Lesson 2

Defining Play and Play Experiences

Objective: At the end of the lesson the student teacher are able to:
∙ define play;
∙ discuss and identify its levels;
∙ compare and contrast adult-led and child-initiated play;
∙ explain the roles of the child and the teacher in play; and
∙ discuss the value of play and current issues

Let’s Read!
What is Play?
Play is the work of children. It consists of those activities performed for
self-amusement that have behavioral, social, and psychomotor rewards. It is
child-directed, and the rewards come from within the individual child; it is
enjoyable and spontaneous.
Play takes different forms for different children, and its definition entails
many aspects. Play is the direct opposite of work; it is frivolous. It provides
freedom and invites the impulse to engage in foolishness. Yet it provides a
means for ego development and a process by which social skills and physical
skills develop as well.
Play with imagination and fantasy is the child's natural medium of self
expression and one that gives cues about the child's conscious and
unconscious states. In play therapy, clinicians employ various techniques
designed to reveal the child's psychological and social development. Clinician-
directed play therapy is, therefore, not naturally self-directed play, but play
designed by a professional to facilitate understanding of the child and the
child's healing process.
What is Free Play?
Free play is any kind of play that is initiated by a child. Outdoor play and
indoor play can both be considered free play, as long as your child has the
freedom to control their own play experience.
There are two types of play activities – adult-guided play and child
directed play. Both are important for a child’s development.
Categories of Play
Categories of play are not mutually exclusive; different forms or categories of
play may overlap. Having choices is important since an action that appeals to
one child may be of no interest to another, and the child's interest is likely to
change throughout the play period. An understanding of play in many forms
can help parents understand its importance for children of all ages. Some
specific categories of play are as follows.
∙ Physical play. When children run, jump, and play games such as chase,
hide-and-seek, and tag, they engage in physical play. This play has a
social nature because it involves other children. It also provides
exercise , which is essential for normal development.

∙ Expressive play. Certain forms of play give children opportunities to

express feelings by engaging with materials. Materials used in expressive
play include tempera paints, fingerpaints, watercolors, crayons, colored
pencils and markers, and drawing paper; clay, water, and sponges;
beanbags, pounding benches, punching bags, and rhythm instruments;
and shaving cream, pudding, and gelatin. Parents can take an active role
in expressive play by using the materials alongside the child.

∙ Manipulative play. Children control or master their environment through

manipulative play. They manipulate the environment and other people as
much as possible. Manipulative play starts in infancy. Infants play with
their parents; for example, they drop a toy, wait for the parent to pick it
up, clean it, and return it, and then they drop it again. This interaction
brings the infant and parent together in a game. Children move objects
such as puzzle pieces and gadgets to better understand how they work.

∙ Symbolic play. Certain games can symbolically express a child's

problems. Because there are no rules in symbolic play, the child can use
this play to reinforce, learn about, and imaginatively alter painful
experiences. The child who is in an abusive family may pretend to be a
mother who loves and cuddles her child rather than one who verbally or
physically abuses her child. Or in play this same child might act out
abusive experience by hitting or screaming at a doll that symbolizes the
child. Parents can be surprised by their child's perception of family
issues. Children mimic their parents in certain play; in other games they
may pretend they are the heroes they read about in books or see on
television. At certain developmental stages children believe they can fly or
disappear.
Symbolic play may be used by children to cope with fear of separation
when they go to school or to the hospital.

∙ Dramatic play. Children act out situations they suspect may happen to
them, that they are fearful will happen, or that they have witnessed.
Dramatic play can be either spontaneous or guided and may be
therapeutic for children in the hospital.
∙ Familiarization play. Children handle materials and explore experiences
in reassuring, enjoyable ways. Familiarization prepares children for
potentially fearful and painful experiences, such as surgery or parental
separation.

∙ Games. Some video and card games are played by one child alone. Games
with rules are rarely played by children younger than four years of age.
Board games, card games, and sports are enjoyed typically by school-age
 children. In these games children learn to play by the rules and to take
turns. Older children enjoy games with specific rules; however, younger
children tend to like games that allow them to change the rules.

