INTRODUCTION TO BIOCHEMISTRY.

BIOCHEMISTRY
=STUDY OF THE MOLECULAR BASIS OF LIFE.
=IT USES THE TOOLS AND TERMINOLOGY OF CHEMISTRY TO

DESCRIBE THE VARIOUS ATTRIBUTES OF LIVING ORGANISMS.

WHAT ARE WE MADE OF? HOW DO WE WORK?

IMPORTANCE OF BIOCHEMISTRY TO ALL LIFE SCIENCES

LIFE SCIENCES
*STUDY OF LIVING ORGANISMS SUCH AS ZOOLOGY,

BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, BIOLOGY AND RELATED SUBJECTS.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BIOCHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE

IT OFFERS INSIGHTS INTO THE TREATMENT OF DISEASES

SUCH AS CANCER AND DIABETES.

IT IMPROVES THE EFFICIENCY OF INDUSTRIES SUCH AS

WASTEWATER TREATMENT, FOOD PRODUCTION AND

DRUG MANUFACTURING.

CONCEPTS OF CELL
WHAT IS CELL?
= FUNDAMENTAL UNITS OF LIFE.
WHAT ARE THE TWO TYPES OF CELLS?
A.) PROKARYOTIC
B.) EUKARYOTIC

PROKARYOTIC CELLS
PROKARYOTIC CELLS
=LACKS NUCLEUS AND OTHER ORGANELLES
= ARE SMALL AND STRUCTURALLY SIMPLE. THEY ARE

BOUNDED BY A CELL WALL AND A PLASMA MEMBRANE.

= THEY LACK A NUCLEUS AND OTHER ORGANELLES.
=DNA- CIRCULAR AND LOCATED IN NUCLEOID.
=RIBOSOMES ARE PRESENT IN THE CYTOPLASM,
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
PLASMA MEMBRANE
=(CELL MEMBRANE) SEPARATES THE EUKARYOTIC CELL FROM

ITS EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT.

=TRANSPORT NUTRIENTS; PROVIDES MECHANICAL

STRENGTHS AND SHAPE TO THE CELL; RESPONSIVE TO

EXTRACELLULAR SIGNALS
= SPECIALIZE FUNCTIONS SUCH AS MUSCLE CONTRACTION

AND NERVE IMPULSE.

CELL WALL
=OUTER-COVERING OF THE PLANT CELL.
=RESPONSIBLE FOR PROTECTION OF MECHANICAL AND

OSMOTIC PRESSURE.
CYTOPLASM
=SEMI-FLUID SUBSTANCE OF THE CELL WHERE NUCLEUS,

RIBOSOMES AND MORE ARE EMBEDDED.

NUCLEUS
= IS ENCLOSED BY A NUCLEAR ENVELOPE, WHICH CONSISTS

OF INNER AND OUTER MEMBRANES.

=“BRAIN” OF THE CELL.
TWO FUNCTIONS:
1. IT CONTAINS THE CELL’S BLUEPRINTS, THE CELL’S

HEREDITARY INFORMATION.
2. RESPONSIBLE FOR ALL CELLULAR METABOLIC ACTIVITIES.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
=SYSTEM OF INTERCONNECTED MEMBRANOUS TUBULES,

VESICLES, AND LARGE-FLATTENED SACS.

1. ROUGH ER= SYNTHESIS OF MEMBRANE PROTEINS.
2. SMOOTH ER= LIPID SYNTHESIS
RIBOSOMES
=RESPONSIBLE FOR SYNTHESIS OF PROTEINS.
=LOCATED IN THE CYTOPLASM OR IN THE RER.
LYSOSOMES
=FUNCTION IN INTRACELLULAR AND EXTRACELLULAR

DIGESTION.
1. DIGESTION OF FOOD MOLECULES .
2. DIGESTION OF UNNECESSARY CELL COMPONENTS
3. BREAKDOWN OF EXTRACELLULAR MATERIAL.
PEROXISOMES
=ARE SMALL SPHERICAL MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES THAT

CONTAIN OXIDATIVE ENZYMES (PROTEINS THAT CATALYZE

THE TRANSFER OF ELECTRONS.

 MITOCHONDRIA
=SAUSAGE-SHAPED STRUCTURE
=WHERE AEROBIC RESPIRATION TAKES PLACE.
=POWERHOUSE OF THE CELL
PLASTIDS
=ONLY FOUND IN PLANTS.
= CONTAINS PIGMENTS RESPONSIBLE
FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
TYPES:
1. LEUCOPLASTS= COLORLESS ORGANELLE USED FOR

STORAGE OF STARCH OR PROTEINS.\

2. CHROMOPLASTS= YELLOW OR ORANGE PIGMENT FOR

LEAVES, FLOWERS AND FRUITS

3. CHLOROPLASTS= CONTAINS CHLOROPHYLL FOR

PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
CYTOSKELETON
= MAINTENANCE OF OVERALL CELL SHAPE AND FACILITATE

CELLULAR MOVEMENTS.
COMPONENTS OF CYTOSKELETON
MICROTUBULES=LARGEST ; COMPOSED OF PROTEIN

TUBULIN; LONG, THIN STRUCTURE THAT REQUIRE

SUPPORT.
MICROFILAMENTS= COMPOSED OF PROTEIN ACTIN.
INTERMEDIATE FIBERS=MAINTENANCE OF CELL SHAPE
EX. KERATIN FILAMENTS =FOUND IN CELL LAYERS OF THE

