•  To force analytical thinking and evaluation of alternatives for better
decisions.
•  To establish a framework for decision making consistent with the goal of the
organization.
•  To orient people to action instead of reaction.
•  To modify the day-to-day style of operation to future management.
•  To provide decision making with flexibility.
•  To provide basis for measuring original accomplishments or individual
performance.
•  To increase employee and personnel involvement and to improve
communication.
 What can be expected in planning?
✔  Improve analysis of problems
✔  Provide better information for decision-making
✔  Help to clarify goals, objectives, priorities
✔  Result is more effective allocation of resources
✔  Improve inter-and intradepartmental cooperation and coordination
✔  Improve the performance of programs
✔  Give the police department a clear sense of direction
✔  Provide the opportunity for greater public support
✔  Increase the commitment of personnel
What are the characteristics of a good police plan?

❖ With clearly defined Objectives or Goals

❖ Simplicity, Directness and Clarity
❖ Flexibility
❖ Possibility of Attainment
❖ Must provide Standard of Operation
❖ Economy in terms of Resources needed for
implementation
 Guidelines in Planning

The five (5) W’s and one (1) H:

•  What to do – mission/objective
•  Why to do – reason/philosophy
•  When to do – date/time
•  Where to do – place
•  Who will do – people involve
•  How to do – strategy
Responsibilities in Planning:

Broad External Policy Planning – is the responsibility of the legislative

branch of the government. The main concern of the police in this broad external
policy planning is assisting the legislature in their determining of police guideline
through the passage of appropriate laws or ordinances for the police to enforce.

Internal Policy Planning – is the responsibility of the C/PNP and other chiefs of
the different units or headquarters within their area of jurisdiction to achieve the
objectives or mission of the police organization. They are responsible for planning,
organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, controlling, reporting and budgeting
for the police organization within existing policies and available resources. For
maximum police effectiveness, they shall be responsible for the technical operation
of the police organization and management of its personnel.
Parts of a Police Operational Plan
▪  Security Classification
▪  Number of Copies and Pages
▪  Name of Headquarters
▪  Plan Title or Name
▪  Reference – The source of authority in formulating a plan is based
on:
▪  Organizational Policy or Guidelines
▪  Orders of Superior Officers or Authorities
▪ Documents, maps, books, etc.
▪  Situation – General Situation and Specific Situation
TYPES OF PLAN in general

1. Reactive Plans are developed as a result of crisis. A particular problem may

occur for which the department has no plan and must quickly develop one,
sometimes without careful preparation.
2. Proactive Plans are developed in anticipation of problems. Although not all
police problems are predictable, many are, and it is possible for a police
department to prepare a response in advance.
3. Visionary Plans are essential statements that identify the role of the police in
the community and the future condition or state to which the department can
aspire. A vision may also include a statement of values to be used to guide the
decision making process in the department.
4. Strategic Plans are designed to meet the long-range, overall goals of the
organization. Such plans allow the department to adapt anticipated changes or
develop a new philosophy or model of policing (e.g. community policing). One
of the most important aspects of strategic planning is to focus on external
environmental factors that affect the goals and objectives of the department and
how they will be achieved. Important environmental factors include personnel
needs, population trends, technological innovations, business trends and
demand,
crime problems, and community attitudes.

5. Operational Plans are designed to meet the specific tasks requires to

implement strategic plans.
There are four types of operational plan:
1. Standing Plans provide the basic framework for responding to organizational
problems. The organizational vision and values, strategic statement, policies,
procedures, and rules and regulations are examples of standing plans. Standing
plans also include guidelines for responding to different types of incidents; for
example, a civil disturbance, hostage situation, crime in progress, and felony car
stops.

2. Functional Plans include the framework for the operation of the major
functional units in the organization, such as patrol and investigations. It also
includes the design of the structure, how different functions and units are to
relate and coordinate activities, and how resources are to be allocated.
3. Operational-efficiency, effectiveness, and productivity plans are
essentially the measures or comparisons to be used to assess police
activities and behavior
(outputs) and results (outcomes). If one of the goals of the police
department is to reduce the crime rate, any change that occurs can be
compared to past crime rates in the same community or crime in other
communities, a state, or the nation. If the crime rates were reduced while
holding or reducing costs, it would reflect an improvement not only in
effectiveness but also in departmental productivity.

4. Time-specific Plans are concerned with specific purpose and conclude

when an objective is accomplished or a problem is solved. Specific police
programs or
projects such as drug crackdown, crime prevention program, and
neighborhood
clean-up campaign are good examples of time-specific plans.
STEPS IN POLICE OPERATIONAL PLANNING

1. Frame of Reference – This shall based on a careful view of the matters

relating to the situation for which plans are being developed. Opinions or ideas
of persons who may speak with authority of the subjects and views of the police
commanders, other government officials, and other professionals shall be
considered.