∙ Surrogate play. For children who are too ill or incapacitated to play,
another child or a parent may serve as surrogate. Watching the surrogate
who plays on behalf of the sick child is stimulating to the sick child.
When parents engage in expressive art by painting or redecorating a
room while the physically challenged child watches, they stimulate the
child.

What is Guided Play?

Guided play refers to learning experiences that combine the child-directed
nature of free play with a focus on learning outcomes and adult mentorship.
Children thrive when they engage in free play, which involves active engagement
and is fun, voluntary, and flexible (Burghardt, 2011)

Three theorists of children’s play

There are three theorists who are especially important to our
understanding of play – Jean Piaget, Mildred Parten, and Lev Vygotsky. They
describe play in different ways, but each one is useful for understanding the
play behaviour you see in your classroom.
∙ Jean Piaget
Piaget divided play into three types of “play behavior” – practice play,
symbolic play, and play-with-rules.
1. Practice Play - Practice play is about exploring materials and toys to “see
what they do.” It involves simple, repetitive movements, sometimes also without
toys.
2. Symbolic Play - is when children use an object, action or idea to represent
something. They could use a block, for example, to pretend they are on a
telephone call.
3. Games with Rules - This kind of play is more structured and requires
following rules and norms to reach a goal when playing alone or with a group.

∙ Lev Vygotsky
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory says that children socially construct what
they know by using language. He is known for the idea of the zone of proximal
development (ZPD), which is the range of tasks a child can do with help but
cannot do on their own. Play, particularly make believe play, creates a ZPD as
the child plays.

∙ Mildred Parten
 Mildred Parten’s stage of Play theory describes the ways children interact
with each other. Here are the stages:
6 Stages of Play (Levels of Play)
As children develop, their play evolves, too. Certain types of play are
associated with, but not restricted to, specific age groups.

∙ Unoccupied play – 0-3 months Babies move their arms and legs with no
purpose. They are learning to move and it is the beginning of play. Babies
are observing their world. Daydreaming is a wonderful way to grow
cognitively, building imagination and connecting children to their
environment.

∙ Solitary play - 0-2 years is independent. The child plays alone with toys
that are different from those chosen by other children in the area. Solitary
play begins in infancy and is common in toddlers because of their limited
social, cognitive, and physical skills. However, it is important for all age
groups to have some time to play by themselves.
∙ Onlooker play – 2 years is present when the child watches others playing.
Although the child may ask questions of the players, there is no effort to
join the play. This type of play usually starts during toddler years but can
take place at any age.

∙ Parallel play – 2-3 years is usually associated with toddlers, although it

happens in any age group. Children play side by side with similar toys,
but there is a lack of group involvement.

∙ Associative play - 2-3 years involves a group of children who have similar
goals. Children in associate play do not set rules, and although they all
want to be playing with the same types of toys and may even trade toys,
there is no formal organization. Associative play begins during
toddlerhood and extends though preschool age.
∙ Cooperative play – 4-6 years begins in the late preschool period. The play
is organized by group goals. There is at least one leader, and children are
definitely in or out of the group.

Play is important because:

∙ We are biologically wired to play.
∙ It gives children the opportunity to practice skills they will need in the
future.
∙ It encourages decision making skills.
∙ It teaches children how to work together.
∙ It teaches children how to resolve conflicts and advocate.
 ∙ It allows children to discuss what they enjoy.

The Purpose of Play

Some of the purposes of play include: to build resilience, develop lifelong
skills (including creativity), relieve stress, form bonds, use imaginations, self
exploration and to have fun (Brown, 2014). Even when teacher/adults cannot
identify the purpose, play is not purposeless. For example, a child fascinated
with learning to juggle might want to master that skill, have fun, impress
mates, fill in time, or be better at basketball.
We have to learn to live with the fact that our goals don’t always match
children’s goals, and for them, their goals are going to be much more enticing.
Purposeful play activities encourage children to ask questions about and
explore things children are interested in. These activities also encourage
children to find answers to their questions by observing, planning, and trying
new things. Adults can help by thinking about what is interesting to their child
and then planning some special play activities that encourage the child to
explore those interests. This kind of play helps children learn the things they
will need to be successful in school. The best way for young children to
understand the world and to learn new skills and practice skills they already
have, is through play (Ginsburg, 2007).