SKIN.
VACUOLE
==MEMBRANE-BOUND ORGANELLE FOR STORAGE.
1. ANIMAL CELL=SMALLER; STORES WASTE PRODUCTS
2. PLANT CELL=BIGGER; STORES WATER
CENTRIOLES
=RESPONSIBLE FOR CELL DIVISION

MAJOR CONSTITUENTS OF THE HUMAN BODY

INTRODUCTION:
PROTEINS, LIPIDS, CARBOHYDRATES, NUCLEIC ACIDS AND

WATER.

WHAT IS PROTEIN?
 1. CATALYSIS
= ENZYMES ARE PROTEINS THAT DIRECT AND ACCELERATE

THOUSANDS OF BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS IN SUCH

PROCESSES AS DIGESTION, ENERGY CAPTURE, AND

BIOSYNTHESIS.
EXAMPLE:
RIBULOS BIPHOSPHATE CARBOXYLASE (ENZYME FOR

PHOTOSYNTHESIS)
NITROGENASE= NITROGEN FIXATION

2. STRUCTURE= PROTEINS PROVIDE PROTECTION AND

SUPPORT.
EXAMPLE:
1. COLLAGEN=CONNECTIVE TISSUES.
2. FIBROIN= SILK PROTEIN
3. ELASTIN= RUBBERLIKE PROTEIN (FOUND IN BLOOD

VESSELS AND SKIN.

3. MOVEMENT= INVOLVED IN ALL CELL MOVEMENTS

1. ACTIN, TUBULIN AND OTHER PROTEINS IN THE

CYTOPLASM.

4. DEFENSE= PROTEINS ARE PROTECTIVE.

1. KERATIN= FOUND IN SKIN THAT AIDS FOR PROTECTION

AGAINST MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL INJURY.

2. FIBRINOGEN AND THROMBIN= BLOOD CLOTTING

PROTEINS PREVENT BLOOD LOSS.

3. IMMUNOGLOBULIN= ANTI-BODIES PRODUCED BY

LYMPHOCYTES WHEN FOREIGN ORGANISMS INVADE.

5. REGULATION= BINDING A HORMONE TO A CELL CHANGES

ITS CELLULAR FUNCTION.

EXAMPLE:
1. INSULIN AND GLUCAGON= REGULATE BLOOD GLUCOSE

LEVELS.
2. GROWTH HORMONE= REGULATE CELL GROWTH AND

DIVISION.

6. TRANSPORT= FUNCTIONS AS CARRIERS OF MOLECULES

OR IONS ACROSS CELLS.

EXAMPLE:
1. HEMOGLOBIN= TRANSPORTS O2 TO THE TISSUES FROM

THE LUNGS.
2. LIPOPROTEINS LDL AND HDL= TRANSPORTS LIPIDS FROM

THE LIVER AND INTESTINES TO OTHER ORGANS.

WHAT ARE LIPIDS?

LIPIDS ARE DIVERSE GROUP OF BIOMOLECULES.
MOLECULES SUCH AS FATS AND OILS, PHOSPHOLIPIDS,

STEROIDS, AND CAROTENOIDS.

EXAMPLE:
1. FATS AND OILS= STORE ENERGY EFFICIENTLY
2. PHOSPHOLIPIDS AND SPHINGOLIPIDS= IMPORTANT

STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS IN CELL MEMBRANES.

WHAT ARE CARBOHYDRATES?

=ARE THE MOST ABUNDANT ORGANIC MOLECULES IN

NATURE.
=THE MAJORITY OF THESE SUBSTANCES CONTAIN CARBON,

HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN

CN (H2O)N
=CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF SIMPLE SUGAR

UNITS THEY CONTAIN.

WHAT ARE NUCLEIC ACIDS?

=STORING GENETIC INFORMATION
*DNA= DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID\
*RNA= RIBONUCLEIC ACID

WHAT IS WATER?
=IT KEEPS THE BODY HYDRATED
=BALANCES BODY FLUIDS
EXAMPLE:
CIRCULATION
ABSORPTION
TRANSPORT OF NUTRIENTS AND;
MAINTAIN BODY TEMPERATURE.
CARBOHYDRATES
ARE THE SIMPLEST, IN TERMS OF THEIR ATOMIC

COMPOSITION AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURES.

COMPOSED OF C, H, AND O.
CN (H2O)N 1:2:1
KNOWN AS SUGARS OR SACCHARIDES.
MAJOR SOURCE OF ENERGY FOR ALL LIVING

ORGANISMS.

TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES
1. MONOSACCHARIDES= SIMPLE SUGARS , SMALLEST UNITS

THAT MAKE UP OTHER CARBOHYDRATES (BUILDING

BLOCKS).
1. GLUCOSE (BLOOD SUGAR)
=MAIN SOURCE OF ENERGY FOR HUMANS
=CONTAINS 6 CARBON ATOMS
=Α-GLUCOSE
Α-CARBOHYDRATES, THE OH GROUP
OF C1 IS POINTING IN THE OPPOSITE
DIRECTION TO THE CH2OH.
=Β -GLUCOSE
Α-CARBOHYDRATES, THE OH GROUP
OF C1 IS POINTING IN THE SAME
DIRECTION TO THE CH2OH.

2. GALACTOSE
=IT IS USUALLY FOUND IN NATURE COMBINED WITH OTHER

SUGARS, AS, FOR EXAMPLE, IN LACTOSE (MILK SUGAR).

3. FRUCTOSE
=FRUIT SUGARS

2. DISACCHARIDES
MADE UP OF TWO MONOSACCHARIDES
MALTOSE
=GLUCOSE AND ANOTHER GLUCOSE BIND WITH EACH

OTHER.
=LINK TOGETHER BY AN Α-1-4 GLYCOSIDIC BOND
LACTOSE= GALACTOSE BINDS WITH GLUCOSE
=NATURALLY FOUND IN MILK
SUCROSE= FRUCTOSE BINDS WITH GLUCOSE
= TABLE SUGAR FORMED BY PLANTS

3. POLYSACCHARIDES
 MORE THANK 20 MONOSACCHARIDES LINKED

TOGETHER.
A.K.A “GLYCANS”
EXAMPLES OF POLYSACCHARIDES:
STARCH= STORAGE OF PLANTS; MADE OF GLUCOSE
GLYCOGEN= STORAGE IN ANIMALS

DEXTRAN= STRUCTURAL COMPONENT IN BACTERIA AND

YEASTS.
= MADE UP OF Α-1,3 AND Α-1,6 BONDS.
CELLULOSE= STRUCTURAL COMPONENT OF PLANTS THAT

MADE UP THE PLANT’S CELL WALL.

=MADE UP OF Β-1,4 BONDS.
=HUMANS CAN’T DIGEST CELLULOSE

STEREOISOMERISM ENANTIOMERS AND DIASTEREOMERS

WHAT IS STEREOISOMERISM?
=ARE ISOMERS THAT HAVE THE SAME MOLECULAR AND

STRUCTURAL FORMULAS BUT DIFFER IN THE ORIENTATION OF

ATOMS IN SPACE.
WHAT IS ISOMERS?
= COMPOUNDS HAVE THE SAME FORMULA BUT DIFFERENT

ARRANGEMENT.

MIRROR IMAGES
= A MIRROR IMAGE IS THE REFLECTION OF AN OBJECT IN A

MIRROR.
SUPERIMPOSABLE MIRROR IMAGES ARE IMAGES THAT

COINCIDE AT ALL POINTS WHEN THE IMAGES ARE LAID

UPON EACH OTHER.

EX: A DINNER PLATE WITH NO DESIGN FEATURES HAS

SUPERIMPOSABLE MIRROR IMAGES.

NONSUPERIMPOSABLE MIRROR IMAGES ARE IMAGES

WHERE NOT ALL POINTS COINCIDE WHEN THE IMAGES

ARE LAID UPON EACH OTHER.

STEREOISOMERS CAN BE SUBDIVIDED INTO TWO TYPES:
ENANTIOMERS AND DIASTEREOMERS.
ENANTIOMERS
= ARE STEREOISOMERS WHOSE MOLECULES
ARE NONSUPERIMPOSABLE.
MIRROR IMAGES OF EACH OTHER.
=LEFT- AND RIGHT-HANDED FORMS
OF A MOLECULE WITH A
SINGLE CHIRAL CENTER ARE ENANTIOMERS.

THE ENANTIOMER WITH THE CHIRAL CENTER

-OH GROUP ON THE RIGHT IN THE FISCHER PROJECTION

FORMULA IS BY DEFINITION THE RIGHT-HANDED ISOMER (D-

GLYCERALDEHYDE),
AND THE ENANTIOMER WITH THE CHIRAL CENTER
-OH GROUP ON THE LEFT IN THE FISCHER PROJECTION

FORMULA IS BY DEFI NITION THE LEFT-HANDED ISOMER (L-

GLYCERALDEHYDE).
LATIN WORDS DEXTRO, WHICH MEANS “RIGHT,” AND LEVO,

WHICH MEANS “LEFT.”

DIASTEREOMERS
=ARE STEREOISOMERS WHOSE MOLECULES ARE NOT

MIRROR IMAGES OF EACH OTHER.

LIPIDS
LIPIDS KNOWN AS FATS PROVIDE A MAJOR WAY OF

STORING CHEMICAL ENERGY AND CARBON ATOMS IN

THE BODY. FATS ALSO SURROUND AND INSULATE VITAL

BODY ORGANS, PROVIDING PROTECTION FROM

MECHANICAL SHOCK AND PREVENTING EXCESSIVE LOSS

OF HEAT ENERGY.
PHOSPHOLIPIDS, GLYCOLIPIDS, AND CHOLESTEROL (A

LIPID) ARE THE BASIC COMPONENTS OF CELL

MEMBRANES. SEVERAL CHOLESTEROL DERIVATIVES

FUNCTION AS CHEMICAL MESSENGERS (HORMONES)

WITHIN THE BODY.