2. Clarifying the Problems – This calls for the identification of the problems,
understanding both its records and its possible solution. A situation must
exist for which something must and can be done. For example, an area in a
city or municipality is victimized by a series of robbers. There is a need for
reaching the preliminary decision that robberies may be reduced in the area,
and that the pattern of operation, in general, is one by which the police can
reduce them.
3. Collecting all Pertinent Facts – No attempt shall be made to develop a
plan until all facts relating to it have been carefully reviewed to determine
the modus operandi, suspects, types of victims, and such other information
as may be necessary. Facts relating to such matters as availability,
deployment, and the use of present personnel shall be gathered.
4. Developing the Facts – After all data have been gathered, a careful
analysis and evaluation shall be made. These provide the basis from which
a plan or plans are evolved. Only such facts as any have relevance shall be
considered.
5. Developing Alternative Plans – In the initial phases of plan
development, several alternative measures shall appear to be logically
comparable to the needs of a situation. As the alternative solutions are
evaluated, one of the proposed plans shall usually prove more logical than
the others.
6. Selecting the Most Appropriate Alternative – A careful
consideration of all facts usually leads to the selection of the best
alternative proposal.

7. Selling the Plans – A plan, to be effectively carried out, must be

accepted by persons concerned at the appropriate level of the plan’s
development. For example, in a robbery case, the patrol division head
may be preparing the plan. At the outset, the detective chief is
concerned and shall be consulted. As the planning develops, there may
be a need it involve the head of the personnel, records and
communication units and all patrol officers.
8. Arranging for the Execution of the Plan – the execution of a plan
requires the issuance of orders and directives to units and personnel
concern, the establishment of a schedule, and the provision of manpower
and the equipment for carrying out the plan. Briefing shall be held and
assurance shall be received that all involved personnel understood when,
how, and what is to be done.

9. Evaluating the Effectiveness of the Plan – The results of the plan

shall be
determined. This is necessary in order to know whether a correct
alternative was chosen, whether the plan was correct, which phase was
poorly implemented, and whether additional planning may be necessary.
Also, the effects of the executed plan or other operations and on total
police operations shall be determined. Follow-up is the control factor
essential for effective command management.
How Operational plans are executed in the
PNP?
The plans are made, same shall be put into operation and the result
hereof evaluated accordingly. Operations in the PNP shall be directed by
the police commander to attain the following objectives: (1) protection
of persons and property; (2) preservation of peace and order; (3)
prevention of crimes; (4) repression of suppression of criminal
activities; (5) apprehension of criminals; (6) enforcement of laws and
ordinances and regulations of conduct; (8) prompt execution of criminal
writs and processes of the courts; and (9) coordination and cooperation
with other law enforcement agencies.
 Preservation of Peace and Order – This activity or mission requires
the individual members of the PNP to gain the sympathy of the
community to close ranks in combating crimes and any other anti-social
behavior of the non- conformists of the law and order. The community,
therefore, should be informed through proper education, of their share and
involvement in law enforcement and public safety.
Protection of Lives Properties – The responsibilities of the members
of the PNP in providing for the safety and convenience of the public are
analogous with those of the doctor. The doctor protects life by combating
diseases while the PNP promotes public safety of accidents and in
guarding the citizens public safety by the elimination of hazards of
accidents and in guarding the citizens against the attacks of the bad
elements of the society. The policeman though, has a collateral
responsibility in his obligation to protect life and property – a
responsibility that is fundamental to every duty he performs. The police
have the obligation to preserve the citizen’s constitutional guarantees of
liberty and the pursuit of happiness.
 Prevention of Crimes – This activity requires the members of the PNP to
mingle with the members of the community where criminal activities originate
and bred and criminalistic tendencies of individuals are motivated to indulge in
anti- social behavior; and seek to minimize the causes of crime. This activity or
mission also requires the individual members of the PNP to understand the
people and the environment in which they live.