The Role of the Child in Play

The role of the child in play is to improve their cognitive, physical,

social, and emotional well-being. Through play, children learn about the
world and themselves. They also learn skills they need for study, work, and
relationships such as: confidence.

The Role of the Teacher in Play

Play is essential to development because it contributes to the cognitive,
physical, social, and emotional well-being of children and youth (Ginsburg,
2007). The role of the teacher/adult will have an impact on student’s play. The
way they set up the space, the things they say before, during and after play, the
time given, the resources offered and not offered (such as loose parts).

The role of the teacher/adult and their interactions with play can build or
reduce a child’s confidence, reflection skills and independence. While the option
A responses above may be quicker and feel more comfortable, option B
responses
are more likely to support children to make decisions for themselves, develop
skills and improve their self-esteem.
The Teacher role in Play

∙ Playing with children not controlling the play

Ideally, some play involves teacher/adults, but when play is controlled by
adults, the benefits of play can, at the very least, be watered down.
∙ Taking cues from children
Taking cues from children shows them that you believe in their ability as
capable learners, thinkers and risk takers who can make their own decisions.
This is motivating and leads to a stronger sense of wellbeing and confidence
(Sewell, Wilson, Laing, and Veerman. (2020)).

∙ Scaffolding learning through play

Teacher/adults make a huge difference when scaffolding learning through
play and extending children’s knowledge and skills. Children often like adults to
join in to their play! It’s hard, but important not to take over.
Knowing when to observe, pose questions, stand back, direct, interact,
explain, give feedback and instruct is an art!
Roles of a Examples
Teacher/adult

Noticing Being keen observers of children skills and

using this data for planning further
learning/play.

Encouraging Providing challenges, minimal constructive

feedback and a safe environment.

Naming Being explicit about skills and naming

materials/resources.
 Waiting Being patient. Giving time and space for children
to solve their own problems, make their own
choices and mistakes. Not interfering, waiting for
them to invite you to play.

Taking their lead Showing authentic interest in children’s

play/ideas/interests. Not instigating play.

Questioning Asking genuine questions about their thinking

and decision making.

Adapted from Nudel Kart Teacher Manual (2020).

Teacher/adults can learn a lot from watching students at play, waiting for
their invitations and their student leads. Prompting questions can be used to
help guide students to challenge and modify their own play (if necessary).
Observations and answers to questions can be used for teacher planning.

The Value of Play

∙ Play allows children to make connections between the physical world and
abstract concepts. Playful learning experiences function as a modality for
children to learn, practice, and master skills.
∙ Play is a vehicle for learning and social development.
∙ Play is a zone of proximal development where adults can support the social
development and learning of individual children.
∙ Playful learning can be a powerful instructional tool for educators to foster
21st century skills and to guide students toward individualized
development and learning goals.
Controversies under Play
It has been argued that the contemporary literature associated with the role of
play in early childhood educational (ECE) curricula is characterized by
“competition” and “collision” (Ailwood, 2003, p. 288; Wood, 2007, p. 309).
These concepts of competition and collision reference the increased
debate in the ECE field about how play is used in the curriculum and to what
end. Whilst progressive discourses have advocated the value and
indispensability of play as a central feature of ECE curricula, essentialist and
re-conceptualist arguments have questioned the grounds on which it has been
advocated. A significant portion of the re-conceptualist and critical literature
repositions hit
her to assumed “facts” about play into a space where they may be re-evaluated.
The resultant landscape is one characterized by these spaces. This
literature review proposes a framework for conceptualizing the contemporary
landscape of the play literature in terms of five crucial debates.
These include debates over:
1. The educative value of play time.-
2. Play as a site for power differentials (both student-student and teacher
student.
3. The ethnocentricity of pro-play rhetoric
4. The universalist treatment of individuals through play advocacy 5.
The privileging of “expert” stakeholder perspectives in play research.
Conceptualizing contemporary play literature within these five debates may
be a useful framework for examining how play is understood and used in early
childhood curricular discussion.
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