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF LIPIDS

LIPIDS DO NOT HAVE A COMMON STRUCTURAL FEATURE

THAT SERVES AS THE BASIS FOR DEFINING SUCH

COMPOUNDS. INSTEAD, THEIR CHARACTERIZATION IS BASED

ON SOLUBILITY CHARACTERISTICS.
A LIPID IS AN ORGANIC COMPOUND FOUND IN LIVING

ORGANISMS THAT IS INSOLUBLE (OR ONLY SPARINGLY

SOLUBLE) IN WATER BUT SOLUBLE IN NONPOLAR ORGANIC

SOLVENTS.

(GREEK: LIPOS, MEANS FAT OR LARD)

- ARE A HETEROGENEOUS CLASS OF NATURALLY

OCCURRING ORGANIC SUBSTANCES

- HAVE A DISTINGUISHED FUNCTIONAL GROUP OR

STRUCTURAL FEATURES
- ARE INSOLUBLE IN WATER AND HIGHLY SOLUBLE IN ONE OR

MORE OF THE FOLLOWING SOLVENTS: ETHER,

CHLOROFORM, BENZENE AND ACETONE.

- THIS PROPERTY SETS THEM APART FROM PROTEINS,

CARBOHYDRATES, NUCLEIC ACIDS AND OTHER

BIOMOLECULES
- ARE WIDELY DISTRIBUTED IN THE BIOLOGICAL WORLD
- PLAY A WIDE VARIETY OF ROLES IN PLANT AND ANIMAL

TISSUES

TYPES OF FATTY ACIDS

IS A NATURALLY OCCURRING MONOCARBOXYLIC ACID.
ORGANIC ACID (CHAIN OF CARBONS WITH HYDROGENS

ATTACHED) THAT HAS AN ACID GROUP AT ONE END & A

METHYL GROUP AT THE OTHER END.

FATTY ACIDS ARE RARELY FOUND FREE IN NATURE BUT

RATHER OCCUR AS PART OF THE STRUCTURE OF MORE

COMPLEX LIPID MOLECULES.

FATTY ACIDS – CARBON CHAINS, VARY IN:
1. LENGTH – AFFECTS ABSORPTION
AS THE CARBON CHAIN INCREASES IN LENGTH, SOLUBILITY

IN WATER DECREASES.
2. SATURATION –CHEMICAL
STRUCTURE; AFFECTS
COOKING & STORAGE
PROPERTIES AND HEALTH
SATURATED AND UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
SATURATED FATTY ACIDS
= IS A FATTY ACID WITH A CARBON CHAIN IN WHICH ALL

CARBON– CARBON BONDS ARE SINGLE BONDS.

= CARBON CHAINS FILLED WITH HYDROGEN ATOMS (NO C=C

DOUBLE BONDS)
1. SATURATED FAT – TRIGLYCERIDE CONTAINING 3

SATURATED FATTY ACIDS, SUCH AS ANIMAL FATS (BUTTER,

LARD) & TROPICAL OILS (PALM, COCONUT)

2. APPEAR SOLID AT ROOM TEMPERATURE.
UNSATURATED FATTY ACID – CARBON CHAINS LACK

SOME HYDROGENS (>1 C=C DOUBLE BOND)

1. MONOUNSATURATED FAT – TRIGLYCERIDE CONTAINING

FATTY ACIDS WITH 1 DOUBLE BOND;

I.E. CANOLA & OLIVE OIL
2. POLYUNSATURATED FAT- TRIGLYCERIDES CONTAINING A

HIGH % OF FATTY ACIDS WITH >2 DOUBLE BONDS;

I.E. CORN, SAFFLOWER, SOYBEAN, SUNFLOWER OILS AND

FISH;
3. APPEAR LIQUID AT ROOM TEMPERATURE

PROPERTIES OF FATTY ACIDS AND LIPIDS

WATER SOLUBILITY FOR FATTY ACIDS IS A DIRECT

FUNCTION OF CARBON CHAIN LENGTH; SOLUBILITY

DECREASES AS CARBON CHAIN LENGTH INCREASES.

SHORT-CHAIN FATTY ACIDS HAVE A SLIGHT SOLUBILITY

IN WATER. LONG-CHAIN FATTY ACIDS ARE ESSENTIALLY

INSOLUBLE IN WATER.
MELTING POINTS FOR FATTY ACIDS ARE STRONGLY

INFLUENCED BY BOTH CARBON CHAIN LENGTH AND

DEGREE OF UNSATURATION (NUMBER OF DOUBLE BONDS

PRESENT). AS CARBON CHAIN LENGTH INCREASES,

MELTING POINT INCREASES.

THE GREATER THE DEGREE OF UNSATURATION, THE GREATER

THE REDUCTION IN MELTING POINTS.