Repression or Suppression of Criminal Activities – This activity or

mission emphasizes the presence of an adequate patrol system including the
continuous effort toward eliminating or reducing hazards as the principal means
of reducing the opportunities for criminal action. The saying “the mouse will
play while the cat is away” is equally true in law enforcement and in public
safety. The presence of a policeman in uniform would be deterred or
discouraged the would-be criminal or would-be offender-regulations. Crime
repression means the elimination of the opportunity that exists on the part of the
would-be criminal to commit a crime.
 Enforcement of Laws and Ordinances - these activities and
mission requires the members of the PNP to constructively integrate or
enforce and implement the laws of the land and city/municipal
ordinances without regard to the personal circumstances of the
individual citizens and any other persons sojourning in the Philippines.
This is to provide tranquility among members of society. These also
include the regulations of non-criminal conduct, specifically to obtain
compliance through education of the public in the dangers inherent in
the disobedience of regulations. This makes use of warnings, either oral
or written, which informs the citizen but not to personalize.
 Apprehension of Criminals – this activity defines specifically the
power of the police as possessed by every member of the integrated
police, as a means to discourage the would-be offender. The
consequence of arrest and prosecution has a deterrent effect intended to
make crime or any unlawful act less worthwhile. Consequently,
apprehension and the imposition of punishment for the corresponding
unlawful act are committed, lessens repetition by causing suspects to be
incarcerated, and provides an opportunity for reformation of those
convicted by final judgment. This activity also includes the recovery of
stolen property in order to restrain those who are accessories to the
crime and thereby benefiting from the gains of crime.
 Coordination and Cooperation with other Agencies – This activity
requires the duty of a commander of any unit of the PNP and its unit
subordinates to establish report or good relationship with other law
enforcement agencies of the government. Through rapport, a police
station commander and his subordinates ma be able to maintain a
harmonious working relationship with other law enforcement agencies of
the government whereby coordination and cooperation between them
maybe established. Coordination is an essential conduct of command.
Safeguard Public Health and Morals – This involves many activities
or mission peripheral to basic law enforcement and public safety. Such as
for instance, sanitation, search and rescue operations, licensing, inspection
of buildings in order to determine whether or not the Presidential Decree
on fire prevention is strictly obeyed. This also includes supervising
elections, escorts duties, civic actions, and many other activities or
missions related to law-enforcement and public safety.
SAMPLE OF POLICE PLANS and the PNP Programs and
Strategies:

The acronym SMART describing the characteristics of a Plan:

S – IMPLE
M – EASURABLE
A – TTAINABLE
R – EALISTIC
T – IME BOUND
The acronym POLICE 2000 also describes another police plan:

P – REVENTION and suppression of crime through community

oriented policing system
O – ODER, maintenance, peacekeeping and internal security
L – AW enforcement without fear or favor
I - MAGE, credibility and common support
C – OORDINATION with other government agencies and non-
government agencies organizations and internal securities
E – FFICIENCY and effectiveness in the development and management
of human and material resources
The acronym DREAMS stands for:
D – ISPERSAL of policeman from the headquarters to the street and
enhancement of crime prevention program
R – ESTORATION of trust and confidence of the people on their police
and gain community support
E – LIMINATION of street and neighborhood crimes and improvement
of public safety
A – RREST of all criminal elements common or organized in
coordination with the pillars of the CJS and other law enforcement
agencies
M – APPING up and removal of scalawags from the pole of ranks
S – TRENGHTENING the management and capability of the PNP to
undertake or support the dreams operations and activities
The acronym GLORIA stands for:

G – RAFT free organization

L – EADERSHIP by example
O – NE stop shop mechanism for a faster police response to complaints
and reports
R – ESULT oriented culture in the anti-criminality effort
I – NVESTMENT climate, which is business friendly as a result of the
peace and order
A – CCOUNTABILITY and ownership of peace and order campaign
 CRIME MAPPING
Crime Mapping
• Crime mapping is used by analysts in law enforcement agencies to map, visualize,
and analyze crime incident patterns. It is a key component of crime analysis and
the CompStat policing strategy. Mapping crime, using Geographic Information
Systems (GIS), allows crime analysts to identify crime hot spots, along with other
trends and patterns.

• Crime mapping is a very important tool in managing and controlling crime in an

area. By analyzing the spatial and temporal data provided by maps investigator are
able to understand the crime patterns and trend it also helps in resource
allocation and in geographic profiling of criminals and suspicious locations. On the
other hand, the paper brings out various disadvantages such as expensive
technology involved and the tendency of not reporting cases by local community
to enhance effective flow of mapping the crime location.
 Strategic

Crime Mapping

Tactical

Administrative

Figure 4.1 Relationship of Crime Mapping to Crime analysis

• Clarifying where different types of crime and other incidents occur is one of
the many important functions of crime analysis. Because of the unique
nature of the software used and the prominence of geographic data in
crime mapping, this type of analysis is often discussed as though it is
distinct from crime analysis; in reality, however, crime mapping is a
subdiscipline of crime analysis. Crime mapping serves three main functions
within crime analysis:

• 1. It facilitates visual and statistical analyses of the spatial nature of

crime and other types of events.
• 2. It allows analysts to link unlike data sources together based on
common geographic variables (e.g., linking census information, school
information, and crime data for a common area).
• 3. It provides maps that help to communicate analysis results.
 • Crime mapping is complementary to all forms of crime analysis in that
it plays an important part in almost every analysis. As Figure 4.1
illustrates, crime mapping does not stand alone; rather, it is a process
that occurs within the larger process of crime analysis.