STORAGE LIPIDS: FATS AND OILS

FATS ARE NATURALLY OCCURRING MIXTURES OF

TRIACYLGLYCEROL MOLECULES IN WHICH MANY

DIFFERENT KINDS OF TRIACYLGLYCEROL MOLECULES ARE

PRESENT.
OILS ARE ALSO NATURALLY OCCURRING MIXTURES OF

TRIACYLGLYCEROL MOLECULES IN WHICH THERE ARE

MANY DIFFERENT KINDS OF TRIACYLGLYCEROL

MOLECULES PRESENT.
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS (TAGS)
CONSTITUTE THE MAIN ENERGY STORAGE RESOURCE IN

MAMMALS, BY VIRTUE OF THEIR HIGH ENERGY DENSITY.

ARE CONCENTRATED PRIMARILY IN SPECIAL CELLS

(ADIPOCYTES) THAT ARE NEARLY FILLED WITH THE

MATERIAL. UNDER THE SKIN, IN THE ABDOMINAL CAVITY,

IN THE MAMMARY GLANDS, AND AROUND VARIOUS

ORGANS
AN OIL IS A TRIACYLGLYCEROL MIXTURE THAT IS A LIQUID

AT ROOM TEMPERATURE (25°C). OILS ARE OBTAINED FROM

PLANT SOURCES.

COMPARISON BETWEEN FATS AND OILS

FATS
HIGHER MELTING POINTS
FATS ARE GENERALLY OBTAINED FROM ANIMALS;

ANIMAL FAT.
OILS
LOWER MELTING POINTS
OILS TYPICALLY COME FROM PLANTS AND FISH OIL.
PURE FATS AND PURE OILS ARE COLORLESS, ODORLESS,

AND TASTELESS.
SATURATED FATS ARE “BAD FAT,” MONOUNSATURATED

FATS ARE “GOOD FAT,” AND POLYUNSATURATED FATS

CAN BE BOTH “GOOD FAT” AND “BAD FAT.”

OMEGA-3 AND OMEGA-6 FATTY ACIDS

OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS
FROM FISH
ALPHA-LINOLENIC ACID (ALA), EICOSAPENTAENOIC ACID

(EPA), AND DOCOSAHEXAENOIC ACID (DHA).

ALBACORE TUNA, SALMON, AND MACKEREL
OMEGA-6 FATTY ACIDS
FROM PLANT OILS
FOUND IN VEGETABLE OILS, NUTS AND SEEDS

ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS

THERE ARE TWO ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS: LINOLEIC ACID

AND LINOLENIC ACID.

 LINOLEIC ACID IS THE STARTING MATERIAL FOR THE

BIOSYNTHESIS OF ARACHIDONIC ACID.

LINOLEIC ACID (18:2) ARACHIDONIC ACID (20:4)

OMEGA-6 FATTY ACIDS

ARACHIDONIC ACID IS THE MAJOR STARTING MATERIAL FOR

EICOSANOIDS, SUBSTANCES THAT HELP REGULATE BLOOD

PRESSURE, CLOTTING, AND SEVERAL OTHER IMPORTANT

BODY FUNCTIONS.
LINOLENIC ACID (18:3) EPA (20:5) DHA (22:6) OMEGA-3
FATTY ACIDS
EPA (EICOSAPENTAENOIC ACID) AND DHA

(DOCOSAHEXAENOIC ACID) ARE IMPORTANT CONSTITUENTS

OF THE COMMUNICATION MEMBRANES OF THE BRAIN AND

ARE NECESSARY FOR NORMAL BRAIN DEVELOPMENT. ALSO

ACTIVE IN THE RETINA OF THE EYE.

FAT SUBSTITUTES (ARTIFICIAL FATS)

IN RESPONSE TO CONSUMER DEMAND FOR LOW-FAT,

LOW-CALORIE FOODS, FOOD SCIENTISTS HAVE

DEVELOPED SEVERAL TYPES OF “ARTIFICIAL FATS.” SUCH

SUBSTANCES REPLICATE THE TASTE, TEXTURE, AND

COOKING PROPERTIES OF FATS BUT ARE THEMSELVES

NOT LIPIDS.
TYPES:
1. CARBOHYDRATE BASED – I.E. OATRIM &
Z-TRIM; MADE FROM PLANT FIBERS
1. PROTEIN BASED – I.E. SIMPLESSE; MADE
FROM EGG WHITE OR MILK PROTEIN
1. FAT BASED – I.E. OLESTRA; OILS, MARGARINES,
SNACKS, ICE CREAMS, MADE FROM SUCROSE & FATTY
ACIDS; PASSES THROUGH BODY UNDIGESTED
DO THEY WORK?
1. POTENTIAL HEALTH BENEFITS – PROMOTE WEIGHT LOSS

AND LOWER BLOOD LIPIDS

1. BUT LIKE SUGAR SUBSTITUTES, MANY PEOPLE JUST EAT

MORE
INSTEAD OF REPLACING FAT
1. SIDE EFFECTS POSSIBLE WITH OLESTRA
4. USE IN MODERATION
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
HYDROGENATED – ADDITION OF HYDROGEN TO

UNSATURATED FAT
1. MAKES IT MORE “SOLID” OR FIRM
2. EFFECTS STABILITY AND PROTECTS AGAINST OXIDATION;

MORE “SHELF-STABLE”
3. WIDELY USED BY FOOD INDUSTRY IN MARGARINE,

SHORTENING, PEANUT BUTTER, BAKED GOODS & SNACK

FOOD
CIS VS. TRANS-FATTY ACIDS
IN NATURE, MOST DOUBLE BONDS ARE CIS MEANING THAT

THE HYDROGENS NEXT TO THE DOUBLE BONDS ARE ON THE

SAME SIDE OF THE CARBON CHAIN WHEN A FAT IS

PARTIALLY HYDROGENATED, SOME OF THE DOUBLE BONDS

CHANGE FROM CIS TO TRANS.
CLASSIFICATIONS AND FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
BASED ON BIOCHEMICAL FUNCTION, LIPIDS ARE DIVIDED

INTO FIVE CATEGORIES:

1. ENERGY-STORAGE LIPIDS (TRIACYLGLYCEROLS)
2. MEMBRANE LIPIDS (PHOSPHOLIPIDS,

SPHINGOGLYCOLIPIDS, AND CHOLESTEROL)

3. EMULSIFICATION LIPIDS (BILE ACIDS)
4. MESSENGER LIPIDS (STEROID HORMONES AND

EICOSANOIDS)
5. PROTECTIVE-COATING LIPIDS (BIOLOGICAL WAXES)

ENERGY-STORAGE LIPIDS (TRIACYLGLYCEROLS)

CONSTITUTE THE MAIN ENERGY STORAGE RESOURCE IN

MAMMALS, BY VIRTUE OF THEIR HIGH ENERGY DENSITY.

IS A LIPID FORMED BY ESTERIFICATION OF THREE FATTY

ACIDS TO A GLYCEROL MOLECULE

MEMBRANE LIPIDS: (PHOSPHOLIPIDS, SPHINGOGLYCOLIPIDS,

AND CHOLESTEROL)
MEMBRANE LIPIDS: PHOSPHOLIPIDS
1. FUNCTIONS: PART OF CELL MEMBRANES AND ACTS AS AN

EMULSIFIER (HELPS KEEP FATS IN SOLUTION)

2. NOT A DIETARY ESSENTIAL; MADE BY THE LIVER
ALL CELLS ARE SURROUNDED BY A MEMBRANE THAT

CONFINES THEIR CONTENTS.

UP TO 80% OF THE MASS OF A CELL MEMBRANE CAN BE LIPID

MATERIALS; THE REST IS PRIMARILY PROTEIN. IT IS

MEMBRANES THAT GIVE CELLS THEIR INDIVIDUALITY BY

SEPARATING THEM FROM THEIR ENVIRONMENT.

PHOSPHOLIPIDS – SIMILAR TO TRIGLYCERIDES IN

STRUCTURE EXCEPT ONLY 2 FATTY ACIDS + CHOLINE

PHOSPHOLIPIDS IN FOODS: LECITHIN, EGG YOLKS,

SOYBEANS, WHEAT GERM, PEANUTS

MEMBRANE LIPIDS: PHOSPHOLIPIDS

ARE THE MOST ABUNDANT TYPE OF MEMBRANE LIPID.
A LIPID THAT CONTAINS ONE OR MORE FATTY ACIDS, A

PHOSPHATE GROUP, A PLATFORM MOLECULE TO WHICH

THE FATTY ACID(S) AND THE PHOSPHATE GROUP ARE

ATTACHED, AND AN ALCOHOL THAT IS ATTACHED TO THE

PHOSPHATE GROUP.
GLYCEROPHOSPHOLIPIDS
A GLYCEROPHOSPHOLIPID IS A LIPID THAT CONTAINS TWO

FATTY ACIDS AND A PHOSPHATE GROUP ESTERIFIED TO A

GLYCEROL MOLECULE AND AN ALCOHOL ESTERIFIED TO

THE PHOSPHATE GROUP.

ESTERIFICATION IS A CHEMICAL REACTION
THAT FORMS AT LEAST ONE ESTER
(= A TYPE OF COMPOUND PRODUCED BY
REACTION BETWEEN ACIDS AND ALCOHOLS)
SPHINGOPHOSPHOLIPID
A SPHINGOPHOSPHOLIPID IS A LIPID THAT CONTAINS ONE

FATTY ACID AND ONE PHOSPHATE GROUP ATTACHED TO A

SPHINGOSINE MOLECULE AND AN ALCOHOL ATTACHED TO

THE PHOSPHATE GROUP.

SPHINGOPHOSPHOLIPIDS IN WHICH THE ALCOHOL

ESTERIFIED TO THE PHOSPHATE GROUP IS CHOLINE ARE

CALLED SPHINGOMYELINS.
SPHINGOMYELINS ARE FOUND IN ALL CELL MEMBRANES

AND ARE IMPORTANT STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF THE

MYELIN SHEATH, THE PROTECTIVE AND INSULATING

COATING THAT SURROUNDS NERVES.

MEMBRANE LIPIDS: SPHINGOGLYCOLIPIDS
IS A LIPID THAT CONTAINS BOTH A FATTY ACID AND A

CARBOHYDRATE COMPONENT ATTACHED TO A

SPHINGOSINE MOLECULE.
THE SIMPLEST SPHINGOGLYCOLIPIDS, WHICH ARE CALLED

CEREBROSIDES, CONTAIN A SINGLE MONOSACCHARIDE

UNIT—EITHER GLUCOSE OR GALACTOSE. AS THE NAME

SUGGESTS, CEREBROSIDES OCCUR PRIMARILY IN THE

BRAIN (7% OF DRY MASS).