The following are some examples of how crime mapping is used within
the three types of crime analysis.
1. In tactical crime analysis, crime mapping is used to identify
immediate patterns for crimes such as residential and commercial
burglary, auto theft, and theft from vehicles.
EX: spatial analysis of auto theft incidents may reveal clusters of activity
at specific locations that might indicate a crime pattern.
2. In strategic crime analysis, crime mapping is utilized in long-term
applications to analyze the relationship between criminal activity and
indicators of disorder, such as a high volume of vacant property or
disorder calls for service; to assist in geographic and temporal
allocation of resources, such as patrol officer scheduling and
determination of patrol areas; to examine patterns of crime at or
around specific locations, such as schools, bars, or drug treatment
centers; to calculate crime rate information, such as numbers of
residential burglaries per household; and to incorporate crime data
with qualitative geographic information, such as information on
teenage hangouts, student pathways to school, or drug and
prostitution markets.
3. In administrative crime analysis, crime mapping is a valuable tool
used by police, researchers, and media organizations to convey criminal
activity information to the public. Web sites operated by police
departments and news organization routinely post maps that depict
areas of crime, along with corresponding tables and definitions. For
example, a police agency can reduce citizen requests for neighborhood
crime information by placing monthly or weekly crime maps on a Web
site that members of the public can access using computers in their
homes or at the local library.
 Types of Crime Mapping
• Several types of mapping are used routinely in crime analysis. This section
provides a brief introduction to the various types of crime mapping to set the
stage for the chapters that follow, which discuss the creation of maps and their
application to crime analysis in more detail;

Figure 4.3 Polygon Feature Example

Polygon Features
• A polygon feature is a geographic area represented on a map by a
multisided figure with a closed set of lines. Polygons can represent
areas as large as continents or as small as buildings; in GIS-generated
maps they may be used to depict county boundaries, city boundaries,
parks, school campuses, or police districts. The five polygons in Figure
4.3 might represent police districts in a city.
Schools

Streets

Figure 4.5 Single-Symbol Mapping Example

Single-Symbol Mapping
• In single-symbol maps, individual, uniform symbols represent features such as the
locations of stores, roads, or states. Figure 4.5 is an example of a single- symbol map
showing school locations and streets.1 An important thing to keep in mind about
single-symbol maps is that a GIS places all points on such a map that share the same
address directly on top of one another, making it impossible for the map to show how
many points there really are. For example, in the map shown in Figure 4.5, if a middle
school and elementary school share the same address, the GIS will have placed two
gray circles in the same spot, so there is no way someone looking at the map can see
all the schools in the area. This drawback of single-symbol mapping is particularly
relevant for the mapping of crime and other police data, because crime and other
police-related incidents often occur repeatedly at particular locations. Because of this,
crime analysts use single-symbol mapping primarily to display geographic information
in which there is no overlap; they employ other types of maps to convey information
about multiple incidents at particular locations.
• In addition, single-symbol maps are not useful when analysts are dealing with large
amounts of data. Imagine the map in Figure 4.5 with the locations of 100 schools
marked. The points would overlap, and the map would be difficult to read. Thus
analysts use single-symbol maps primarily when they are working with relatively small
amounts of data that do not overlap. Police agencies also often use single-symbol
maps to communicate the locations of crimes within patterns to police personnel.
Figure 4.2 Point and Line Feature Example
Point Features
• A point feature is a discrete location that is usually depicted on a
GIS-generated map by a symbol or label. A point feature is analogous
to a pin placed on a paper wall map. A GIS uses different symbols to
depict the locations of data relevant to the analysis, such as crimes,
motor vehicle accidents, traffic signs, buildings, police beat stations,
and cell phone towers. Figure 4.2 shows circles on the map that could
represent any of these types of locations.
Line Features
• A line feature is a real-world element that can be represented on a
map by a line or set of lines. The lines in Figure 4.2, for example,
represent streets. Other types of line features include rivers, streams,
power lines, and bus routes.
Figure 4.4 Image Feature Example
Image Features
• An image feature on a GIS-generated map is a vertical photograph
taken from a satellite or an airplane that is digitized and placed within
the appropriate coordinates. Such photos, which may appear in black
and white or color, show the details of streets, buildings, parking lots,
and environmental features (landscaping). Figure 4.4 is an example of
an image feature, an aerial photograph of a residential neighborhood.
 Park Streets