MORE COMPLEX SPHINGOGLYCOLIPIDS, CALLED

GANGLIOSIDES, CONTAIN A BRANCHED CHAIN OF UP TO

SEVEN MONOSACCHARIDE RESIDUES. THESE SUBSTANCES

OCCUR IN THE GRAY MATTER OF THE BRAIN AS WELL AS IN

THE MYELIN SHEATH.

MEMBRANE LIPIDS: CHOLESTEROL
CHOLESTEROL’S STRUCTURE DIFFERS MARKEDLY FROM

THAT OF OTHER MEMBRANE LIPIDS IN THAT (1) THERE ARE

NO FATTY ACID RESIDUES PRESENT AND (2) NEITHER

GLYCEROL NOR SPHINGOSINE IS PRESENT AS THE

PLATFORM MOLECULE.
CHOLESTEROL IS A STEROID. A STEROID IS A LIPID WHOSE

STRUCTURE IS BASED ON A FUSED-RING SYSTEM THAT

INVOLVES THREE 6-MEMBERED RINGS AND ONE 5-

MEMBERED RING.
 THE CHOLESTEROL– PROTEIN COMBINATIONS ARE CALLED

LIPOPROTEINS.
THE LIPOPROTEINS THAT CARRY CHOLESTEROL FROM THE

LIVER TO VARIOUS TISSUES ARE CALLED LDLS (LOW-

DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS), AND THOSE THAT CARRY EXCESS

CHOLESTEROL FROM TISSUES BACK TO THE LIVER ARE

CALLED HDLS (HIGH-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS).

IF TOO MUCH CHOLESTEROL IS BEING TRANSPORTED BY

LDLS OR TOO LITTLE BY HDLS, THE IMBALANCE RESULTS IN

AN INCREASE IN BLOOD CHOLESTEROL LEVELS.

HIGH BLOOD CHOLESTEROL LEVELS CONTRIBUTE TO

ATHEROSCLEROSIS, A FORM OF CARDIOVASCULAR

DISEASE CHARACTERIZED BY THE BUILDUP OF PLAQUE

ALONG THE INNER WALLS OF ARTERIES.

THE CHOLESTEROL ASSOCIATED WITH LDLS IS OFTEN CALLED

“BAD CHOLESTEROL” BECAUSE IT CONTRIBUTES TO

INCREASED BLOOD CHOLESTEROL LEVELS, AND THE

CHOLESTEROL ASSOCIATED WITH HDLS IS OFTEN CALLED

“GOOD CHOLESTEROL” BECAUSE IT CONTRIBUTES TO

REDUCED BLOOD CHOLESTEROL LEVELS.

EMULSIFICATION LIPIDS: BILE ACIDS

CHOLESTEROL DERIVATIVES CALLED BILE ACIDS FUNCTION

AS EMULSIFYING AGENTS THAT FACILITATE THE

ABSORPTION OF DIETARY LIPIDS IN THE INTESTINE. THEIR

MODE OF ACTION IS MUCH LIKE THAT OF SOAP DURING

WASHING.
A BILE ACID IS A CHOLESTEROL DERIVATIVE THAT

FUNCTIONS AS A LIPID-EMULSIFYING AGENT IN THE

AQUEOUS ENVIRONMENT OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT

LIPIDS EMULSIFICATION IS A PROCESS IN WHICH LARGE

LIPID GLOBULES ARE BROKEN DOWN INTO SEVERAL SMALL

LIPID GLOBULES.
THE MEDIUM THROUGH WHICH BILE ACIDS ARE SUPPLIED

TO THE SMALL INTESTINE IS BILE. BILE IS A FLUID

CONTAINING EMULSIFYING AGENTS THAT IS SECRETED BY

THE LIVER, STORED IN THE GALLBLADDER, AND RELEASED

INTO THE SMALL INTESTINE DURING DIGESTION.

MESSENGER LIPIDS (STEROID HORMONES AND EICOSANOIDS)
A HORMONE IS A BIOCHEMICAL SUBSTANCE, PRODUCED

BY A DUCTLESS GLAND, THAT HAS A MESSENGER

FUNCTION. HORMONES SERVE AS A MEANS OF

COMMUNICATION BETWEEN VARIOUS TISSUES. SOME

HORMONES, THOUGH NOT ALL, ARE LIPIDS.