500 ft buffer

Figure 4.6 Buffer Map Example: One Buffer

 Night Clubs Streets Buffers

500 ft

1000 ft

Figure 4.7 Buffer Map Example: Two Buffers

Buffers
• A buffer is a specified area around a feature on a map. Buffers can be set at
small distances, such as 50 feet, or larger distances, such as 500 miles,
depending on the purpose and scale of the map. Buffers help in crime
analysis by illustrating the relative distances between features on a map.
The example map in Figure 4.6 shows a park (polygon feature) with a
500-foot buffer, which could be used to show whether drug arrests were
made within 500 feet of the park.
• Buffers can also be used as polygons for data aggregation and comparison.
Figure 4.7 shows two buffers (500 feet and 1000 feet) around nightclubs
(point features), which analysts could use to compare incidents directly
around the night- clubs to those farther out to see whether the activity has
a spillover effect on surrounding neighborhoods.
Figure 4.14 Interactive Crime Mapping
Interactive Crime Mapping
• Rather than a type of mapping, the term interactive crime mapping refers to
simplified geographic information systems made available to novice users over
the Internet. Many police departments have interactive Web sites where
citizens and police officers can conduct basic crime mapping themselves. These
applications typically are not flexible or sophisticated enough to be useful to
crime analysts. To illustrate interactive crime mapping, Figures 4.13
by Occupancy

Fights Drugs Weapons

Disorderly Conduct Streets
Crimes at Nightclubs
Crimes at Nightclubs
Graduated Graduated by Occupancy
Fights Drugs
Weapons
Disorderly Conduct
Streets

Figure 4.12 Density Map Example

Density Mapping
• In density mapping, analysts use point data to shade surfaces that are not
limited to area boundaries (as is the case in graduated color mapping). In their
most basic form, density maps are shaded according to the concentration of
incidents in particular areas. In the map shown in Figure 4.12, the darker colors
represent areas in which the incidents are more concentrated, and the lighter
colors represent those in which the incidents are less concentrated. Such maps
are used to compare small variations in crime levels from one area to another
rather than to compare levels of crime within fixed artificial geographic
boundaries, as in area maps.
Figure 4.10 Pie Chart Mapping
Chart Mapping
• Chart mapping allows the crime analyst to display several values within a particular
variable at the same time (e.g., variable  crime, values  robbery, assault, and rape).
There are two types of chart mapping: pie and bar. In pie chart mapping, the relative
percentages (represented by slices of a pie) of values within a variable are displayed.
Figure 4.10 is an example of a pie chart map that depicts fights, drugs, weapons, and
disorderly conduct incidents at nightclubs. The pies are placed at the locations of all
the nightclubs in the area mapped, and the sizes of the pies are graduated to depict
the total occupancy capacities of the nightclubs, which provides a relative comparison.
Some of the nightclubs represented have had all four types of incidents, whereas
others have had only two or three of the four, and the percent- ages (slices) are based
only on the frequencies of the values included (not all types of incidents at all
nightclubs).
• In bar chart mapping, the relative frequencies (represented by bars) of values within
variables are displayed. In the example , pie charts are placed at the locations of the
nightclubs in the area mapped. This figure depicts the same data shown in Figure 4.10,
but instead of percentages, the heights of the bars show the frequencies of incidents.
Figure 4.8 Graduated Mapping
Graduated Mapping
• Crime analysts often use graduated maps—that is, maps in which different sizes
or colors of features represent particular values of variables. Figures 4.8 and 4.9
are general examples of graduated size and graduated color maps, respectively.
• In a graduated size map, the sizes of the symbols used for point and line
features reflect their value. As noted above, single-symbol maps are not
appropriate for dis- playing data about crimes that occur at the same locations
repeatedly. Analysts use graduated size maps for this purpose, because these
maps can account for multiple incidents at the same locations. However, like
single-symbol maps, graduated size maps are subject to overlapping points if
too many data are analyzed at once.
Geographic Features
• A geographic information system translates physical elements in the real
world— such as roads, buildings, lakes, and mountains—into forms that can
be displayed, manipulated, and analyzed along with police information such
as crime, arrest, and traffic accident data. A GIS uses four types of features to
represent objects and locations in the real world; these are referred to as
point, line, polygon, and image features.