A STEROID HORMONE IS A HORMONE THAT IS A

CHOLESTEROL DERIVATIVE.
SEX HORMONES
THE SEX HORMONES CAN BE CLASSIFIED INTO THREE MAJOR

GROUPS:
1. ESTROGENS—THE FEMALE SEX HORMONES
2. ANDROGENS—THE MALE SEX HORMONES
3. PROGESTINS—THE PREGNANCY HORMONES
ESTROGENS ARE SYNTHESIZED IN THE OVARIES AND

ADRENAL CORTEX AND ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE

DEVELOPMENT OF FEMALE SECONDARY SEX

CHARACTERISTICS AT THE ONSET OF PUBERTY AND FOR

REGULATION OF THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE. THEY ALSO

STIMULATE THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MAMMARY GLANDS

DURING PREGNANCY AND INDUCE ESTRUS (HEAT) IN

ANIMALS.
ANDROGENS ARE SYNTHESIZED IN THE TESTES AND ADRENAL

CORTEX AND PROMOTE THE DEVELOPMENT OF MALE

SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS. THEY ALSO PROMOTE

MUSCLE GROWTH.
PROGESTINS ARE SYNTHESIZED IN THE OVARIES AND THE

PLACENTA AND PREPARE THE LINING OF THE UTERUS FOR

IMPLANTATION OF THE FERTILIZED OVUM. THEY ALSO

SUPPRESS OVULATION.
SYNTHETIC STEROIDS
ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES ARE USED TO SUPPRESS

OVULATION AS A METHOD OF BIRTH CONTROL.

A MIXTURE OF A SYNTHETIC ESTROGEN AND A SYNTHETIC

PROGESTIN IS USED. THE SYNTHETIC ESTROGEN REGULATES

THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE, AND THE SYNTHETIC PROGESTIN

PREVENTS OVULATION, THUS CREATING A FALSE STATE OF

PREGNANCY
ANABOLIC STEROIDS INCLUDE THE ILLEGAL STEROID

DRUGS USED BY SOME ATHLETES TO BUILD UP MUSCLE

STRENGTH AND ENHANCE ENDURANCE. SUCH STEROIDS

ARE NOW KNOWN TO HAVE SERIOUS SIDE EFFECTS IN THE

USER.
MESSENGER LIPIDS: EICOSANOIDS
IS AN OXYGENATED C20 FATTY ACID DERIVATIVE THAT

FUNCTIONS AS A MESSENGER LIPID.

ALMOST ALL CELLS, EXCEPT RED BLOOD CELLS, PRODUCE

EICOSANOIDS.
EICOSANOIDS USUALLY HAVE A VERY SHORT “LIFE,” BEING

BROKEN DOWN, OFTEN WITHIN SECONDS OF THEIR

SYNTHESIS, TO INACTIVE RESIDUES (WHICH ARE

ELIMINATED IN URINE).
THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF EICOSANOIDS INCLUDE

MEDIATION OF
1. THE INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE, A NORMAL RESPONSE TO

TISSUE DAMAGE
2. THE PRODUCTION OF PAIN AND FEVER
3. THE REGULATION OF BLOOD PRESSURE
4. THE INDUCTION OF BLOOD CLOTTING
5. THE CONTROL OF REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTIONS, SUCH AS

INDUCTION OF LABOR
THERE ARE THREE PRINCIPAL TYPES OF EICOSANOIDS:
PROSTAGLANDINS - ARE INVOLVED IN MANY REGULATORY

FUNCTIONS, INCLUDING RAISING BODY TEMPERATURE, I

THROMBOXANES - PROMOTE THE FORMATION OF BLOOD

CLOTS. THROMBOXANES ARE PRODUCED BY BLOOD

PLATELETS AND PROMOTE PLATELET AGGREGATION.

LEUKOTRIENES - ARE FOUND IN LEUKOCYTES (WHITE BLOOD

CELLS). VARIOUS INFLAMMATORY AND HYPERSENSITIVITY

(ALLERGY) RESPONSES.
PROTECTIVE-COATING LIPIDS: BIOLOGICAL WAXES
BIOLOGICAL WAXES FIND USE IN THE PHARMACEUTICAL,

COSMETICS, AND “POLISHING” INDUSTRIES. CARNAUBA WAX

(OBTAINED FROM A SPECIES OF BRAZILIAN PALM TREE) IS A

PARTICULARLY HARD WAX WHOSE USES INVOLVE HIGH-

GLOSS FINISHES: AUTOMOBILE WAX, BOAT WAX, FLOOR

WAX, AND SHOE WAX.

LANOLIN, A MIXTURE OF WAXES OBTAINED FROM SHEEP

WOOL, IS USED AS A BASE FOR SKIN CREAMS AND

OINTMENTS INTENDED TO ENHANCE RETENTION OF WATER

(WHICH SOFTENS THE SKIN).

A MINERAL WAX IS A MIXTURE OF LONG-CHAIN ALKANES

OBTAINED FROM THE PROCESSING OF PETROLEUM

FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
LIPIDS ARE CONCENTRATED SOURCE OF ENERGY. ONE

GRAM FAT GIVES 9 K CALORIES.

IT SERVES AS A CUSHION FOR THE VITAL ORGANS AND

PROTECTS THEM FROM EXTERNAL SHOCKS OR INJURIES.

LIPIDS ARE THE STRUCTURAL MATERIALS OF CELLS AND

MEMBRANES
LIPIDS SERVES AS INSULATOR FOR OUR BODY
LIPIDS ARE THE CARRIER / RESERVOIR OF FAT SOLUBLE

VITAMINS
IN FOOD PREPARATIONS LIPIDS SERVES AS A BINDING

AGENT. IT ALSO ENHANCES THE PALATABILITY OF FOODS